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THE WORLD B ANKCountry Office Manila23rd Floor, The Taipan PlaceEmerald Avenue, Ortigas CenterPasig City, Philippines

World Bank Group1818 H Street N. W.Washington, D.C.

Contents

Preface . .................................................................................... 1

Abbre viations and Acronyms . ................................................. 2

Acknowledgments . .................................................................. 3

Environmental Scor ecard - Tr ends and Indicators . .............. 4

Environmental Sensitive ar eas and Hotspots . ....................... 6

The Environment— A W ak e-Up Call . ...................................... 7

Brown Agenda . ........................................................................ 8Air P ollution . ....................................................................... 8W ater P ollution . ................................................................ 11Solid and Hazardous W aste . ............................................ 14Policy Responses . ............................................................. 16

Green Agenda . ....................................................................... 18Land . ................................................................................. 18Forests . ............................................................................. 20Protected Ar eas/Biodive rsity ........................................... 23Policy Responses . ............................................................. 25

Blue Agenda . ......................................................................... 27W ater Resour ces Management . ....................................... 27Coastal and Mar ine Resources . ...................................... 29Policy Responses . ............................................................. 31

Global Issues and P olicy Responses . ................................... 32

Donor Assistance . ................................................................. 33

Environmental Institutions . ................................................... 34

Key Environmental Legislation . ............................................ 35

Environmental Glossary . ....................................................... 36

Philippines At A Glance. ........................................................ 37

The views expressed in the Philippines Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited withoutThe views expressed in the Philippines Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited withoutThe views expressed in the Philippines Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited withoutThe views expressed in the Philippines Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited withoutThe views expressed in the Philippines Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without

prior permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countriesprior permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countriesprior permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countriesprior permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countriesprior permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries

they represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable but it is not necessarilythey represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable but it is not necessarilythey represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable but it is not necessarilythey represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable but it is not necessarilythey represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable but it is not necessarily

complete and cannot be guaranteed.complete and cannot be guaranteed.complete and cannot be guaranteed.complete and cannot be guaranteed.complete and cannot be guaranteed.

The Monitor was prepared by Messrs./Mmes. Anjali Acharya (Environmental Specialist), Bebet Gozun (Consultant), PatchamuthuIllangovan (Team Leader), Stefano Pagiola (Environmental Economist) and Maya Villaluz (Environmental Operations Officer). Agath aAncheta and Pepito Sanchez did background research, and Katherin G. Golitzen provided editorial assistance. Fidelis Herrera-Limcoordinated production of this document. Jeffrey Lecksell was responsible for map design. Tony M. Maghirang and Horace Crowewere responsible for the layout and design of this document.

Messrs./Mmes. John Dixon, Kirk Hamilton, Stefano Pagiola, and Claudia Sadoff of the Environmental Indicators Unit of the WorldBank provided the initial framework for the Monitor. The team also acknowledges inputs and comments from Joven Balbosa, Dirk DeBruin, John Dixon, Bernard Funck, Leonora Gonzales, Ernesto Guiang, Kirk Hamilton, Heidi Hennrich-Hanson, David Howarth, VijayJagannathan, Aloysius Ordu, Luiz Tavares, and David Wheeler of the World Bank.

July 2000

3

PREFACE

Deforestation and land degr adation in thecountr yside, vehicular air pollution andinadequate sanitation in urban areas stand out

as the most pressing env ironmental pr oblems in thePhilippines. Successive gove rnments have recognizedthe economic, social and ecological importance of man-aging the country ' s water, air and natura l resources. Butfirst, a long legacy of poor environmental decisions mu stbe ove rcome. The nation has embarked on a number ofambitious initiatives and has aggre ssively dev elopednational legislation to back up i ts pol i cy goals. Environ-mental pri ori ties are most clearl y articulated in the 1992Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development and thelandmark 1997 publication Philippines Agenda 21, whichdescribes the main thematic and spatial priorities.

Vinay BhargavaCountry Director, PhilippinesThe W orld Bank

Zafer EcevitDirector , Environment and Social Dev elopmentThe W orld Bank

To eff ectively implement these initiatives inaccor dance with env ironmental pri ori ties, alsorequires the analysis of environmental tr ends and thesetting of key indicators. The Environment Monitorpresents a snapshot of key env ironmental tr ends in thePhilippines and is an outcome of a joint exer ciseinvolving national agencies, academia, civil society andresear chers in the Philippines and Bank staff in Manilaand W ashington. The Monitor was prepared in a par-ticipatory m anner and a dra ft version was discussed ata well-attended stak eholders meeting on Marc h 6, 2000.

The information contained in the Monitor has beenobtained from a va ri ety of sources including publishedreports of government agencies, unive rsities andnongovernmental org anizations, unpublished data fro mindividuals and documents of the W o rld Bank, AsianDevelopment Bank and bilateral donor agencies. Anattempt has been m ade to create an Environmental Score-card for the Philippines , which benchma rks some keyindicators of production, consumption, pollution andambient quality. From the quality of data avai lable, it isclear that the Philippines must substantially build itscapacity to collect and maintain timely information ofkey env ironmental tr ends. This is impor tant for thegovernment to tr anslate the Philippines Agenda 21recommendations into cr edible and eff ective actions.

For decision makers the Monitor is a useful toolthat prov ides inform ation in a single place and signalsthe importance of information in formulating policiesand plans. For academicians and resear chers , it gives abroad ove rview of problem areas. For civil society, itpresents an oppor tunity to engage in dialogue withother stakeholders; for donor agencies, it can indicatethe extent of environmental pr oblems, and for students,it raises awa reness of environmental issues. Overall, theMonitor can serve to engage and info rm stak eholdersconcer ning environmental changes and challenges.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ADBADBADBADBADB Asian Development BankBASBASBASBASBAS Bureau of Agri cul tural StatisticsBFARBFARBFARBFARBFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic ResourcesBODBODBODBODBOD Biological Oxygen DemandBSWMBSWMBSWMBSWMBSWM Bureau of Soils and W ater ManagementCFCsCFCsCFCsCFCsCFCs Chloro fl uorohydrocarbonsCITESCITESCITESCITESCITES Convention on International T rade in Endangered SpeciesDADADADADA Department of Agri cultureDAODAODAODAODAO Departmental Administra tive OrderDENRDENRDENRDENRDENR Depar tment of Environment and Natural ResourcesD OD OD OD OD O Dissolved OxygenD O HD O HD O HD O HD O H Department of HealthDOTCDOTCDOTCDOTCDOTC Depar tment of T ransport and CommunicationD P W HD P W HD P W HD P W HD P W H Depar tment of Public W o rks and HighwaysEEZEEZEEZEEZEEZ Exclusive Economic ZoneEMBEMBEMBEMBEMB Environmental Management BureauFMBFMBFMBFMBFMB Forestry Management BureauISOISOISOISOISO International Standards OrganizationJICAJICAJICAJICAJICA Japanese Inter national Coopera tion AgencyLLDALLDALLDALLDALLDA Laguna Lake Development AuthorityLMBLMBLMBLMBLMB Land Management BureauLGULGULGULGULGU Local Gove rnment UnitM C MM C MM C MM C MM C M million cubic metersMLDMLDMLDMLDMLD million liters per dayM M D AM M D AM M D AM M D AM M D A Metro Manila Dev elopment A uthori tyMPNMPNMPNMPNMPN Most Probable NumberMWSSMWSSMWSSMWSSMWSS Manila W ater Sewerage SystemNAMRIANAMRIANAMRIANAMRIANAMRIA National Ma pping Resourc es Inform ation A uthori tyNIPASNIPASNIPASNIPASNIPAS National Integr ated Protected A reas SystemNWRBNWRBNWRBNWRBNWRB National W ater Resour ces BoardODSODSODSODSODS Ozone Depleting SubstancesPAMBPAMBPAMBPAMBPAMB Protected A rea Management BoardPDPDPDPDPD Presidential DecreeSALTSALTSALTSALTSALT Sloping Agri cultural Land T echnologiesT H WT H WT H WT H WT H W Toxic and Hazardous W asteTLATLATLATLATLA Timber Licensing Ag reementsTSPTSPTSPTSPTSP Total Suspended Pa rt i culatesW H OW H OW H OW H OW H O W orld Health Organization

5

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This Moni tor i s a joint eff ort of several government agencies, pri vate sector and civil society organizations at boththe national and local leve ls. W e acknowledge the valua ble contri butions of the following:

Government Agencies:Government Agencies:Government Agencies:Government Agencies:Government Agencies:Depar tment of Env ironment & Natural Resour ces (DENR) —Mario Rono, Maria Lourdes S. Sioson, Eri berto C. Argete,

R o my Acosta, Juliet Texon, Monina M. Cunanan*, Amelia D .Supetran, Agnes L. Goze*, Claire Tena,Elvira Caparas

DENR, EMPAS Region 7 —Allan Ar angue, Jun Vi llapan, Mar ivic Ricana;DENR Region 11 —Clarence L. Baguilat, Flor Bongalo;DENR, NCR—Arnold Vi l lados;Environmental Management Bureau —Peter Anthony Abaya , Angelita T . Brabante, Cesar Siador, Jr., Geri Geronimo R.

Sañez, Nicanor Mendoza, Eli Malano*, Leza A. Acor da*, Renato T . Cruz, Nolan B. Francisco, MargieTu manlad;

Protected Ar eas & W ildlife Bureau — R eynaldo Bayabos, Carlo Custodio*, Angelita P. Meniado*, Tess Blastique;Mines & Geosciences Bureau —Edwin Domingo, Conrado Mir anda, Michael Gabalga ;National Ma pping Resour ces Info rm ation A uthor ity (NAMRIA) —Ricardo Biña*, Virgilio F. Basa, Ol ivia R. Molina;Bureau of Soils & W ater Management —Rogelio N. Concepcion, Salvacion C. Cas;Forest Management Bureau — Ishmael H. Al Rashid, Mayumi Ma. Quintos, Dionisio Tolentino, Myla V asquez,

Nerie Laur eano, Jesus A. Javier, Domingo Bacalla, Venia Rayo la, Mari eta Bal ;Laguna Lake Development A uthori ty—Atty. Joaquin Mendoza, Dolora N. Nepom uceno, Ceazar H. Natividad;National W ater Resour ces Board —Dr. Lope R. Villenas;Philippine National Oil Corporation —Agnes C. De Jesus, Jo Rowena Garc ia*, Nori n Herona;Depar tment of Energy—Zenaida Y . Monsada, Clari ssa C. Cabacang, Elma T. Karunung an*;Fert i l izer & Pesticide A uthori ty—Cesar M. Dri lon, Jr.;Bureau of Agri cultural Statistics—Romeo S. Recide;Bureau of Fisheri es & Aquatic Resources —Malcolm Sar miento, Marco F. Carr eon*;National Economic Development Authority —Liberty Guinto, Evan D. Emeranciana*, Susan Ortega*;Depar tment of Science and T echnology/ ITDI —Rey Esguerra , Aida Anzano;Depar tment of T rade and Industry —Domingo Bagaporo ;Land T ranspor tation Office (LTO)—Anggie Fadr iguela, Susie Angeles;Land Bank of the Philippines —Moreno P analba;Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) —Marieto Enecio, Aurora C. Maghir ang;House of Repr esentatives —Nerius Acosta, Vibeth A . Amorin*;Senate of the Philippines —Cristina V. Alva rez*

Nongovernmental Organizations:Nongovernmental Organizations:Nongovernmental Organizations:Nongovernmental Organizations:Nongovernmental Organizations:RP DEV— Victor O. Ramos* (fo rmerly Secr etary, DENR)Philippine Rural Reconstr uction Mov ement (PRRM) —Isagani R. Serrano*Philippine Business for Social Progress (PBSP) — Vic Dugan*;College of Science, University of the Philippines —Dr. Miguel D. Fort es*;Philippine Business for the Environment (PBE) —Lisa C. Antonio*;Bantay Kalikasan ABS-CBN Foundation —Marlo D. Mendoza*;Miriam P .E.A.C.E, Environmental Education Center —Dr. Angelina Galang*;Philippine Council for Peace & Global Education (PCPGE), Assumption College —Sr. Luz Emm anuel Soriano*;Environmental Science for Social Change, Inc.— Fr. Peter W alpole S J., Resi Mari nas*, Marielle de Jesus*;Concer ned Citizens Aga inst Pollution— Jun Ellis

Private sector:Private sector:Private sector:Private sector:Private sector:Gaia South, Inc. —Fulgencio S. Factoran Jr. (formerly Secr etary, DENR)Industri al Initiatives for Sustainable Environment (IISE), EMB/DTI/USAID — Dr. Ramon Abracosa*Resources, Environment & Economics Center for Studies, Inc.—Dr. Mari an de los AngelesPasig River Reha bilitation Council —Jorgen Schwa rt z*, Andy Santiago*Aquagem Consultants Inc.— Grace Favila*Maynilad W ater Services, Inc.—Francisco A . Arellano*

* Attended the Stakeholders Consultative Meeting, March 6, 2000.

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Brown

ISSUES TRENDS CAUSES

Green

• Increasing particulate levels in Metro Manila,currently exceeding standards by >2 times• Decreasing ambient lead reduced significantly belowthe standards in the last 5 years

• Water quality in 49% of classified rivers exceeds nationalstandards• Toxic/hazardous waste a growing problem

• Solid waste generation rate increased to 22,500 tons/dayin 1999—of which 1/4 is from Metro Manila• Open dumping and burning continue as main means ofdisposal• Composting and recycling remain limited to ruralcommunities• Rising generation of toxic/ hazardous waste

• Average annual deforestation rate slowed from 300,000ha per year in 1970s to 100,000 ha per year in 1990s• Rate of reforestation slowed from 1994 to 1998• Survival rate improved from 26% between 1960 and1985 to 76% between 1988 and 1992

• 284 species considered endangered• One of highest biodiversity loss rates in world

• Increasing soil erosion and floodplains• Static yield/hectare despite increasing inputs

• National water demand expected to double in 25 years• 200% increase in demand in Metro Manila in 16 years

• Increase in soil erosion and downstream sedimentation• Increase in flooded areas• 90% of watershed reservations considered degraded

• 76% of mangroves lost from 1918 to 1993 (over 75years); decline of 57% in 23 years (1970–1993)• Only 4.3% of corals remain in excellent condition• 30-50% loss of seagrasses

Blue

Declining air qualityin Metro Manila andkey urban centers

Declining water quality inriver and coastal waters

Increasing solid andhazardous waste generationand improper management

Declining forest cover

Loss of critical habitats/biodiversity

Land degradation

Water supply unable tokeep up with demand

Watershed degradation

Declining coastal andmarine resources

This scorecard represents the first attempt at benchmarking key environmental indicators. The selection of indicators waspredicated on the availability of credible data. The indicators selected here represent both production/consumption anddeterioration/quality factors, and are classified under “ Brown”, Green ” and “ Blue ” agendas. The “ Brown” agenda is a termcommonly used to describe the pollution caused by industrial, urban, transport and energy sources and their single or

• Transport• Industry & power generation• Resuspension of dust• Garbage burning

• Domestic sewage• Industrial effluents• Agricultural run-offs• Solid Waste

• Increasing population• Lack of an integrated solid waste management system• Lack of environmentally sound disposal system• Lack of public awareness & support• Lack of toxic/hazardous waste treatment facilities

• Population pressure• Incorrect policies• Lack of equity in access to natural resources

• Land use changes• Encroachment and exploitation• Destructive fishing practices

• Land conversion for agriculture, settlements and other uses• Inappropriate agricultural practices especially in uplands• Land tenure issues

• Fragmented and inefficient water resources management• Lack of monitoring & enforcement• Improper pricing of water

• Lack of clear overall strategy• Fragmented land management• Limited resources• Increasing upland population

• Conversion to other uses• Domestic and industrial wastewater discharges; surface runoffs• Destructive fishing practices• Population pressure

ENVIRONMENTAL SCORECARD: INDICAT ORS AND TRENDS

7

INDICATORS VALUE PERIOD COVERED

Blue

1994-98

1997-98

1999 annual mean1999 24-hour highest average

1996

1998(base year 1997)

1998

1999

1989-1995

1999 expenditure for 10 prioritysites only

Average land conversion for past 5years

1995-1997

1998

1999

1997-1998

collective impacts and protection measures; the “ Green ” agenda is used to describe environmental impacts caused byagriculture, deforestation, land conversion and destruction of protected species and related protection measures; andthe “ Blue ” agenda refers to all forms of water resources management.The scorecard will be the basis to record future improvements or declines in environmental quality.

Brown

Green

Increase in the use of unleaded gasoline

Increase in diesel consumption intransport sector

% TSP levels exceeding the standards inMetro Manila

% access to sanitation

Reduction of organic pollution fromindustrial sources in Laguna de Bay

% solid waste management recycled(Manila households)

# firms ISO 14000 certified

Annual rate of deforestation

Expenditures for protected areasmanagement

Extent of land conversion

Intensity of fertilizer consumption (kg/haof arable land)

% of population with access to safedrinking water

Ratio of priority watersheds to totalwatersheds

Rate of increase in fisheries production

102% (Metro Manila)131% (Nationwide)

2.5%

193%304%

Urban: 88%Rural: 64%

4.7M kg

6%

42 companies

130,000 hectares/year

P 119.7 million

3,659 hectares/year

135

Total population: 83%Urban: 91%Rural: 81%

154/418

0.72%

ENVIRONMENTAL SCORECARD: TRENDS AND INDICATORS

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ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS AND HOTSPOTS

MANILA

118° 120° 122°

14°

12°

10°

8°

6°

4°120°180° 122° 124° 126°

18°

16°

14°

12°

10°

8°

6°

20°

18°

16°

124° 126°

20°

C e l e b e s S e a

M o r o

S u l u S e a

Leyte Gul f

VisayanSea

Mindoro Strai t

S ibuyanSea

P h i l i p p i n e

S e a

Babuyan Channel

Luzon Strai t

G u l fD a v a o

G u l f

M i n d a n a o

S e a

BatanIslands

BabuyanIslands

PolilloIslands

LubangIslands

Catanduanes

TicaoSibuyanTablas

Busuanga

SemiraraIslands

CuyoIslands

Culion

Linapacah

Dumaran

Bugsuk

Balabac

Cagayan Sulu

Tawi-Tawi

Sulu

Basilan

M i n d a n a o

CamiguinSiquijor

Negros

Panay

Bohol

Cebu Leyte

SamarMasbate

Marinduque

BuriasMindoro

Pa

l aw

an

L u z o n

Dinagat

Siargao

Sarangani

IBRD 30939

AUGUST 2000

This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other informationshown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World BankGroup, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or anyendorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.

0 50 100 150

KILOMETERS

200 250 300

P.N.G

.

AUSTRALIA

20°°

10°

0°

10°

100° 110° 120° 140°

VIETNAMTHAILAND

CAMBODIA

LAOP.D.R.

BRUNEI

M A L A Y S I A

I N D O N E S I A

PALAU

Manila

PHILIPPINES

N O R T H PA C I F I C

O C E A N

INDIAN

OCEAN

Java Sea

Timor Sea

P h i l i p p i n e

S e a

SINGAPORE0°

10°

20°

100° 110° 120°

10°

CHINA

EAST TIMOR

M A L AY S I A

PHILIPPINES

ENVIRONMENTALLYSENSITIVE AREAS ANDPOLLUTION HOT SPOTS

PROTECTED AREAS

FORESTS

NATIONAL CAPITAL

ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS:

WATER POLLUTION

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

AIR POLLUTION

HIGH POLLUTION INTENSITY

RIVERS

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

9

The Philippines was one of the first countr ies to give intent to the Agenda 21 pr ocess initiated during theEarth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, by form ulating i ts own national agenda 21 in a highly par ticipa-tory manner. This document, endorsed by the Ca binet in 1996, received wide support . As the Philippines

advances gr adually toward sustaina ble development, it faces three broad env ironmental challenges: urban air andwater pollution, natura l resource degr adation, and the declining quality of coastal and mari ne resources.

THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT: A W AKE-UP CALL

Although the number of protected areas hasincreased,so have the rates of destr uction and hab i tatconversion. Adequate functioning of protected aream anagement board s i s constrained by shor tages offunds and staff .

A third set of environmental pr oblems involvespoor management of water resourcespoor management of water resourcespoor management of water resourcespoor management of water resourcespoor management of water resources. While waterd e mand i s increasing rapidly, fragmented w ater man-agement, weak law enforcement and poor planning hasaff ected supply, leading to the declar ation of a nationalwater crisis in 1995. Access to water supply varieswidely across the country . Increasing groundw ater useand declining aquife r recharge rates have led to pollu-tion and saline intrusion. Many of the country 's ri verbasins are degr aded and mism anaged.

Coastal areas in the Philippines are deteri oratingfrom marine and land-based pollution sources. Thecountr y's coral reefs are under thre at from siltation,pollution, overfishing, and destructive fishing tech-niques. Mangrove forests are also disa ppeari ng rapidlydue to conve rsion to aquaculture and indiscr iminatecutting for firewood and constr uction. There has beenincreased pr essure on ma ri ne fi sheri es over the lasttwenty years from a rap idly growing population and arise in export s. Declining fish yields have resulted fro moverfishing in open-access fi sheri es, si l tation of inshorereefs, and poor fishing techniques.

Despite the existence of long-standing policy,legal and institutional fra m ew orks for environmentalprotection and natura l resource conserva tion, environ-mental degradation continues unabated. Successivegovernments have launched a va ri ety of environmen-tal initiatives in the past decade, which seem to havestalled due to weak political commitment, lack of fundsand inadequate institutional capacity. Several NGOs,c o m munity groups and pri vate sector entities have beensuccessful in implementing innovative ideas on a pilotscale, but such eff orts alone will not be suff icient. Ifenvironment does not re m ain a high pri ori ty, thePhilippines is unlik ely to achieve sustaina ble growthin the near term.

PPPPPol lutionol lutionol lutionol lutionol lution problems are widespread in the coun-try. In Metro Manila, particulate matter sm aller than10 micr ons or PM

10 levels often exceed national air

quality standards. The quality of nearly half of the coun-try' s classi fi ed ri vers fall below norm al w ater qualitynorms. Coastal w aters around Manila Bay are also de-teri orating. While the country probably has progressedmost in terms of finding solutions to the ever- increas-ing problem of household g arbage collection, environ-mentally sound disposal re mains a distant dream, wi thm any cities are still using open dumping. In recentyears , community and civil society-led recycling pro-grams have become popular. However, hazar dous andtoxic waste disposal has emer ged as a m ajor environ-mental challenge.

The second set of environmental pr oblems relatesto nananananatural rtural rtural rtural rtural r esouresouresouresouresour ce degradace degradace degradace degradace degrada tiontiontiontiontion, which threatensagri cul tural production, forests and biodive rsity. Landcontinues to be degraded, with massive conversion offorestlands and grasslands to urban use. Fort y-fi ve per-cent of the countr y's land area, suff ers moder ate tosevere soil erosion. Agricultural yields in lowlandareas are stagnating, increasingly beset by sal inizationand w ater logging. Population pr essure is stimulatingcul tivation of fragile upland areas, causing furt her soi lerosion. Expanding fe rtilizer and pesticide use fostersnutrient imbalances and groundw ater contamination.

While estim ates of defo restation diff er, forestcover in the Philippines has been substantially reducedover the last forty years under the onslaught ofshifting cultiv ation, increasing urbanization, illegallogging and fo rest fires. The number of timber licens-ing agreements is low er, but i l legal logging continuesnearly unchallenged. Reforestation eff ort s by thegovernment have been erra tic, wi th low tree surv ivalrates. More recently, encour aging eff orts have beenm ade in commu ni ty-led forest management eff orts.

The loss of forest cover and hab itat is also threat-ening the Philippines' r ich biodive rsity. Currentgrowth in infrastructure i s estimated to threaten up to1.6 million hectares of biodive rsity-rich ecosystems.

10

It is widely acknowledged that air pollution is aserious problem in Metro Manila. 1 Particulate mat-

ter smaller than 10 micr ons (PM10

) is now consideredthe priority air pollutant. Sulfur dioxide and totaloxidants still occasionally exceed the standards, whilenitrogen o xides, ozone, and carbon mono xide leve lsall re main within the standard . Ambient lev els of leadhave dropped signif icantly.

Lead leve ls dropping …………… Recognizing the pr oblem oflead pollution, petroleum companies v oluntari ly signeda Clean A ir Pact with gove rnment. Lead content ingasoline was low ered from 0.6g/l to 0.15g/l in Apri l1993, and low-lead gasoline (0.013 g/l lead) wasintroduced in February 1994. W ith unleaded g asolineachie ving 15.8 percent of the ma rket share by 1994,ambient lead levels at the Ermita monitoring station(Manila) recorded a decr ease from 1.07 µg/m 3 in 1992,to 0.66 µg/m3 in 1993 and to 0.30 µg/m 3 by 1994.Monitoring at other stations in 1994 and in 1997showed that ambient lead levels have stayed within theWHO Air Quality Guidelines. This is expected to im-prove further w hen leaded g asoline is completelyphased out in December 2000.

Particulates re main a major concern … Theannual mean total suspended particulates (TSP) in1999 was 174.4 µg/m 3, a little low er than the previousyear's 188.6 µg/m 3. How ever, this still re mains almostdouble the national annual ambient air quality stand-ard of 90 µg/m 3. The highest 24-hour ave rage TSPmeasured in 1999 was triple the standard , althoughthis was an improv ement over 1992, w hen them aximum was fi ve times the standard .

TSP 24 hour avg. 230 µg/m 3

1 year 90 µg/m3

P M10

24 hour avg. 150 µg/m 3

1 year 60 µg/m3

Sulfur dioxide 24 hours 180 µg/m 3

1 year 80 µg/m3

Nitrogen dioxide 24 hour avg. 150 µg/m 3

Photochemical 1 hour 140 µg/m 3

Oxidants (e.g. ozone) 8 hours 60 µg/m3

Carbon Monoxide 1 hour 35 µg/m3

8 hours 10 µg/m3

Lead 3 months 1.5 µg/m 3

1 year 1.0 µg/m 3

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: DAO No. 14, series of 1993, DENR-EMB

Lead in Gasoline

1992 0.6 0 1.00 - 2.301993 0.15 0 0.23 - 1.281994 15.8% 0.14 - 0.871995 Low lead 0.15 19.6% -1996 20.0% -1997 ULG 0.013 27.2% 0.46 - 0.901998 31.9% -1999 33.8% -

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: EMB-DENR

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

micr

ogra

ms p

er cu

bic m

eter

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Valenzuela Pag-asaMakati

Monitoring of TSP in Metro Manila (1994-99)

1Urban Air Pollution in Megacities in the World from GEMS/air-program, WHO/UNEP, 1992; Model for Air PollutionPlanning by Dr. P. Manins, 1991; Vehicular Emission ControlPlanning in Metro Manila, ADB/EMB, 1992; Air PollutionEmission Inventory for Metro Manila by P.M. Ayala, 1993.

AIR POLLUTION

YearYearYearYearYear LeadLeadLeadLeadLead

contentcontentcontentcontentcontent(g/l)(g/l)(g/l)(g/l)(g/l)

AmbientAmbientAmbientAmbientAmbientLeadLeadLeadLeadLead

(((((µµµµµg/mg/mg/mg/mg/m33333)))))

PollutantPollutantPollutantPollutantPollutant Averaging Time Standard Averaging Time Standard Averaging Time Standard Averaging Time Standard Averaging Time Standard

National Ambient Air Quality Guidelinesfor Criteria Pollutants

Sale ofSale ofSale ofSale ofSale ofunleadedunleadedunleadedunleadedunleaded gasoline gasoline gasoline gasoline gasoline

BROWN AGENDA

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: DENR/NCR

Valenzuela

GasolineGasolineGasolineGasolineGasolinetypetypetypetypetype

11

1990 1998

tons/y

ear

160,000

140.000

120,000

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0

Total Motor Vehicle Emissions(Exhaust & Evaporative)

Health Impact of PM10

in Metro Manila (1992)

Type of Impact Type of Impact Type of Impact Type of Impact Type of Impact No. of CasesNo. of CasesNo. of CasesNo. of CasesNo. of Cases

Chronic Bronchitis 12,000

Restricted Activity Days 11,006,000

Emergency Room Visits 45,000

Bronchitis in Children 112,000

Asthma 436,000

Respiratory Symptoms Days 35,028,000

Respiratory Hospital Admission 2,000

Note:Note:Note:Note:Note: Figures are presented in detail for reasons of consistency, not to suggest large reliabilitySource: Source: Source: Source: Source: DOH, 1999

AIR POLLUTION

Limited monitoring of PM10

at two stations inMetro Manila near the Sucat Pow er Plant show edvalues exceeding the standards during the dry monthsof May, June, and Nov ember. (This pow er plant is tobe closed by mid-2000). Six automatic monitoringstations are now providing monitor ing data in areasnear power plants around the country .

The largest contr ibutors to TSP and PM10

arefossil fuel combustion in small and medium industrialand commer cial installations, re-suspension, andconstr uction activities. Vehicle exhaust contr ibutesabout 12 per cent of total TSP emissions. Of thiscategory, the largest contr ibutors are diesel truck s,buses and jeepneys.

Total emissions from vehicles (exhaust andevapora tive) are estim ated to have increased substan-tially from 1990 to 1998 because of the gro wth inregistered v ehicles in the metro pol is from 675,310 in1990 to 1.2 million in 1998. It is estimated that afurther 200,000 vehicles enter Metro Manila dailyfrom elsew here .

Air pollution r ising in other urban ar eas…Report s show that air pollution is becoming a problemin other highly urbanized areas. For example, ambientmonitori ng from 1997 to 1999 at the ma in road inthecentral business distr ict in Baguio City, show ed TSPlevels that ranged from f air to poor. In 1999, TSP lev -els were above the standard , ranging from 246 µg/m 3

to 341 µg/m 3.

In the Visayas, monitori ng from 1995 to 1999showed that in some stations, especially those alongthe ma in roads, TSP leve ls are much higher than thestandard . Limited monitor ing in Cebu City andMandaue City in 1999 indicated excessive levels inseveral locations—238 µg/m 3 in Bani lad, Mandaue City,276 µg/m 3 in Talisay, Cebu, 262 µg/m 3 in Pardo, Cebu,municipalities and 239 µg/m 3 in Minglanilla, Cebu, andm unicipalities within 20 kms. from Cebu City. 3

TOG CO N0x S0x PM10

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Update on Air Quality Monitoring, 1999 (EMB)

2 EMPAS, DENR - Cordillera Administrative Region, BaguioCi ty.3 EMPAS, DENR - Region IV, Cebu City.

BROWN AGENDA

12

Health is adve rsely aff ected …………… A 1992 r eport 4

estimated that 80 per cent of all residents in MetroManila are exposed to T SP levels that exceed the stand-ards. The cost of the health impacts from high PM

10

levels i s estimated at P4,600 million and those fro mlead pollution at about P2,300 million (1992).

Another study estimated that 31 per cent of thepopulation was exposed to PM

10 levels above allow-

able l imi ts in Metro Cebu in 1992, and that 20 percentw ere exposed to lead leve ls above al lowable l imi ts.5

These f igure s rise to 66.7 percent for PM10

and 37percent for lead i f the stri cter WHO standard s are used. 6

The burden of days of healthy life lost nation-wide attributable to air pollution was found to besignificant in another study—294 million days forbronchitis and 47 million days for heart disease, bothdue to dust. 7 Up to 55 percent of the total burdenof bronchitis from all causes was also found to beattributa ble to pollution in urban and rural areas.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Epidemiology of Chronic Respiratory Symptoms andIllnesses Among Jeepney Drivers, Air-conditioned Bus Driversand Commuters Exposed to Vehicular Emissions in Metro Manila,1990 -91, UP College of Public Health in collaboration with WHO.

AIR POLLUTION

Health Impacts: Drivers and Commuters

4 The Urban Air Quality (URBAIR) Report for Metro Manila wasprepared by the DENR with the assistance of the MetropolitanEnvironmental Improvement Programme (MEIP) of the WorldBank. It aimed to develop a comprehensive and integrated airquality management strategy to address air pollution problemsin the metropolis.5 Main Report, Phase III, the Philippine Environmental andNatural Resources Accounting Project, DENR/USAID, Decem-ber 1996.6 The following Philippine and WHO standards were used: PM

10

-60 and 40, lead -1.0 and 0.5.7 Philippines Health and the Environment, Department ofHealth, Environmental Health Service, June 1996.

BROWN AGENDA

The deterioration of air quality in Metro Manila has hadadverse impacts on public health. An epidemiologicalstudy conducted by the UP College of Public Healthshowed that the prevalence of chronic obstructivepulmonary disease (COPD) is 32.5 percent among jeepneydrivers, 16.4 percent among air-conditioned bus driversand 13.8 percent among commuters.

All four of the characteristic symptoms (chronic cough,chronic phlegm, wheezing and shortness of breath) weresignificantly higher among jeepney drivers. With regard toduration of employment/commuting, the findings showthat the jeepney drivers sampled worked for an average of14.5 years, air-conditioned bus drivers for 10 years, andcommuters 8.6 years. Of the jeepney drivers, 98 percenthave held no other employment in their lives. Statisticallythis is significant and validates other studies showing thatthose who live in or are exposed to a higher degree ofpollution have a higher prevalence of different respiratoryindices. It should be noted though that exposure of thesubjects to other environmental pollutants in prior yearswas not considered in the study.

13

MT

BO

D

Organic pollution problema tic in surface w aterbodies … W ater pollution is most severe in MetroManila where al l surface w aters, except for upperportions of the Mar ikina River, can be consideredbiologically dead dur ing the dry months. 8 This is dueto heavy concentration of population and industrialactivity and an inadequate sewage treatment system,w hich services only about 8 per cent of over 9 mi l l i onresidents. 9 W astew ater is not used furt her in recharg -ing aquife rs or for irri gation, but is instead dischargeddirectly into Manila Bay and other ri vers.

Eff ort s to rehabilitate the Pasig River systemresulted in a 30 percent reduction in biological oxygend e mand (BOD) loading by 1996 (from 327 tons/dayin 1990 to 230 tons/day in 1996). Monitoring in 1997-1999 showed no substantial change in BOD (the yearof the El Niño), as fi ve stations were close to the 1996BOD levels. Six out of nine stations in the Pasig Riverw ere in compliance with the Class C BOD leve ls until1997, and then with an additional two stations addedin 1999 compliance was raised to eight stations. How-ever, while BOD loadings decr eased, the mean dis-solved o xygen (DO) did not improve . Eight stationshad DO concentrations between 1 and 4 mg/l in 1998.While DO lev els in 1999 have improved, they are stillbelow desirable Class C DO levels. 10

The decr ease in BOD from 1990 to 1996 isattributed to reduction in the load from industri alsour ces and solid w aste. In 1996, domestic sourcesincreased to 60 per cent of the total BOD load (from 45percent in 1990). Total colifo rm counts can r eachseveral million counts per 100 ml, far exceeding thelimit of 5,000 MPN/100 ml. For 1999, the improve-ment in BOD and DO levels can be partly attributed toa high wa ter level in Laguna de Bay.

W ater quality in four other ri vers in the MetroManila region has also deteri orated over time, withincreasing BOD and decr easing DO leve ls. Indiscri mi-nate dumping of raw sewage has been identified as themain cause of the degradation. 11

1990 1996

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

RiverRiverRiverRiverRiver 1980s1980s1980s1980s1980s 1991-19951991-19951991-19951991-19951991-1995 19971997199719971997 19981998199819981998

San Juan 1.55 - 6.5 0 -3.8 0 - 3 0.3 - 4.7

Marikina 1.5 - 10 1.0 - 8.4 0 - 5.3 0.3 - 6.8

Navotas MalabonTullahan Tenejeros 6 .0 4.5 0 - 6.7 0.1 - 4.7

Parañaque Zapote 0.3 - 8.5 0 - 5.8 0 -16.4 0.2 -16.3

DO levels (mg/l) of Other Rivers in Metro Manila

8 EMS/IEPC Report DENR - MEIP, 1992.9 Philippines Water Districts Development Project.10Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission, 1999 Report (a workin progress).11DENR-NCR Water Quality Management System,1998

Annual

WATER POLLUTION

Pasig River System: BOD Monitoring

solid waste industrial sewage

BROWN AGENDA

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Philippine Environmental Quality Report, EMBSourceSourceSourceSourceSource for 1997 and 1998:for 1997 and 1998:for 1997 and 1998:for 1997 and 1998:for 1997 and 1998: DENR NCR Water Quality MonitoringSystem, Annual Reports/DENR, 1995

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Pasig River Rehabilitation Secretariat

14

Other regions …………… D ownstream ri ver quality monitor-ing of Region 7 between 1993 and 1998 showed thatout of twenty six ri vers, nine passed Class A freshwa-ter standards, eleven ri vers passed Class B, and sixrivers were Class C. 12 Limited data gathere d from 1990to 1995 indicate that some ri vers in the country arestill relati vely pri stine, part icularly in Mindanao. Sevenrivers in Region 10 and eleven in Region 11 still haveBOD and DO levels within the guidelines for Class AAto Class C waters. The state of other rivers in Luzonsurveyed in 1989-1992 r anged from unpolluted todead. 13

Laguna de Bay under threat ……………The biggest fresh-water body in the countr y—90,000 hectar es—and asource of drinking w ater for parts of Metro Manila,Laguna de Bay curre ntly falls into Class C, with waterstill suitable for growth and propag ation of aquatic life .However, some areas are beginning to face larger BODand nutr ient loads and incr easing siltation (estim atedat 4M m 3/year). 14 The culture per iod for some fi shspecies (bangus and tila pia) has been observed tolengthen. Fish ki l ls have occurred seasonally in thew estern portion of the lake where industr ies andsettlements are concentr ated.

The Laguna de Bay basin is subject to expandingagro-industrial activities and urbanization. Thiscontr ibutes to discharge of toxic and hazar dous w astes(THW), principally heavy metals and agriculturalpesticides. Pollution from toxic and hazar dous w astes,how ever, is not yet at a cri tical level. Lake watersamples collected in 1984 showed that zinc, lead,copper, cadmium, chromium and ar senic met Class Cstandards. Monitor ing in 1999 show ed improv ements;only copper failed to meet the clay standard . 15

Pollution LevelPollution LevelPollution LevelPollution LevelPollution Level

RegionsRegionsRegionsRegionsRegions NoneNoneNoneNoneNone SlightSlightSlightSlightSlight HighHighHighHighHigh DeadDeadDeadDeadDead TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal

1 5 1 0 5 11

2 8 2 - - 10

3 23 11 1 5 40

4 6 19 - 1 26

5 1 - - - 1

TOTAL 43 33 1 11 88

Economic V aluation of Env ironmentalDegradation in Laguna Lake

Fisheries.Fisheries.Fisheries.Fisheries.Fisheries. A 1995 DENR/LLDA study estimated that withoutadditional pollution control measures, losses from decliningfishery productivity could total P7.5-11.0 billion. Capturefishery and mollusk productivity was most sensitive; cageand pen cultures were less so.

Health.Health.Health.Health.Health. 1990 data showed a higher prevalence of diarrhealdiseases, typhoid and salmonella infections, and dermato-logical problems in lakeshore areas of Rizal and Laguna thanelsewhere in the country, although the presence of con-founding factors makes attribution of this morbidity solelyto lakewater degradation difficult. Annual medication costs(without hospitalization) for reported diarrheal and skinproblem cases was estimated at P10.7 million. Watersupply and sanitation improvements to reduce morbidityby 50 percent would result in savings of P6.1 million.

Intensifying pollution control to avoid further deteriorationof Laguna Lake would be economically beneficial. Addi-tional costs of P131.2-229.6 million annually would reapabout P944-1,154 million in annual benefits— mainly fromavoiding damage to fisheries.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Economic Valuation of Impacts of EnvironmentalDegradation in Laguna Lake, PDFI/REECS/DENR-MEIP, 1998

WATER POLLUTION

Categories of Rivers Surveyed Accordingto Pollution Level (1989-92)

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Philippine Environmental Quality Report, EMB/DENR, 1995

12DENR-EMB Region 7.13Philippine Environmental Quality Report, DENR-EMB, 1995.14LLDA, Sedimentation patterns, Sediment quality andBathymetry of Laguna de Bay: establishing EnvironmentalBaselines for Lake Management Using the Geological Records,April 1999.

15LLDA Report, 1988 cited in Master Plan for Laguna de Bay,1995.

BROWN AGENDA

15

19881988198819881988 19921992199219921992

Foregone earnings from morbidity 43 131

Foregone earnings frompremature death 462 346

Medication Costs 91 138

TOTAL 596 615

Manila Bay's coastal waters deteriorate ……………Thecoastal w aters of Manila Bay are also deteri orating. Thetotal load of organic m atter to the Bay is about 250,000tons BOD/y ear—with more than 90 per cent comingfrom Metro Manila, including the P asig River andBulacan River systems. Areas near the mouth of thePasig River have been observed to exhibit oxygen de-pletion (with DO levels as low as 1.9 mg/l) and highlevels of ammonia nitr ogen. Studies conducted in1996-1998 rev ealed a signif icant decline in benthicorganisms, and an increase in algal blooms, especiallyin the eastern part of Manila Bay—wh ich receives or-ganic loads from Metro Manila—and the P asig andBulacan Rivers. 16

Heavy metals in Manila Bay sediments have alsobeen incr easing. Between 1982 and 1992, copperconcentra tions increased by 50 perc ent (from 67ppmto 101ppm); mercury concentr ations more thandoubled (from 0.18ppm to 0.37ppm); and zinc leve lstri pled (from 77ppm to 233ppm) in Manila Bay. 17

Groundwater aff ected…The quantity and qualityof groundw ater have been adve rsely aff ected. Since1955, the groundw ater table in Metro Manila has beenreceding at an accelera ting rate. The rate of decline isestim ated to be 5-12 meters per year, and has led tosalt water intrusion in a 2-kilometer coastal stripextending from Cavite City to Nav otas-Malabon. 18

In the sixteen-year period up to 1997, the dailyextr action rates incr eased fi ve times to 135 millionliters/day in the T alomo-Lipadas-Sibulan aquife rsystem. 19 Consequently, in 15 of the 35 oper ating we lls,lowering of the piezometric water levels was observed.W ith almost all wells in the Davao City W e ll Distri ctlocated below sea level, the aquifer will be particularlysusceptible to saline intrusion if the decline in piezo-metric levels continues.

Red Tide T hreatens Public Health, theShellfish Industry and the Country's Economy

Red tide, which is a worldwide problem, has beenoccurring more frequently in the Philippines. Monitoringby the government shows that red tide tends to occur atthe onset of the rainy season, after a warm dry period.High organic loading from rivers draining into bays hasbeen contributing to Pyrodinium blooms. From 1983 to1998, a total of 2,042 cases of paralytic shellfish poisoningdue to red tide was reported, with 116 deaths recorded.

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: EMB-DENR

Tourism Industry and P ollution

The tourism boom has placed additional pressure onthe country's coastal and marine resources. The rapidexpansion of hotels and resort facilities with inadequatewastewater treatment systems along the coastline hasfurther degraded water quality. This problem washighlighted on the island of Boracay, a major touristdestination, where monitoring in 1996 showed totalcoliform counts well above the standard during thepeak tourist season. Since then, the Government hasinitiated several measures to reduce pollution in Boracay.

WATER POLLUTION

16 River Rehabilitation Secretariat, 2000.17 Industrial Efficiency & Pollution Control, DENR-MEIP, 1992.18 Environmental Management Strategy, DENR-MEIP, 1992.19 Characterization of the Aquifers in Davao City, Asia Geodyne Corporation for the DENR-MEIP, 1998.

BROWN AGENDA

Health Impacts of W ater Pollution

In 1996, the Environment and Natural Resources Account-ing Project (ENRAP III) estimated damages from air andwater pollution. The health impacts arising from increasedincidence of waterborne diseases are estimated to havereached P615 million (expressed at constant 1988 pricesin 1992).

Health Damages from Increased Incidenceof Waterborne Diseases

(in million Pesos)

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Main Report, Phase III, The Philippine Environment andNatural Resource Accounting Project, Dec 1996

16

Waste generation—household solid w aste andindustr ial hazar dous w aste—has ri sen signi fi-

cantly and its widening disper sion to the environmentis a growing threat to the quality of water, air and land.This is compounded by the lack of environmentallysound w aste disposal and treatment fa cilities.

The national average waste generation rates percapi ta are estim ated to be 0.3 kg/ca pita/day, or about22,500 tons/day (8.2 million tons/y ear) total. MetroManila alone gener ates a bout 5,400 tons/day. Theprovinces of Laguna and Rizal gener ate 400 and 500tons/day, respective ly.20 In urban areas, the range isfrom 0.50 to 0.70 kg/ca pita/day. 21

In Metro Manila, only 6 perc ent is recycled andanother 6 per cent is disposed of by the residentsthemselves. Seventy three percent is collected whilethe r est is illeg ally dumped. 22 Organic w astepredominates in household w astes. There is no specialcollection system for industrial waste while industrialwaste disposal is inadequately regulated.

Household collection eff iciency improves…Collection in the metropolis has improved from 60percent in 1994 to 73 percent in 1998. The nationalcollection eff iciency is estim ated at 40 percent,although major towns and cities showed averagecollection rates of 70 percent. 23 Uncollected wa ste isindiscriminately disposed of in water bodies and stormdrains (aggrav ating the flooding problem), or left pi ledup in vacant lots. These ineff icient disposal practicescontr ibute to organic w ater pollution, acounting fo r10 percent 24 of the organic pollution in the Pasig Riversystem and 30 per cent 25 in Laguna de Bay.

W aste Composition by Component

Comparison of Characteristicsof Household W aste (%)

plastic 17%17%17%17%17%paper 19%19%19%19%19%

Metal 6 %6 %6 %6 %6 %

other 16%16%16%16%16%

kitchen waste42%42%42%42%42%

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: The Study of SWM for Metro Manila, Final Report, JICA/MMDA,March 1999

20 The Study of SWM for Metro Manila, Final Report, JICA/

MMDA, March 1999.21 Urban Environmental & Solid Waste Management Study,GHK/MRM International Ltd., October 1994.22 The Study of SWM for Metro Manila, Final Report, JICA/MMDA, March 1999. Note 1.23 Pasig River Rehabilitation Program DENR/DANIDA, 1990-1991.24 Pasig River Rehabilitation Program DENR/DANIDA, 1990-1991.25 The Laguna de Bay Master Plan Final Report, LLDA, June1995.

BROWN AGENDASOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources: Urban Environment & Solid Waste Management, GHK/MRMInternational Ltd., 1994 (for Baguio, Batangas & Olongapo) and TheStudy for Solid Waste Management of Metro Manila, JICA/MMDA, 1999

Kitchen/Kitchen/Kitchen/Kitchen/Kitchen/ Paper /Paper /Paper /Paper /Paper /Ci tyCi tyCi tyCi tyCi ty Yard WasteYard WasteYard WasteYard WasteYard Waste CardboardCardboardCardboardCardboardCardboard PlasticPlasticPlasticPlasticPlastic MetalsMetalsMetalsMetalsMetals

Metro Manila 45 16 15 5

Baguio 53 14 6 4

Batangas 54 10 13 3

Olongapo 45 13 12 6

17

Budgets re m ain low …Funds allocated for solidw aste m anagement are very low, with l i ttle eff ort toeither collect garbage fe es from households or to in-crease fees for commer cial and industri al establish-ments.

Disposal facilities inadequate… Open dumping isthe ma in form of disposal. There are only three sani-tary landfi l ls in the country—in Cebu City, in Carmona,Cavite and in San Mateo, Rizal. Problems of socialacceptab i l i ty have led to closure of a sanitary landfi llin Carmona, Cavite, while another in San Mateo willclose by December 2000. Even the few sanitary landfi llsin oper ation have inadequate leachate tr eatmentfacilities. Some local gove rnments are impro ving theirdisposal system by shi fting from open dumping tocontr olled dumping.

W aste reduction eff ort s growing… About 142 lo-cal gove rnment units (LGUs) in the country are imple-menting integrated waste management, which includeswaste reduction, composting, recycling and re-use. 26

Accor ding to estim ates, the Metro Manila Feder ationof Environment Multi-pur pose Coopera tives bought69,400 tons of waste materials, which it sold tofactories for P95.2M in 1998. In 1999, this volumew ent up by 38 per cent to 95,600 tons wo rt hP124.6M. 27

Alar ming r ise in hazar dous w aste…The manu-factur ing sector in Metro Manila and adjacent prov -inces (from Bataan in the north to Batangas in thesouth) generated nearly 168,000 metric tons of seri-ous THW. The four m ain producing sectors of THWsare chemicals, food and dri nk, textiles and engineer-ing. 28

Data showed that m ateri als import ed for recyclingpurposes have gone up. THW expor ted for recove ryand treatment r ose from 650 metric tons in 1997 to2,062 metric tons in 1998. On the other hand,hazar dous wa ste local ly transpor ted, recycled and/ortreated incr eased from 3,499 metric tons in 1998 to17,229 metric tons in 1999.

Environmental and Human Disasters:Smokey Mountain and Pay atas W aste Dump

Improper waste management at the Smokey Mountaindumpsite affected the air and water quality in the area.Available data showed that Smokey Mountain was amajor source of pollutants, such as chemical oxygendemand, chloride ions and lead. Ninety percent ofdrinking water samples in Smokey Mountain revealedbacterial contamination. The dumpsite was closed andleveled in the mid-1990s, after public protests.

In July, 2000, an enormous wall of garbage collapsedin Manila’s main dump in Payatas, crushing a row of shacksand killing over a hundred people. The victims wereimpoverished squatters, including many children, wholived in the area and picked through the dump to collectitems they can sell. The Payatas dump site wasto be closed permanently last December, but planswere postponed.

These examples illustrate the tragic human and environ-mental consequences of improper wastemanagement.

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

26 PPSO Report of DENR Performance.27 Report of the Metro Manila Federation of EnvironmentalMulti-Purpose Cooperative, Bong Teves, March 1, 2000.28 Final Report on Toxic and Hazardous Waste Management,Entec, 1997.

BROWN AGENDA

LGU Budget Allocated for SWM(as % total budget)

Ci tyCi tyCi tyCi tyCi ty %%%%%

Manila 18.0

Caloocan 6 .0

Parañaque 6 .0

Baguio 2 .3

Batangas 3 .2

Olongapo 1 .7

Summary of Recyclable MaterialsImported for Recycling Purposes

YearYearYearYearYear Quantity (MT) Quantity (MT) Quantity (MT) Quantity (MT) Quantity (MT)

1994 16,220

1995 201,866

1996 63,616

1997 64,090

1998 56,046

Source: Source: Source: Source: Source: EMB/DENR, 2000

Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources: The Study for Solid Waste Management for Metro Manila,Final Report, JICA/MMDA; Urban Environment and Solid WasteManagement, GK/URM International Ltd., 1994

18

The Industrial Ecowatch ProgramThe Industrial Ecowatch Program was launched by thegovernment to foster compliance by polluters andprovide recognition to those who met the standards.

A computer-based performance rating system to evaluatemanagement commitment towards environmental compli-ance was developed with the active participation of 23industry associations, who signed an Industrial EcowatchPact with the government. The system used color coding:

® Black: For those making no effort to comply and causingserious damage

® Red: For those unable to meet the effluent standardsbut who are making an effort to do so;

® Blue: For those consistently in compliance for a year;

® Green: For those in compliance for 2 years and who makefurther efforts (adopting energy conservationmeasures, recycling, cleaner technologies, etc.)

® Gold: For those who are consistently green for 2 years.

Under assessment: showing continuous improvements butnot yet in compliance for 1 year

Companies were rated based on all data available andwere confidentially informed of their rating. They weregiven 6 months to improve their performance and invitedto technical consultations with the DENR technical staff.After 6 months, monitoring was undertaken and a finalrating made. The difference in the initial and final ratingsindicated that companies took the disclosures seriously:

Initial RatingInitial RatingInitial RatingInitial RatingInitial Rating Final RatingFinal RatingFinal RatingFinal RatingFinal Rating

Blue 5% 32%

Red 48% 11%

Black 11% 12%

Under Assessment 29% 33%

The government has adopted this coding system as the newcompliance monitoring system. It is now being integratedwith other existing industrial databases to make it more userfriendly.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: DENR-NCR, MEIP

BROWN AGENDA

Air Quality Management• The Clean Air Act was passed into law in June 1999.

Its key features include:

®Identification and characterization of all airshedsin the country and establishment of multi -sectoralAir Quality Management Board s for each airshed

®Development of a national air quality manage-ment framework which will guide the LGUs indeveloping their local plans

®Establishment of an air quality management fundto be earmarked for air quality managementactivi ties

®Imposition of emission charges

®Improv ement in quality of gasoline and diesel,and pr omotion of alter native (cleaner) fuels.

• A compr ehensive program to addre ss ai r pol lutionin Metro Manila was approved with fundingsupport from the Asian Development Bank (ADB).

• Leaded g asoline has been phased out in MetroManila, and phaseout is scheduled to be nationwideby December 31, 2000.

• Sulfur content in diesel will be low ered from 0.50percent in mid-1999 to 0.20 percent by December31, 2000 and to 0.05 per cent by 2004.

W ater Quality Management• W ater quality standard s for surface and coastal/

m arine w aters were revised in 1992.

• The classi fi cation of surface w ater, ranging from ve ryclean (Class AA) to polluted surface waters suitableonly for navigation (Class E), was also updated.

• Multi-sectora l eff ort s to rehabilitate some key waterbodies in the country (the Pasig River system, theBiñan River and the Sta. Rosa River in Laguna, andthe Butuanon River in Cebu) have been launched.River Councils of major river tributaries ofthe Laguna de Bay have been formed andoperationalized.

POLICY RESPONSES

19

The Environmental User Fee

To complement the existing regulatory system, a pollutioncharge system was established in the Philippines in 1997.The Environmental User Fee (EUF) aimed to serve as aneconomic incentive to protect the environment, specifi-cally water quality. Revenue generation was a secondaryobjective.

The fee, set at a level higher than the cost of abatement,has two components: a fixed fee to cover the administra-tive cost of permitting, and a variable fee based onpollution load. The basic fee was set at P5/kg BOD if theconcentration level was within the standards. However,this increased six-fold (to P30/kg BOD) when standardswere exceeded. This is in addition to pertinent fines andpenalties that are imposed based on PD 984.

The first phase of implementation has shown that eco-nomic incentives do encourage firms to go beyondcompliance, to generate less and recycle their wastewater,and to employ more cost-effective treatments.

19971997199719971997 19981998199819981998 19991999199919991999

Firms Covered 109 293 520

Fees Collected P 6.2 M P16 M P11.8 M

BOD Reduction 5.4M kg 4.7M kg TBD

With this initial success, the government is now set toimplement the EUF nationwide, expanding its coverageto cover all polluters—from manufacturing firms tocommercial establishments and institutions, andeventually, to households.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Laguna Lake Development Authority, 2000

C o m munity-based W aste Managementin Zero Kalat sa Kaunlaran (ZKK)

In Dagat-Dagatan, Navotas, a resettlement site for formersquatters of Manila, the community has been mobilized toclean up its surroundings through massive information,education and communication campaigns.

Waste is segregated at the household level and collectedby eco-aides. Recyclables are bought from each house-hold, taken to the Redemption Center, where wastes arefurther sorted and cleaned. The local government allowedthe use of a vacant lot in the community for this purpose.Biodegradable waste is shredded and made into com-post—which is then used for a community vegetablegarden and for seedling production. The recyclablesare sold to junk dealers. A livelihood project makinguseful products out of waste materials provides additionalincome to the residents. The community volunteers havenow formed a cooperative, which supervises the entireoperation.

ZKK is one of the many successful community-basedefforts on waste management—and is serving as a modelfor others communities.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: MEIP-DENR, 1998

Solid/Hazar dous W aste Management• The Integr ated W aste Management Str ategy was

updated and adopted, and a compr ehensive sol idwaste management act is now pending in Congre ss.

• Guidelines on the assessment of possible sites forsanitary landfi lls as well as Technical Guidelines forthe shift from open dumping to more env ironmen-tally sound waste disposal have been issued.

• More ci ties are shifting to a more env ironmentallysound disposal system. Funding for investments toimprove w aste management is ava i lable throughprojects of the ADB and the W o rld Bank.

• A centra l treatment and stor age fa cility for electro -plating waste is now oper ational in Cebu City.

• The Depar tment of Education, Culture and Sport shas par tnered with the DENR and env ironmentalNGOs to promote ecological waste m anagement.Trained DECS coor dinators all over the country areincorporating solid waste management in theircurriculum and are also implementing school-basedprojects.

Industrial Pollution Management• G overnment strategy has shifted fro m ful l reliance

on command and control to a mix of approachesthat includes promoting pollution prevention, wasteminimization and cleaner pr oduction. The use ofpublic disclosure and economic incentives (such asE C OW ATCH and Environmental User F ee) arebeing implemented in phases countrywide.

• Thus far, 77 industry associations have signed upand developed their own Business Agenda 21.

• There are 42 companies now cert ified ISO 14001;of these, 31 are from the semi-conductor/elect-ronics industry .

POLICY RESPONSES

BROWN AGENDA

20

Total Land Area 30.0

By Classification By Classification By Classification By Classification By Classification

- A&D (47%) 14.1

- Forest and unclassified (53%) 15.9

By Slope By Slope By Slope By Slope By Slope

- Lowlands - w/ slope <18% (46%) 13.7

- Uplands - w/ slope >18% (54%) 16.3

- of that, slope 18-30% = 5.2 mha

The Philippines has a total land area of about 30million hectar es—of w hich 47 percent is cert ified

aliena ble and disposa ble land, and 50 per cent isforestland.

Land is also categorized into lowlands anduplands accor ding to the slope. Lowlands, which arelands with slopes below 18 percent, are the prima ryagricultural lands.

Lowland agri cul ture y ield is stagnating… Low-land agri cultural areas are the most productive in thecountry, although yields in these areas are relative lylow by Asian standards, and have been stagnating. Av-erage r ice yields, for example, re mained at a bout 2.9metric tons per hectare per season thr oughout the1990s, while corn yields have re mained at a bout 1.5metric tons per hectare . Salinization and water loggingpose pr oblems in some irri gated areas, while salinew ater intrusions aff ect coastal areas. Insuff icient orunbalanced fe rt ilizer use is resulting in nutr ient deple-tion in some places.

Upland agri cul ture is fragile… Population pressurein the postwar period has led to a substantial incr easeof cultiv ation in upland areas. Of the 16.3 millionhectares of uplands, about 2 million are used fo rintensive agri culture. 29

The 18-30 per cent slope class is gener ally con-sidered subma rginal for most agri cul tural crops. Ap-proximately 1.28 million hectares in this slope classare cul ti vated. Increasing cultiv ation on sloping landsusing standard lowland fa rming techniques is leadingto severe erosion.

Land use changes… Between 1950 and 1990, forestcover and grasslands declined by 60 and 67 per centrespective ly. Over the same peri od, farm area almostdoubled, as agricultural populations expanded. Urbansprawl incr eased by 16 percent between 1980 and1990.

29 DENR, 1990.

CategoryCategoryCategoryCategoryCategory Area (mha)Area (mha)Area (mha)Area (mha)Area (mha)

Land Distribution by Classification, Slope

LAND

Land Classification, 1994

Unclassified3 %3 %3 %3 %3 %

ClassifiedForest50%50%50%50%50%

Alienable &Disposable 47% 47% 47% 47% 47%

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: DENR, 1992

Plantationcrops 46%46%46%46%46%

Upland rice25%25%25%25%25%

Upland fieldcrops 29% 29% 29% 29% 29%

GREEN AGENDA

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: FMB-DENR, 1998

Cultivated Upland Areas, 1987(slope 18-30 %)

21

GREEN AGENDA

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Bureau of Soils and Water Management, 1993

Farmer Health and Pesticide Use on Rice

About half of the insecticides and over three quarters of theherbicides used in the Philippines are used on rice. Theaverage application rate of about 1 kg of active ingredientsper hectare is relatively low by worldwide standards,however (Japan, for example, uses 14.3 kg ai/ha and SouthKorea uses 10.7 kg ai/ha). But even at these low levels,serious repercussions on farmers’ health have been docu-mented. A study of rice farmers in Nueva Ecija, for example,showed significantly higher rates of cardiopulmonarydisorders, neurological and hematological symptoms, andskin disease than in a control group of farmers who did notuse pesticides in Quezon. The resulting costs for treatmentand reduced productivity increased the cost of riceproduction in Nueva Ecija by about 5-6 percent. If pesti-cide use were to rise to recommended levels to achievecomplete protection, the associated health costs wouldincrease the cost of production by as much as 50-60percent.

Source: Source: Source: Source: Source: A.C. Rola and P.L. Pingali, 1993. Pesticides, Rice Productivity,and Farmers’ Health. Los Banos: International Rice Research Institute

LAND

Erosion Classes in Philippines, 1993

Sl ighterosion30%30%30%30%30%

Moderateerosion 28%28%28%28%28%

Severe erosion17%17%17%17%17%

No erosion24%24%24%24%24%

Unclassified 1 %1 %1 %1 %1 %

Soi l erosion is a major problem… Soils in irri gatedareas are part icularl y likely to have limitations and tobe easily dam aged by inappropriate use. As a resul t ofincreased cultiv ation in upland areas, erosion hasbecome a ma jor problem. A 1993 study of the Bureauof Soi ls and W ater Management f ound that 45 percentof the countr y's land area suff ers from moder ate tosevere erosion, while only 24 per cent exhibits noappare nt erosion.

Tw enty-one per cent of agri cul tural lands andthirty-six percent of non-agr icultural lands in thecountry are moder ately to severely eroded. W ithin theregions, more than a third (38 percent) of Mindanao'sagri cultural lands are moder ately or severely eroded.In non-agri cul tural lands in al l regions, soil erosion ishigh: 40 percent of non-agri cultural lands in Mindanaoare moder ately or severely eroded; in Vi sayas, 38 per-cent and in Luzon, 32 percent.

Agrochemical inputs increasing… The use of bothchemical fe rt ilizers and pesticides has been increasing.Total fert i l i zer use grew from 2.1 million metric tonsin 1993 to 3.1 million metric tons in 1997, althoughthis re mains below the level of use in many other Asiancountri es. Total use prov ides l i ttl e inform ation onenvironmental impact, how ever. Used appropri ately,fert ilizers can incr ease yields and help m aintain soilfert ility. Used inappropr iately, they can lead to nutri -ent imbalances and gr oundwater contamination.

Total pesticide use has been increasing, part icu-larly since 1991. As in the case of fert ilizer, pesticidescan pr otect crops from pests but can also contaminatewater, aff ect farmers ' heal th, and induce r esistance inpests unless they are used pr operl y.

Adoption of conserv ation technologies isspreading… Appropr iate land use practices can helpreduce or halt land degradation. Sloping Agri culturalLand T echnologies (SALT ), originally developed inMindanao, have been adopted widely both in thePhilippines and elsew here in Asia. Tenure securi ty hasbeen r ecognized as an impor tant contri buting factor toadoption of conservation measures, and eff ort s areunderway to regular ize land tenure .

Comparison of Fertilizer Use inSelected Asian Countries (kg/ha of arable land)

1979-811979-811979-811979-811979-81 1995-971995-971995-971995-971995-97Thailand 17.7 87.3

PhilippinesPhilippinesPhilippinesPhilippinesPhilippines 76.576.576.576.576.5 119.3119.3119.3119.3119.3

Bangladesh 45.9 137.4

Indonesia 64.5 146.8

Vietnam 30.2 259.3

Malaysia 427.3 637.5

Source Source Source Source Source: World Development Indicators, 1999

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Bureau of Soils and Water Management, 1993

Soil Erosion by Land Use, million ha

TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal

AgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgricultural 12.7712.7712.7712.7712.77

Moderate-severe erosion 5.81

Slight-no erosion 6.96

Non-AgriculturalNon-AgriculturalNon-AgriculturalNon-AgriculturalNon-Agricultural 15.0415.0415.0415.0415.04

Moderate-severe erosion 10.01

Slight-no erosion 5.03

22

Forest Cover(all types) 6100 20 -8800 220

Old growth forest 800 3 -3800 127

Secondary growthforest 3500 12 +200* 5

Grassland 1812 6 -3388 85

Composition of Philippine Forest Cover

GREEN AGENDAFORESTS

Mossy 19%19%19%19%19%Mangrove 2%2%2%2%2%

Pine 4 %4 %4 %4 %4 %

Dipterocarp-Closed 15%15%15%15%15%

Dipterocarp-Open 51%51%51%51%51%

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Forest Management Bureau, DENR

Sub-marginal9 %9 %9 %9 %9 %

Forest Cover Changes, 1950-90

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Swedish Space Corporation 1988, Marquez 1990, NEDA 1992Note:Note:Note:Note:Note: * 1970-90 only

30 Several studies have been conducted on the remaining forestcover in the Philippines by agencies including the ForestManagement Bureau (FMB), 1988, 1991; Forest ManagementBureau-German Technical Assistance, 1988; National Mappingand Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA), 1988; SwedishSpace Corporation, 1988. There are, however, some variationsin the estimates of these different groups.31 Philippine Biodiversity, DENR/UNEP, 1997, P16.32 Philippine Environmental Quality Report, 1996.33 Philippine Forestry Statistics, 1998.

EcosystemEcosystemEcosystemEcosystemEcosystemTotalTotalTotalTotalTotalAreaAreaAreaAreaArea

% total% total% total% total% totallandlandlandlandlandareaareaareaareaarea

Change inChange inChange inChange inChange insize ('000 ha)size ('000 ha)size ('000 ha)size ('000 ha)size ('000 ha)

1950-901950-901950-901950-901950-90

Rate ofRate ofRate ofRate ofRate ofchangechangechangechangechange('000('000('000('000('000ha/yr)ha/yr)ha/yr)ha/yr)ha/yr)

Extensive defo restation 30... Forest cove red 57percent (or 17.1 million hectar es) of the total land areaof the country in 1934. By 1990, this has been sub-stantial ly reduced to 6.1 million hectares, covering 20percent of the land area. Recent estim ates put the for-est cover at around 5.4 million hectare s. Betw een 1950and 1990, about 3.8 million hectares of old growthdipter ocarp forests are estim ated to have been lost.Residual/secondary growth forests grew during theperiod by about 200,000 hectares, whi le grasslandsdecreased by about 3.3 million hectare s.31

Deforestation is part icularl y severe in the Luzonand Vi sayas island groupings and is currently acute inthe Mindanao gr ouping. Palawan has the highestre maining proport ion of forest cover among the ma -jor islands. The principal causes of defo restation inthe Philippines are i l legal logging, shi fting cul tivation,and fo rest fires, as well as conversion to agri cul turallands and human settlements.

Rate of defo restation is stabilizing… From 1989to 1995, the average annual r ate of defo restation hasbeen estim ated at 130,000 hectares. 32 Only about800,000 hectare s of the re maining area is prima ry for-est. 33 Since 1992, all prima ry forests have been de-clared part of the National Integr ated Protected A reasSystem (NIPA S) for biodive rsity conserv ation and en-vironmental pr otection.

23

Logging re mains a threat … Logging, both legal andillegal, continues to pose a thr eat to the Philippines'forests. During the height of commer cial logging(1960-1976), more than 400 timber licensees we re incontro l of extraction of 11 million hectares (more than1/3 of the countr y's land area). The short duration ofpermits and licenses, low forest char ges and fa ilure toenforce management standards encour aged unsustain-able logging practices.

In 1992, a logging ban on virgin/old growth for-ests was imposed. In addition, the area under timberlicensing agr eements (TLAs) as w ell as the annualal low able cut has been declining steadily. In 1998,only 20 TLAs re mained, for a total of about a millionhectares and an annual allowa ble cut of only 506,000cubic meters.

Curr ent dem and for industri al roundw ood isestimated at 5 million cubic meters (MCM), of whichonly 12 percent comes from the annual allowa ble cutsin natura l forests.

Conversion in uplands on the rise… Commerciallogging and extraction activities have opened up newareas for land conve rsion, upland migr ation, agri cul-tural expansion, and slash and burn farming. Thedrastic reduction in TLAs over the last decade has mademore than 5 million hectare s of forestland into “openaccess” areas. These are highly vulnera ble to inappro -priate land use, encr oachment and illega l extraction ofproducts by increasing upland migr ation.

About 20 million people curr ently reside inupland areas. W idespr ead pove rty and the slowimplementation of agra ri an reform have pushed thegrowing population to migr ate to forestlands andurban areas.

GREEN AGENDAFORESTS

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Philippine Forestry Statistics, 1998, FMB-DENR

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

thous

and h

ectar

es

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Philippine Forestry Statistics, 1998, FMB-DENR

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

thou

sand

cubic

meter

s

Annual Allowable Cut for TLAs, 1990-98

Area under ExistingTimber License Agr eements, 1990-98

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: FMB/DENR, 1998; PCA, 2000; Cadiz, 1999

Sources of Supply for Industrial Roundwood, 1998

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource Estimated VolumeEstimated VolumeEstimated VolumeEstimated VolumeEstimated Volume % % % % %('000 m3)('000 m3)('000 m3)('000 m3)('000 m3) of Totalof Totalof Totalof Totalof Total

1. Annual Allowable Cut from Natural Forest 588 11.8

2. Harvest from Plantation Forests 45 0.9

3. Imports 796 15.9

4. Coconut Lumber 721 14.4

5. Others (illegal and substitutes) 2,850 57.0

Total 5,000 100.0

24

Reforestation eff ort s erratic… There has been noconsistency in the number of hectare s reforestedannually. The centr ally administered reforestationeff ort s were imposed on local comm unities without anadequate planning, monitoring and implementationfra m ew ork. As a resul t, reforestation has a ve ry lowsurvival rate of 26 percent.

The gove rnment adopted a shift in policy towardscontra ct reforestation, w hich wa s started in 1998 withan ADB/OECF loan. Massive reforestation eff ort s wereundertaken betw een 1989 and 1991, reaching a highof 191,663 hectare s reforested in 1991. An assessmentof the surv ival rate from 1988 to 1993 rev ealed asignificant improv ement, up to 76 percent. Private sec-tor reforestation (compr ising timber licensees andnongovernmental org anizations) has been increasing.

C o m munity-based forest m anagement…Morerecently, there has been a shift from gove rnment-implemented to commu ni ty-led forest managementeff orts. Communities only managed 32,000 hectaresin 1982. This incr eased shar ply to about 4.9 millionhectares in 1998. This people-or iented forestry initia-tive al lows for longer tenure , and provides the neces-sary incentive towards conservation and sustainablemanagement.

GREEN AGENDA

Annual Reforestation, 1984-98

250

200

150

100

50

0

1984

1988

1986

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Forest Management Bureau, DENR

Contract Reforestation, by type

FORESTS

LGU 4 %4 %4 %4 %4 %

Families19%19%19%19%19%

Activity Specific14%14%14%14%14%

Corporate7 %7 %7 %7 %7 %

Communities 56%56%56%56%56%

Government Pvt Sector

25

The Philippines is among the world's seventeen“megadiversity” countries, which together account

for some 60-70 per cent of total global biodive rsity, andis included in the list of biodiversity “hotspots”—threatened ar eas with very high levels of biodive rsity.The country is divided into fifteen bio-geogra phiczones, with eighteen sites identified as centers ofplant diversity and six major island centers of animaldive rsity.

A recent compr ehensive assessment of thecountry ' s biodiversity reveals high species dive rsity andendemism. There are about 13,500 plant species(representing about 5 percent of the wo rl d's fl ora)and 170,000 animal species. Fort y-four percent of fl ow-ering plants are endemic, found prima ri ly in the fewre maining prima ry forests. High species endemism hasalso been observed among ma m mals (64 percent), rep-ti les (68 percent), amphibians (78 per cent), and birds(44 percent).

Biodiver sity losses continue… W idespreaddestruction and conversion of natural habitats,overexploitation, and pollution have led to rapidbiodiversity loss. The Philippines has been identifiedby the IUCN as one of the most endangered of theworld's biodiversity hotspots.

The number of endangered species incr easedfrom 212 in 1990 to 284 in 1998. Trade in 30 speciesis prohibited under Appendix I of the Convention onInternational T rade in Endangered Species (CITES),and trade in another 109 species is stri ctly regulatedunder Appendix II.

Resul ts of a recent biodive rsity assessment showthat existing infrastructure (roads, pow er and energy,ports and harbors , and growth areas) seri ously threat-ens an estim ated total area of a bout 1.6 millionhectares of biodive rsity-rich ecosystems.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Heaney et al, 1998

Biodiversity-rich Ecosystem Threatsfrom Existing Infrastructure

Ecosystem TypeEcosystem TypeEcosystem TypeEcosystem TypeEcosystem Type Total Area (ha)Total Area (ha)Total Area (ha)Total Area (ha)Total Area (ha) High Threat (%)High Threat (%)High Threat (%)High Threat (%)High Threat (%)

Dipterocarp Forest 2,235,604 14

Mossy Forest 230,428 17

Mangrove Forest 143,307 56

Coral Reef 345,762 39

PROTECTED AREAS/BIODIVERSITY

GREEN AGENDA

Species Diversity and Endemismin the Philippines

SpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpecies NumberNumberNumberNumberNumber Endemism (%)Endemism (%)Endemism (%)Endemism (%)Endemism (%)

Mammals 174 64

Birds 395 44

Reptiles 244 68

Amphibians 85 78

Flowering Plants 8000 44

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Philippine Biodiversity, DENR/UNEP, 1997Note: Infrastructure includes (roads, power and energy, ports andharbors, and growth areas)

Habitat Loss Estimates

HabitatHabitatHabitatHabitatHabitat EstimatesEstimatesEstimatesEstimatesEstimates

Forest Cover Reduced from 50% in 1948

to 24% in 1987

Coral Reefs Only 5% in excellent condition

Seagrass beds 30-50% loss in last 50 years

Mangrove areas 80% loss in last 75 years

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Philippine Biodiversity, DENR/UNEP, 1997

26

Protected ar eas system strengthened but weakresults on the ground…Since 1992, the NIPAS lawhas provided a fra m ework for conserv ation activities.Protected ar eas are form ally mandated by Congress,but have yet to receive legislative proclama tion. As thenumber of national parks has incr eased, so have ratesof destr uction and ha bitat conversion, despite areasbeing brought under DENR m anagement. Of the sixty-three national parks in 1992, it was estim ated thatabout half of them we re no longer biologically impor-tant.

The NIPAS system curr ently includes 281 pro -tected areas cove ring 2.7 million hectare s, or 9 percentof the countr y's total land area—similar to the 11percent pr otected in Indonesia and higher thanMalaysia (5 per cent), but low er than Thailand (14percent). Additional areas are being considered forinclusion in the system.

Protected Area Management Boards (PAMBs)are being esta blished with par ticipation of localstak eholders and these boards are responsible fo rdeveloping and implementing ar ea-specific manage-ment plans.

Touri st visits dro p …Unlike many other countri es,local residents far outnumber fo reigners amongvisitors to protected areas, the latter representing onlyabout one per cent of total visitors. The number ofvisitors declined slightly in recent years due to theeff ects of the East Asian financial cri sis. A fee incr easemeant that rev enue gener ated has notdeclined corr espondingly.

GREEN AGENDA

Protected Areas

Income Generated at National Parks, 1994-1998

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Statistics of Philippine Protected Areas and Wildlife Resources,PAWB-DENR, 1998

Visitors to National Parks, 1994-1998

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

thou

sand

s

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Statistics of Philippine Protected Areas and Wildlife Resources,PAWB-DENR, 1998

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

Million

Pe

sos

PROTECTED AREAS/B IODIVERSITY

Watershed ForestReserves 31%31%31%31%31%

WildernessAreas 6 %6 %6 %6 %6 %

Protected byAdministrativeOrder 5% 5% 5% 5% 5%

NP, NMP,and NMRs30%30%30%30%30%

Other(mangroveswamp, touristzone) 25%25%25%25%25%

GameRefugesand BirdSanctuaries3 %3 %3 %3 %3 %

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: PAWB, 1998

27

GREEN AGENDA

ProgramsProgramsProgramsProgramsPrograms 19901990199019901990 20152015201520152015

People-oriented Forestry 290 6,138

Soil Conservation andWatershed Management 0 215

IPAS and BiodiversityConservation 0 1,575

Dipterocarp Forest Management 780 3,809

Pine and MangroveForest Management - 558

Forest Plantation Development 478 2,994

Non-wood based IndustriesDevelopment 59 105

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Master Plan for Forestry Management, DENR, 1990

POLICY RESPONSES

Land Management• The National Land Use Act of the Philippines, pend-

ing in Congress, aims to guide the allocation,utilization, management and development of thecountr y's land and water resources.

• Bills promoting sustainab le farming technology,such as SALT and bio-org anic farming, are alsopending in Congre ss.

• The passage of the Philippine Agr iculture andFisheries Moder nization Act of 1997 (RA 8435) hasled to the identif ication of the Network of ProtectedAreas for Agriculture and the delineation ofStrategic Agri cul ture and Fisher ies DevelopmentZones (SAFDZ) in the country. This aims to put astop to the curr ent loss of prime agri cul tural landsdue to indiscriminate land conversion and toensure that all water shed ar eas and m ajor aquife rsare preserved.

• Presidential Proclam ation 1071 on the BalancedFertilization Strategy places equal emphasis on man-agement of crop residues and rec ycling of farmwastes, with balanced a pplication of organic andinorganic fert ilizers .

• The W ater Impounding/Harv esting T echnique wasadopted as a w ater shed/soil conserva tion structure ,as well as a minor irri gation system to serve poorcommunity farming in the fragile uplands.

• The Land Administr ation Management Progra m(with W o rld Bank support) aims to alle viate pov -erty by impro ving secur ity of land tenure and tosustain economic gro wth by foster ing an eff ectiveland market and land administration system. Keyinterventions include reforms in the national landvaluation policy, changes in the fee structure forinitial and subsequent registration, and estab lish-ment of a sound pr opert y valuation fra m ework.

Forest Management• The gove rnment adopted the Master Plan fo r Forest

Management in 1990 to ensure a systematic andcoor dinated eff ort at forest resour ces dev elopment

and management. It aims to increase forest coverfrom 19 percent in 1990 to 26 percent by 2015.

• Several people-or iented programs and lega l instru-ments (such as Commu ni ty Forestry ManagementAgreements and the For est Land ManagementAgreements) have been dev eloped. The Master Planset the target of extending commu nity forest areasfrom 290,000 hectares in 1990 to 6.2 million hec-tares by 2015, and an incr ease in commu ni ty in-volvement from 97,000 people to 1,235,000 ove rthe same period.

• The gove rnment has also acceler ated the recogni-tion of the rights of indigenous peoples to theirancestral lands by issuing 181 Certificates ofAncestral Domain Claims (CADC) covering 2.5Mhectares, and 147 Cert ificates of Ancestral LandClaims (C ALC) cove ring 10,000 hectares, benefi t-ing about 74,500 families.

Physical T argets of the Fore stry Master Plan('000 hectares)

28

Management of Protected Areas• The gove rnment passed the NIPAS into law in 1992.

Since then, technical guidelines have been devel-oped, and maps and technical descriptions ofprotected areas prepared.

• So far, ninety-one Multisectora l Protected Areasand W ildlife Management Boards (PAMBs) havebeen approved. Protected A rea Plans have also beendeveloped with the active participation of thec o m munities. The pr oper functioning of thesePAMBs, however, is constrained by shor tage of fundsand staff .

• An IPAS T rust Fund has been established.

Source: Source: Source: Source: Source: PAWB-DENR, 1999

Conservation of Priority Protected AreasAs part of its commitment to fully implement the NIPASprogram, the government has partnered with an NGOconsortium (the NGOs for Integrated Protected Areasor NIPA) to protect and develop ten priority areas forbiodiversity conservation. These areas, covering 1.5Mhectares, are among the large and relatively pristine sitesin the country that represent different biogeographiczones and include examples of different habitats.

Funded by a grant from the Global Environmental Facility,CCPAP is the first project entered into directly by theWorld Bank with an NGO. At the local level, host NGOshave been able to provide leadership and have assistedin the establishment of PAMBs. Under their leadership,management plans have been developed. Still in an earlystage, the livelihood program that will help establish along-term positive economic and cultural presence in thearea and an active mechanism for its protection is inplace.

Source: Source: Source: Source: Source: Conservation of Priority Protected Areas Project, WorldBank, 1994.

POLICY RESPONSES

GREEN AGENDA

Community-based ForestManagement (CBFM) in Action

In 1992, several local communities joined together to formthe VIBANARA (acronym for barangays Villa Imelda,Batong Labang, Nanagauan and Rangayan) Multi-purposeCooperative to stop the illegal logging that was rampant intheir area. Deputized by the DENR, the members regularlypatrol the 4,485 hectares of forestlands awarded to themto manage and confiscate illegal logs.

In 1993, illegal loggers assassinated the VIBANARAChairman. Rather than intimidating the members, thisinspired others to join and continue the effort. Aside fromsetting up checkpoints, VIBANARA members conductregular meetings with local residents to inform them aboutthe importance of protecting the forest. This has been sosuccessful that inhabitants now report illegal activities tothe Cooperative.

In Barangay Landingan in Nagtipunan, Quezon, the IlongotLivelihood Association Inc. is also actively protecting itsforests. The members continuously patrol the 1,752hectares awarded to them. They have also set up check-points to inspect for chain saws and illegal logs or lumber.Traditional laws are applied to discourage outsiders fromentering and settling inside the CBFM area. They havedeveloped a nursery for Gmelina seedlings to reforest 50hectares of the forestlands. For their immediate livelihoodneeds, the Association members plant corn. They havebeen given timber-harvesting rights also, which they use tosupply the lumber needs of local furniture makers.

Source: Source: Source: Source: Source: Faces of Community Forestry, CBFM project office-DENR,1998

Protected Areas Management Boards

WithWithWithWithWith WithWithWithWithWithNo.No.No.No.No. PAMBsPAMBsPAMBsPAMBsPAMBs Mgt. PlansMgt. PlansMgt. PlansMgt. PlansMgt. Plans

National Parks, NationalMarine Parks and Reserves 71 51 33

Game Refuges/B irdSanctuaries 8 4 4

Wilderness Areas 16 6 13

Watershed Forest Reserves 87 21 54

Protected by Admn. Order 14

Other (mangrove, tourist zone) 85 9 20

29

BLUE AGENDA

SSSSSource:ource:ource:ource:ource: Study on Water Supply and Sewerage Master Plan of MetroManila, 1996

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Study on Water Supply and Sewerage Master Plan of MetroManila, 1996 & Master Plan & Master Plan Study on Water ResourceManagement, NWRB, 1998

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

W ater Use

SSSSSource:ource:ource:ource:ource: Master Plan Study for Water Resource Management, August 1998

Agriculture85.6%85.6%85.6%85.6%85.6%

Industry 7.3%7.3%7.3%7.3%7.3%

Domestic 7.1%7.1%7.1%7.1%7.1%

The estim ated national wa ter resource potential is226,430 MCM. Of this, 91 percent comes fro m

surface w ater and 9 per cent from groundw ater. De-m and for water is less than one third of the renewablewater ava i lable nationally. Yet in 1995, a national wa-ter cri sis was declared to addr ess the incr easing w aterresour ces m anagement challenge. Problems include thelack of a comprehensive and cross-sectora l strategy fordevelopment and pr otection of w ater resour ces;fragmented w ater management; w eak law enforcementand inadequate wa ter resour ces data on w hich to baserational planning and development. 34

W ater dem and gro wing rapidly… W ater demandnationwide is expected to grow from 43,400 MCM/year in 2000 to 88,400 MCM/year by 2025. In MetroManila, w ater dem and fo r al l users increased by over200 per cent betw een 1981 and 1997, from 2,000 to4,100 million liter s/day (MLD). 35 This is projected togrow by 23 percent to 5,000 MLD by 2001. Based on1996 data, 36 Metro Manila w ater supply in 1996 was2,500 MLD compared to a dem and of 3,400 MLD. In1995, the Metro Cebu W ater District was only able toserve 36 percent of total demand. In Baguio City, about80 percent of service connections are provided withwater on a four-hour thrice a w eek schedule only. Thewater “supply-demand” mismatch is often due to lackof infrastructure .

Agri culture use dominates… Agri culture accountsfor 86 percent of w ater use, w hile industr ial and do-mestic usage are limited to 7 percent each. 37 In the ag-ricul ture sector, irri gation is the biggest water user, ac-counting for 72.6 percent of total water (25,500 MCMin 1996). The fi shery sub-sector accounts for 27 per-cent wh ile livestoc k/poultry accounts for under 0.5 per-cent. Irri gation systems serve about 15M hectares, or48 perc ent of the i rri gable areas that produce a bout 70perc ent of al l rice in the country . Only 1.2 percent ofthis comes from groundw ater.

34Water Resources Development Project, World Bank, 1996.35Master Plan Study on Water Resource Management in thePhilippines, Final Report, August 1998.36WDDP.37Master Plan Study on Water Resource Management in thePhilippines, Final Report, August 1998.

W ater Dem and in Metro Manila(in million liters per day)

Projected per capita water consumption(liters per day)

19811981198119811981 19851985198519851985 19931993199319931993 19971997199719971997 20012001200120012001

Domestic 1,155 1,232 1,658 2003 2,379

Commercial 456 554 952 1,272 1,698

Industrial 414 493 688 806 943

TOTAL 2,025 2,279 3,298 4,081 5,020

Service LevelsDescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription

Level I Point tap systems

Level II Communal faucet systems

Level III Individual house connections

19951995199519951995 20252025202520252025LEVEL III: MWSS* 193 258

Water districts 169 269

Level I & II 30 40

30

Access to w ater supply va ries… One study 38 re-ported that as of 1995, 72 percent of all Filipinos wereserved by a public w ater system, with 68 percent inurban areas and 75 per cent in rural areas. How ever,service leve ls vary greatly. It is estimated that non-rev -enue wa ter ranges from 30 percent for some of theW ater Distr icts to 55 percent for areas served by theMetr opolitan W ater Sewerage System (MWSS). 39

Groundwater extr action r ising… The pr esentproduction of gr oundwater in the Philippines isestim ated at a bout 2,518 MCM/year. As much as 65percent of groundw ater abstraction may be carr ied outwithout the required per mit. Furthermore , with nometer ing system in place and no eff ective monitori ng,those with permits gener ally withdraw 20-60 per centmore than their allow a ble leve ls. Only 6 per cent ofthose monitored are found to be in compliance withtheir permit restrictions. 40 In addition, abstraction fordomestic use is uncontr olled and requires no permitfrom the gove rnment.

Incr easing gr oundwater use and decliningaquife r recharge rates have led to saline intrusion (inMetro Manila and Metro Cebu) and pollution ofgroundwater from domestic sew age, factory wastes andagricultural chemicals.

W ater shed m anagement … W ater sheds compri seabout 70 per cent of the countr y's total land are a —covering 421 ri ver basins, of which 18 are consideredm ajor. The drainage ar eas of these watersheds rangefrom 5,000 to 2.5 million hectares. Many of the majorbasins are now considered in critical condition dueto ove r-exploitation and mism anagement. Theirdegr adation has resulted in acceler ated soil erosion,surface run-off , siltation of dams and reservo irs, poorwater quality, fl ash flooding, prolonged dr ought andother imbalances in the ecosystem. 41 There are 119water sheds cove ring 1.36 M hectares that have beenproclaimed as w atershed reservations. However, mostof these w ater sheds are subject to vari ous forms ofcultivation and settlement and are actually considereddegraded. 42

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Master Plan Study on Water Resources Management in thePhilippines, NWRB, 1998

Increase in Rate of DiseaseIncrease in Rate of DiseaseIncrease in Rate of DiseaseIncrease in Rate of DiseaseIncrease in Rate of Disease from Contamination % from Contamination % from Contamination % from Contamination % from Contamination %

Diarrhea Skin Conditions

Level II Water 25 71

Level I Water 12 54

No Sanitary Toilet 42 28

Risk GroupRisk GroupRisk GroupRisk GroupRisk Group

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Health, Safety and Environmental Consultancy, Inc.,1993, Department of Health

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Present Production of Groundwater

Industrial20%20%20%20%20%

Others 5 %5 %5 %5 %5 %

Irrigation28%28%28%28%28%

Municipal 47%47%47%47%47%

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: Master Plan Study on Water Resources Management, NWRB,August 1998

38 Master Plan Study on Water Resource Management in thePhilippines, Final Report, August 1998.39 Study on Water Supply and Sewerage Master Plan of MetroManila, Final Report, Feb. 1996.40 Water Resources Development Project, October 1996.41 Watershed Management, Jess Javier, FMB.42 Water Resources Development Project, 1996.

Health ImpactsA study on environmental health risk and exposure path-ways showed that diarrhea due to less than Level III watersupply and lack of a toilet accounted for 54 million days ofhealthy life lost. A review of drinking water and sanitation inthe Philippines showed that the risk of diarrheal and skindiseases increased with the use of a public water supply orthat of a neighbor. Similarly, living in a household without atoilet also increased risk of both diseases

BLUE AGENDA

Access to W ater Supply, 1995Service LevelService LevelService LevelService LevelService Level Urban AreaUrban AreaUrban AreaUrban AreaUrban Area Rural AreaRural AreaRural AreaRural AreaRural Area TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal

Level III 39% 5% 22%

Level I & II 29% 70% 49%

Total 68% 75% 72%

31

Conditions of Coral Reefs

Condition%Condition%Condition%Condition%Condition% Coral Area%Coral Area%Coral Area%Coral Area%Coral Area%

Excellent 75-100 4 .3

Good 50-74.9 25

Fair 25-49.9 39

Poor 0-24.9 30.5

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: UP Marine Science Institute, 1996

BLUE AGENDA

43 Licuanan and Gomez, 2000 unpublished report.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: * UP Marine Science Institute, 1996** Philippine Forestry Statistics, 1998

Estimates of Mangrove Loss, over time

YearYearYearYearYear Estimate (sq. km)Estimate (sq. km)Estimate (sq. km)Estimate (sq. km)Estimate (sq. km)

1918 5,000*

1970 2,880*

1980 2,429*

1993 1,234**

The Philippine marine territorial waters cover about2.2 million square kilometer s—including the

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 1.9 million squarekilometers (88 percent) of ocean w aters and 267,000square kilometers (12 percent) of coastal waters . About55 percent of the population resides in some 10,000coastal barangays and larger urban centers . The coralreefs, seagr ass beds and m angroves support 80percent of all commer cial species of fish and shellfi sh.

Coral reefs in poor condition… The Philippineshas one of the largest coral reef areas in the world—covering about 27,000 square kilometers . Nearly onethird of al l fish species live on the reefs, while othersare dependent on them and on seagr ass beds atvari ous stages in thei r l i fe cycles. Almost 55 per cent offish consumed in the country depends on cora l reefs.It is estimated that 10-15 per cent of total mari ne fi sh-eri es production is contr ibuted by coral reefs. Despitetheir impor tance, the latest inventory shows that only4.3 percent of the reefs are in excellent condition. 43

Mangrove forest loss continues… In 1918, thecountr y's mangrove forests were estim ated to be 5,000square kilometers. The Philippines lost most of itsm angroves in the 1970s and 1980s mainly due to landconversion (for fishponds and settlements) and toindiscriminate cutting for firewood and constr uction.In the last 23 years, they have declined by as much as57 percent.

Valua ble seagr ass beds declining… The countryhas the second highest seagrass diversity in the world.The economic usefulness of a seagr ass bed resides pri-m ari ly in the fi sheries it support s. Cora l reefs with theirassociated seagr asses potentially could supply morethan 20 per cent of the fish catch. In the Philippines,seagr ass loss amounted to about 30-50 per cent ove rthe last 50 years . W ith the exception of seven si tes, thetotal seagr ass cove r is currently unknown.

COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES

32

2000

1600

1200

800

400

0

Fisher ies production signif icant… The countryis thirteenth in the top f ish producing countri es,contributing 1.8 million metric tons of fish or 1.9percent of the total world catch in 1996. It is also thesecond biggest producer of seaweed and other aquaticplants, and ninth largest aquaculture producer of fi shand shellfish. 44

In 1998, total fi sheri es production amounted to2.8 million metric tons. At curr ent prices, fi sheries con-tributed 2.8 percent to the country 's gross domesticproduct. Between 1989 and 1998, the P hilippinefisheri es industry registered an ave rage annual growthrate of 1.6 percent in terms of production. During thesame peri od, aquaculture and commerc ial fi sheri esposted an ave rage annual gro wth rate of 4.3 and 4percent, respective ly. Municipal fi sheri es, on the otherhand, declined at an average annual rate of 2.1percent, and ave rage annual f ish catch per fi sherm andeclined dra stical ly from 1990 to 1996.

While v olume of pr oduction from commerc ialfisheries has grown, its rate of incr ease has slow ed con-siderably. Pressure from commerc ial fi sheries has in-creased—with the number of f ishing boats growing at4 percent per ye ar from 1994 to 1998 and their ton-nage growing by 7 percent per year for the same pe-riod.

For the entire country , the total fish avai lable perperson per year has actually declined by 19 percentfrom 36 kg/per son in 1990 to 29 kg/per son in 1996.This decline is largely due to population growth, in-creasing f ishing pr essure , destr uctive fishingpractices and unsustainab le fi sheries and aquaculturedevelopment.

BLUE AGENDACOASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES

1.4

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

Volum

e (in m

illion M

T)Fish Production, by Sector, 1989-98

1989 1992 1995 1998

AquacultureCommercialMunicipal

kilogra

ms/fis

herm

an/ye

ar

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Municipal production data are from BFAR1997. The data onincrease in population of municipal fishers are adapted using data fromBFAR, 1993 and Bernascek, 1994.

1987

1989

1990

1988

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

Estim ated Ave rage Annual Catch Pe rMunicipal Fisherman for 1987-1996

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: 1998 Philippine Fisheries Profile, DA-BFAR

Value of Fisheri es Production, 1998

MunicipalFisheries 34%34%34%34%34%

CommercialFisheries 35%35%35%35%35%

Aquaculture31%31%31%31%31%

Value P87.7 (billion pesos)Value P87.7 (billion pesos)Value P87.7 (billion pesos)Value P87.7 (billion pesos)Value P87.7 (billion pesos)

44 1998 Philippine Fisheries Profile, Bureau of Fisheries and

Aquatic Resources, Department of Agriculture.

33

BLUE AGENDA

W ater Resour ces Management• W ater quality standard s for freshw ater and coastal

and marine w aters were revised in 1992.

• W ater usage and classif ication of coastal and mari newaters and freshw ater bodies we re updated. Fourclasses of coastal/ marine waters and five classesof freshw ater bodies we re identif ied based onbeneficial use.

• To strengthen wa ter resour ces m anagement, Con-gress is deliber ating on the fol lowing: an Act pro -viding for compr ehensive w ater quality manage-ment, and an Act providing for a Compr ehensiveW ater Resource Po licy and W ater Sector Develop-ment, and creating the W ater Resour ces Manage-ment Commission.

• A Presidential T ask Force on W ater Resource Deve l-opment and Management wa s created to ensuresustainab le, safe and aff ordable w ater supply.

• The National W ater Resour ces Board (NWRB) ispushing to revise provisions of the ImplementingRules and Regulations of the W ater Code toaddr ess pricing of raw water and gr oundwateruti l i zation.

Fisheries and Aquaculture Management• W ith the devolution of functions under the 1991

Local Gove rnment Code, LGUs are mandated toshare responsibility with the national governmentfor managing and maintaining ecological balancewithin their territorial jurisdiction.

• A Republic Act enacted in 1997 established theAgriculture and Fisher ies Moder nization Act(AFMA). A new Fisheries Code was established in1998.

• Licenses are required by DA-BFAR for commerc ialfishing and by several LGUs for municipal fishing.How ever, l imi ts on total al lowable fi shing eff ort haveyet to be established.

• Coastal resource m anagement (CRM) is beingenhanced thr ough integra tion, community involve-

ment and decentra l i zation. Several CRM pr ojectsfunded by the government and donors are beingimplemented ar ound the country .

W ater shed Management• A more compr ehensive national w ater shed

management strategy has been adopted, guided bythe following principles: holistic, integratedapproach; m ultiple use management; mu lti-sectoraland inter -disciplinary planning; sustaina ble man-agement and dev elopment; par ticipatory andequitable w ater shed m anagement; eff icientresource use.

• Guidelines for W ater shed Management have beenpublished and disseminated. Training is beingprovided as part of the insti tutional strengtheningprogram for water shed m anagement in thecountry .

• Management plans for selected critical watershedsand a long-term investment program to supportimplementation of these plans are being prepared.

POLICY RESPONSES

Success Story in Coastal ResourcesManagement

The province of Negros Oriental in the Visayas is recog-nized as a pioneer in coastal resource management in thecountry, mostly thanks to Silliman University and its MarineLaboratory. There are more than 20 marine sanctuariesalong its coasts, including the Apo Island Marine Sanctu-ary, regarded as a model of community-based coastalresource management. Strong local government supportand multi-sectoral cooperation were crucial to theprovince's success in sustaining coastal managementprograms initiated by the World Bank-assisted CentralVisayas Regional Project (1984-1992). This project has nowexpanded to become the Community-based ResourceManagement Project (CBRM) and includes a lending facilityfor local government investments in resource management.

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Our Seas, Our Life, The Coastal Resource ManagementProject, DENR/USAID

34

The Philippines is signatory to many internationalconventions for protection of the global environ-

ment and sustainable development.

Montreal Protocol/ ODS PhaseoutProgramIn order to shift to non-ozone depleting substancestechnologies, the institutional and regulatory frame-w orks were set in place with Republic Act. No. 6969and incentives we re provided by the Board of Invest-ment. The Multilateral Fund provided technical assist-ance to some industry sectors using ODS. Total ODSconsumption in 1992 was 4,295 metric tons. Based ondata ava ilable, imports decr eased by 50 perc ent fro m4,300 metric tons in 1992 to 2,200 metric tons in 1998.The Philippine Country Program on the Phaseout ofODS was drafted in 1993, approved by the MontrealProtocol and is now being updated.

Climate Change(Greenhouse Gas Reduction)A national greenhouse ga s inventory conducted in1990 was updated and incorporated in the PhilippinesInitial National Communication on Climate Change.Based on 1994 data, the country released a total of100,738 ktons of CO

2 into the atmosphere . The

energy sector accounts for 49 percent of national CO2,

agri cul ture 33 percent, industry 10.5 percent, andwastes 7 percent. Using only those sub-sectors that hadsignificant contributions, calculated GHG emissionsby 2008 are projected to incr ease to 195,091 ktonsequiv alent CO

2, a 94 percent incr ease from the 1994

levels.In response to the Ky oto Protocol, the Philippines

is prepar ing a National Action Plan on Clim ate Changeto integrate clim ate change into gove rnment dev elop-ment plans and programs, design mitig ating measure s,develop adap tation responses and catalyze consensusfor implementation of the action plan.

Biodiversity ConservationIn response to its commitment to the Conv ention onBiodive rsity, a Philippine Strategy for Biodive rsity Con-servation was dev eloped by the Subcommittee onBiodiversity of the Philippine Council for SustainableDevelopment.

Basel ConventionRepublic Act No. 6969, the T oxic Substances andHazar dous and Nuclear W astes Contro l Act, was passedby Congr ess in 1990. It bans impor tation, storage ortransport of toxic or nuclear waste into or through thePhilippines. Violators can be subject to f ines andconf iscation of the banned substances. A core inven-tory of 38,000 chemical substances, known as thePhilippine Inventory of Chemicals and ChemicalSubstances (PICCS) has been pr epared and waspublished in August 1999.

GLOBAL ISSUES AND POLICY RESPONSES

Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: Philippine Environmental Quality Report, EMB-DENR, 1995

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource: ODS Desk, DENR * New=new household appliances built to run on non-ODS;** Service=existing household appliances

The Philippine Ozone Project

The Philippine ODS Phaseout Investment Project (OzoneProject) refers to the reduction, phaseout, and recycling ofODS consumption in the country, using grant funds fromthe Multilateral Fund through the World Bank. Grant fundswere provided to eligible subprojects—solvent cleaning,refrigeration, foam blowing and tobacco expansion—thatwere heavy users of ODS. DENR-EMB was the lead imple-menting agency with Land Bank of the Philippines serving asthe co-Implementing Agency and Financial Intermediary.Twelve eligible subprojects received a total grant ofUS$9.02M. Achieving almost 100 percent of its target, thisproject was recognized and awarded by UNEP as the mostoutstanding country program for the implementation of theMontreal Protocol in 1996. It also received the Award forLeadership in the Phaseout of ODS in the Solvents Sectorfrom USEPA.

International ConventionsSignedSignedSignedSignedSigned RatifiedRatifiedRatifiedRatifiedRatified

Montreal Protocol 1988 Mar 1991

Convention onClimate Change June 1992 Aug 1994

Convention onBiological Diversity June 1992 July 1991

Basel Convention Mar 1989 Oct 1993

ODS Phaseout ScheduleSubstancesSubstancesSubstancesSubstancesSubstances Year of PhaseoutYear of PhaseoutYear of PhaseoutYear of PhaseoutYear of Phaseout

CFC 11 (new)* 1998

CFC 11 (service ) ** 2010

CFC 12 (new)* 1998

CFC 12 (service)** 2010

CFC 113 1998

CFC 114 1998

CFC 115 1998

Halon 1211 1998

Halon 1301 1998

CTC 1996

35

DONOR ASSISTANCE

W orld Bank Assisted Initiatives with Signif icant Env ironmental Objectives

Environmental ObjectiveEnvironmental ObjectiveEnvironmental ObjectiveEnvironmental ObjectiveEnvironmental Objective

Forest policy, sustainable forest management, upland protec-tion, sustainable resource management, watershed manage-ment, reduction of illegal logging

Biodiversity conservation in 10 priority protected areas.Community participation in protected area management

Sustainable water resource management, watershed protection

Community-based sustainable agriculture, natural resourcemanagement, conservation

Financing of sewerage schemes in 6 metropolitan LGUs

Sustainable water and sanitation services. Investments inmunicipal run water and sanitation systems

Reduction, phase out, recycling of ODS in the country

Reduction of pollution load in Metro Manila through safedisposal of septage from septic tanks

ProjectProjectProjectProjectProject

Environment and Natural Resource Sector AdjustmentLoan

Conservation of Priority Protected Areas

Water Resources Development Project

Community-Based Resource Management Project

Water Districts Development Project

LGU Urban Water and Sanitation Project

Philippine ODS Phase-out Investment Project (OzoneProject)

Manila Second Sewerage Project

The Depar tment of Env ironment and Natural Resour ces (DENR) is the main recipient of off icial developmentassistance for env ironmental initiatives in the Philippines. The main donors are the ADB, CIDA, DANIDA,

Germ an Technical Cooper ation (GTZ and KFW), Gove rnment of Ja pan through JICA and OECF (now known asJapan Bank fo r International Cooper ation), US Agency for International Dev elopment, United Nations system,and the W o rld Bank. Bi lateral assistance for environmental initiatives comes in the form of grants for a vari etyof activities, while ADB, JBIC and the W o rld Bank extend loans to f inance investments in env ironmentalimprov ement and ca pacity building.

The cumulative donor assistance to DENR in1998 stood at US$570 million—of which US$330million were in loans and US$240 million in gr ants.Though the fo restry sector has histori cally receivedm uch of the assistance. In recent times, donors haveincreased eff ort s to reduce urban env ironmentalproblems, prima rily sanitation and pollution clean-up.Simply examining the pr ojects implemented by DENRprobably under -estim ates the total amount beingallocated for environmental purposes. Many agenciesreceive support for env ironmental planning orcapacity building within a larger sectoral oper ation.

The W orld Bank has been pro viding assistancefor environmental pr otection and natura l resourcesmanagement since 1989. This includes lending opera-tions, free-standing technical assistance, and policy andanalytical advice. Substantial work has been carried outunder the rural development lending program, w hichfocuses prima ri ly on issues related to natura l forest deg-radation, upland agri cul tural areas, biodive rsity con-servation and coastal zone m anagement. W aterand air pollution issues have been addr essedthrough the urban w ater supply and sanitation

projects and the Metropolitan Environmental Improve -ment Program.

The W orld Bank Country Assistance Strategy forthe Philippines 1999-2002 recognizes the env ironmentas a central theme, and wi l l promote sustaina ble urbanand rural development.

The Bank's env ironmental strategy for thePhilippines focuses on:

• Esta blishing a more eff ective system of environmen-tal governance that r esults in tangible outcomes.Particular attention will be give n to strengtheningthe ca pacity of LGUs, impro ving the monitor ing andenforcement mechanism by ma instreaming the useof economic instruments and public disclosure tools(ECOW ATCH), and scaling-up successful commu -nity-based pilot initiatives;

• Support ing eff ort s to ful ly integrate env ironmentalobjectives into priority economic sectors;

• Planning and implementing multiple objectivewatershed management strategies;

• Assisting the Philippines to implement initiativesthat have global environmental benefi ts.

36

Office of the President

NEDAPCSDPCSDPCSDPCSDPCSD

DPWHNWRBNWRBNWRBNWRBNWRBMWSSMWSSMWSSMWSSMWSSLWUALWUALWUALWUALWUA

DTIBOIBOIBOIBOIBOIBPSBPSBPSBPSBPSBISBISBISBISBIS

DENREMBEMBEMBEMBEMB

PAWBPAWBPAWBPAWBPAWBFMBFMBFMBFMBFMB

MGSBMGSBMGSBMGSBMGSB

LMBLMBLMBLMBLMBERDBERDBERDBERDBERDB

NAMRIANAMRIANAMRIANAMRIANAMRIALLDALLDALLDALLDALLDA

DABSWNBSWNBSWNBSWNBSWN

BASBASBASBASBASFPAFPAFPAFPAFPA

BFARBFARBFARBFARBFARNIANIANIANIANIA

DOENPCNPCNPCNPCNPC

PNOCPNOCPNOCPNOCPNOCNEANEANEANEANEAEIABEIABEIABEIABEIAB

DOTCLTOLTOLTOLTOLTO

LTFRBLTFRBLTFRBLTFRBLTFRBPPAPPAPPAPPAPPA

MARINAMARINAMARINAMARINAMARINA

DOHEHSEHSEHSEHSEHS

BFADBFADBFADBFADBFAD

ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

DOSTITDIITDIITDIITDIITDI

PCIERDPCIERDPCIERDPCIERDPCIERDPCARRDPCARRDPCARRDPCARRDPCARRD

DILGBLGSBLGSBLGSBLGSBLGSBLGDBLGDBLGDBLGDBLGD

DOFBOCBOCBOCBOCBOCBLGFBLGFBLGFBLGFBLGF

DOTPTAPTAPTAPTAPTA

DNDPCGPCGPCGPCGPCG

DECS

Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesDepartment of Environment and Natural ResourcesDepartment of Environment and Natural ResourcesDepartment of Environment and Natural ResourcesDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources(DENR) is the prima ry gove rnment agency responsi-ble for the conserv ation, m anagement, dev elopmentand pr oper use of the countr y's environment andnatura l resources.

In addition, numerous other depar tments areresponsible for environmental functions:

Department of AgricultureDepartment of AgricultureDepartment of AgricultureDepartment of AgricultureDepartment of Agriculture (DA) is the principalgovernment agency in charge of promoting sustainableagri culture to meet the food needs of the country .

Department of Transportation and CommunicationDepartment of Transportation and CommunicationDepartment of Transportation and CommunicationDepartment of Transportation and CommunicationDepartment of Transportation and Communication(DOTC) is responsible for the planning, dev elopmentand regulation of the transpor tation and comm unica-tion systems in the country . It regulates the re gistra-tion of al l vehicles in the country and pr omotes masstransit systems. The I & M program for vehicles iswithin its jurisdiction.

Department of Public Works and HighwaysDepartment of Public Works and HighwaysDepartment of Public Works and HighwaysDepartment of Public Works and HighwaysDepartment of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)is responsible for the planning, design, constr uctionand maintenance of infra structure facilities, especiallynational highways, flood control and water resourcedevelopment systems and other public works.

DeparDeparDeparDeparDepar tment of Enertment of Enertment of Enertment of Enertment of Ener gygygygygy (DOE) is responsible for imple-menting the energy development plan for the country ,regulates all petr oleum companies and is now promot-ing the shift to cleaner fuels.

DeparDeparDeparDeparDepar tment of tment of tment of tment of tment of TTTTTrade and Industrrade and Industrrade and Industrrade and Industrrade and Industr y y y y y (DTI) is in chargeof promoting industr ial development of the country ,provides incentives to encour age industries to adoptcleaner technologies and sets standards of productsm anufactured, impor ted and sold in the country .

Department of HealthDepartment of HealthDepartment of HealthDepartment of HealthDepartment of Health (DOH) has the overall mandatefor the health sector in the country , including environ-mental health.

KeyKeyKeyKeyKey: BAS BAS BAS BAS BAS - Bureau of Agricultural Statistics; BFAD BFAD BFAD BFAD BFAD - Bureau of Food and Drugs; BFARBFARBFARBFARBFAR - Bureau Fisheries and Aquatic Resources; BIS BIS BIS BIS BIS - Bureau of Import

Services; BLGD BLGD BLGD BLGD BLGD - Bureau of Local Government Development; BLGF BLGF BLGF BLGF BLGF -Bureau of Local Government Finance; BLGS BLGS BLGS BLGS BLGS - Bureau of Local GovernmentSupervision; BOC BOC BOC BOC BOC - Bureau of Customs; BOI BOI BOI BOI BOI - Board of Investments; BPS BPS BPS BPS BPS - Bureau of Product Standards; BSWM BSWM BSWM BSWM BSWM - Bureau of Soils and Water Management;

D AD AD AD AD A- Department of Agriculture; DECS DECS DECS DECS DECS - Department of Education, Culture and Sports; DENR DENR DENR DENR DENR - Department of Environment and Natural Resources;

DILG DILG DILG DILG DILG - Department Interior and Local Government; DND DND DND DND DND - Department of National Defense; DOE DOE DOE DOE DOE - Department of Energy; DOF DOF DOF DOF DOF - Department of Finance;

DOH DOH DOH DOH DOH - Department of Health; DOST DOST DOST DOST DOST - Department of Science and Technology; DOTDOTDOTDOTDOT- Department of Tourism; DOTC DOTC DOTC DOTC DOTC - Department of Transport andCommunication; DPWH DPWH DPWH DPWH DPWH - Department of Public Works and Highways; DTIDTIDTIDTIDTI- Department of Trade and Industry; EHS EHS EHS EHS EHS - Environmental Health Services;

EIAB EIAB EIAB EIAB EIAB - Energy Industry Administration Bureau; EMB EMB EMB EMB EMB - Environment Management Bureau; ERDB ERDB ERDB ERDB ERDB - Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau; FMB FMB FMB FMB FMB -Forestry Management Bureau; FPAFPAFPAFPAFPA - Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority; ITDI ITDI ITDI ITDI ITDI - Industrial Technology and Development Institute; LLDALLDALLDALLDALLDA- Laguna Lake

Development Authority; LMB LMB LMB LMB LMB - Land Management Bureau; LTFRBLTFRBLTFRBLTFRBLTFRB- Land Transportation and Franchising Regulatory Board; LTO LTO LTO LTO LTO - Land TransportationOffice; LWUALWUALWUALWUALWUA - Local Water Utilities Authority; MARINAMARINAMARINAMARINAMARINA - Maritime Industry Authority; MGSB MGSB MGSB MGSB MGSB - Mines and Geosciences Bureau; MWSS MWSS MWSS MWSS MWSS - Manila Water

Sewerage System; NAMRIA NAMRIA NAMRIA NAMRIA NAMRIA - National Mapping Resources Information Authority; NEA NEA NEA NEA NEA - National Electrification Authority; NEDA NEDA NEDA NEDA NEDA - National EconomicDevelopment Authority; NIANIANIANIANIA - National Irrigation Authority; NPC NPC NPC NPC NPC - National Power Corporation; NWRB NWRB NWRB NWRB NWRB - National Water Resources Board; PAWB PAWB PAWB PAWB PAWB -

Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau; PCARRD PCARRD PCARRD PCARRD PCARRD - Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development;

PCG PCG PCG PCG PCG - Philippine Coast Guard; PCIERD PCIERD PCIERD PCIERD PCIERD - Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Development; PCSD PCSD PCSD PCSD PCSD - Philippine Council for Sustainable

Development; PNOC PNOC PNOC PNOC PNOC - Philippine National Oil Companies; PPA PPA PPA PPA PPA - Philippine Port Authority; PTA PTA PTA PTA PTA - Philippine Tourism Authority.

37

KEY ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

• Creation of the Laguna Lake Dev elopmentAuthority Republic Act 4850 (1969)

• Forestry Code Pr esidential Decree 705 (1975)

• Fisher ies Code Pr esidential Decree 704 (1975)Revised and consolidated all laws and decreesaff ecting fishing and fi sheries in the country

• W ater Code Pr esidential Decree 1067 (1976)

• Marine Pollution Presidential Decree 600 (1976 -as amended by PD 1698 (1980)

• Pollution Control Law Pr esidential Decree 984(1976) - Provides guidelines for the prevention,abatement and contro l of pol lution of water, air andland

• Coral Reefs Conserva tion - Presidential Decree 1219(1977)

• Vehicular Emissions Control Law Pr esidentialDecree 1181 (1977) - Prevention, control andabatement of air pollution from motor v ehicles.

• Philippine Env ironmental P olicy PresidentialDecree 1151 (1977) - First mention of concept ofenvironmental impact system

• Philippine Environmental Code Pr esidential Decree1152 (1977) - Provides guidelines on land use, airquality, water quality, waste m anagement, andnatura l resour ces m anagement

• Impr oper W aste Disposal

• Presidential Decree 825 (1977)

• Sanitation Code - Presidential Decree 856 (1977)

• Philippine Environmental Impact Statement SystemPresidential Decree 1586 (1978) - Mandates EIS forgovernment and pri vate sector projects aff ecting thequality of the environment

• Environmentally cri tical projects and env ironmen-tal ly cri tical areas Presidential Proclamation 2146(1979)

• Philippine Constitution (1986) - This contains theState's obligation to protect and adv ance the ri ghtof the people to a balanced and healthful ecology.(Article 2, section 15 and 16)

• Toxic Substances, Hazar dous and Nuclear W asteLaw Republic Act 6969 (1992)

• National Integr ated Protected A reas System (NIPAS)Republic Act 7586 (1992)

• Creation of the Department of Env ironment andNatural Resour ces Executive Or der 192 (1987)

• Comprehensive Agra rian Reform Law Republic Act6657 (1987) - Exempts lands dev oted to reforesta-tion, wildlife, etc. from land conve rsion.

• People's Sm all Scale Mining Program Republic Act7076 (1991)

• Local Gove rnment Code Republic Act 7160 -certain sections (1991) - Strengthens the r ole ofLGUs in the country

• Mineral Exploration, Dev elopment and Conserva -tion Republic Act 7942 (1995)

• Indigenous People's Rights Act

• Republic Act 8371 (1997)

• Agri cul ture and Fisher ies Moder nization RepublicAct 8435 (1997)

• Fisheries Code Republic Act 8550 (1998)

• Comprehensive Air Pollution Contro l Pol icy (oth-erwise known as the Clean A ir Act) Republic Act8749 (1999)

LegLegLegLegLegal al al al al TTTTTererererer msmsmsmsms

Executive Order:Executive Order:Executive Order:Executive Order:Executive Order: Presidential Acts providing for rulesof a general or permanent character in the implemen-tation or execution of constitutional or statutorypowers

Republic Act:Republic Act:Republic Act:Republic Act:Republic Act: Initiated as bills by either or both ofthe legislative chambers of Congress (house orsenate) and approved by both Chambers and by theExecutive

Presidential Decrees:Presidential Decrees:Presidential Decrees:Presidential Decrees:Presidential Decrees: Mode of legislation duringMartial Law Regime of President Ferdinand E. Marcos(1972 - 1986)

Administrative Orders:Administrative Orders:Administrative Orders:Administrative Orders:Administrative Orders: Acts of the President, whichrelate to particular aspects of governmental operationsin pursuance of duties as administrative head ofgovernment

Proclamations:Proclamations:Proclamations:Proclamations:Proclamations: Acts of the President fixing a date ordeclaring a status or condition of public moment orinterest, upon the existence of which the operation ofa specific law or regulation is made to depend.

38

ENVIRONMENTAL GLOSSARY

Most Proba ble Number (MPN): An estim ate of micro -bial density per unit volume of water sample, based onprobab i l i ty theory.

Organic Pollution: Carbonaceous waste contained inplant or animal m atter and ori ginating from domestic orindustri al sources.

Ozone Depletion: Destruction of the stratospheric ozonelayer that shields the eart h from ultr aviolet radiationharmful to l i fe. Chloro fl uorocarbons br eak down whenthey reach the str atosphere and then destroy ozonemolecules.

P M10

: Particulates smaller than 10 microns. Smallpart iculates are of special concern because of their abilityto penetrate deep into the lungs and cause major healthimpacts.

Protected Ar eas: An area of land and/or sea especiallydedicated to the protection and m aintenance of biologi-cal dive rsity, and m anaged through legal or othereff ective means.

Red T ide: Proliferation of a marine plankton toxicand often f atal to fi sh, perhaps stim ulated by theaddition of nutri ents. A tide can be red, green, or brown,depending on the coloration of the plankton.

Run-Off : That part of precipitation, sno wmelt, orirri gation wa ter that runs off the land into streams or othersurface w ater. It can carry pollutants from the air andland into receiving w aters .

Salinization /Saline Intrusion: The invasion of fresh sur-face or groundw ater by sal t water.

Soi l Erosion: The wear ing away of land surf ace byw ater, intensified by land-clear ing practices related tofarming, residential or industr ial development, roadbuilding, or logging.

Total Colifo rm Bacteria (TCB): A collection of relative lyharmless microorg anisms that live in large numbers inthe intestines of humans and warm- and cold-bloodedanimals. A specific subgr oup of this collection is the fecalcoliform bacteri a, whose pr esence in aquatic env iron-ments indicates that the water has been contaminatedwith the fecal material of humans or other animals.

Total Suspended Par ticles (TSP): A method ofmonitor ing airborne par ticulate matter by total weight.

W ater Quality Standard s: Standards that prescribe theuse of the water body and establish the water quality cri-teria that must be met to protect designated uses.

W ater shed: The land area that drains into a stream; thewatershed for a major river may encompass a numberof smaller watersheds that ultimately combine at acommon point.Source: This glossary is based on the United States Environmental Pro-tection Agency's "Terms of the Environment", Revised December 1997.

Air Quality Standard s: The level of pollutants prescr ibedby regulations that are not to be exceeded duri ng a gi ventime in a defined area.

Aquife r: An underg round geological fo rm ation, or groupof form ations, that i s a source of groundw ater.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount ofoxygen consumed in the biological pr ocesses that breakdown organic m atter in water. The greater the BOD, thegreater the degree of organic pollution.

Biodiversity: The variety and variability among livingorganisms and the ecological complexes in w hich theyoccur.

Chloro fluor ocarbons (CFCs): A family of chemicalsused in refriger ation, air conditioning, pac kaging, insu-lation, or as solvents and aer osol propellants.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO): The o xygen freely ava i lable inw ater, vi tal to fish and other aquatic life and for theprevention of odors. DO leve ls are considered a mostimpor tant indicator of a water body’s ability to supportdesirable aquatic life.

Endangered Species: Animals, birds, fi sh, plants, orother living organisms threatened with extinction byanthr opogenic (human or igin) causes or other natura lchanges in their environment.

Greenhouse Gas: A gas, such as carbon dio xide ormethane, which contributes to potential climate change.

Heavy Metals: Metallic elements with high atomicweights (such as mercury , arsenic and lead) that can dam-age living things at low concentrations and tend to accu-mulate in the food chain.

ISO 14000/14001: Refers to a standardizationmethodology ada pted by the Inter national StandardOrganization (ISO) to descr ibe the env ironmentalresponsiv eness of enterpri ses. An ISO 14000/14001a ward is an indication of a fi rm's env ironmentalresponsibility.

Brown Agenda: This is a term commonly used todescribe the pollution caused by industrial, urban,transport and energy sour ces and their single orcol lecti ve impacts and protection measure s.

Green Agenda: This is a term commonly used todescr ibe env ironmental impacts caused byagri cul ture, defo restation, land conve rsion anddestr uction of protected species and r elatedprotection measure s.

Blue Agenda: This term is commonly used to re -fer to all forms of wa ter resour ces m anagement.

39

PHILIPPINES AT A GLANCE

Population, mid-yearPopulation, mid-yearPopulation, mid-yearPopulation, mid-yearPopulation, mid-year: 75.1 million

Population growth ratePopulation growth ratePopulation growth ratePopulation growth ratePopulation growth rate: 2.04% (1999 est.)

Birth rateBirth rateBirth rateBirth rateBirth rate: 28 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)

Death rateDeath rateDeath rateDeath rateDeath rate: 6.5 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)

Net migration rateNet migration rateNet migration rateNet migration rateNet migration rate: -1.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population

(1999 est.)

Sex ratioSex ratioSex ratioSex ratioSex ratio: total population : 0.99 male(s)/female (1999 est.)

Total ferti l i ty rateTotal ferti l i ty rateTotal ferti l i ty rateTotal ferti l i ty rateTotal ferti l i ty rate: 3.6 children born/woman

Poverty (% below national poverty line)Poverty (% below national poverty line)Poverty (% below national poverty line)Poverty (% below national poverty line)Poverty (% below national poverty line): 38

Urban population (% of total populationUrban population (% of total populationUrban population (% of total populationUrban population (% of total populationUrban population (% of total population) : 57

Infant mortality rate:Infant mortality rate:Infant mortality rate:Infant mortality rate:Infant mortality rate: 35 deaths/1,000 live births

Life expectancy at birthLife expectancy at birthLife expectancy at birthLife expectancy at birthLife expectancy at birth: 68 years

Child malnutrition (% of children below 5)Child malnutrition (% of children below 5)Child malnutrition (% of children below 5)Child malnutrition (% of children below 5)Child malnutrition (% of children below 5): 30

Access to safe water (% of population)Access to safe water (% of population)Access to safe water (% of population)Access to safe water (% of population)Access to safe water (% of population): 83

Illiteracy (% of population age 15+)Illiteracy (% of population age 15+)Illiteracy (% of population age 15+)Illiteracy (% of population age 15+)Illiteracy (% of population age 15+): 5

GDPGDPGDPGDPGDP—real growth ratereal growth ratereal growth ratereal growth ratereal growth rate: 3.2% (1999)

GDPGDPGDPGDPGDP—composition by sectorcomposition by sectorcomposition by sectorcomposition by sectorcomposition by sector:

agriculture: 17%

Industry: 32%

services: 51%

GNP per capitaGNP per capitaGNP per capitaGNP per capitaGNP per capita : $1,050

G N PG N PG N PG N PG N P: $80.3 billion (1999)

(In percent, 1999)(In percent, 1999)(In percent, 1999)(In percent, 1999)(In percent, 1999)Gross domestic investment/GDPGross domestic investment/GDPGross domestic investment/GDPGross domestic investment/GDPGross domestic investment/GDP : 18.8

Exports of goods and services/GDPExports of goods and services/GDPExports of goods and services/GDPExports of goods and services/GDPExports of goods and services/GDP: 51.3

Gross domestic savings/GDPGross domestic savings/GDPGross domestic savings/GDPGross domestic savings/GDPGross domestic savings/GDP : 14.6

Gross national savings/GDPGross national savings/GDPGross national savings/GDPGross national savings/GDPGross national savings/GDP : 20.7

Inflation rate (consumer prices)Inflation rate (consumer prices)Inflation rate (consumer prices)Inflation rate (consumer prices)Inflation rate (consumer prices): 6.6 (1999)

Labor forceLabor forceLabor forceLabor forceLabor force: 32.0 million (1999)

Employment—By sector (In % to total employment,Employment—By sector (In % to total employment,Employment—By sector (In % to total employment,Employment—By sector (In % to total employment,Employment—By sector (In % to total employment,

1999)1999)1999)1999)1999): agriculture 40.1%, government and social

services 19.5%, services 44.2%, manufacturing 9.5%,

construction 5.3%.

Unemployment rateUnemployment rateUnemployment rateUnemployment rateUnemployment rate: 9.7% (1999)

Budget:Budget:Budget:Budget:Budget: revenues : $12.2 bi l l ion ; expenditures : $15.1 billion

(1999)

IndustriesIndustriesIndustriesIndustriesIndustries: textiles, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, wood

products, food processing, electronics assembly, petroleum

refining, fishing

Industrial production growth rateIndustrial production growth rateIndustrial production growth rateIndustrial production growth rateIndustrial production growth rate: 0.5% (1999)

Agriculture—productsAgriculture—productsAgriculture—productsAgriculture—productsAgriculture—products: rice, coconuts, corn, sugarcane,

bananas, pineapples, mangoes; pork, eggs, beef; fish

Exports of goods and services:Exports of goods and services:Exports of goods and services:Exports of goods and services:Exports of goods and services: $39.2 billion (1999)

Imports of goods and services:Imports of goods and services:Imports of goods and services:Imports of goods and services:Imports of goods and services: $38.9 billion (1999)

(Currency conversion 1999 average: US$1 = P39.089)

Debt—externalDebt—externalDebt—externalDebt—externalDebt—external: $51.2 billion (as of September 1999)

CurrencyCurrencyCurrencyCurrencyCurrency: 1 Philippine peso (P) = 100 centavos

Location:Location:Location:Location:Location: Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the

Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, east of Vietnam

AreaAreaAreaAreaArea: total: 300,000 sq km; land : 298,170 sq km

water : 1,830 sq km

Land boundaries:Land boundaries:Land boundaries:Land boundaries:Land boundaries: 0 km ; Coastline: 36,289 km

ClimateClimateClimateClimateClimate: tropical marine; northeast monsoon (November to

April); southwest monsoon (May to October)

Elevation extremes:Elevation extremes:Elevation extremes:Elevation extremes:Elevation extremes: lowest point : Philippine Sea 0 m

highest point : Mount Apo 2,954 m

Natural resources:Natural resources:Natural resources:Natural resources:Natural resources: timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver,

gold, salt, copper

Land use:Land use:Land use:Land use:Land use: arable land : 19% ; permanent crops: 12%

permanent pastures : 4%; forests & woodland : 46%

other : 19% (1993 est.)

Natural hazardsNatural hazardsNatural hazardsNatural hazardsNatural hazards: astride typhoon belt, usually affected by

fifteen and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year;

landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis

EnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironment —current issues: uncontrolled deforestation in

watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in Manila;

increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps which are

important fish breeding grounds

SourcesSourcesSourcesSourcesSources: World Development Indicators 2000, SPECI-BSP (Selected Philippine Economic Indicators -Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas), NSC (National Statistics Office), NSCB (National Statistics Coordinating Board)

SOCIETYECONOMY

GEOGRAPHY

40

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