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18th Century Revolutions

Europe – Political 18th c.

Enlightenment – reaction to the scientific revolution – believed nature and society operated according to fundamental universal laws (natural laws) and that people could use reason to discover these laws and to apply this knowledge to improve the quality of life.

Philosophers challenged traditional authority, divine right, hereditary privileges of nobles, and power of church.

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Political - Enlightenment

Philosophers came together at salons to discuss rights – some of the famous salons led by women.

By 1739 there were 551 coffeehouses in London (a concept derived from the Arab world); each attracted a particular clientele divided by occupation or attitude, such as Tories and Wigs, merchants and lawyers, booksellers and authors. According to one French visitor, the coffeehouses, "where you have the right to read all the papers for and against the government," were the "seats of English liberty."

Enlightenment – Major Players Thomas Hobbes (English -

1588-1679) – Leviathan – people are evil need strong leader who rules with consent of people.

• John Locke (English - 1632-1704) – Two Treaties on Government – people born with “natural rights” – life, liberty and property – people are born as blank slates – tabula rosa – and shaped by environment

Locke, John"The great and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property."

(Two Treatises of Government, 1690)

Inspired by English Civil War – creation of commonwealth of

Cromwell

Inspired by English Bill of Rights after Glorious

Revolution

Enlightenment – Major Players

• Voltaire (French - 1694-1778)• Criticism of religion –

believed in freedom of speech and religious tolerance

• Deism – God is divine clockmaker

• Denis Diderot (France - 1713-1784)• Encyclopedia, 28 volumes• Spread the ideas of the

Enlightenment• Condemned Christianity as

fanatical

Enlightenment – Major Players• Baron de Montesquieu (French –

1689-1755) – Spirit of the Laws – importance of checks and balances – studied English government – used by Americans in US Constitution. Three Branches of Government (executive, legislative, judicial).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Swiss - 1712-1778) – Social Contract – people will follow laws and give up personal rights in exchange for security, entire society agreed to be governed by general will

Enlightenment – Major Players

• Mary Wollstonecraft (English 1759-1797)

– Vindication of the Rights of Woman

– Subjection of women by men wrong

“The divine right of husbands, like the divine right of kings, may, it is hoped, in this enlightened age, be contested without danger."

("A Vindication of the Rights of Woman," 1792)

Enlightenment – Major Players– Physiocrats

• Natural economic laws that governed human society

• Adam Smith (Scottish - 1723-1790)– Wealth of Nations– Laissez-faire - State should not

interfere with economic matters– Three functions of government: protect

society against invasion; defend citizens against injustice; and keep up certain public works

Favored by Capitalists!

Political – Enlightened Despots

Prussia – Frederick William I (1713-1740) – created bureaucracy of civil workers, doubled army (4th largest in Europe) led by Junkers (landed aristocracy), Frederick II “the Great” (1740-1786) – well-versed in Enlightenment – abolished torture, granted limited free speech, complete religious tolerance – but kept serfdom and rigid social system.

Austria – Maria Theresa (1740-1780) – made reforms but more for practical reasons (Austria divided by nationalities, languages and religions), strengthened Habsburgs and modernized army, Joseph II (1780-90) – abolished serfdom and death penalty, complete religious tolerance and equality before law – but alienated church and nobility.

Russia – Catherine the Great (1762-1796) gave nobles charter and exempted from tax, favored nobles over peasants, expanded by defeating Turks – gained Black Sea and 1/3 of Poland.

Catherine the Great

"It is better to inspire a reform than to enforce it."

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For Review of Russia – Read Me Online

From Muscovy to Russia, 1584-17961. Between 1580 and 1651 the wastelands of Siberia were explored by Cossacks and fur traders. In essence, the region was a game preserve utilized by the government to exploit the furs. By the seventeenth century, the conquest of Siberia was completed.

2. The Ukraine was acquired by treaty in 1667 ending a war with Poland. The lands on the left bank of the Dnieper River were ceded to Moscow and those on the right remained with Poland. The exception was Kiev that was left under Muscovite rule for two years, though actual control lasted much longer. By treaty, Moscow's hold on Kiev became permanent in 1686.

3. Peter the Great (1682-1725) desired a warm water port to provide access to Europe. This could be achieved only through the Baltic and that was controlled by Sweden. With the support of Poland and Denmark, Peter attacked Sweden at Narva in 1700 but the 8,000-man army of Swedish King Charles XII soundly defeated the Russian army of 40,000. Peter's action initiated a series of wars known as the Great Northern War (1701-1721). Sweden, however, failed to follow up its victory and with a reconstituted army, Peter overran the Swedish Baltic provinces. The mouth of the Neva River was captured in 1703 and here Peter built his new capital of St. Petersburg. In 1708 the Swedes invaded Russia with the intention of capturing Moscow but at Poltava in 1709 Peter's forces crushed the invaders. Nevertheless, the war continued for twelve more years until the Peace of Nystadt in 1721 by which Russia acquired Estonia, Livonia, and Karela.

4. The desire for warm water ports continued under Catherine the Great (1762-1796) who initiated war against the Turks in 1769. By 1771 Russia controlled Ottoman provinces on the Danube River and the Crimean coast of the Black Sea. A treaty confirmed these acquisitions in 1774 that also gave Russia an outlet to the Mediterranean by granting access through the Bosphorus Strait. Although the treaty made the Crimea an independent state, Catherine annexed it in 1783.

5. The partitioning of Poland between 1772 and 1795 by Russia, Austria, and Prussia was due to Prussia's fear that the balance of power in the region was being jeopardized by Russian military successes. In return for giving up some of its conquered Danube provinces, Russia obtained eastern Poland.

6. In 1773 Emelyan Pugachev initiated a mass peasant revolt in southern Russia. Freeing the serfs and offering promises of land, the rebellion spread rapidly between the Ural Mountains and the Volga River. Over 1500 estate owners and their families were killed. In 1775 Pugachev was captured and executed. The rebellion collapsed and Catherine responded with greater oppression of the peasantry.

From Muscovy to Russia, 1584-17961. Between 1580 and 1651 the wastelands of Siberia were explored by Cossacks and fur traders. In essence, the region was a game preserve utilized by the government to exploit the furs. By the seventeenth century, the conquest of Siberia was completed.

2. The Ukraine was acquired by treaty in 1667 ending a war with Poland. The lands on the left bank of the Dnieper River were ceded to Moscow and those on the right remained with Poland. The exception was Kiev that was left under Muscovite rule for two years, though actual control lasted much longer. By treaty, Moscow's hold on Kiev became permanent in 1686.

3. Peter the Great (1682-1725) desired a warm water port to provide access to Europe. This could be achieved only through the Baltic and that was controlled by Sweden. With the support of Poland and Denmark, Peter attacked Sweden at Narva in 1700 but the 8,000-man army of Swedish King Charles XII soundly defeated the Russian army of 40,000. Peter's action initiated a series of wars known as the Great Northern War (1701-1721). Sweden, however, failed to follow up its victory and with a reconstituted army, Peter overran the Swedish Baltic provinces. The mouth of the Neva River was captured in 1703 and here Peter built his new capital of St. Petersburg. In 1708 the Swedes invaded Russia with the intention of capturing Moscow but at Poltava in 1709 Peter's forces crushed the invaders. Nevertheless, the war continued for twelve more years until the Peace of Nystadt in 1721 by which Russia acquired Estonia, Livonia, and Karela.

4. The desire for warm water ports continued under Catherine the Great (1762-1796) who initiated war against the Turks in 1769. By 1771 Russia controlled Ottoman provinces on the Danube River and the Crimean coast of the Black Sea. A treaty confirmed these acquisitions in 1774 that also gave Russia an outlet to the Mediterranean by granting access through the Bosphorus Strait. Although the treaty made the Crimea an independent state, Catherine annexed it in 1783.

5. The partitioning of Poland between 1772 and 1795 by Russia, Austria, and Prussia was due to Prussia's fear that the balance of power in the region was being jeopardized by Russian military successes. In return for giving up some of its conquered Danube provinces, Russia obtained eastern Poland.

6. In 1773 Emelyan Pugachev initiated a mass peasant revolt in southern Russia. Freeing the serfs and offering promises of land, the rebellion spread rapidly between the Ural Mountains and the Volga River. Over 1500 estate owners and their families were killed. In 1775 Pugachev was captured and executed. The rebellion collapsed and Catherine responded with greater oppression of the peasantry.

Political – War of Austrian Succession

Cause – 1740s – Austria’s throne vacant – Maria Theresa comes to throne, but Frederick II of Prussia takes advantage of female ruler and attacks.

Maria T. allies with Great Britain; France joins Prussia.

Results – war in Europe, India, and North America – but all territory returned in stalemate (except Silesia).

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Political – Seven Year’s War (A Global War)

1756-1763

Cause – rivalries – Prussia and Austria over Silesia; France and England over colonial territories (North America and India)

Allies – France w/Austria and Russia; Great Britain w/Prussia.

Areas of Conflict – Europe, India, and North America.Eventually w/Russia’s withdrawal – stalemate.

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7yrs War = French and Indian War British victories on the Great Lakes, Quebec in 1759 and

Montreal the following year. As the key to French holdings in North America, Quebec's capture sealed the fate of French Canada. A year earlier, Ft. Duquesne fell giving the British control of the upper Ohio River. By 1762 the British also held the French sugar islands in the West Indies (except Saint Dominigue) and had captured Havana, Cuba, from France's ally Spain.

Political – 7 Years War Results - The war in India resulted in the defeat of the

French by the British in 1757 and 1761. Nevertheless, the peace permitted the French to retain footholds at Pondicherry and Chandernagore. The British victory had the effect of forcing the French to refocus their eastern interests on Southeast Asia.

4. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 placed Canada and the French lands east of the Mississippi River in British hands. France's ally Spain also had to cede Florida to the British but in return Britain recognized the cession of France's Louisiana territory west of the Mississippi River to the Spanish.

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Russia countered Spanish claims in the northwest when it pushed across Siberia into Alaska. Eventually the Russians reached as far south as northern California in their quest for food and supplies to support their presence in Alaska.

Pattern of Revolution

Political – American Revolution

Causes – 1. frustrating mercantilist policies of Great

Britain.2. dependant status of colony – “taxation

without representation”3. Enlightenment ideas (especially Locke)4. debt of 7yrs War – GB thought Americans

should share cost of war since protecting its borders

5. restriction of movement (not past Appalachians) after 7rs war

Political – American Revolution Stages

1. Non-compliance with British rules (Stamp Act of 1765)

2. Reprisals by the British3. Protests: boycotts, violence, letters and

declarations to British Crown- Famous pamphlet – Common Sense by Thomas Paine (printing press became powerful tool)

4. Escalating protests and violence – Boston Massacre, Conflict of Lexington and Concord

5. Declaration of Independence – 1776 in Second Continental Congress led by Thomas Jefferson – discussed “Natural Rights”

Political – American Revolution6. War7. Alliances with

Britain's enemies (France – commits soldiers, ships, weapons, and money)

8. Defeat of British forces at Yorktown in 1781

9. Treaty of Paris in 1783 – recognized America’s independence.

Political – American Revolution

Outcomes/Effects Articles of Confederation

ratified in 1781 – loose confederation of independent states.

1783 – US Constitution – central government w/power to levy taxes, raise army, regulate domestic and foreign policy, and create national currency

Bill of Rights added in 1789 (first 10 amendments) guaranteeing free speech, right to bear arms, trial by jury, etc.

Regents – Causes and Results (popular thematic essay choice)

Political – French Revolution (Causes)

A.  Long-term effects of rule by absolute monarchy (Ancien Regime) and policies of Louis XVI.       

B.  Financial Collapse –– High taxation of the poor to

support the luxurious lifestyle at Versailles and of the upper clergy.

– War debts (lost nearly all of its American properties to British after 7yrs war.

– Bad harvests in 1787 and 1788

C. Ideas of the Enlightenment.

D. American and earlier British examples.       

Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI,

French Revolution – Causes (cont)E.  Social class unrest --> vast social inequality (Three Estates);  no real social mobility.

* First Estate (Clergy)130,000 who own about 10%

of land* Second Estate (Nobility)

350,000 owning about 25 to 30% of

land * Third Estate (Commoners,

skilled workers, bourgeoisie) - Peasants were 70 to 80%

of the population owning 35 to 40%of land

- Skilled craftsmen, shopkeepers, and

wage earners - Bourgeoisie (middle

class) about 2.3 million (about 2.3

million) who own about 20 to 25 percent of land       

French Revolution (phases)A.  absolutism --> Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.B.  limited constitutional monarchy --> Legislative Assembly (middle class is in charge).

                    -- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.                    -- Civil Constitution of the Clergy.                    -- Constitution of 1791

C.  First French Republic --> National Convention                    -- king and queen executed.                    -- France engaged in foreign wars against the First

CoalitionD.  "Reign of Terror" under Robespierre

                    -- Committee of Public Safety.                    -- Jacobins.                    -- Sans-culotte (revolt of the lower classes in cities)

E.  Thermidorean Reaction --> Directory                    -- weak, with little support outside of the military.                    -- government in the hands of the property owners

who did nothing to relieve the problems of                       the lower classes (conservative reaction to the

radicalism of the Terror) F.  The Consulate --> "enlightened" despotism of Napoleon Bonaparte

Louis XVI calls Estate General, May 1789 (had been disbanded since 1614) to solve economic problems.

Third Estate – demanded that votes be take per capita (per person) so that 1st and 2nd Estates would not be able to gang up and outvote 3rd Estate. 3rd Estate could convince sympathetic nobles and clergy.

Third Estate declared themselves National Assembly - Demand a constitution not just change

Tennis Court Oath

Moderate Phase of French Revolution

Change Not Happening Fast Enough for Poor

Attacked the prison of Bastille – represented aristocratic and absolute power of king. People imprisoned without trial, for debt, etc. – only 7 prisoners actually in prison – but lots of ammo

Success of the attack encouraged peasants to attack landlords who were forcing them to pay old feudal dues. “Great Fear”

Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI removed from Versailles to Paris for “safety”

Storming of the Bastille: July 14, 1789

French Republic – National Convention

Adopted the Declaration of Rights of Man - (called for equality for all citizens under the law and protection of personal property)

Ended serfdom Ended tax-exempt status of nobles All males eligible for government Altered monopoly of Catholic Church – freedom of worship

Problem – rights not extended to Jews,

Protestants, Blacks or Women

Olympe de GougesDeclaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen

Established a Limited Monarchy and Representative Assembly. Placed Church under State Control

• King head of Executive Branch.

• Legislature made laws. (King had veto power, but legislature could override veto)

• Judicial Branch

Constitution of 1791

Radical Revolutionaries wanted Republic not Limited Monarchy

Nobles flee to European Countries like Austria and England becoming “émigrés” or political exiles, urge these countries to wage war on France. Austria and Prussia want to invade to restore monarchy

Results of Constitution – no one happy

Legislature – divided, Girondins (conservative) sat on right, while more radical Jacobins sat on left.

Where we get the term “right wing” and “left wing”

Radical Control

Robespierre Foreign Invasion Republic Established Reign of Terror

Maximilien de Robespierre –

A Jacobin who headed the “Committee of Public Safety” – paid no attention to democratic constitution. Arrested and put to death all those who did not follow revolutionary ideas.

Reign of Terror (40,000 killed)Education for all; slavery abolished; price fixing.Dechristianization – dating system changed, no Sundays, etc

Now “Citizens” form brotherhood with cries of ….

“Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”

Ye sons of France, awake to glory! Hark! Hark! the people bid you rise!

Your children, wives, and grandsires hoary

Behold their tears and hear their cries!

Lyrics and Music: Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, 1792

CHORUS To arms, to arms, ye brave!

Th'avenging sword unsheathe! March on, march on, all hearts

resolved On liberty or death.

Moderate Return - DIRECTORY.

1795-99 Council of Elders voted for five directors to act as executive committee.

Weak at dealing with domestic issues Good at building up army – focus on issues abroad

to take mind off economic problems Unsolved problems – war w/Great Britain and

Austria; corrupt politicians; bread riots; growing royalist support; anger over policies related to Church

Thermidorian Reaction

Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1815)

Seized power by military coup d’etat at age of 30.

Created the consolate with Napoleon as first consul (controlled entire government).

Napoleon crossing Alps (propaganda – actually crossed on mule)

As Emperor

Later crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I.

Liberty replaced by despotism.

Reforms of Napoleon

Napoleon had no strict religious beliefs – in Egypt he was Muslim, in France a Catholic. Made peace with Pope.

Napoleonic Code – recognized the principle of equality (women less equal than men), religious toleration, abolished feudalism; protected property rights.

New Bureaucracy – promotion based on ability not birth.

Napoleon’s Empire

France at war with coalition of Russia, Great Britain and Austria – all led by monarchies afraid of revolutionary ideas.

1807-1812 Napoleon created Grand Empire conquering or allying to itself – Germany, Spain, Italy, Austria and Prussia.

Empire held in check by England’s navy and nationalism (unique cultural identity of people based on common language, religion, symbols, etc.)

Battle of Trafalgar – English Naval victory

The Napoleonic Empire, 1810-1813

1. A combined French and Spanish fleet being moved to Holland in preparation for an invasion of Britain was destroyed in October 1805 at Trafalgar off the coast of Spain by a British fleet.

2. On land, the forces of Napoleon were repeatedly victorious. At Ulm in October 1805 a large Austrian army was defeated and soon thereafter Vienna was occupied. In December 1805 Napoleon defeated the combined forces of Austria and Prussia at Austerlitz. The Treaty of Pressburg resulted in Austria withdrawing from Italy and Napoleon being recognized as the king of Italy. The following year the Prussian army was defeated at Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin was soon thereafter occupied. In 1807, Napoleon crushed the Russians at Friedland and seized East Prussia.

3. By the Treaty of Tilset (1807), Russia was permitted to take Finland from Sweden (an enemy of France) and France was free to take Portugal (a British outpost). Out of Prussia's territory was carved the Grand Duchy of Warsaw under French protection. For Russia, there was concern when in 1809 the territory, on its doorstep, was enlarged.

4. In November 1806 Napoleon issued the Berlin Decrees that prohibited his allies from trading with Britain. The Milan Decree the following year sought to stop even neutral nations from trading with Britain. This Continental System hurt the European economy more than Britain as Napoleon failed to comprehend how much the two economies were intertwined. Moreover, Britain declared that any port refusing to receive its goods would be blockaded. Significantly, Britain had the navy to back up the promise while the French after Trafalgar had virtually no navy to stop them.

5. At the end of 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System prompting Napoleon to act. By June of 1812 Napoleon had amassed an army of over 600,000 men, though by the time he reached Russia it was down to 422,000. Unwilling to do battle, the Russians retreated, embracing a scorched earth policy. Only at Borodino, outside Moscow, did they give battle. The Russians inflicted 30,000 casualties on the French but suffering twice as many for themselves. The French entered Moscow in September 1812 and promptly the city was set afire by the Muscovites. With winter beginning to set in, Napoleon ordered withdrawal. Begun in October, the retreat turned into a disaster as the ravages of winter and attacking Russians depleted the withdrawing troops. Only about 10,000 of the original number made it to German soil.

6. With a reconstituted army, Napoleon crushed Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Dresden in 1813 but a few months later he was decisively defeated at Leipzig. An allied army followed Napoleon to Paris. He abdicated in March 1814. Exiled to Elba off the coast of Italy, Napoleon escaped in March 1815 and fought one last battle at Waterloo where he was again decisively defeated on June 18, 1815.

The Napoleonic Empire, 1810-1813

1. A combined French and Spanish fleet being moved to Holland in preparation for an invasion of Britain was destroyed in October 1805 at Trafalgar off the coast of Spain by a British fleet.

2. On land, the forces of Napoleon were repeatedly victorious. At Ulm in October 1805 a large Austrian army was defeated and soon thereafter Vienna was occupied. In December 1805 Napoleon defeated the combined forces of Austria and Prussia at Austerlitz. The Treaty of Pressburg resulted in Austria withdrawing from Italy and Napoleon being recognized as the king of Italy. The following year the Prussian army was defeated at Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin was soon thereafter occupied. In 1807, Napoleon crushed the Russians at Friedland and seized East Prussia.

3. By the Treaty of Tilset (1807), Russia was permitted to take Finland from Sweden (an enemy of France) and France was free to take Portugal (a British outpost). Out of Prussia's territory was carved the Grand Duchy of Warsaw under French protection. For Russia, there was concern when in 1809 the territory, on its doorstep, was enlarged.

4. In November 1806 Napoleon issued the Berlin Decrees that prohibited his allies from trading with Britain. The Milan Decree the following year sought to stop even neutral nations from trading with Britain. This Continental System hurt the European economy more than Britain as Napoleon failed to comprehend how much the two economies were intertwined. Moreover, Britain declared that any port refusing to receive its goods would be blockaded. Significantly, Britain had the navy to back up the promise while the French after Trafalgar had virtually no navy to stop them.

5. At the end of 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System prompting Napoleon to act. By June of 1812 Napoleon had amassed an army of over 600,000 men, though by the time he reached Russia it was down to 422,000. Unwilling to do battle, the Russians retreated, embracing a scorched earth policy. Only at Borodino, outside Moscow, did they give battle. The Russians inflicted 30,000 casualties on the French but suffering twice as many for themselves. The French entered Moscow in September 1812 and promptly the city was set afire by the Muscovites. With winter beginning to set in, Napoleon ordered withdrawal. Begun in October, the retreat turned into a disaster as the ravages of winter and attacking Russians depleted the withdrawing troops. Only about 10,000 of the original number made it to German soil.

6. With a reconstituted army, Napoleon crushed Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Dresden in 1813 but a few months later he was decisively defeated at Leipzig. An allied army followed Napoleon to Paris. He abdicated in March 1814. Exiled to Elba off the coast of Italy, Napoleon escaped in March 1815 and fought one last battle at Waterloo where he was again decisively defeated on June 18, 1815.

For More on Napoleon’s Empire Read Online

Defeat in Russia

Napoleon forced to “Great Retreat” in terrible Russian winter conditions – only 40,000 of 600,000 return.

Russia used “scorched earth” policy

The End

Napoleon imprisoned at Elba. Escaped, but defeated by British general Wellington at Waterloo in 1815