the western area algonkians k.c.a. dawson lakehead
TRANSCRIPT
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THE WESTERN AREA ALGONKIANS
K.C.A. Dawson
Lakehead University
Resume. La decouverte, sur un vaste territoire, de depots de ceramique
Blackduck, d'abord definie au Minnesota, coincide avec la presence de
populations de langue algonquine de l'Ouest connues a l'epoque historique,
et peut etre identifiee a une culture algonquine qui semble s'etre developpee
a partir d'une ancienne base commune etablie entre le lac Winnipeg et la
vallee du haut Saint-Laurent.
Originally published as part of: 6th Algonquian Conference Papers (1974)
31
The Western Area Algonkians are one of a number of regional populations
who occupied the Northern Algonkian Sub-Arctic region during the Terminal
Woodland period (ca. 500 A.D. to the Historic period). They lived between
Lake Superior, west of Lake Nipigon and the height of the land and west to
about the headwaters of the Mississippi River and north to Lake Winnipeg.
The impossible task of assigning tribal names to the innumerable groups
and bands of Algonkian-speakers who are mentioned in the historic records
as residing around the Upper Great Lakes has been circumvented by describing
the late prehistoric developments indicated by archaeological recoveries in
Ontario, under the language designation, Algonkian (Wright 1965:189). Three
distinct areas of development in Ontario were initially recognized by Wright
(1972); Eastern, Northern and Western. They embrace a similar lithic
tradition but a divergence of ceramic traditions.
The Eastern Area is characterized by Huron-Petun ceramics produced by
the Algonkian-speaking Nipissings and other Algonkian groups from the Lake
Nipissing-Georgian Bay area (Wright 1968a). Ontario sites at the eastern
end of Lake Superior with Peninsular Woodland, Stamped, Push-pull and
Twisted Cord traditions out of Northern Michigan and Wisconsin have been
placed under this grouping by Wright. The Peninsular Woodland Tradition
is identified as a product of the Algonkian-speaking Fox and Sauk (Wittry
1963; Quimby 1966). The Stamped and Push-pull traditions occur in those
areas of Michigan populated in the Terminal Woodland period by many
Algonkian-speakers such as the Pottawatomi, Ottawa, Mascouten, Menomini,
Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Chippewa and Miami (Fitting 1965:149-150). The
Twisted-cord tradition occurs in the northern part of the same area at
the Straits of Mackinac (MacPherron 1967). I have classed these mixed
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32
ce ramie sites separately under Southern Area Algonkian. The Northern Area
is characterized by Selkirk ceramics which MacNeish, Wright and others
consider to be a product of the Algonkian-speaking Cree (MacNeish 1958:67;
Wright 1968b). The Western Area is characterized by Blackduck ceramics
which are considered to be the product of Ojibwa and associated groups.
This pottery is characterized by globular, cord, fabric or net exterior
surface vessels with splayed lips and cord-wrapped object impressed
decorations with deep super-imposed encircling punctate and vertical
brushing.
Some archaeologists have assigned the makers of this pottery in Minnesota,
Manitoba and Ontario to the Stone Sioux or Assiniboine (Wilford 1955;
MacNeish 1958; Hlady 1964). As this approach has become an integral part
of archaeological interpretations in these regions, the fragile basis for
this assignment must be dispensed with before proceeding.
Wilford, who first defined the Blackduck Tradition in Minnesota, simply
believed that the makers were late in time and therefore it should be
possible to identify the group historically (1945:328-329). Since the
tradition of the Sioux have it that there was a late movement of Yanktonai
Dakota from the headwaters of the Mississippi River to the Lake of the
Woods and that this, in part, coincided with Blackduck ceramic recoveries,
he suggested that those people must be the carriers. In support of this
view, he pointed to some similarities of pottery with the Dakota, Mille
Lac aspect. Evans has shown that the traits shared with the non-Siouian,
Laurel ceramic tradition far exceed those held in common with the suggested
Dakota grouping (1961:147). Not only is the assignment unsupported by trait
affinities, it does not account for the time depth or the wide distribution
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of the pottery.
MacNeish also proposed Siouian origins for the carriers of the Blackduck
Tradition in Manitoba (1954:49; 1958:64). Both he and Wilford attempt to
support the position on the basis of Alexander Henry the elder's description
in 1776 of burial practices which are not unlike burials associated with
Blackduck pottery. The historical references cited do not specifically
refer to Assiniboine practices. In fact, Henry says in reference to the
passage, "Though inserted here they have no exclusive relation to the
Osinipoilles" (Bain 1901:306). Further, it is significant that the only
Indian word used in the description is the Algonquin word "totem" (Evans
1961:149).
MacNeish also attempts to support the claim on the basis of surface
recoveries of Blackduck ceramics from a location on the banks of the
Assiniboine River near a fort built by La Verendrye for the Assiniboine
(1954:49) and the presence of an assumed European copper hair pipe at the
Stott Mound. Such vague and tenuous observations simply do not support
the conclusions.
MacNeish after predicating the position on historic references then in
an obtruse approach, based on the stratigraphic provenience of recoveries
in southeastern Manitoba and Lowie's conclusions, based on linguistic
evidence that the separation of the Sioux could not have been recent,
considers the manifestation to be prehistoric Assiniboine, circa 1000 A.D.
to 1350 A.D. (1958:55-59). While subsequent recoveries support the early
presence of Blackduck manifestations in Manitoba and northwestern Ontario,
they also indicate the continuing presence of the occupation until historic
times (Mayer-Oakes 1970; Dawson 1974) contrary to MacNeish's view which
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time
site at Whi
sm « . c , ^ 0 £ * — «*• — — " a l a t " C r M
occupation. 1aari„ indicate a substantial
Radiocarbon dates from Blackduck sxtes clearly •- „H1 historic times. From the Martin-Bird
depth and a continuxty until historic itefish Lake, west of Thunder Bay, for example, radiocarbon dates
rg;;rom480A.,tol775A.,(1470±115,480A.D.S772: 660,70,1290
AD S775: 175±40, 1775 A.D. S774). This site has European trade goods
as do a number of sites on Lake Nipigon. In Manitoba at the Lord site on
the Red River, a radiocarbon date of 780 A.D. (1170*0. 780 A.D. S652)
attests to the early presence of the Western Area Algonkian in that area
and trade goods from sites also attest to their continuing presence to
historic times. In Minnesota recoveries indicate a similar disposition.
Notwithstanding MacNeish's proposed Assiniboine identification of the
producers of Blackduck pottery, he goes on to suggest evidence for a
sequence of ceramic development in Manitoba (1958:158-159). In Evans-
examination of the same wares in Minnesota, he suggests an in situ
development out of the Laurel ceramic tradition in Minnesota (1961:130-142)
and the same sequence is recognized in northwestern Ontario (Dawson 1974:24).
The Blackduck ceramic tradition, which marks the presence of the Western
Area Algonkian, appears to have developed out of the Laurel ceramic
tradition, in the area between Lake Nipigon and Lake Winnipeg, in northwestern
Ontario, northern Minnesota and southeastern Manitoba. This area was
historically occupied by Algonkian peoples with various different regional
names, albeit with intrusions of Sioux in the western periphery of the
region in late historic time, but an explanation resting on a late exodus
of Sioux from the upper Mississippi does not account for the long prehistoric
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time depth, whereas, an explanation resting on the early carriers of the
Algonkian culture such as the Cheyenne does. These carriers of the
Algonkian culture were in the region in proto historic times prior to
moving out onto the plains (Grinnell 1962). Following in this established
western movement, other Algonkian-speakers, such as, Ojibwa are recorded
moving into the region in historic times. Archaeological recoveries are
suggestive of this pattern of movement as are linguistic studies bearing
on the home of proto-Algonkian peoples (Siebert 1967).
The high mobility of the Algonkian-speaking peoples is amply attested
to in the historic records and cannot be explained simply in terms of
dislocation resulting from European encroachment. Champlain wrote in 1615
that the Ottawa went in bands to trade more than four or five hundred
leagues (Kinietz 1940:245). Taking the French league at 2.5 miles this
represents a distance of 1000 to 1250 miles. Alexander Henry the senior
wrote in 1761 of a small encampment of Indians called Makegons at the
mouth of the du Moine River about fifteen miles below Portages de Deux
Joachins on the Ottawa River (Bain 1901:25-26). This division of Musekey
of Swamp Cree lived north and northwest of Lake of the Woods, a distance
of well over 1000 miles. Umfreville in 1784 met a family of Indians in
two canoes on the west shore of Lake Nipigon who recognized him from Fort
Severn on Hudson Bay (Douglas 1929:15). This is a distance of some 450
to 500 miles. Father Claude Allouez visited the Nipissings (Nipisierinii)
in 1667 at Lake Nipigon where they fled from their homeland on the shores
of Lake Nipissing in 1650 (Thawaites 1896-1901). This is a distance of
450 to 500 miles.
The Blackduck ceramic tradition occurs across the Laurentian Upland from
Originally published as part of: 6th Algonquian Conference Papers (1974)
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Quebec to Saskatchewan. Sites date from as early as 500 A.D. to as late
as the Fur Trade. The remarkable uniformity in the pottery over such a
vast area and through such a long time span is unusual but also unusual
is the fact that it is seldom recovered except in association with other
ceramic traditions.
For example, at the Blackduck type site, the McCluskey site at Whitefish
Lake, west of Thunder Bay, 6.7% of the analyzable rims are non-Blackduck
rims; 2.8% are Laurel and 3.9% are Algonkian ceramics representing northern
eastern and southern affinities. Ceramics other than Blackduck from
nineteen Blackduck sites examined in northwestern Ontario and eastern
Manitoba range from 3.9% to 47.3%. The percentage of non-Blackduck ceramics
increases roughly proportional to the distance away from the 'heartland'.
They are characterized by ceramics typical of the Algonkian-speakers of
the geographic region.
From twenty-five sites with ceramic components on Lake Nipigon fourteen
had an Initial Woodland period component characterized by Laurel ceramics
with pseudo-scallop shell, dragged and dentate stamped decorations on
conoidal smooth surface vessels. Eight of the sites had Laurel ceramics
exclusively, the others also had Terminal Woodland period ceramics
represented by various Algonkian traditions.
The marked southern Michigan-Wisconsin influences noted by Wright at
the eastern end of Lake Superior clearly extend to Lake Nipigon for six
sites had Laurel and Peninsular Woodland ceramics, a sequence not unlike
those recorded in Michigan and Wisconsin (Fitting 1965; Mason 1966-
MacPherron 1967). Five 0f the sites had other ceramics, three had
Blackduck ceramics, one had Stamped, Huron-Petun and Selkirk ceramics and
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one had Stamped and Push-pull ceramics. The latter site also had at least
one Mississippi ceramic vessel. Such ceramics are not part of the Algonkian
tradition but considering the presence of Winnebego Sioux in historic times
at the southern end of Lake Michigan and the Algonkian peoples' pattern of
acquiring females its occurrence is not surprising.
Three sites had Laurel and Blackduck ceramics, one of which also had
Selkirk ceramics. Five sites had Blackduck ceramics, one in association
with Peninsular Woodland ceramics and one with Selkirk ceramics. Two
sites had Selkirk ceramics only, and one had Huron-Petun ceramics only.
With eleven of the seventeen Terminal Woodland components having
Blackduck ceramics the area is clearly dominated by the Western Area
Algonkians, but early in the prehistory it is evident that Southern Area
Algonkian manifestations, represented by several Michigan ceramic traditions,
are in the region. Northern Area Algonkian representation is also clearly
present with Eastern Area Algonkian being marginal. The pattern suggests
considerable area stability but with constant and continuous interaction.
Further, there appears to be two or more related sequences reflecting
differing areas of influence.
Looking to the south and southeast from whence the predominant influences
appear to originate we see at the Juntunen site in the Straits of Mackinac
the florescence of Blackduck pottery in association with Mackinac ceramics
which, except for an out-rolled lip and twisted cord impressions, are
genetically related to Blackduck ceramics. This ware occurs at the eastern
end of Lake Superior at the Pic site although at the time of anlaysis it
was lumped with Blackduck (Wright 1966). It is related to Heins Creek
Wares, Madison Cord Impressed and Wayne Cord-marked of the Michigan Younge
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Tradition from which many of the ceramic traditions recorded in Northwestern
Ontario have their origin.
Other wares from the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin which developed out of
the earlier Initial Woodland North Bay wares, appear to be identical to
some of the variants of Blackduck ware, e.g. Heins Creek Corded Stamped.
The Heins site is dated at 720 A.D. (12301150 B.P.) (Mason 1966:28). Some
of the ware is considered by Mason to be comparable to Leland cord-marked
from southwestern Wisconsin which Wittry (1963:256) considers to be a
variant of Illinois Weaver ware. Mason considers Heins Creek Corded Stamped
and Heins Creek Cord-wrapped to be identical to Levsen Stamped of Iowa.
These latter ceramics occur on the territory which was occupied by the
Algonkian-speaking Illinois and Miami.
The Algonkian culture appears to have developed out of an early widely
dispersed common base such as North Bay, Laurel and Point Peninsular II,
a base which extends from Lake Winnipeg to the upper St. Lawrence river
valley in the ecologically similar Lake Forest, biotic province. Mason
has called this the Northern Tier Middle Woodland Tradition (1967:338).
Across this vast area the development of Terminal Woodland out of an
earlier Woodland base is everywhere in evidence.
Ritchie has observed a similar situation in New York State where cord-
wrapped stick decorated pottery was produced and shared by various groups
whose linguistic affinities included Algonkians but whose tribal
seems largely to have been a very late prehistoric phenomenon (1965:289).
Here he is referring to the Algonkian-speaking Delaware or Munsee. A
cursory examination of published He*,- -Polished literature on cord-wrapped stick decorated
pottery in the east suggests th^r- -i . . nggests their inclusion may belong more appropriately
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in an Algonkian sequence rather than the Iroquois sequence.
Archaeologists have observed the overriding genetic similarities in
corded pottery of one sort or another which extends from the Atlantic
slope to the plains in traditional Algonkian country (Ritchie 1944:326;
Byers 1961:47-48; MacPherron 1967:276-278). In the Woodland period
parallel development is everywhere in evidence with increasing regional-
ization in the Terminal Woodland period. Sites with such pottery
sequences, it is suggested, are a product of a single ethnic group which
in the late prehistoric times appear as independent bands of Algonkian-
speaking peoples. In northwestern Ontario and adjacent territories the
Western Area Algonkians in historic times are known by the generic term
Ojibwa and identified by the presence of Blackduck tradition ceramics on
archaeological sites.
Originally published as part of: 6th Algonquian Conference Papers (1974)
40
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