1098

The War on Terrorism 1100

Iraq: Confronting a Dictatorship 1104

The Debate over Immigration 1106

Crime and Public Safety 1108

Issues in Education 1110

The Communications Revolution 1112

Curing the Health Care System 1114

Breaking the Cycle of Poverty 1116

Tough Choices About Social Security 1118

Women in the Work Force 1120

The Conservation Controversy 1122

1099

decades against Britain. The IRA haslong opposed British control ofNorthern Ireland. Since 1998, thetwo sides have been workingtoward a peaceful solution to theirconflict. In South America, a groupknown as the Shining Path terror-ized the residents of Peru through-out the late 20th century. The group sought to overthrow thegovernment and establish aCommunist state.

Africa, too, has seen its share ofterrorism. Groups belonging to theal-Qaeda terrorist organizationoperated in many African countries.Indeed, officials have linked severalmajor attacks against U.S. facilitiesin Africa to al-Qaeda. In 1998, for

increasingly destructive attacks.And terrorist attacks are on the rise.More than 14,000 terrorist attackshave occurred throughout theworld since the late 1960s.

The problem of modern inter-national terrorism first gained worldattention during the 1972 SummerOlympic Games in Munich,Germany. Members of a Palestinianterrorist group killed two Israeli ath-letes and took nine others hostage.Five of the terrorists, all thehostages, and a police officer werelater killed in a bloody gun battle.

Since then, terrorist activitieshave occurred across the globe. InEurope, the Irish Republican Army(IRA) used terrorist tactics for

On the morning of September11, 2001, two airlinerscrashed into the twin towers

of the World Trade Center in NewYork City and a third smashed into asection of the Pentagon nearWashington, D.C. A fourth airlinercrashed in a field in the Pennsylvaniacountryside. Nineteen Arab terroristshad hijacked the four planes andused them as missiles in an attemptto destroy predetermined targets.The first three planes hit their targets.In the fourth plane, passengersfought the hijackers and the planewent down short of its target.

Explosions and raging fireseverely weakened the twin towers.Within two hours after the attacks,both skyscrapers had crumbled tothe ground. One wing of thePentagon was extensively damaged.About 3,000 people were killed inthe attacks. They included all thepassengers on the four planes,workers and visitors in the WorldTrade Center and the Pentagon, andabout 300 firefighters and 40 policeofficers who rushed into the twintowers to rescue people. The attacksof September 11 were the mostdestructive acts of terrorism inmodern history.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVETerrorism is the use of violenceagainst people or property to try toforce changes in societies or gov-ernments. Acts of terrorism are notnew. Throughout history, individu-als and groups have used terror tac-tics to achieve political or socialgoals. In recent decades, however,terrorist groups have carried out

The War on TerrorismHow can the United States combat terrorism?

1100

The twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York burn after the September 11 attacks.

ings to help those inside andnever came out again. Entiresquads were lost. New York CityFire Department chaplain, FatherMychal Judge, was killed byfalling debris just after giving thelast rites of the Catholic Churchto a firefighter at the scene.

Firefighters worked aroundthe clock trying to find survivorsin the wreckage. They had tocontend with shifting rubble andsmoky, ash-filled air. Medicalworkers from the area rushed tostaff the city’s trauma centers.But after the first wave of injured,there were few survivors to treat.

A flood of volunteers assistedrescue workers. Ironworkershelped cut through steel beams,while high school studentshelped provide water and foodfor the rescue workers. Fromaround the country, people sentdonations of blood, food, andmoney to New York City.

After the first few days, thework at “ground zero,” the WorldTrade Center disaster site, shiftedto recovering bodies and remov-ing the massive amount ofdebris. The destroyed twin towersaccounted for an estimated 2 bil-lion pounds of rubble.

even willing to die to ensure thesuccess of their attacks.

RESCUE AND REBUILDINGOn September 11, the weapons theterrorists used were planes loadedwith fuel. The planes becamedestructive missiles when theycrashed into their targets.

Amidst the brutal destructionat the World Trade Center, thecourage, selflessness, and nobleactions of New York City’s firefight-ers, police officers, and rescue work-ers stood as a testament. Many ofthe first firefighters at the scene dis-appeared into the burning build-

example, bombings at the U.S.embassies in Kenya and Tanzanialeft more than 200 dead.

TACTICS AND MOTIVESMost terrorists work in a similarway: targeting high-profile eventsor crowded places where peoplenormally feel safe. They includesuch places as subway stations, busstops, restaurants, or shoppingmalls. Terrorists choose these spotscarefully in order to gain the mostattention and to achieve the high-est level of intimidation.

Terrorists use bullets andbombs as their main weapons. Inrecent years, however, some terror-ist groups have used biological andchemical agents in their attacks.These actions involve the release ofbacteria or poisonous gas into theair. Gas was the weapon of choicefor a radical Japanese religious cult,Aum Shinrikyo. In 1995, cult mem-bers released sarin, a deadly nervegas, in subway stations in Tokyo.Twelve people were killed and morethan 5,700 injured. The possibilityof this type of terrorism is particu-larly worrying, because biochemicalagents are relatively easy to acquire.

The reasons for terrorist attacksvary. Traditional motives includegaining independence, expellingforeigners, or changing society.These reasons often give rise todomestic terrorism—violence usedby people to change the policies oftheir own government or to over-throw their government.

In the late 20th century, anoth-er type of terrorism began toemerge. Terrorists who carried outthis type of terrorism wanted toachieve political ends or destroywhat they considered to be forces ofevil. They attacked targets not justin their own country, but anywherein the world. These terrorists werewilling to use any type of weaponto kill their enemies. They were

Epilogue 1101

The attacks of

September 11

dramatically

altered the way

Americans looked

at life.

A flag flies over the rubble of the World Trade Center while firefighters and rescue workerssearch for survivors.

In October 2001, the UnitedStates launched OperationEnduring Freedom. The militarybegan bombing Taliban air defens-es, airfields, and command centers,as well as al-Qaeda training camps.Within two months, U.S. specialforces and marines and fightersfrom the Northern Alliance, a coali-tion of anti-Taliban Afghan troops,drove the Taliban from power.However, the fight to destroy al-Qaeda continued. Bin Laden wasnot captured, and his fate remainedunknown. Meanwhile, the UnitedNations worked with the NorthernAlliance and other Afghan groupsto establish an interim governmentto replace the Taliban.

ANTITERRORIST ACTIONSTo combat terrorism on the homefront, the Bush administration creat-ed the Department of HomelandSecurity in 2002, headed by formerPennsylvania governor Tom Ridge.

THE UNITED STATES RESPONDSThe first step in the battle againstterrorism was to identify who wasresponsible for the September 11attacks. After conducting a massiveinvestigation, the U.S. governmentdetermined that Osama bin Laden,a Saudi Arabian millionaire, haddirected the terrorists. The terroristswere part of the al-Qaeda network.The home base for al-Qaeda wasAfghanistan, ruled by a strictIslamic regime called the Taliban.The Taliban supported the terroristgroup. In return, bin Laden provid-ed fighters to the Taliban.

The United States, led byPresident George W. Bush, built aninternational coalition, or alliance,to fight terrorism and the al-Qaedanetwork. Great Britain played aprominent role in this coalition.After the Taliban refused to turnover bin Laden, coalition forces ledby the United States began militaryaction in Afghanistan.

Once the area was cleared,plans to rebuild the site were pro-posed. In February 2003, a develop-ment committee chose a design fora new building complex that wouldrise taller than the World TradeCenter towers. The complex, whichofficials estimated would take about10 years to build, would include amemorial, a cultural center, and a1,776-foot spire.

IMPACT OF 9/11The attacks of September 11 dramat-ically altered the way Americanslooked at life. People felt that every-thing had changed—life would neverbe the same. Before the attacks,many Americans felt secure that ter-rorism happened only in other coun-tries. After the attacks, manyAmericans became afraid that terror-ism could happen in their own coun-try at any time.

This sense of vulnerability wasintensified when another wave ofterrorist attacks hit the UnitedStates a few days after September11. Letters containing anthraxspores were sent to people in thenews media and to members ofCongress in Washington, D.C.When inhaled, these spores coulddamage the lungs and cause death.Five people died after inhaling thespores in tainted letters. Two werepostal workers.

Some investigators believedthat the letters were sent by a loneterrorist and not by a terroristgroup. No link between the lettersand the September 11 attacks wasever found. The anthrax lettersincreased Americans’ fear of terror-ism. Many Americans becameafraid of an everyday part of life—the mail.

History of U.S. Foreign Policy Since World War I

United Nations created (page 809);Truman and Stalinclash (page 810).

United States aban-dons neutrality andenters World War I (page 586).

United Statesenters World War II(pages 756–763).

United States adoptspolicy of containmentagainst communism(page 811).

Berlin Wall erected todivide Communist andnon-Communist Berlin.(pages 883–884).

U.S. and U.S.S.R.square off in Cubanmissile crisis(pages 880–882).

1917 1941 1945 1947 1961 1962

History of Terrorist Attacks Against the United States

Libyan terrorists explodea bomb in an airplane,causing it to crash inLockerbie, Scotland,killing 270 people.

Theodore Kaczynski,the Unabomber, usesmail bombs to kill 3people over 17 years.

Shi’ites explode atruck near U.S. mili-tary barracks inBeirut, Lebanon,killing 241 Marines.

Suspected al-Qaeda terroristsexplode bombs in the WorldTrade Center in New YorkCity, killing 6 and injuring atleast 1,040 (page 1068).

Timothy McVeigh uses a truckto destroy the Murrah FederalBuilding in Oklahoma City,Oklahoma, killing 168 people.

1978 1983 1988 1993 1995

1102

Tom Ridge, the Secretary of the new Department of Homeland Security, introduces the color-coded threat advisory system.

In November 2001, PresidentBush signed into law the Aviationand Transportation Security Act,which made airport security theresponsibility of the federal govern-ment. Previously, individual air-ports had been responsible for theirown security. Because of this law, afederal security force was assignedto inspect airline passengers andcarry-on bags. The law also requiredchecked baggage to be screened.

These measures created severalmajor concerns, including longdelays at airports and possible inva-sion of passengers’ privacy. As theUnited States fought terrorism andtried to balance national securitywith civil rights, the public debateover security measures imposed bythe government continued.

• detain foreigners suspected of ter-rorism for seven days withoutcharging them with a crime.

• tap all phones used by suspectsand monitor their e-mail andInternet use.

• make search warrants valid acrossstates.

• order U.S. banks to investigatesources of large foreign accounts.

• prosecute terrorist crimes withoutany time restrictions or limitations.

People who opposed the lawfeared that it would allow the gov-ernment to invade the privacy ofordinary citizens and threaten theirbasic rights.

AVIATION SECURITYThe federal government’s role in avi-ation security also increased.National Guard troops beganpatrolling airports, and sky marshalswere assigned to airplanes. In addi-tion, the Federal AviationAdministration (FAA) had barsinstalled on cockpit doors to preventhijackers from entering cockpits andgaining control of airplanes.

This executive department wasdesigned to analyze threats, guardthe nation’s borders and airports,and coordinate the country’sresponse to attacks. To help shareinformation about the risk of terror-ist attacks with the American people,the department created theHomeland Security Advisory System.This system used a set of “ThreatConditions” to advise the publicabout the level of terrorist threatsand provided guidelines for responseduring a period of heightened alert.

The Department of HomelandSecurity also searched for terroristsin the United States. The govern-ment soon discovered that the al-Qaeda network had used "sleepers"to carry out its terrorist attacks.Sleepers are agents who enter acountry, blend into a community,and when called upon, secretly pre-pare for and commit terrorist acts.An intensive search began for any al-Qaeda terrorists, including sleepers,that remained in the United States.U.S. officials detained and ques-tioned Arabs and other Muslimswho behaved suspiciously or whoviolated immigration regulations.

USA PATRIOT ACTCritics claimed that detaining thesepeople violated their civil rights.The government argued that limit-ing civil liberties during wartime toprotect national security was notunusual. U.S. officials used thesame argument to try some terroristsuspects in military tribunals ratherthan in criminal courts.

To give the government thepower to conduct search and sur-veillance of suspected terrorists, theUSA Patriot Act was signed into lawon October 26, 2001. This lawallowed the government to:

First major U.S. combat units arrivein Vietnam (page 942).

The Soviet Union collapses, bringing anend to the Cold War(pages 1054–1056).

President Bush and Russianpresident Putin negotiate eachcountry’s nuclear arsenal for apost–Cold-War world.

Nixon visits Chinaand the Soviet Union(pages 1005–1006).

1965 1972 1991 2001The Islamic militantgroup Hezbollahexplodes a truck bombin Dhahran, SaudiArabia, killing 19American servicemen.

The bombing of theUSS Cole in Aden,Yemen, is linked toOsama bin Laden andkills 17 Americansailors.

Arab terrorists crashplanes into the WorldTrade Center, thePentagon, and aPennsylvania field,killing about 3,000.

Al-Qaeda explodesbombs near two U.S.embassies in Nairobi,Kenya, and Dar esSalaam, Tanzania,killing 224.

1996 1998 2000 2001

Epilogue 1103

An airport security official inspects a traveler’s shoe at a security checkpoint.

PREDICTING EFFECTSHow effective do you think theantiterrorist measures taken by theBush administration will be in preventing or dealing with future terrorist attacks?

RESEARCH LINKS

CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links forthe Epilogue to find out more aboutWar on Terrorism.

ing of his regime. In response,Hussein barred arms inspectorsfrom entering his country.

STEPS TOWARD WARAfter the attacks on September 11,2001, President George W. Bushfeared that Hussein was providingterrorists with weapons of massdestruction (WMD). The UnitedStates called for a renewal of thearms inspections in Iraq. InNovember 2002, the UN SecurityCouncil passed a resolutiondesigned to force Iraq to give up allWMD. Iraq agreed to this resolu-tion, and arms inspections resumed.

However, Hussein again refusedto cooperate fully with these inspec-tions. As a result, the United Statesand Great Britain declared an end todiplomatic relations with Iraq.

In early February 2003, U.S.Secretary of State Colin Powell gavea presentation to the UN SecurityCouncil, maintaining that Iraq washiding WMD. Powell used audio-tapes, satellite photos, and anecdo-tal evidence to support his claims.Soon thereafter, the United Statesand Great Britain pressed the UN topass a resolution that authorizedthe use of military force againstIraq. France and Russia threatenedto veto such a resolution. As analternative, France, Germany, andRussia presented a plan that calledfor intensifying the inspections.

On January 16, 1991, thePersian Gulf War began. Coalitionforces led by the United States droveIraq’s army out of Kuwait within sixweeks. A cease-fire agreementbetween Iraq and the UN ended theconflict. This agreement prohibitedIraq from producing chemical, bio-logical, and nuclear weapons.

The United Nations periodicallysent arms inspectors to Iraq to makesure Hussein was complying withthe cease-fire agreement. However,the Iraqi dictator refused to cooper-ate fully with the inspectors.Because of this, the United Statesand Great Britain declared in 1998that they supported the removal ofHussein from his office and the end-

Since 1979, Saddam Hussein’sregime in Iraq had brutallyrepressed opposition. The

Iraqi dictator had ruled withoutregard for the welfare of his peopleor for world opinion. During hisState of the Union address inJanuary 2003, President George W.Bush declared Hussein too great athreat to ignore in an age ofincreased terrorism. RemindingAmericans of the September 11attacks, Bush stated: “Imaginethose 19 hijackers with otherweapons and other plans—thistime armed by Saddam Hussein. Itwould take one vial, one canister,one crate slipped into this countryto bring a day of horror like nonewe have ever known. We will doeverything in our power to makesure that day never comes.”Hussein’s past behavior had provedto the American President that heposed a real danger.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEIn August 1990, the Iraqi army hadinvaded Kuwait, a small countrythat shares Iraq’s southwestern bor-der and has access to the sea.Saddam Hussein wanted Kuwait’shuge oil reserves. Many countriesasked Hussein to withdraw histroops, but he refused. The UnitedNations (UN) condemned the occu-pation and approved the use offorce to end it.

Iraq: Confrontinga Dictatorship

How should the United States deal with dangerous dictators?

History of Saddam Hussein’s Regime

1104

The Iraqi Air Force releasespoisonous gases over theKurdish town of Halabja, Iraq,killing about 5,000 people.

Saddam Husseinseizes power in Iraq.

Iraq invades Iran’s oilfields, triggering theIran-Iraq War, which continues until 1988.

Iraq invades Kuwait inan attempt to seize thatnation’s oil revenues.

1979 1980 1988 1990

“By seeking

weapons of mass

destruction,

these regimes

pose a grave and

growing danger.” PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH

SEARCH FOR WMDMuch of the case for going to waragainst Iraq was based on the beliefthat Saddam Hussein had weaponsof mass destruction. Once majorcombat ended on May 1, U.S. forcesbegan an extensive search for theseweapons. Movable biological labo-ratories containing sophisticatedequipment were located. However,by mid-2003, chemical or biologicalweaponry had not been found.

NORTH KOREA AND IRANAccording to the U.S. government,Iraq was not the only countryattempting to develop nuclear, chemi-cal, and biological weapons. In hisState of the Union address in 2002,President Bush named three countriesthat constituted a dangerous “axis ofevil”: Iraq, North Korea, and Iran. Hestated: “By seeking weapons of massdestruction, these regimes pose a graveand growing danger.”

North Korea, led by Kim Jong Il,clashed with the United States overnuclear weapons development. In1985, North Korea had signed theNuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. In2003, however, North Korea pulledout of this agreement and reactivat-ed its nuclear power facilities. Amidsigns of Kim’s renewed militarybuildup, the United States contin-ued to watch North Korea uneasily.

Iran also started to pursue anuclear program. Iranian authori-ties claimed it was doing so forpeaceful reasons. The U.S. govern-ment rejected this claim andviewed Iran as a threat.

The war began with massive airraids; sections of Baghdad were theprimary targets. U.S. ground troopsthen raced toward the Iraqi capital.By April 2, U.S. forces had reachedthe outskirts of the city. Within aweek, Baghdad had fallen to theU.S. military. Some evidence indi-cated that Hussein survived theattack and went into hiding.Meanwhile, British troops seizedthe city of Basra. Coalition troopshad taken control of most of Iraq byApril 14.

The United States hosted ameeting with Iraqi representatives todetermine the future government ofIraq. The representatives adopted a13-point statement, stating that Iraqwould respect diversity and rule bylaw. However, one of the country’smain Shi’a groups, the Iranian-basedSupreme Council for the IslamicRevolution in Iraq, objected to U.S.involvement and refused to attend.

The United States and GreatBritain countered by claiming that anew UN resolution was not neces-sary since Iraq was in violation ofthe old agreement. According to theUnited States and Great Britain, thisviolation justified the use of militaryforce to overturn Hussein’s regime.

Meanwhile, protests against apossible war in Iraq increasedworldwide. Crowds of antiwar pro-testers participated in more than600 rallies around the globe on asingle day in February. An estimat-ed 750,000 protesters turned out inLondon, making it the largestdemonstration ever in the Britishcapital. Most of the demonstrationswere peaceful.

WAR IN IRAQOn March 17, 2003, President Bushgave Hussein 48 hours to leave Iraq.After the dictator refused, theUnited States and Great Britainlaunched Operation Iraqi Freedom.

Epilogue 1105

The Persian Gulf Warbegins in January andends six weeks later. The UN prohibits Iraqfrom producing WMD.

In March, the United States andGreat Britain launch OperationIraqi Freedom. Major combat endsin May, and Hussein is overthrown.

Iraq’s refusal to cooperate withUN arms inspectors leads to afour-day strike by the UnitedStates and Great Britain.

1991 1998 2003

In Baghdad, Iraqis pull down a statue of Saddam Hussein after the dictator’s regime isoverthrown.

PREDICTING EFFECTSDo you think the U.S.-led strikeagainst Iraq will result in similar warsagainst other dangerous regimes?

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1996, some 5 million people hadentered the country illegally. Mostundocumented immigrants havejobs but usually receive low pay andno benefits. Although these peopledo not pay taxes, they also oftenreceive government-funded services.

Pete Wilson, the former gover-nor of California, echoed his con-stituents when he said, “There’s aright way to come to America and awrong way.” In 1994, California’svoters approved Proposition 187,denying illegal immigrants access to public education and state-fundedhealth care. A federal court laterruled that law unconstitutional. In1996, Congress passed a law thattoughened measures to bar illegalentry into the United States.

ECONOMIC DEBATEThose who favor limits claim thatimmigrants take jobs from Amer-icans. However, data suggest thatimmigration has not hurt the econ-omy and may have helped fuel its growth. At the same time thatmillions of immigrant workers—including undocumented workers—were joining the work force, unem-ployment fell from 7.1 percent in1980 to 4.3 percent in March 2001,the lowest rate in 30 years.

Another economic argumentfocuses on wages. Economists agreethat immigrants tend to work forlower wages than native-born workers.

that “large-scale immigration is notserving the needs and interests ofthe country.”

RISING NUMBERSFrom 1900 into the 1940s, econom-ic troubles and rapid populationgrowth spurred more than 16 mil-lion Europeans to move to theUnited States. The same pressureshave recently hit Asia and LatinAmerica, with the same effect onthe United States. Between 1970and 1998, the immigrant popu-lation of the United States nearlytripled, soaring to over 26 million.

ILLEGAL ENTRYComplicating the debate has beenthe issue of illegal immigrants. By

Briam Saiti left war-tornBosnia and arrived in NewYork City, where he worked

to save money to send for hisbrother and parents. But his familymay never be able to join him.

For hundreds of years, immi-grants working for their dreams haveshaped the United States. Latinoranchers developed many of the toolsand skills of the American cowboy.Chinese laborers laid the tracks of thetranscontinental railroad. AfricanAmericans, though not voluntaryimmigrants, labored to develop theagriculture of the South and theindustry of the North. Farmers andworkers of every origin and ethnicitybuilt the nation we know today.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEBut immigration has been arguedthroughout American history. In the1700s, Benjamin Franklin worriedabout the number of Germans immi-grating to Pennsyl-vania. Anti-immi-gration sentiment spurred thenativist movement that developed inthe 1830s and the “America First”campaign of the 1920s.

Americans today are divided onthe issue. Some agree with NewYork City mayor Rudolph Giulianithat immigrants “challenge us withnew ideas and new perspectives.”Others side with Dan Stein of the Federation for AmericanImmigration Reform, who has said

The Debate over Immigration

Should new laws restrict or expand immigration?

History of Immigration in the United States

1106

Chinese ExclusionAct severely restrictsimmigration fromChina (page 460).

Benjamin Franklindenounces Germanimmigrants.

Nativists form Know-Nothing Party to protestincrease in immigration(page 319).

President Clevelandvetoes bill requiringimmigrants to pass literacy test.

Emergency Quota Act begins era of limits on immigration (page 621).

1751 1853 1882 1896 1921

“The U.S. has this

terrible problem.

. . . The smartest

people in the

world want to

come here.”JENNIFER HUNT, ECONOMIST

Those who favor limits claimthat new immigrants do not mixwith other groups, forming ethnicneighborhoods that divide society.Others believe that immigrantsenrich American life with diversemusic, arts, and ideas.

MORAL ISSUESThe issue of asylum—providing asafe place for people fleeing anoppressive government—has beenthe toughest of all. While immigra-tion is allowed for political asylum,those who flee famine or povertyare turned away. Are such choicesfair? In the words of social scientistNathan Glazer, “Poorly paid offi-cials must make decisions thatwould stump a professor of ethics.”

Some rules allow relatives ofimmigrants to enter the country.Representative Lamar Smith ofTexas believes that these rulesadmit immigrants who “have nomarketable skills and end up onwelfare.” As Glazer notes, concernabout the number of immigrantsconflicts with sympathy for those“trying to bring in wives, children,parents, brothers, and sisters.”

Alan Simpson, a former U.S.senator, believes that there are sim-ply too many immigrants. Slowimmigration for five years, he pro-posed, to gain “breathing space.”But Americans remain divided. InGallup polls conducted at the turnof this century, 43 percent of thoseanswering favored the Simpsonidea, while 54 percent agreed thatimmigration should either be keptat its present level or increased.

participate in American life.Statistics show that the percentageof immigrants gaining citizenshipdeclined from 64 percent in 1970 to35 percent in 1997, the lowestrate in the past century. Expertsattribute the sharp drop to a varietyof factors, including rising numbersof illegal immigrants, a backlog ofapplications, and a presumed lackof interest among many immi-grants. The oath of U.S. citizenshipcarries with it such responsibilitiesas voting, serving on juries, and, insome cases, military service.

CULTURAL CONCERNSThe diversity of population in theUnited States has raised concernsthat America has no common cul-ture. Some say that at 10 percent ofthe population, foreigners are toonumerous in America. HistorianDavid Kennedy points out that in1910 the percentage was muchhigher—14.7 percent.

A team of Harvard University econo-mists estimated that one-third of thegap between low-paid and high-paidworkers results from higher numbersof immigrants. But they also reportedthat other factors—foreign trade,declining union membership, andnew technology—play a greater rolein lowering wages.

At the other end of the spec-trum, immigrants fill skilled, high-paying jobs as well. Current lawallows 195,000 highly skilled immi-grants to enter the country eachyear. Businesses have lobbied hardfor Congress to increase this num-ber. Yale University economistJennifer Hunt sees the irony in thisissue: “The U.S. has this terribleproblem. . . . The smartest people inthe world want to come here.”

CITIZENSHIP RESPONSIBILITYSome people are concerned thatmany immigrants never becomecitizens and so fail to completely

Epilogue 1107

Immigration Actloosens restrictionsin place since 1921(page 897).

Congress passeslaws that limitbenefits to illegalimmigrants.

Census Bureau estimatesnation’s foreign-born at28.4 million, or 1 in 10residents (page 1092).

California passes Prop-osition 187, excludingbenefits to illegal immigrants (page 1092).

1965 1994 1996 2000

Members of the Latin American community in Los Angeles raise their hands to bless fruitbaskets as a sign of immigrants’ daily work in California’s fields. The sign reads “This fruit isthe product of immigrants’ labor.”

PREDICTING EFFECTSHow might the measures restrictingillegal immigrants affect future lawsthat regulate legal immigration?

RESEARCH LINKS

CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links forthe Epilogue to find out more aboutThe Debate over Immigration.

• There are fewer males aged 15 to 29,the group most likely to commitcrimes.

• The trade in crack cocaine slowed.• The unemployment rate gradually

decreased throughout the 1990s.Generally, when more peoplehave jobs, crime rates fall.

Perhaps the biggest factor hasbeen new policing efforts. Policedepartments have taken officers outof patrol cars and put them back onthe streets. Police have also taken amore active role in their neighbor-hoods. Crime prevention methodsnow focus on an intense effort to

crimes and car thefts increased bymore than 20 percent.

Beginning in 1992, however,these rates began to drop and con-tinued declining throughout thedecade. The FBI announced that in1999 overall crime had declined 16percent since 1995 and 20 percentsince 1990. What’s more, the 1999violent crime rate had dipped to a20-year low, while the murder ratehad dropped to 6 per 100,000, thelowest figure since 1966.

RECENT SUCCESS Experts have identified a few causesfor falling crime rates:

On an early March day in2001, Alicia Zimmer, a student at Santana High

School outside San Diego, foundherself in the middle of gunfire inthe hallways. A 15-year-old boy hadbrought a gun to school and hadbegun firing at his fellow students.“I was probably about 10 feet awayfrom some of the victims,” Zimmersaid, adding that she saw “a boylaying on the floor with his facedown,” and a girl with “blood allover her arm.” Before the shooterwas apprehended, two people werekilled and 13 were injured. Schoolshootings have become more com-mon in the United States and arejust one reason why, despite anoverall decrease in crime duringthe 1990s, Americans continue toexpress concerns over public safety.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEIn 1968, opinion polls reported thatfor the first time, Americans calledcrime the nation’s single worstproblem. Since then, crime hasremained high on the list ofnational problems.

Crime rates generally increasedduring the 1970s, due in part to ris-ing unemployment and inflation,increased drug use, civil unrest, andprotests against the Vietnam War.But in the 1980s, the spread ofcrack cocaine abuse fueled a majorjump in crime. From 1986 to theearly 1990s, the rates of violent

Crime and Public SafetyWill tougher gun control laws reduce

the incidence of crime?

History of Crime and Public Safety in the United States

1108

Organized crime thrivesduring Prohibition(page 643).

Second Amendment,protecting right tobear arms, is ratified(page 149).

New York City orga-nizes first full-time,salaried police force(page 471).

Miranda v. Arizona:police must inform suspects of their legalrights (pages 896, 900).

Brady Act aimsto reduce thespread of handguns.

Increased drug abusecontributes to risingcrime.

1791 1844 1920s 1966 1980s 1993

School students at John Bartram High School in Philadelphia go through metal detectors asthey enter the school one day after a school shooting.

(NRA), which is opposed to toughergun-control laws, argues that gun-control laws violate this right tobear arms. Others contend that theamendment was not intended toguarantee a right to personalweapons. Rather, its purpose is toprotect the state’s right to maintainmilitary units.

TOUGHER SENTENCESIn addition to looking at hand gunlaws, Americans have sought to bat-tle crime by putting more people inprison. The federal government andmany states recently passed “threestrikes” laws. Under these laws, anyperson found guilty of two previouscrimes receives a stiff sentence oftwenty to thirty years after convic-tion for a third.

While many applaud this get-tough policy, others claim that itsuffers from a serious problem:racial bias. Blacks represent just 12percent of the U.S. population andabout 13 percent of those whoreported using illegal drugs on a

intervene with troubled youthbefore they commit a crime.

CONTINUING EFFORTS Despite what appears to be a safernation, however, many Americanscontinue to worry about crime. Forone thing, gun violence is on therise. According to the FBI, gunswere used in 70 percent of all homi-cides in 1999, up from 60 percentthe year before. In addition, somesocial scientists contend that with aslumping economy a new crimewave is just over the horizon. Eventhough the overall murder rate hasdeclined since 1990, crime contin-ues to command public attention.Experts are split over two issuesrelated to reducing crime further:gun control and tougher sentencing.

GUN CONTROLIn 1993, President Bill Clintonsigned the Brady Act, which calledfor states to place a five-day waitingperiod on the sale of handguns.During that period, police checkthe potential buyer’s background. Ifthey find a criminal record, a gunpermit is denied. However, fouryears later, in June 1997, the BradyAct was substantially weakenedwhen the Supreme Court ruled thatthe federal government could notforce state or local officials to runbackground checks on potentialbuyers of handguns.

At the center of the gun-controlissue lies a long-standing constitu-tional debate. The Second Amend-ment to the Constitution states this:“A well-regulated militia, being nec-essary to the security of a free state,the right of the people to keep andbear arms shall not be infringed.”The National Rifle Association

As the 21st

century begins,

Americans find

themselves

grappling with

new forms of

violent crime.

Epilogue 1109

Republicans includetougher crime laws intheir Contract withAmerica (page 1070).

Supreme Court rulesthat certain provisionsof the Brady Act areunconstitutional.

On September 11, terrorist attacks in New York and at thePentagon kill thousands.

2 students kill 13 andthen themselves atColumbine High Schoolin Colorado (page 1068).

1994 1997 1999 2001

PREDICTING EFFECTSWhat methods do you think thenation will employ to more effectivelyprevent terrorist attacks?

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monthly basis. Yet three-quartersof all prison sentences for posses-sion of drugs involve AfricanAmericans. Many civil rights groupssay that such differential treatmentmust end.

NEW CHALLENGESAs the 21st century begins,Americans face a number of newchallenges. Deadly school shoot-ings have brought attention to theissue of youth violence, and violentcrime in America’s cities remains anational concern. But the greatestchallenge to public safety may bethe renewed threat of terrorism.During the mid-1990s, a series ofbombings signaled a disturbingnew era of terrorism in America.The bombing of the World TradeCenter in 1993, the 1995 OklahomaCity bombing, and the bombing atAtlanta’s Centennial Park in 1996all contributed to a growing senseof public vulnerability.

Following the events ofSeptember 11, 2001, in OctoberPresident Bush signed into law newanti-terrorism measures. These lawsgreatly increased the authority oflocal, state, and federal law enforce-ment agencies to obtain and toshare information about anyoneliving in the United States, but drewsevere criticism for intruding onpersonal privacy.

It now appears that Americanswill be struggling to balance theneed for domestic security againstits costs—in terms of privacy, con-venience, and dollars—well intothe 21st century.

IMPROVING QUALITY

People have offered many ideas onhow to improve schools. Some crit-ics say that lack of discipline is amajor problem. Others point to thedisparity in technology betweenwealthy and poor schools. Duringhis presidency, Bill Clinton calledfor all schools in the country to beconnected to the Internet and itsvast supply of information.

Another reform receiving sup-port is the creation of charterschools. In this plan, certain schoolsreceive a charter, or contract, from alocal school district, a state educa-tion department, or a university.Charter schools promise innova-tions in education. In return for free-dom to operate as they choose, char-ter schools promise to increase stu-dents’ achievement levels. By theend of the 1990s, about 1,600 suchschools were in place in approxi-mately 34 states.

Some school reformers favorthe voucher system, in which statesissue a certificate to parents, whothen use it to pay for their child’seducation at a school of theirchoice. The school exchanges thevoucher for payment from the gov-ernment. Supporters of the vouchersystem believe that parents willseek schools that provide higher-quality education. Public schoolswill then be forced to compete withprivate and parochial schools, andwith one another. The competitionshould increase the overall quality

suburban schools and inner-cityschools. Many students in innercities attended schools that werehoused in decaying buildings andthat had dated instructional materi-als. On the other hand, students inthe suburbs enjoyed new facilitiesand equipment. In both the innercity and the suburbs, violence anddrugs have raised issues of safety.

KEY ISSUESThe debate over public educationhas focused on three key issues.First is the question of how tochange schools to improve the

quality of education. Second is theissue of school financing. Shoulddifferent school systems in a statereceive equal funding? The thirdissue has to do with affirmativeaction—programs intended to rem-edy past discrimination.

In the winter of 2001, PaulVallas, former head of theChicago public school system,

received some discouraging news. Athree-year study found “little signifi-cant change” in the city’s ailing pub-lic high schools—despite six years ofintense reform efforts. “The issue isthat the problem is tougher than wethought it was,” the study reported,“and we have to find more intenseways of improving what we’ve beendoing.” In response to the study,Vallas echoed those sentiments. “Westill have a long way to go,” he said.The plight of Chicago’s publicschools highlights the nation’s ongo-ing struggle to improve education.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEFrom the earliest days of the nation,American leaders have stressed theimportance of education. In the19th century, reformers helpedestablish a system of government-supported public schools. By 1900,almost three-quarters of all eight- tofourteen-year-olds attended school.Even with these advances, somegroups suffered. Public secondaryeducation failed to reach mostAfrican Americans in the early 20thcentury. Not until 1954, with theSupreme Court decision Brown v.Board of Education of Topeka, did fed-eral court decisions call for an endto separate—and usually inferior—schools for African Americans.

By the 1960s, the nation’sschools wrestled with the problemof a rising discrepancy between

Issues in EducationHow can a country guarantee equal education for all?

History of Education in the United States

1110

African Americans whohad been slaves begin tocreate and attend schools(pages 388, 490–491).

Emma Willard opensTroy Female Seminary,an academic schoolfor girls (page 256).

Horace Mann begins thepush to spread publiceducation (page 488).

Federal governmentbegins providing aidto public schools(page 895).

Brown v. Board ofEducation finds segregat-ed schools unconstitu-tional (pages 914–915).

1821 1837 1865 1954 1965

From the earliest

days of the

nation, American

leaders have

stressed the

importance of

education.

to admit Bakke—but alsosaid that institutions coulduse race as one factoramong others in deter-mining admission to acollege. In 1996, voters inCalifornia passed an ini-tiative that banned race orgender preferences in col-lege admissions.

On January 3, 2001, alower federal court issueda new ruling that ex-panded upon the Bakkedecision. In Hopwood v.Texas , a federal judgeruled that a university

could not legally have separateadmissions tracks for white andminority candidates. The court saidthat such a plan discriminatesagainst nonminority students.

Most recently, President GeorgeW. Bush has made a commitmentthat no child will be left behind. Acornerstone of his education pro-gram is accountability for studentperformance with national annualreading and math assessments ingrades 3 through 8. Clearly the issueof how to reform public educationwill continue to be the subject ofdebate as President Bush pushes hisagenda for education reform.

AFFIRMATIVE ACTIONMany Americans support the idea ofprograms that give women andminorities greater educational andworkplace opportunities. At the sametime, a large majority disapprove ofquotas, the setting aside of a certainnumber of jobs or college admissionsfor members of these groups.

This point became the focus ofa court case challenging affirmativeaction. In the 1970s, Allan Bakkehad twice been rejected by themedical school at the University ofCalifornia, Davis, which insteadadmitted a number of minority stu-dents who had lower grades andtest scores. Bakke argued that hisrights had been denied. TheSupreme Court, in Regents of theUniversity of California v. Bakke(1978), ruled that the school had

of education, supportersargue. During his run foroffice in 2000, PresidentGeorge W. Bush voicedsupport for vouchers. “Idon’t know whether ornot the voucher systemis a panacea,” he said,“but I’m willing to giveit a shot to determinewhether it makes sense.”

FINANCINGEDUCATION

In most states, schoolfunding relies on localproperty taxes—taxespaid on the value of realestate in a town or city.When schools are fund-ed primarily by propertytaxes, however, schoolsin poorer areas receiveless money than those inwealthier communities. Accordingto the magazine WashingtonMonthly, one New Jersey townspends $13,394 per pupil onschooling. Another town just fivemiles away spends only $7,889.Court cases have raised legal chal-lenges to unequal school funding inmore than 20 states.

In 1993, Michigan votersapproved a plan that abandonedreliance on local property taxes asthe basis of school funding. Nowschools get their money from asmaller state-controlled propertytax, an increased sales tax on con-sumer purchases, and increasedtaxes on purchases of such items ascigarettes and alcohol. Because thestate sets property tax rates andmonitors its school systems’ bud-gets, it can even out inequalities.

Epilogue 1111

A federal commissionreport A Nation at Riskseverely criticizes publiceducation (page 1047).

Education summitissues Goals 2000.

Number of charterschools in Americareaches roughly1,600.

California voters banaffirmative action ineducation and otherareas.

1983 1989 1996 2000

Jessica Riley, a hearing-impaired volunteer teacher,helps a hearing-impairedsecond grader with hisreading.

PREDICTING EFFECTSWhat do you think will be the mostimportant education issue the countrywill face in the coming years? Why?

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computer-science graduates andprofessors used the system.

At about this time a digitalrevolution arose as thousands ofindustries across the country beganusing computers to run their busi-nesses, and millions of Americansbought personal computers fortheir homes. With so many com-puters suddenly in use, NSFNETsteadily grew into the large andcrowded Internet, which includesthe World Wide Web.

THE COMPUTER REVOLUTIONThe numbers alone demonstrate theinfluence of computer technologyon modern life. By mid-1999, morethan 80 million Americans werelogging onto the Internet either athome or at work. In 2000, about 60percent of U.S. households owned atleast one personal computer. What’smore, nearly every business in thenation, from hospitals to account-ing firms and airports, has imple-mented computer systems to handlemany of its daily operations.

Many observers credit com-puter technology with driving thenation’s astonishing economicgrowth during the 1990s. Withcomputers allowing employees innearly every field to perform theirjobs more quickly and easily,worker productivity and outputincreased—a major reason for thedecade-long boom.

of inexpensive personal computershas made it possible for ordinaryfamilies to use the latest technology.

THE INTERNETA very important component ofcomputer use today is the Internet, aworldwide computer network. In the1960s, the Department of Defensebegan to network its computers inorder to protect its ability to launchnuclear missiles following a fearedSoviet attack. Then in the late 1980s,the National Science Foundation cre-ated its own network, NSFNET, andallowed anyone to access it.However, only a small group of

On a spring day in 1997, 12-year-old Sean Reddenhad just logged onto the

Internet in his home in Denton,Texas, when he encountered a star-tling message: “Would someonehelp me?” The plea turned out to bea distress call from an Internet usernearly 7,000 miles away in Finland.The person had suffered an asth-matic attack that left her barely ableto breathe. After obtaining moreinformation from the women,Redden contacted his local police.They in turn alerted Finnish author-ities, who located the women andrushed her to medical care at a near-by hospital. This digital rescue is justone example of the power and reachof the Internet, which has dramati-cally changed American society likenothing else in recent history.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEIn the 1940s, when computers firstcame into use, they took up hugerooms and required fans or elabo-rate air-conditioning systems tocool the parts that provided themwith power. In the years since, theparts that power computers havebecome miniaturized and have beenmade much more powerful. Today, not only can personal computersperform more operations morequickly than the first giant comput-ers did, but they are also affordablefor many people. The development

The CommunicationsRevolution

Can information on the Internet be both reliable and accessible?

History of the Communications Revolution

1112

First browser, or softwarefor accessing the WorldWide Web, developed.

U.S. Department ofDefense createsARPANET.

Three million people world-wide use the Internet.

1969 1991 1994

Many observers

credit computer

technology

with driving

the nation’s

astonishing

economic growth

during the 1990s.

recipients and homeless people. InLaGrange, Georgia, the mayorhelped the local cable company byendorsing a deal to give freeInternet access for one year to allthe town’s residents who sign up forbasic cable. Meanwhile, libraries,schools, and senior centers providefree access. A number of proposalsto provide people with greater accessto computers and training are work-ing their way through the federaland various state governments.

THE FUTUREAs the 21st century begins, the com-puter revolution shows no sign ofslowing. The digital technology thathas so transformed the nation con-tinues to improve. As the computerage rolls on, Americans and the restof the world most likely will faceexciting new opportunities.

year. What concerns officials evenmore is the growing possibility of“cyberterrorism”—hackers stealingor altering vital military informa-tion such as nuclear missile codes.

Meanwhile, a large number ofAmericans worry about the growing“digital divide,” the notion thatcomputer technology remains out ofreach for many of the nation’s poor.According to recent statistics, nearly80 percent of households earning$75,000 or more owned a computer,compared with only about 20 per-cent of households earning between$15,000 and $25,000. Many fearthat poor families unable to pur-chase computers are falling even fur-ther behind in a country where com-puter skills are fast becoming anecessity.

CLOSING THE GAPActually, the nation is working toclose the gap. In San José, California,for example, officials were able toinvest $90,000 in a program toteach computer skills to welfare

EVERYDAY USESComputer technology not only hasimproved how Americans work, butalso has dramatically altered howthey live. Millions of citizens nowbuy everything from flowers tobooks to stock on-line. In 1999, thenation spent $18.2 billion in elec-tronic transactions, also known as e-commerce, and analysts predictthat amount will soar to $108 billionby 2003.

While Americans once commu-nicated strictly by phone or letter,they now talk to each other moreand more through their computers.Computers have also affected theway Americans learn. In 2000, 77percent of public school class-rooms had Internet access, up 13percent from 1999. A growingnumber of universities offer classesand even complete degree pro-grams wholly over the Internet.

HIGH-TECH CHALLENGESFor all the benefits and opportuni-ties it has brought, computer tech-nology also has created its own setof challenges. There are few lawsand regulations governing theInternet. Thus, while it is a treasuretrove of useful information, theWorld Wide Web also has become acenter for the dissemination ofpornographic and hate material.

The growth of computers alsohas led to the growth of “cyber-crime.” Computer vandals, knowncommonly as hackers, engage ineverything from the theft of socialsecurity numbers and other vitalpersonal information to the dis-abling of entire computer systems.The Federal Bureau of Investigationestimates that cybercrime costsAmericans more than $10 billion a

Epilogue 1113

Congress passes Telecommunications Act,allowing companies to engage in a varietyof communications endeavors (page 1084).

Over 200 million peoplearound the world use theInternet.

1996 2001

College seniorDemetress Robertsuses a computerprogram to teachLatino Outreachstudent AngelLeonardo aboutfractions.

PREDICTING EFFECTSWhat do you think will be a newbreakthrough and a new challengefor Americans in the next decade ofthe Computer Age?

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need to protect patients’ rights andthe need to expand health coverageto the ranks of the uninsured.

SOARING DRUG COSTSWhen Medicare began in 1965, thecost of prescription drugs wassmall compared with that of hospi-tal stays and doctors’ visits. Butwith the development of new med-icines and treatments for heart dis-ease, arthritis, and other chronicconditions, drugs have become the fastest-growing component ofhealth-care spending. About 40 per-cent of people on Medicare don’t

ability Act, passed in 1996,removed that concern. It requiredinsurers to provide coverage to allnew employees who had had healthinsurance before changing jobs.

HEALTH CARE REFORMHealth care continued to be a hottopic during the 2000 presidentialcampaign and beyond. One of theissues up for debate was the needfor prescription-drug coverage forthe elderly, a reform many thoughtshould be addressed as part of anoverhaul of the Medicare system.Also high on the agenda were the

To pay for the medicine sheneeds, 79-year-old WinifredSkinner walks the streets of

Des Moines every day collectingcans. “I don’t want to ask for hand-outs. I want to earn it,” she insists.The soaring cost of prescriptiondrugs—especially among the elderly—is just one of the key issues facingAmerican health care today.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVENational health insurance forAmericans was first proposed byPresident Harry S. Truman in 1949,but Congress failed to approve it. Ittook the legislative skill of PresidentLyndon B. Johnson to enact Medi-care in 1965. The program coveredmost of the cost of medical care forpeople age 65 and above.

By the 1990s, Medicare was tak-ing an increasing share of federalspending. In hopes of controllingcosts and providing universal cov-erage, President Clinton proposed acomplex plan. However, lobbyingby doctors and private insurers andthe public’s mistrust of big govern-ment caused Congress to defeatClinton’s plan in 1994.

Meanwhile, many Americanswere afraid they would be deniedhealth insurance because of pre-existing conditions—medical con-ditions that are present when a per-son applies for coverage. The HealthInsurance Portability and Account-

Curing the Health Care System

How should medical coverage for the uninsured be funded?

History of Health Care in the United States

1114

President Johnson and Congress enactMedicare and Medicaidinto law (page 896).

Truman introduces a bill fornational health insurancethat is ultimately rejected by Congress (page 845).

Department of Health,Education, and Welfareis established.

President Nixonincreases funding forMedicare and Medicaid(pages 1001–1002).

AIDS (Acquired ImmuneDeficiency Syndrome) isfirst identified (page 1046).

1949 1953 1965 1970s 1981

Irene Holmes holds her son while technician Roberta Montoya takes a blood sampleat the Sandia Health Center.

to have any denial of care by ahealth insurer be reviewed by out-side medical experts. Patients whowere not satisfied with the outcomeof their review would have the rightto take their health-insuranceproviders to court. Members of theBush administration have opposedthe last part of the bill, saying theywant to put a cap on damages andrestrict suits to federal courts,which are often less generous to theplaintiff than state courts.

THE UNINSURED MILLIONSThe number of people withouthealth insurance continues to beextensive, totaling 15.5 percent ofAmericans at the turn of this centu-ry. Late in 2000, leading advocatesof consumers, the insurance indus-try, and hospitals—groups that hadonce been adversaries—jointly pro-posed a costly new plan to extendhealth insurance to more than halfof the uninsured population.

Some 11 million of the unin-sured are children. In 1997, the federal government developed the Children’s Health InsuranceProgram (CHIP) to provide fundingto states so that they could offerhealth coverage to children of low-income people who earn too muchto qualify for Medicaid (which cov-ers the cost of medical care for thepoor). By the end of 2000, morethan 3 million children had bene-fited from the program, and a feder-al initiative was in place to reachmillions more.

have been proposed are placingmore restrictions on Medicare ben-efits, raising the age of eligibility, orincreasing the share to be paid by the elderly. Michael Tanner ofthe Cato Institute favors raisingthe age rather than the premium:“premiums already represent a sig-nificant burden for many elderlyAmericans. . . . Any major increase . . . risk[s] pushing many of theelderly into poverty.”

PROTECTING PATIENTS’ RIGHTSAnother priority issue of the 2000campaign was a bill that wouldmake it easier for privately insuredAmericans to resolve disputes withtheir health maintenance organiz-ations (HMOs) or other insuranceproviders. The bill, called thePatient Protection Act, would allowthe insured to seek emergency carewithout receiving prior approvaland to visit pediatricians, gynecolo-gists, and other specialists morefreely. It also granted them the right

have prescription-drug coverage.Many elderly citizens will pay wellover $1,000 a year out of pocket formedicine—or else do without.

During the 2000 campaign, theDemocrats proposed a drug benefitthrough Medicare, while Republicanswanted to give seniors the option tochoose their own insurance plans,subsidized by the federal govern-ment. An even bigger controversywas looming, however: whether thedrug-benefit issue should be tackledon its own or whether the govern-ment should first deal with the big-ger problem of reforming Medicareas a whole.

THE FATE OF MEDICAREThe outlook on Medicare is simple.If nothing changes, Medicare willstart running out of money by 2010and is expected to go bankrupt in2025. The reasons are rising costsand demographic changes.

Americans are living longernow than they were in 1965—aboutseven years longer on average. As aresult, seniors form a greater pro-portion of the population thanbefore. While rising numbers ofelderly drive up the cost ofMedicare, the revenues targeted topay for it are expected to go down.As the population ages, fewer peo-ple will work and pay the taxes thatfund Medicare.

Today, four workers pay taxesfor every person who receivesMedicare, while in 2035, only twoworkers will be available to do thejob. Workers’ taxes will go up—espe-cially if health costs rise.

What is to be done? This is oneof the toughest questions facingpolicymakers in the early 21st cen-tury. Among the approaches that

“Health care is

too important for

any modern

society to permit

many of its

citizens to go

without it.”HENRY J. AARON, FORMER DIRECTOR,

BROOKINGS ECONOMIC STUDIES PROGRAM

Epilogue 1115

The Children’s HealthInsurance Program(CHIP) is enacted.

Congress passes HealthInsurance Portabilityand Accountability Act(HIPAA).

1996 1997 2001

PREDICTING EFFECTSDo you think that more or fewerAmericans will receive health carecoverage ten years from now?Explain why you think so.

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Medical Savings Accountspilot program through 2002as "Archer MSAs."

share of the poor, and their num-bers are growing rapidly for manyethnic groups. The poverty rateamong children in the United Statesis higher than that in any otherWestern industrialized nation.

Like Jim in Boston, many of the poor are homeless. During the 1980s, cuts in welfare and foodstamp benefits brought the problemof homelessness to national atten-tion. According to the NationalAlliance to End Homelessness(NAEH), about 750,000 Americansare without shelter on any givennight.

Many experts on the homelessbelieve that the lack of housing issimply a symptom of larger prob-lems. These include unemploy-ment, low-wage jobs, and highhousing costs, and in some cases,personal problems such as sub-stance abuse or mental illness.

SOME CAUSES OF POVERTYExperts agree that there are numer-ous causes of poverty. Lack of skillskeeps many welfare recipients fromfinding or keeping jobs. They needmore than job training, manyobservers insist, they also needtraining in work habits.

Another factor that holds backincreased employment is limitedaccess to child care. EconomistDavid Gordon related the results ofa study of mothers who received

ity did not last. In the 1960s,President Lyndon B. Johnson de-clared “unconditional war on pover-ty” as his administration expandededucation, training, and financialaid for the poor. The proportion ofpeople living below the povertylevel—the minimum income neces-sary to provide basic living stan-dards—fell from 20 percent in1962 to only 11 percent in 1973.However, economic hard timesreappeared in the early 1980s andthe poverty rate began to rise. In1999, 32.3 million Americans livedbelow the poverty line—which thatyear was marked by an annualincome of $17,029 or less for a fam-ily of four.

AMERICANS IN POVERTYMany Americans who live in pover-ty are employed. Known as theworking poor, they hold low-wagejobs with few benefits and almostnever any health insurance.Children also account for a major

Jim, a 55-year-old painter bytrade, retreats each night to aBoston homeless shelter. He

spends his days engaging in anywork he can find—but it’s neverenough to provide him with a roofover his head. Too many of the jobsavailable, he says, “pay only theminimum wage or a bit higher, andthey cannot cover the rent and otherbills.” Jim, who says his dream is to“get a steady job, find an apart-ment, and settle down,” insists thathe never imagined he would findhimself homeless. “I never thoughtit could happen to me,” he says. Jimis just one of more than 32 millioncitizens considered poor in a nationthat continues to cope with thechallenge of eradicating poverty.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVESome part of the American popula-tion has faced poverty since the“starving time” at Jamestown dur-ing the winter of 1609–1610. In the20th century, poverty was mostwidespread during the GreatDepression of the 1930s. That eco-nomic disaster led to several newgovernment programs such as the1935 Social Security Act, which cre-ated a pension fund for retired peo-ple over age 65 and offered govern-ment aid to poor people for thefirst time.

Though the Depression endedwith World War II, postwar prosper-

Breaking the Cycle of Poverty

Who has the responsibility for helping the poor?

1116

Many of those

Americans who

live in poverty

are employed.

History of the Cycle of Poverty in the United States

Michael Harrington’s TheOther America shocks thenation by revealing extentof poverty (page 888).

High unemployment in thewake of the panic of 1893leaves thousands homeless(pages 427–428).

Social Security Act ispassed; governmentgives aid to poor for firsttime (pages 698, 707).

President Johnsonannounces War onPoverty (page 894).

1894 1935 1962 1964

1965 1994 1996

Another factor contributing topoverty has been discriminationagainst racial minorities. Currentstatistics highlight how much moreprevalent poverty is among minori-ties. In 1999, the poverty rate amongwhites was 7.7 percent, while amongHispanics and African Americans itwas 22.8 percent and 23.6 percent,respectively.

FEDERAL WELFARE REFORMAs the nation continued to strugglewith poverty and homelessness, thecry for welfare reform grew louder.Critics of the system argued thatproviding financial aid to the poorgave them little incentive to bettertheir lives and thus helped to createa culture of poverty. In 1996, theRepublican Congress and PresidentClinton signed a bill—the PersonalResponsibility and Work Oppor-tunity Reconciliation Act—that cutmore than $55 billion in welfarespending over six years and put a

welfare. They could eke out a living,he found, by combining paid workand some outside support with wel-fare payments and food stamps.But, Gordon asked, suppose one ofthese mothers left welfare and tooka full-time minimum-wage job. “[If]she cannot find free child care andhas to pay the going rate, her stan-dard of living . . . would decline by20 percent.” To help meet the needfor child care, a 1996 federal welfarelaw included $3.5 billion in fund-ing for day care.

For millions of Americans, theU.S. public education system hasfailed to provide the tools necessaryfor climbing out of poverty. AnneLewis, an education writer, pointsout that “three-fourths of all wel-fare/food stamp recipients performat the lowest levels of literacy.” Inturn, she notes, low levels of literacygenerally lead to low employmentrates and lower wages.

Epilogue 1117

Nixon’s welfare reformbill—the Family Assist-ance Plan—dies in theSenate (page 1001).

Congress passes Per-sonal Responsibility andWork Opportunity Recon-ciliation Act (page 1068).

President Bush pushes for CharitableChoice Act, passedin the House in July.

Welfare benefits andfood stamps are cutunder President Reagan(page 1041).

1970 1980s 1996 2001

Amherst College freshmen inMassachusetts hoe a field for a farmrun by a local food bank in a schooloutreach community-service project.

five-year limit on how long peoplecould receive welfare payments. Inaddition, the bill cut benefits torecipients who had not found a jobwithin two years.

Supporters cheered the reforms,claiming that they transformed asystem from one that fosters depen-dence to one that encourages self-reliance. Opponents of the lawaccused the federal government ofturning its back on the poor—espe-cially children.

Both proponents and critics ofthe bill agreed on one thing: thelaw’s success depended on puttingwelfare recipients to work. The federal government offered threeincentives to encourage businessesto hire people from the welfarerolls: tax credits for employers whohire welfare recipients, wage subsi-dies, and establishment of enter-prise zones, which provide taxbreaks to companies that locate ineconomically depressed areas.

Throughout 2001, PresidentGeorge W. Bush called for $8 billionto help religious and other volun-teer organizations to assume moreresponsibility for the needy. He sup-ports time limits on welfare benefitsand calls for able-bodied welfarerecipients to get jobs, attend school,or train for work. It may be yearsbefore anyone can say whether ornot the president’s or other pro-posed welfare reforms break thecycle of poverty.

PREDICTING EFFECTSWhat can be done to provide afford-able child care to help the workingpoor?

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Second, Americans now live longer,so an individual’s share of benefitsfrom the program is greater than inthe past. Third, the number of work-ers paying into Social Security perbeneficiary will drop dramaticallywhen the boomers start retiring.

Currently, Social Security col-lects more in taxes than it pays inbenefits. The extra goes into a “trustfund” that is invested. However,experts warn that if changes aren’tmade, by about the year 2015 theprogram will begin paying out moreto beneficiaries than it takes in from

Social Security, Medicare, andMedicaid have received a lot ofattention because the United Statespopulation is aging. This aging pop-ulation will put a severe financialstrain on these programs.

SOCIAL SECURITY FUNDING

The threat to Social Security can beattributed to a few important factors.First, when the baby boomers (thoseborn between 1946 and 1964) retire,their huge numbers—about 70 mil-lion by the year 2020—may overbur-den the entitlement programs.

Economist Lester Thurowgives new meaning to theterm generation gap. “In the

years ahead, class warfare is apt tobe redefined as the young againstthe old, rather than the poor againstthe rich,” he warns. Economics maybecome a major issue dividing gen-erations, as young workers shoulderthe costs of Social Security, Medicare,and Medicaid—the three majorentitlement programs funded bythe federal government.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEIn the 1935 Social Security Act, thegovernment promised to pay a pen-sion to older Americans, funded bya tax on workers and employers. Atthat time, President Franklin D.Roosevelt said that Social Securitywas not intended to provide anindividual’s retirement income, butit was a base on which workerswould build with private pensionfunds.

In 1965, new laws extendedSocial Security support. In addition,the government assumed mosthealth care costs for the elderlythrough the Medicare program andfor the poor through Medicaid.These programs are called entitle-ments because their benefits areestablished by law rather than byspecific appropriations by Congress.Thus, the recipients are entitled bylaw to the benefits.

Tough Choices About Social Security

How can Social Security be reformed so that it will have enough money to pay retirees?

History of Entitlements in the United States

1118

President Roosevelt signsSocial Security Act (page 707).

Changes to SocialSecurity allow reducedbenefits at early retirement—age 62.

President Johnsonsigns Medicare andMedicaid into law(page 896).

President Nixonincreases SocialSecurity payments(pages 901–902).

Congress includescost-of-living adjust-ments for SocialSecurity benefits.

1935 1961 1965 1970s 1975

Citizens in favor of protecting Social Security rally on the U.S. Capitol grounds.

were advocates for disabled workersand their families—a group that in1999 made up 17 percent of all Social Security beneficiaries.According to a report from theGeneral Accounting Office, underPresident Bush’s plan a worker whobecomes disabled and retires at age45, for example, would receive 4 per-cent to 18 percent less in benefits.

Some women’s groups alsoopposed privatization. They saidthat it would jeopardize the guaran-tee of lifetime, inflation-adjustedbenefits that the current SocialSecurity system provides. Becausewomen earn less than men, theywould have less to invest, and theirreturns would be lower.

Still others were concernedabout the risk involved in relying ona volatile stock market. They ques-tioned whether the funds in whichpeople would invest their SocialSecurity taxes would be secure.

The funds seemed at risk even infederal hands. Although Republicansand Democrats pledged during the2000 elections not to touch the SocialSecurity surplus (funds paid each yeartoward future pensions), the 2001budget fell short of expectations.Democrats blamed President Bush’stax cut, while Republicans accusedDemocrats of overspending. TheCongres s iona l Budget Of f i ceannounced that the governmentwould likely tap Social Security fundsin 2003. Bush maintained that thiswould only happen in the case of awar, recession, or national emer-gency. By Sept. 11, 2001, Americaexperienced all three.

• Invest Funds in the StockMarket Some people suggestthat the government shouldinvest some of Social Securitymoney in the stock market. Theyassume that stocks will rise, mak-ing the system healthier.

• Allow Individual InvestingOthers agree with allowing thefunds to be invested but wantindividuals to control where theirown funds are invested.

THE FUTURE OF THE FUNDSDuring the 2000 presidential elec-tion, exit polls found that some57 percent of Americans support-ed the “privatization” approachoutlined by President Bush duringhis campaign: allow workers todivert a portion of their SocialSecurity taxes into individualstock-market accounts. But thedetails of that plan had yet to beworked out.

Meanwhile, the proposal drewits share of critics. Among them

the payroll tax. The program willbegin to rely on the Social Securitytrust fund to pay retirees. If thattrend continues, after the year2036, the fund will run out of suffi-cient funds to pay retirees the fullbenefits due to them.

Some experts predict disaster,and Americans have listened. Onepoll found that 81 percent ofAmericans under 40 believe thatthe Social Security program needsto be changed to guarantee itsfinancial stability. StrengtheningSocial Security has consistentlyranked among the top issuesAmericans want Congress and thepresident to address.

OPTIONS FOR CHANGEA number of plans for reformingSocial Security have been proposed.These different views have becomethe main options being debated inCongress and around the country.

• Raise Social Security TaxesSome people have suggested smalltax hikes, arguing that since peo-ple’s incomes are expected to rise,they will be able to afford anincrease.

• Cut Benefits Some argue thatbenefits should be reduced byending automatic cost-of-livingadjustments or lowering pay-ments made to retirees who earnover a certain amount of moneyeach year. These wealthier people,they say, do not need to receivehigher payments.

• Raise the Retirement AgeBecause people can now workproductively later in life thanthey used to, some propose rais-ing the retirement age. That willreduce the payments made andincrease tax receipts.

Social Security,

Medicare, and

Medicaid have

received much

attention

because the

U.S. population

is aging.

Epilogue 1119

Social Security isreformed to providefinancial stability formany years.

President-Elect Bush proposes aplan to divert a portion of SocialSecurity tax into individual stock-market accounts.

President Clinton appointsAdvisory Council on SocialSecurity to report on system’sfinancial health.

1983 1994 2000

PREDICTING EFFECTSHow would the economy be bothhelped and hurt if Social Securitybenefits were cut?

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work and blue-collar jobs such asequipment repair.

In the academic world, womenare better represented than everbefore. In 1997, women received arecord number—nearly 41 per-cent—of all doctorate degreesissued by universities. More degreeswere given in the life sciences, thefield in which women were moststrongly represented.

For many women, job successinvolved getting the right creden-tials and targeting a growth indus-try. A 2000 survey by the women’sadvocacy group Catalyst found that91 percent of women with MBAdegrees working in informationtechnology reported high satisfac-tion with their current jobs, com-pared with only 82 percent of theirmale counterparts. “This translatesinto opportunity for women in thisgrowing industry,” said SheilaWellington, president of Catalyst.“They’re essentially telling us, ‘Thisis the place to be.’”

MONEY AND UPWARD MOBILITYDespite these positive signs, the keyissues of unequal pay and unequalrepresentation remain. Women arestill making less than their malecounterparts—averaging only 72cents for every dollar earned bymen. According to the National

Some women who choose topursue careers in business, govern-ment, or other organizations feelthat a glass ceiling limits theircareer progress. It is said to be glassbecause it is an invisible barrier thatkeeps women and minorities fromattaining promotion above a certainlevel. Its invisibility makes it diffi-cult to combat.

POSITIVE TRENDSWomen have made great strides inrecent decades. In 1997, they filledalmost half of all jobs in managerialand professional specialty areas.Women have also been enteringnew fields, including construction

Thirty-two years after enter-ing a management trainingprogram at Boston’s Federal

Reserve Bank, Cathy Minehan—now the bank’s president—is one ofa select group of female executiveswho hold 3.3 percent of the nation’shighest-paying jobs. “A critical ele-ment in making it to the top isbeing in the pipeline to do so, . . .”says Minehan. “Aside from . . .[that,] they have to believe they canmake it. . . . It is hard for women orminorities to believe they canprogress if they cannot look up andsee faces like their own at the top.”

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEIn 1961, President John F. Kennedynamed a commission to study thestatus of women in the workplace.Its report revealed that employerspaid women less than men forequal work. The report also saidthat women were rarely promotedto top positions in their fields.

Almost 40 years later, the U.S.Census Bureau found that morewomen than ever before workedoutside the home—about 60 per-cent. Women made up 47 percentof the American work force. Yetthey held only 12.5 percent of themost senior jobs in a sampling ofthe Fortune 500, the nation’s 500largest companies.

Women in the Work Force

Will the American workplace grant men and women equal opportunities?

History of Women at Work in the United States

1120

Average pay for womenworkers is $269 a year,compared with $498for men.

Women working inLowell, Massachusetts,textile mills strike(pages 213, 450–451).

1 out of 10 single whitewomen works outside thehome, earning half the payof men (pages 442, 450).

One out of five womenworks outside the home(pages 519–520).

Women enter new professions but battleunequal wages (page 648).

1834 1860 1899 1900 1920s

Women are still

making less

than their male

counterparts—

averaging only

72 cents for

every dollar.

existing companies are choosing tostart their own business. As of2000, according to the NationalFoundation for Women BusinessOwners, the number of women-owned businesses had doubled inthe last 13 years—totaling morethan 9.1 million firms—and consti-tuted the fastest-growing sector ofthe U.S. economy. Notes DixieJunk, owner of Junk Architects inKansas City, “It’s more than havinga business—you get to create theculture you want.”

IT PAYS TO BE FLEXIBLE Another area of change affectingwomen in the work force has beenan increasing number of options forflexible work arrangements, such aspart-time work and telecommutingopportunities. In 1996, 60 percentof companies surveyed had formalpolicies or guidelines for some typeof flexible work arrangement.

One Catalyst study tracking 24women who first used flexible workarrangements more than a decadeago found that all of the womennow held mid- and senior-levelpositions, and more than half hadearned promotions in the last 10years. Says Marcia Brumit Kropf,vice-president of research and infor-mation services, “Findings fromthis report suggest that eventhough working mothers mayreduce career involvement for aperiod of time—with the supportof the right company—careeradvancement does not have to getsidelined.”

Why are women underrepre-sented in the top jobs? In oneCatalyst poll of women executives,blame was placed on three factors:male stereotyping and preconcep-tions of women, women’s exclusionfrom informal networks of commu-nication, and women’s lack of sig-nificant management experience.

On the other hand, the respon-dents suggested some approachesthat had helped them succeed inthe corporate world: consistentlyexceed expectations, develop a stylewith which managers are comfort-able, seek out difficult assignments,and have an influential mentor.

STRIKING OUT ON THEIR OWNMany women who are frustrated bythe corporate environment at their

Committee on Pay Equity, there area variety of reasons for this discrep-ancy: women are often socialized toaim toward lower-paying jobs, oftenhave limited expectations abouttheir leadership potential, and mayhave conflicts between the demandsof work and family life.

In the nation’s most top-leveljobs, women continue to be vastlyoutnumbered by men. As of 2001,women headed only two Fortune500 corporations. Ninety of theFortune 500 companies had nowomen among the ranks of theircorporate officers. Of all line offi-cers—positions with profit-and-lossresponsibility—7.3 percent wereheld by women, while men held anoverwhelming 92.7 percent of thesepositions.

Epilogue 1121

Presidential Commissionon the Status of Womenreports: women are paidless than men (page 983).

Women earn 76 centsfor every dollar a manearns.

Women-owned busi-nesses are the fastest-growing sector of theU.S. economy.

20 states beginadjusting pay scalesto equalize pay(page 1049).

1961 1989 1998 2001

U.S. Appeals Court judge Rosemary Barkett (center) delivers the keynote address during aspecial session of Florida’s high court honoring the state’s first 150 female lawyers on June 15, 2000, in Tallahassee, Florida.

PREDICTING EFFECTSWhat can be done to afford womenthe same opportunities as men?

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lowed, Congress created theEnvironmental Protection Agency(EPA) and enacted such measures asthe Clean Air Act, the Clean WaterAct, and the Endangered SpeciesAct—all in an effort to restore thehealth of the country’s naturalresources.

THE MOVEMENT CONTINUESBy the 1990s, Americans had donemuch to improve the environment.About two-thirds of the nation’s

Roosevelt established the firstwildlife refuge in Florida and addedmore than 150 million acres to thenation’s forest preserves.

The 1960s and 1970s witnesseda resurgence of the conservationmovement. In 1962, marine biolo-gist Rachel Carson published SilentSpring, which warned of the destruc-tive effects of pesticides. The bookawakened Americans to the damagethey were inflicting on the environ-ment. In the two decades that fol-

In 1990, Oregon logger BillHaire hung a new ornament onthe mirror of his truck: a tiny

owl with an arrow through its head.The trinket represented the spottedowl as well as Haire’s feelings aboutthe federal government’s decisionto declare millions of acres of forestoff limits to the logging industry inorder to protect this endangeredspecies of bird.

“If it comes down to my familyor that bird,” said Haire, “that bird’sgoing to suffer.” The battle betweenloggers and environmentalists overthe fate of the spotted owl is justone example of the nation’s on-going struggle to balance conser-vation with industrial progress.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEConservation, the managementand protection of the earth’sresources, began as a nationalmovement in the United States dur-ing the early 1900s. In the wake ofthe country’s industrial revolution,the federal government enactednumerous measures to protect thenation’s natural surroundings.President Theodore Rooseveltexpressed a particular interest inpreserving America’s forestlands.“Like other men who had thoughtabout the national future at all,” heonce remarked, “I had been grow-ing more and more concerned overthe destruction of the forests.”

The Conservation Controversy

Can the nation balance conservation with economic progress?

History of Conservation in the United States

1122

Rachel Carson publishesSilent Spring (page 897).

President TheodoreRoosevelt establishes thefirst federal wildlife refuge(page 529).

President FranklinRoosevelt creates theCivilian ConservationCorps (page 697).

Congress establishes theEnvironmental ProtectionAgency; Congress passesClean Air Act (page 1028).

Congress passes theEndangered SpeciesAct (page 1028).

1903 1933 1962 1970 1973

Hikers stand on a rock outcropping above the Jago River at the Arctic National WildlifeRefuge in the Brooks Range of Alaska.

An issue of greater concern toAmericans today—and one thatalso is stirring debate between envi-ronmentalists and industrialists—isthe nation’s growing appetite forenergy. The United States consumes25 percent of the world’s energy,nearly all of it in the form of fossilfuels such as oil, coal, and naturalgas. Much of the fuel America usescomes from overseas—in placessuch as the oil-rich Middle East. Thereliance on foreign sources has leftthe United States vulnerable to priceincreases and fuel shortages.

In May 2001, President GeorgeW. Bush revealed his energy plan.In the plan, he proposed looseningregulations on oil and gas explo-ration, a review of gas mileage stan-dards, and a $4 billion tax credit forthe use of “hybrid” cars that use acombination of gas and batterypower. The plan also stressed thepresident’s commitment to drill foroil in the Arctic National WildlifeRefuge (ANWR). “I campaignedhard on the notion of having envi-ronmentally sensitive explorationat (ANWR),” Bush has said. “And I think we can do so.”Environmentalists strongly opposethis plan, claiming that suchdrilling will destroy a fragile ecosystem.

As the 21st century begins, thenation faces the challenge of bal-ancing energy needs with environ-mental concerns. It is an issue thatAmericans will grapple with foryears.

heat would escape back into spaceand Earth’s average temperaturewould be about 60ºF colder.

Some greenhouse gases, such ascarbon dioxide, methane, andnitrous oxide, occur naturally inthe air. But the burning of fossilfuels and other human activitiesadd to the levels of these naturallyoccurring gases, causing globalwarming. Many scientists and pub-lic officials believe that globalwarming could prompt a range ofenvironmental calamities, fromsevere flooding in some parts of theworld to drought in others.

Despite such dire warnings,the United States—the world’slargest producer of greenhouse gasemissions—has done little to scaleback its output of such gases.Many of the nation’s business lead-ers insist that measures to “cooldown” the atmosphere are toocostly and thus would hurt thenation’s economy.

waters are today considered safe forswimming and fishing, up from onlyone-third in 1972. And between1970 and 1997, for example, thenation’s yearly production of leademissions plummeted from nearly221 million tons to just 4 milliontons. During those same years, thecountry nearly tripled the size of itsnational park space.

In addition, a number of stateshave made independent efforts.California, for instance, has some ofthe nation’s strictest air-pollutioncontrol laws, and these have helpedto provide the Golden State withmuch cleaner air. Other states areplaying their part as well in thenation’s ongoing conservationeffort.

Not all action has been throughgovernment. Private groups such asthe Nature Conservancy andnumerous local land trusts haveraised money to purchase forest andwatershed lands and keep thempristine. In Texas several entrepre-neurs created the Fossil Rim WildlifeCenter, a 2,700-acre wildlife sanctu-ary that helps to nurture more than30 animal species.

ONGOING CHALLENGES AND DEBATES

Despite the strides Americans havemade in protecting their naturalresources over the past half century,environmental problems still exist,and the nation still struggles tostrike a balance between conser-vation and economic growth. Sucha struggle is clearly visible in thegreenhouse effect. The greenhouseeffect is the rise in temperature thatEarth experiences because certaingases in the atmosphere trap energyfrom the sun. Without these gases,

Epilogue 1123

Congress passesClean Water Act.

Nations agree to a revisedKyoto Protocol, which requiresindustrial nations to preserve“environnmental integrity.”

Congress amends Clean AirAct to address new environ-mental problems, includingacid rain and ozone depletion.

1977 1990 2001

PREDICTING EFFECTSDo you think the United States even-tually will engage in greater domesticexploration of its natural resourcesto solve its growing energy needs?Why or why not?

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As the 21st

century begins,

the nation faces

the challenge of

balancing energy

needs with

environmental

concerns.