the$differen*al$representa*on$of$...
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The Differen*al Representa*on of Number and Gender in Spanish
Zuzanna Fuchs Maria Polinsky
Gregory Scontras
Harvard University
April 4, 2014
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Outline
• The ques(ons: 1. Are Number and Gender the same kind of category? 2. Within Number and Gender, what are the specific feature values?
• The tool:
Spanish agreement experiment (Number and Gender) • The answers:
1. Number ≠ Gender 2. Number and Gender are structured differently
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THE QUESTIONS
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SeFng the stage
Phi-‐feature geometry: Phi-‐features are internally structured in a hierarchical way
(Harley & RiRer 2002, Béjar & Rezac 2009, Preminger 2014, a.o.)
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Hierarchy
Feature geometry (Harley & RiRer 2002)
Referring Expression (=Agreement/Pronoun) PARTICIPANT INDIVIDUATION
Speaker Addressee Minimal Group Class Augmented Animate Inanimate/Neuter
Masc. Fem
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Hierarchy
Feature geometry (Harley & RiRer 2002)
Referring Expression (=Agreement/Pronoun) PARTICIPANT INDIVIDUATION
Speaker Addressee Minimal Group Class Augmented Animate Inanimate/Neuter
Masc. Fem
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Hierarchy
Feature geometry (Harley & RiRer 2002)
Referring Expression (=Agreement/Pronoun) PARTICIPANT INDIVIDUATION
Speaker Addressee Minimal Group Class Augmented Animate Inanimate/Neuter
Masc. Fem
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Rela*onship between Number and Gender under agreement
§ Gender is bundled with Number
§ Gender is projected and valued separately
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Gender bundled with Number No separate GenP; gender morphology can be accounted for as a feature on Num (RiRer 1993; also Carstens 2000, 2003)
– Empirical considera(ons (ambigenerics; gender on inanimates is uninterpretable)
– Theore(cal considera(ons: Elimina(on of a projec(on that lacks consistent seman(cs (Chomsky 1995)
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Gender bundled with Number No separate GenP; gender morphology can be accounted for as a feature on Num (RiRer 1993; also Carstens 2000, 2003)
– Empirical considera(ons (ambigenerics; gender on inanimates is uninterpretable)—but see Kramer (2009, 2013) for equally valid empirical considera(ons against this view
– Theore(cal considera(ons: Elimina(on of a projec(on that lacks consistent seman(cs (Chomsky 1995)—but this is not an issue if one assumes feature valua*on rather than interpretability as the determining force in agreement (Pesetsky & Torrego 2007; Preminger 2014)
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Gender independent of Number Gender morphology on a nominal stem heads its own projec(on, with NumP domina(ng GenP (Picallo 1991; Carmina( 2005; Antón-‐Méndez et al. 2002)
If N raises through Gen to Num the order Stem-‐Gen-‐Num is predicted, consistent with cross-‐linguis(c facts e.g., Spanish librN-‐oGen-‐sNum
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Gender independent of Number Gender morphology on a nominal stem heads its own projec(on, with NumP domina(ng GenP
(Picallo 1991; Carmina( 2005; Antón-‐Méndez et al. 2002)
If N raises through Gen to Num the order Stem-‐Gen-‐Num is predicted But, if gender is just a feature on N the same order is predicted
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Gender: Independent and distributed
Distributed gender: gender as a feature on n (natural gender) and on the root (lexical gender); (cf. Kramer 2009; 2013; Duek 2012; Matushansky 2013, and references therein)
high gender
low gender
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Gender: Independent and distributed
• Distributed gender: gender as a feature on n (natural gender) and on the root (lexical gender)
high gender
low gender
high gender ~ natural gender, Sp. el marido/la mujer low gender ~ lexical gender, Sp. el alimento/la comida
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Gender: Independent and distributed
Distributed gender: gender as a feature on n (natural gender) and on the root (lexical gender); (cf. Kramer 2009; 2013 and references therein)
high gender
low gender
Greek ellipsis facts: PF-‐dele(on of nPs with high gender preserves NumP (Merchant 2014)
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Gender: Independent and distributed
• Distributed gender: gender as a feature on n (natural gender) and on the root (lexical gender)
We will be concerned only with low (lexical) gender
low gender
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Number and Gender: Two op*ons
add
bundled independent
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Research ques*ons
Ques*on 1: Are Number and Gender projected and valued together or are they independent?
Can these possibili(es be assessed experimentally?
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Evalua*ng the two op*ons
• Needed: a language with both Number and Gender agreement
• Spanish has both Number and Gender on DPs entering into agreement – Two numbers, singular and plural – Two genders, masculine and feminine
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Spanish agreement Determiners, adjec(ves, and par(ciples agree in number and gender with noun
el cuaderno cerrado los cuadernos cerrados la manzana roja las manzanas rojas el árbol alto los árboles altos
Gender and number agreement also maintained in anaphors
Los cuadernos, no los tengo 'the notebooks, I don't have them'
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Visibility of feature values
• A value can be – specified (present, visible, ac(ve, marked), or – unspecified (absent, invisible, inert, unmarked)
• We will be using (un)specified, atheore(cally – specified à + – unspecified à absent
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Number: Feature content • PL is morphologically specified (-‐s vs. -‐ø) • SG is seman:cally specified (atoms vs. everything)
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Establishing seman*c specifica*on
Taghlib test: “Only the unmarked [unspecified-ZMG] form of a pair of two features can be used to refer to a plurality of individuals, only some of which have the marked [specified—ZMG] property.”
(Greenberg 1966; Sauerland et al. 2005)
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Number: seman*c specifica*on
Singular reference included with use of the plural
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You are welcome to bring your children Every boy should bring his sisters to the party el certificado médico para la tenencia de animales
peligros àSingular reference included with use of
the plural
Number: Feature content
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You are welcome to bring your child Every boy should bring his sister to the party el certificado médico para la tenencia del animale
peligro à Plural reference NOT included with use of
the singular (experimentally supported by Sauerland et al., 2005)
Number: Feature content
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Theories of number: two features, SG and PL, hosted in NumP on the DP spine
[[SG]] = λP: ∀x∈P[ µ(x) = 1 ]. P [[PL]] = λP. P (Sauerland 2003; Scontras 2013a, b)
Number: Feature content
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Spanish gender: Feature content
• Distribu(on:
– masculine 53%,
– feminine 47%
• Equally specified morphologically – Most common word marker associated with feminine: -‐a
– Most common word marker associated with masculine: -‐o
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Spanish gender: Feature content
Taghlib test: – el padre (M) ‘father’ – la madre (F) ‘mother’ – los padres (M) ‘parents’, i.e., ‘mother and father’
à Feminine reference included with use of the masculine – las madres (F) ‘mothers’, NOT ‘mother and father’
à Masculine reference NOT included with use of the feminine
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Reference to groups: agreement with coordinate structures including M and F nouns is always masculine (virile agreement)
el libroM y la pinturaF son preciososM.PL/*presiosasF.PL
‘the book and the painting are expensive’
Spanish gender: Feature content
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Spanish gender: Feature content
• Harris (1991): Spanish gender is single-‐valued: feminine vs. unspecified (absence of feminine) “Unmarked gender: literally the absence of any informa(on about gender in lexical entries”
• Main arguments: – When in doubt use masculine (incl. neologisms) – Group of people with mixed gender à masculine agreement
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Spanish gender: Feature content
• Alterna(ve: Spanish gender is mul/-‐valued, but feminine is more visible or marked (Roca 1989; Domínguez et al. 1999; Alarcón 2006)
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Summary of Spanish features
Number: PL is morphologically specified SG is semantically specified Theory of number posits two active features
Gender:
M and F equally specified morphologically F may be semantically specified (Harris 1991); is M unspecified? One or two active features?
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Research ques*ons
Ques*on 1: Are Number and Gender projected and valued together or are they independent? Can this valua(on be assessed experimentally?
Ques*on 2: What is the content (value composi(on) of the Number and Gender features in Spanish?
Can we assess their content experimentally?
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THE TOOL: SPANISH NUMBER/GENDER AGREEMENT EXPERIMENT
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Assump*ons
• Rela(onship between grammar and parser: grammar is the parser (Phillips 2010, 2013)
• Grammar and language processing are part of the same system, at different levels of abstrac(on
• By inves(ga(ng processing, we are able to access mental representa(ons
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Desiderata • Create a poten(al conflict in phi-‐features (number vs gender) – i.e., agreement error
• Keep the goal and probe at a distance (in contrast to many exis(ng studies where they are adjacent)
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Desiderata and Spanish • What we need:
– Create a poten(al conflict in phi-‐features (number vs gender)
– Keep the goal and probe at a distance
• What Spanish has to offer: Small clauses with agreeing adjec(val predicate:
… considerar DP extremamente Adj …
(SUBJ) VERB [DP DP1 [PPP DP2]] ADVERB ADJ... (Contreras 1987; 1995; Jiménez-‐Fernández & Spyropoulos 2013)
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Small clause structure Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidosamente cerrado “The students le} the notebook on the desk carefully closed.”
(Spanish: Contreras 1987; 1995; Jiménez-‐Fernández & Spyropoulos 2013; beyond Spanish: Cardinale~ & Guas( 1995; Basilico 2003; Progovac 2006; Citko 2011, a.o.) 39
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Feature valua*on
bundled Num and Gen Independent Num and Gen
Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidosamente cerrado
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Experimental design
• Auditory s(muli (N=16) • Recorded by a male na(ve speaker of Spanish • Par(cipants: 60 na(ve speakers of Spanish • Measures
– Acceptability ra(ng (1-‐5, 1: impossible, 5: completely possible)
– Response (me
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(SUBJ) VERB NP1 PREP NP2 ADVERB ADJ...
Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio [SC el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidosamente cerrado]
“The students le} the notebook on the desk carefully closed”
Experimental design
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Three factors:
NP1 number (SG vs. PL) NP2 number (SG vs. PL) ADJ number (SG vs. PL)
(SUBJ) VERB NP1 PREP NP2 ADVERB ADJ...
8 condi*ons
Number design (gender held constant)
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Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrados
NP1 SG PL
NP2 SG PL
ADJ SG PL
Example NP1-‐M NP2-‐M item
Number design
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Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrados Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrados
NP1 SG SG PL PL
NP2 SG PL SG PL
ADJ SG SG PL PL
Example NP1-‐M NP2-‐M item
Number design
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Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrados Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrados Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrados
NP1 SG SG SG PL PL PL
NP2 SG SG PL SG PL PL
ADJ SG PL SG PL SG PL
Example NP1-‐M NP2-‐M item
Number design
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Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrados Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrados Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrados Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron los cuadernos en los escritorios cuidadosamente cerrados
NP1 SG SG SG SG PL PL PL PL
NP2 SG SG PL PL SG SG PL PL
ADJ SG PL SG PL SG PL SG PL
Example NP1-‐M NP2-‐M item
Number design
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Number Design
Ungramma(cal Gramma(cal SPP SSP SPS SSS PSS PPS PSP PPP
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Three factors:
NP1 gender (M vs. F) NP2 gender (M vs. F) ADJ gender (M vs. F)
(SUBJ) VERB NP1 PREP NP2 ADVERB ADJ...
8 condi*ons
Gender design (number held constant)
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Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron la libreta en la estantería cuidadosamente cerrada
NP1 M F
NP2 M F
ADJ M F
Example NP1-‐SG NP2-‐SG item
Gender design
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Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en la estantería cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron la libreta en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrada Los estudiantes dejaron la libreta en la estantería cuidadosamente cerrada
NP1 M M F F
NP2 M F M F
ADJ M M F F
Example NP1-‐SG NP2-‐SG item
Gender design
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Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrada Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en la estantería cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron el cuaderno en la estantería cuidadosamente cerrada Los estudiantes dejaron la libreta en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron la libreta en el escritorio cuidadosamente cerrada Los estudiantes dejaron la libreta en la estantería cuidadosamente cerrado Los estudiantes dejaron la libreta en la estantería cuidadosamente cerrada
NP1 M M M M F F F F
NP2 M M F F M M F F
ADJ M F M F M F M F
Example NP1-‐SG NP2-‐SG item
Gender design
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Gender Design
Ungramma(cal Gramma(cal MFF MMF MFM MMM FMM FFM FMF FFF
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Research ques*ons
Ques*on 1: Are Number and Gender bundled or are they independent?
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Ques*on 1: Predic*ons
Bundled Num and Gen • Ungramma(cality on
number and ungramma(cality on gender should be rated the same
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Ques*on 1: Predic*ons
Bundled Num and Gen • Ungramma(cality on
number and ungramma(cality on gender should be rated the same
Independent Num and Gen • Ungramma(cality on
number and ungramma(cality on gender do not have to be rated the same
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Average overall ra*ngs: Beyond the absolute numbers
3.69
4.19
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Ungramma*cal Gramma*cal
P < 0.001
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gramma(cality effect for SG and PL
Results: Number
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
SPP SSP SPS SSS 3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
PSS PPS PSP PPP
P < 0.05 P < 0.05
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Results: Gender M head noun: gramma*cality effect
F head noun: no gramma*cality effect
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
MFF MMF MFM MMM 3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
FMM FFM FMF FFF
P < 0.01 N.S.
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Ques*on 1: Predic*ons
Bundled Num and Gen
• Ungramma(cality on number and ungramma(cality on gender should be rated the same
Independent Num and Gen • Ungramma(cality on
number and ungramma(cality on gender do not have to be rated the same
✘ ✔
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Ques*on 1: Predic*ons
Bundled Num and Gen • Ungramma(cality on
number and ungramma(cality on gender should be rated the same
• Agreement aRrac(on effects in one category should lead to agreement aRrac(on effects in the other category
Independent Num and Gen • Ungramma(cality on
number and ungramma(cality on gender do not have to be rated the same
• Agreement aRrac(on effects in Num should be independent of agreement aRrac(on effects in Gen
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Agreement acrac*on
the key to the cabinets were lost
Gramma(cal feature of local noun displaces gramma(cal feature of head noun (Bock & Eberhard 1993; Franck et al. 2006; den Dikken 2001; Wagers et al. 2009, a.o.)
62
head noun local noun
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the key to the cabinets were lost
the keys to the cabinet was lost >>
Hence PL as the driving force for aRrac(on (see Phillips 2013 and references therein) ARrac(on is driven by morphological visibility
Agreement acrac*on
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agreement aRrac(on from PL
Results: Number
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
SPP SSP SPS SSS 3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
PSS PPS PSP PPP 64
P < 0.05
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Agreement acrac*on
• If Number and Gender are bundled, Number aRrac(on should result in Gender aRrac(on
• It does NOT: F-‐SG M-‐PL M-‐PL 3.3 (RT 2007 ms)
F-‐SG F-‐PL F-‐PL 4.3 (RT 1905 ms)
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No aRrac(on from the feminine
Results: Gender
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
MFF MMF MFM MMM 66
N.S
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No aRrac(on from the masculine
Results: Gender
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
FMM FFM FMF FFF 67
N.S.
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Ques*on 1: Predic*ons
Bundled Num and Gen
• Agreement aRrac(on effects in one category should lead to agreement aRrac(on effects in the other category
Independent Num and Gen
• Agreement aRrac(on effects in Num should be independent of agreement aRrac(on effects in Gen
✘ ✔
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Ques*on 1: Predic*ons
Bundled Num and Gen Independent Num and Gen • Ungramma(cality on
number and ungramma(cality on gender are not rated the same
• Agreement aRrac(on effects in Num are independent of agreement aRrac(on effects in Gen
✔
69
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Research ques*ons
Ques*on 2 (rephrased): Are Number and Gender mul(-‐valued or single-‐valued categories?
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Ques*on 2: Predic*ons Both Num and Gen are mul*-‐valued
• Gramma(cality effects should be the same across Num and Gen
Num is mul*-‐valued, Gen is single-‐valued
• Gramma(cality effects should be observed for both values in Num and only for the specified value in Gen
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gramma(cality effect for SG and PL
Results: Number
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
SPP SSP SPS SSS 3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
PSS PPS PSP PPP 72
P < 0.05 P < 0.05
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Results: Gender M head noun: gramma*cality effect
F head noun: no gramma*cality effect
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
MFF MMF MFM MMM 3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
FMM FFM FMF FFF 73
P < 0.01 N.S.
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Results: Gender M head noun: gramma*cality effect
F head noun: no gramma*cality effect
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
MFF MMF MFM MMM 3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
FMM FFM FMF FFF 74
P < 0.01 N.S.
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Results: Agreeing adjec*ve
• only feminine adjec(ves yield gramma(cality effects
• masculine adjec(ves can agree with feminine head nouns – such agreement is rated as high as gramma(cal sentences
75
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Results: Agreeing adjec*ve
The ungramma(cal: Los estudiantes dejaron la carta en la mesa cuidadosamente cerrado (rated 4.1)
rated equally high as the gramma(cal: Los estudiantes dejaron la carta en la mesa cuidadosamente cerrada (rated 4.2)
76
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Ques*on 2: Predic*ons Both Num and Gen are mul*-‐valued
• Gramma(cality effects should be the same across Num and Gen
Num is mul*-‐valued, Gen is single-‐valued
• Gramma(cality effects should be observed for both values in Num and only for the specified value in Gen
✘ ✔
77
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Ques*on 2: Predic*ons Both Num and Gen are mul*-‐valued
• Gramma(cality effects should be the same across Num and Gen
• Ungramma(cality detec(on should take the same (me across Num and Gen
Num is mul*-‐valued, Gen is single-‐valued
• Gramma(cality effects should be observed for both values in Num and only for the specified value in Gen
• Ungramma(cality detec(on should take longer in Num than in Gen
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Predic*ons
• If Number is mul(-‐valued and Gender is single-‐valued,
• Number valua(on should take longer: – Dealing with two features instead of just the presence/absence of a single feature (cf. Béjar 2003: 39ff.)
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Predic*ons
• Gender errors should be resolved faster than number errors
• If both probe and goal have specified feature (as in Number), matching should take longer than if only one of them is specified (as in Gender)
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Predic*ons
• Gender errors should be resolved faster than number errors
• If both probe and goal have specified feature (as in Number), matching should take longer than if only one of them is specified (as in Gender)
Probe and Goal match? Value?
YES specified
YES unspecified
NO specified
NO unspecified
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number error
gender error
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Tes*ng the predic*on
• How quickly do Spanish speakers spot ungramma(cality?
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Results: Ungramma*cality detec*on
reac(on (mes (ms) for number vs. gender errors
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
PPS SSP MMF FFM
Millisecon
ds
NUMBER ERRORS GENDER ERRORS
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P=0.19
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Results: Ungramma*cality detec*on
• Gender errors are resolved faster than number errors
• If both probe and goal have specified feature (as in Number), matching takes longer than if only one of them is specified (as in Gender)
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Ques*on 2: Predic*ons Both Num and Gen are mul*-‐valued
• Ungramma(cality detec(on should take the same (me across Num and Gen
Num is mul*-‐valued, Gen is single-‐valued
• Ungramma(cality detec(on should take longer in Num than in Gen
✘ ✔
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Ques*on 2: Predic*ons Both Num and Gen are mul*-‐valued
Num is mul*-‐valued, Gen is single-‐valued
• Gramma(cality effects should be observed for both values in Num and only for the specified value in Gen
• Ungramma(cality detec(on should take longer in Num than in Gen
✘ ✔
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THE ANSWERS
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Discussion
• Ques*on 1: Are the phi-‐features Num and Gen valued together or separately?
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Discussion
Ques*on 1: Are the phi-‐features Num and Gen valued together or separately? Answer: Separately Num ≠ Gen
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Discussion
Addi(onal evidence for severing Num and Gen: even(ve nominals have gender but do not pluralize and have no NumP la construcción de los puentes *las construcciones de los puentes ‘the construc(on(*s) of the bridges’ (cf. Alexiadou et al. 2010)
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Discussion
• Ques*on 2: What is the content of Number and Gender features, respec(vely?
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Discussion
• Ques*on 2: What is the content of Number and Gender features, respec(vely?
• For Number, both SG and PL show gramma(cality effects
• This matches current thinking on the feature content of Number: both SG and PL are specified
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Discussion
• Ques*on 2: What is the content of Number and Gender features, respec(vely?
• For Spanish Gender, only feminine adjec(ves yield gramma(cality effects
• This matches Harris (1991) on the feature content of Gender: only feminine is specified
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In conclusion
Ques*on 1: Are Number and Gender projected and valued together or are they independent?
They are independent; valua:on in Spanish is done separately
Can this valua(on be assessed experimentally?
Yes (see also Antón-‐Méndez et al. 2002, for produc:on data that speak to the same result)
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In conclusion
• Ques*on 2: What is the content (value composi(on) of each feature?
In Spanish, Number is mul/-‐valued and Gender is single-‐valued
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In conclusion • Ques*on 2: What is the content (value composi(on) of each feature?
In Spanish, Number is mul/-‐valued and Gender is single-‐valued
Can we assess their content experimentally?
Yes, and similar methodology could be applied to:
other languages other categories whose status is under debate
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THANK YOU!
• Acknowledgements: Giuli Dussias; Ruth Kramer; Bradley Larson; Jason Merchant; Nina Radkevich; Anastasia Smirnova; audiences at the Language and Cogni(on Workshop (Harvard), the Surrey Morphology Group, and the Language Science Lab at Harvard.
• Funding sources: NSF; Cervantes Ins(tute at Harvard, and Center for Advanced Study of language at UMD.
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