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Understanding The Earth

QA INTERNATIONAL9 782764 408025

ISBN 2-7644-0802-1

THE

VISUALGU

IDES

Understanding TheEarth

Extrait de la publication

Understanding

Planet Earth


The Visual Guide to Understanding Planet Earth was created and produced by

QA International329, rue de la Commune Ouest, 3e étage Montréal (Québec) H2Y 2E1 Canada T 514.499.3000 F 514.499.3010

©2007 QA International. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by anyinformation storage and retrieval system, without written permission in writing fromthe Publisher.

The publisher acknowledges the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Book Publishing IndustryDevelopment Program (BPIDP) for its publishing activities.

ISBN 978-2-7644-0890-2 Printed and bound in Slovakia.10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 04 03 02 01www.qa-international.com

Publisher Jacques Fortin

Editorial Director François Fortin

Executive Editor Serge D’Amico

Illustrations Editor Marc Lalumière

Art Director Rielle Lévesque

Graphic Designer Anne Tremblay

Writers Nathalie FredetteStéphane BatigneJosée BourbonnièreClaude LafleurAgence Science-Presse

Translator Käthe Roth

Computer Graphic Artists Jean-Yves AhernMaxime BigrasPatrice BlaisYan BohlerMélanie BoivinCharles CampeauJocelyn GardnerJonathan JacquesAlain LemireRaymond MartinNicolas OrocCarl PelletierSimon PelletierFrédérick SimardMamadou TogolaYan Tremblay

Page Layout Lucie Mc BreartyVéronique BoisvertGeneviève Théroux Béliveau

Researchers Anne-Marie VilleneuveAnne-Marie BraultKathleen WyndJessie Daigle

Earth Reviewer Michèle FréchetJafar Arkani-Hamed

Copy Editor Jane Broderick

Production Mac Thien Nguyen Hoang

Prepress Kien TangKarine Lévesque

Understanding

Planet Earth

QA INTERNATIONAL


4

Table of

6 | Earth’s history

8 The formation of Earth

10 The geologic time scale

12 Life emerges on the continents

14 Our knowledge of geologic time

28 Types of rocks

26 The life cycle of rocks

24 Mineral shapes

22 The minerals

20 Geomagnetism

18 Inside Earth

16 | Earth’s structure 30 | Tectonics and volcanism

32 Plate tectonics

34 The fate of Pangaea

36 Continental drift

38 Volcanoes

40 Volcanism

42 Volcanic eruptions

43 Hot spots

44 Geysers

46 Earthquakes

48 Seismic waves

68 The tides

66 Tsunamis

64 Waves

62 Ocean currents

60 Oceanic trenches and ridges

58 The ocean floor

56 The world ocean

54 The world’s rivers and lakes

52 Watercourses

50 | Water and oceans

5

contents

124 | Glossary

126 | Index

128 | Photo credits

87 Icebergs

86 Glacial erosion

84 Glaciers

82 Configuration of the coastline

80 Mountains of the world

78 How mountains are formed

76 Caves

75 Landslides

74 The cycle of erosion

72 Erosion

70 | The evolving landscape

122 Africa

120 Oceania

118 Asia

116 Europe

114 South America

112 North America

111 Antarctica

110 Configuration of the continents

108 | The continents 88 | Representations of Earth

90 Terrestrial coordinates

92 Cartographic projection

94 Cartography

96 Cartographic conventions

98 Physical and topographic maps

100 Thematic maps

102 Remote sensing

104 Satellites and shuttles

106 Time zones


Earth, born 4.6 billion years ago from a cloud of dust, did not always look like the planet that we know

today. In fact, it has been changing constantly throughout its history, becoming increasinglyorganized and complex. This fascinating evolution is revealed through the rocks and fossils

that provide evidence of our planet’s early times.

Earth’s history8 The formation of Earth

How it all started

10 The geologic time scaleFinding the origins of life

12 Life emerges on the continentsIncreasingly complex organisms

14 Our knowledge of geologic timeSources for dating


The formation of Earth

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How it all started

EMERGING FROM A CLOUD OF DUSTIt all started 4.6 billion years ago, in one of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. Impacted by a shock wave that probably came from theexplosion of massive stars, a cloud of dust (the solar nebula) began to rotate Q.

At the center of the cloud, matter becameincreasingly dense, hot, and luminous. It gave rise to an embryonic star, whichbecame the Sun W.

Dust in the surrounding area began toagglomerate. Small pebbles grew larger, forming embryonic planets, or protoplanets, a few kilometers in diameter E.

The protoplanets collided with each other and agglomerated until they reached the size of planets (several thousand kilometers indiameter). Over hundreds of millions of years,the emerging planets, including Earth, wereintensely bombarded by other rocky bodies R.

Five billion years ago, the Solar System did not exist. There was only a hugediffuse cloud of dust and gases turning slowly on itself. Over time, the Sun wasformed, followed by the nine planets,including Earth, which formedlike a snowball, by theagglomeration of matteraround the original nebula.


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LIFE ARISES FROM A BALL OF LAVAWhen it was first formed, about 4.6 billion years ago, Earth was completely covered with an ocean ofburning lava—liquid rock—several hundred kilometers thick. It had neither crust nor core T.

Little by little, the ocean of lava cooled. Pieces of crust formed and floated on the surface of the planet,which was being intensely bombarded by meteorites and comets Y.

Over time, an early crust formed. The heavy elements, such as iron and nickel, concentrated to form thecore, while the lighter elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, etc.) formed the crust U.

Earth was also host to intense volcanic activity, which led to the expulsion of light gases and liberated anearly atmosphere that was radically different from today’s. As it condensed, water vapor formed clouds; theadvent of rain allowed for the creation of lakes, rivers, and oceans. At the same time, the crust broke up andformed continents I.

The presence of continents, oceans, and an oxygen-poor atmosphere resulted in the formation of more andmore complex molecules, which led to a remarkable phenomenon: life. More than a billion years after Earthwas born, life appeared in the oceans O. It then took a few billion years to emerge onto the continents!

ocean

continent

volcano

meteorite

crater


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Finding the origins of life

Since it came into being, 4.6 billion years ago, Earth has undergone numeroustransformations. In the beginning, it bore absolutely no resemblance to what wesee today. The planet’s landscape changed very slowly: continents and oceansformed, animal and plant species appeared and then were replaced by others.

To determine and date the major transformations of a world in perpetual change,geologists have created a geologic time scale.

m.y.: Millions of years ago

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE WORLD: AQUATIC LIFEThe Precambrian Period Q is the oldest and longest period in thehistory of Earth. During this period, 4 billion years ago, the terrestrialcrust was formed, followed by the continents and oceans. Lifecame into being 500 million years later, when the firstcellular organisms appeared, along with the firstbacteria and algae.

In the Cambrian Period W, various groupsof invertebrates evolved in the shallowseas that covered much of Earth.

The first vertebrates appeared in thefollowing period, the Ordovician E.There were also great quantities ofcoral, sponges, and molluskssuch as cephalopods.

Calcareous concretionsformed by microscopicalgae, stromatolites,more than 3 billion yearsago were evidence of thefirst life forms.

The first vertebrateswere agnaths, fish

with no jaw.

Cyanobacteria, commonlycalled blue-green algae, werethe first micro-organisms to

appear on Earth.

The trilobite was an invertebratewith an exoskeleton and a body

divided into three lobes.

The brachiopod was a marineanimal whose thin shell was

covered with grooves.

The Orthoceras cephalopod, ancestor of thesquid, the octopus, and the nautilus, had

a flat or slightly curved shell.

The geologic t ime scale

Cambrian

(570–505 m.y.)

W

Precam

brian

(4.6 b.y

. to 57

0 m.y.)

Q

Ordovician(505–440 m.y.)

E


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THE HISTORY OF EARTH IN ONE YEARIt is difficult to conceive of such a huge stretch of time as 4.6 billion years of evolution, but we can get an idea by squeezing the period into one year. Imagine that Earth was created at midnight on January 1.The first life form appeared in April. Plants started to grow on land at the end of November. Dinosaurs firstwalked the Earth in mid-December, and disappeared on December 25 at around 7:00 p.m. Human beingspopulated Earth on December 31 at 11:25 p.m. and built the pyramids in Egypt at 11:59.29 p.m. Americawas discovered at 11:59.57 p.m.!

THE CONQUEST OF EARTHDuring the Silurian Period R, the first land-based plants grew and fish with jaws began to appear.

The Devonian Period T marked the arrival of insects and the first land-based animals: amphibians. During thisperiod, fish species became more diversified, and the continents, previously barren, began to be covered withhorsetails and ferns.

During the Carboniferous Period Y, a rise in sea level led to the formation of huge marshes. All of the vegetation died and decomposed, forming layers of peat that became deposits of coal. The firstreptiles appeared.

Y

Ferns began to grow at the water’sedge. Some were small, but others

were as tall as today’s trees.

The oldest insect known, thearchaeognath, had no wings, but

it did have long antennae.

Over time, the fins of some fishwere transformed into limbs.

The ichthyostega was one of thefirst amphibians to evolve. Its

tail looked like a fishtail.

Acanthodians, the first fish withjaws, appeared during the SilurianPeriod. Their fins had long spines.

Cooksonia were amongthe first plants to growon land. They consistedof stems, with no leaves

or roots.

Sharks were amongthe dominant fish of the CarboniferousPeriod. Some species,such as the falcatus,had a jagged spine ontop of their heads.

In coniferous forests, millipedessuch as the arthropleurameasured up to 2 m in length.

The oldest winged insects date fromthis period. Among them was thegiant meganeura dragonfly, witha wingspan of 70 cm.

TSilurian(440–410 m.y.)

R

Devonian(410–360 m.y.)

Carboniferous(360–286 m.y.)Extrait de la publication

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Life emerges onthe continents

Increasingly complex organisms

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The ichthyosaurus looked verysimilar to a dolphin. This marinereptile measured from 1 to 5 m

in length and was very welladapted to aquatic life.

A medium-sized, long-necked reptile,the nothosaurus had webbed feet

adapted for swimming.

0

0

The first marine reptile, themesosaurus, was a small animalwith a long, pointed muzzle. It swam in shallow waters.

The mouse-sizedmegazostrodon was one of

the first mammals to appearon Earth. An insectivore, itwas active mainly at night.

Among the Triassic Period dinosaurs wasthe biped coelophysis, a voracious

predator with powerful talons.

The plateosaurus was one of thelargest dinosaurs of the Jurassic

Period. This long-neckedherbivore stood on its hind legs

to reach the leaves on trees.

The archaeopteryx, one of theearliest winged animals, had

features typical of both reptiles(claws, teeth, long tail) and

birds (wings, feathers).

The dimetrodon was one of thecarnivorous reptiles that dominatedin the Permian Period. This animal’slarge wingspan enabled it to regulateits body temperature.

REPTILES, MAMMALS, AND DINOSAURSIn the Permian Period U, reptiles abounded, taking over from amphibians as the climate became dryer. At this time, the continental masses formed a single supercontinent: Pangaea.

During the Triassic Period I, the supercontinent began to break up, giving rise to today’s continents.Mammals, dinosaurs, and a variety of aquatic reptiles appeared.

During the following period, the Jurassic O, Pangaea broke apart, creating a space that became theAtlantic Ocean. Dinosaurs such as the plateosaurus and the brontosaurus dominated the planet. Somereptiles and the first birds took flight. Flowering plants began to grow.

Permian

(286–245 m.y.)

I Triassic

(245–208 m.y.)

Jurassic

(208–145 m.y.)


m.y.: Millions of years ago

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THE ARRIVAL OF HUMAN BEINGSThe dinosaurs, which ruled Earth for part of the Cretaceous Period P, suddenly disappeared at the end of theperiod, probably following a giant meteorite impact on Earth that caused the extinction of three-quarters of allanimal and plant species.

The first primates and great apes appeared during the Tertiary Period {. Mammal species began to diversify, andhorses, camels, rhinoceroses, and elephants evolved. A climatic cooling led to the formation of prairies.

The Quaternary Period } was punctuated by four ice ages: glaciers reached their maximum advance 18,000 yearsago and withdrew 8,000 years later. During this period, mammals and birds were the dominant species and the firsthumans appeared: homo habilis, homo erectus, and homo sapiens. Historical time began with the invention ofwriting, 5,000 years ago.

The smilodon, a member of the saber-toothtiger family, appeared in the late TertiaryPeriod. With its long upper canines, it could slitits victims’ throats and quickly eviscerate them.

Homo sapiens, modern human beings,appeared 100,000 years ago.

Flowering plants, which first appeared during the JurassicPeriod, evolved and diversified. The variety of their colorsand shapes greatly changed the look of the landscape.

The hyracotheriumwas the ancestor of

the horse. It was smalland had paws with

three or four digits.

The first great apes, thehominoids, appeared

during the Tertiary Period.The proconsul was the

oldest of the group.

0

}

Among the best-known animalsof the Pleistocene Period wasthe mammoth primigenius, a woolly mammoth very welladapted to the Ice Age.

0{

The basilosaurus, whichresembled a reptile, was amongthe earliest whales. This mammalhad a small head and a very longbody, measuring up to 20 m.

0

Among the last dinosaurs wastriceratops, a herbivore withthree horns and a large ruffbehind its skull.

The tyrannosaurus, one of thelargest carnivores, had powerfuljaws and sharp teeth. It weighed 5tonnes and was about 14 m longand 5 to 6 m tall.

P Cretaceous

(145–65 m.y.)

Tertiary

(65–1.6 m.y.)

Quaternary

Period

(1.6 m.y.–

today)


Our knowledge ofgeologic t ime

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How old are the oldest rocks? What was the climate on Earth 300 million years ago?When did aquatic life give way to land-based life? When did birds, conifers,dinosaurs, and flowers appear? One of the great challenges facing geologists is tofind answers to such questions. To date a period in the past when there was nowritten documentation, two methods are used: relative dating and absolute dating.

RELATIVE DATINGRelative dating (or stratigraphy) is based on using observation of differentsoil layers to establish a chronological order between various periods. Overtime, old sediments are covered with newer sediments, forming anaccumulation of layers (or strata) characteristic of a period, with the mostrecent—in principle—on top.

When geologic incidents disturb the strata or upturn them to a verticalposition, the principle of paleontologic identity, in which two layerscontaining the same fossils are from the same period, is used.

1/1

1/2

1/4

1/81/16

0 1 2 3 45,730 11,460 17,190 22,920

half-livesyears

Sources for dating

THE VESTIGES OF TIMEFossils, buried under layers of sedimentary rock, are vestiges of the past. They are usually the hard parts (bones,shells, etc.) of animals and plants that have been preserved. Below, an ammonite dies and drops to the bottom ofthe body of water Q. The mollusk’s body decomposes and sediments begin to cover the shell W. Over time, thelayers of sediment harden and immobilize the shell E. After millions of years, geologic movements or excavationsbring the fossil to the surface R.

ABSOLUTE DATINGAbsolute dating (or radiometry), based on the principle of disintegration of certain radioactive elements,establishes the age of fossils. Carbon 14 (C14) dating is the best known, as carbon is an element found inevery living organism. Because organisms contain C14 and C12 in a proportion that is stable and C14 begins todisintegrate at a steady rate when organisms die, the amount of time since a plant or animal has died ismeasured by establishing the proportion of C14 remaining in relation to the C12.

Scientists have established that it takes 5,730 yearsbefore 50% of the C14 has disintegrated. This iscalled the element’s “half-life.” It would take thesame amount of time for half of the remainingmaterial to disintegrate, and so on. Thus, forexample, it can be calculated that an organism hasbeen dead 22,920 years when only 1/16 of C14

remains in relation to the C12.

This technique is currently used to date vestiges lessthan 50,000 years old. Other elements (uranium,rubidium, etc.) are used for older samples.

rem

aini

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of c

arbo

n 14

DISINTEGRATION OF CARBON 14


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GEOCHRONOLOGY TABLEJust as historians have divided the history of humankind into different periods, scientists have divided the evolution of Earth into periods corresponding to major changes. Thus, the time since the creation of the planet has been subdivided into intervals called geochronologic units. The largest of these units, eons,are divided into eras, then into periods (or systems) and epochs.

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millionsof years

Pleistocene

Miocene

Eocene

Cretaceous

Triassic

Silurian

Cambrian

Prec

ambr

ian Proterozoic

Archaeozoic

Mes

ozoi

cCe

nozo

icPa

leoz

oic

QuaternaryTe

rtia

ry

Carboniferous

- first humans- ice ages

- formation of the Himalayas- first grasses- diversification of mammals- first primates

- formation of continents and oceans- first solid crust- formation of Earth

- formation of the Alps and the Rocky Mountains- mass extinction of plant and animal species- disappearance of the dinosaurs

- first dinosaurs- first mammals- dislocation of Pangaea

- continental masses form a supercontinent (Pangaea)

- abundance of reptiles- drying of climate

- formation of the Appalachians- first plants with seeds- elevation of sea level- first reptiles

- appearance of horsetails and ferns- diversification of fish- first land-based animals (amphibians)- first insects

- first land-based plants- fish with jaws

- first vertebrates

- first invertebrates

- oxygen atmosphere

- appearance of flowering plants (angiosperms)- first birds- age of the dinosaurs- formation of the Atlantic Ocean

0,01

1,6

65

145

208

245

286

360

410

440

505

570

2 500

4 600

eon era period epoch events

Ordovician

Devonian

Permian

Jurassic

Paleocene

Oligocene

Pliocene

Holocene

Phan

eroz

oic

What is under Earth’s surface? Can we reach the planet’s core? Earth’s interior, with its extreme

pressures and temperatures, is still a mysterious place. In a process that has been taking place for

millions of years, minerals are formed and then metamorphosed into many shapes and stunning structures.

Earth’s structure18 Inside Earth

The planet’s internal structure

20 GeomagnetismEarth: a gigantic magnet

22 The mineralsThe crystalline core of rocks

24 Mineral shapesStructures and facies

26 The life cycle of rocksEarth’s materials in constant evolution

28 Types of rocksAn extraordinary diversity


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The planet’s internal structureInside Earth

2,88

5 km

On a global scale, Earth’s crust is the thickness of an eggshell.

Lehmann discontinuity

6,37

1 km

Earth’s crust represents just 3% of the planet’s volume.

The mantle takes up 80% of Earth’s total volume.Made mainly of volcanic rock, it is in a state of

partial fusion at a temperature of about 3,000°C.

Mohorovicic discontinuity

Convection currents transport Earth’sinternal heat toward the surface.

Gutenberg discontinuity

The core, which takes up 16% of Earth’s volume, contains 33% ofits mass. It is composed of the heaviest elements on Earth, suchas iron and nickel, which probably accumulated at the center of

the planet 4.5 billion years ago.

Although we cannot know exactly what the internal structure of our planet lookslike, geophysics and astronomy (by observation and analysis of other planets inthe solar system) have enabled us to gather much information concerning theinside of Earth.

Our planet has a total mass of about 6 billion billion tonnes and has threeconcentric layers, the core, the mantle, and the crust (from the densest to thelightest), edged by transition zones called discontinuities. Each layer has its own chemical composition andphysical properties.

iron (5%)silicon (28%)

calcium(4%)

aluminum(8%)

sodium (3%)

potassium(3%)magnesium (2%)

other elements (1%)

oxygen(46%)

oxygen(30%)

otherelements

(3%) sulfur (2%)

nickel (2%)

magnesium(13%)

iron (35%)

silicon (15%)

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EARTH CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CRUST


127

Index

Terms in CAPITAL LETTERS and page numbers in boldface type refer to a main entry. The symbol [G] indicates a Glossary listing.

magma chamber 38, 42 [G]magmatic rock 29magnetic North Pole 20magnitude 47Mammoth Cave 77mantle 18, 27, 38, 49map scale 96MAPS 92, 94, 96, 98, 100marble 29Mariana Trench 57, 61mass movements 75McKinley, Mount 112meander 53, 55 [G]Mediterranean Sea 37, 57,

116Melanesia 120Mercator, Gerard 92meridian 90, 92, 106mesosaurus 12, 34mesosphere 19metamorphic rock 27, 29metamorphism 26meteorological map 101Micronesia 120Mid-Atlantic Ridge 32, 60Milky Way 8MINERALS 22, 24, 28MINERAL SHAPES 24Mississippi River 54, 113Mohs scale 23monolith 73, 120Mont Blanc 117Moon 68moraine 55, 84mountain chain 78, 80, 110

[G]MOUNTAINS 78, 80, 84, 86,

110mouth, river 52, 83 [G]mudflow 75

Nnative elements 22New Zealand 45, 121Nile River 54, 123NORTH AMERICA 32, 34, 36,

110, 112North Pole 90

Ooasis 55Ob River 54, 118OCEANS 9, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64,

66, 68OCEAN CURRENTS 62OCEAN FLOOR 58, 60, 102OCEANIA 110, 120oceanic plate 41, 58, 78OCEANIC RIDGE 21, 33, 41,

58, 60OCEANIC TRENCH 57, 59, 60Ordovician Period 10, 15orogenesis 78oxbow 55oxygen 15, 18

PPacific Ocean 40, 57, 64, 67,

120Panama Canal 113PANGAEA 12, 15, 34, 36parallel 90, 92Paraná River 54, 115peak 86 [G]peneplain 74Permian Period 12, 15Philippines 33, 39, 41, 119photography, aerial 95, 102PHYSICAL MAP 98Pinatubo, Mount 39, 41plain 53PLATE TECTONICS 32, 36plate, continental 40, 59, 78plate, converging 32plate, diverging 32plate, lithospheric 46plate, oceanic 41, 58, 78plate, transform 32poles 20, 90, 111Polynesia 120pothole 76Precambrian Eon 10, 15, 110precious stones 22, 25

Qquartz 22, 29Quaternary Period 13, 15

Rradar 102, 104Radarsat 104radiation 103rain 73, 75, 76reflectance 103relief 60, 72, 74, 78, 80, 98

[G]REMOTE SENSING 102resolution 105 [G]resurgence 77ria 83Richter scale 47RIDGE, OCEANIC 21, 33, 41,

58, 60riegel 84rift 59, 60RIVERS 52, 54, 72

ROCKS 22, 26, 28, 78rockslide 75Rocky Mountains 15, 80, 112rotation, Earth’s 63, 69

SSahara Desert 122salinity 56 [G]salt 28, 56San Andreas Fault 32, 46sand 28, 58, 83sandstone 28SATELLITES 103, 104SEAFLOOR 58, 60, 102seas 10, 53, 56seawater 56sedimentary basin 110sedimentary rock 26, 28sedimentation 26sediments 26, 53, 58, 72, 82

[G]SEISMIC WAVES 47, 48seismogram 49seismograph 48serac 85shadow zone 49shield 110shore 64, 83SHUTTLES 104Siberia 118Sierra Nevada 80sill 38Silurian 11, 15silver 22, 25snow 84soil 72, 75 [G]Solar System 8solstice 90 [G]sonar 102SOUTH AMERICA 34, 36, 110,

114South Pole 90, 111spectral signature 103spring 45, 53SRTM 105St. Helens, Mount 41stalactite 77stalagmite 77steam 44stratigraphy 14subduction 32, 40, 58, 78subsoil 22Sun 8, 68, 90, 106Superior, Lake 54, 113swell 64symbols, cartographic 96, 100

TTanganyika, Lake 54, 123

Tasman Sea 57, 121TECTONICS, PLATE 32, 36TERRESTRIAL COORDINATES 90Tertiary Period 13, 15THEMATIC MAP 100theodolite 94thermocline 56TIDE 68, 82till 85TIME ZONES 106TIME, GEOLOGICAL 10, 12, 14

[G]Time, Universal 107Titicaca, Lake 115TOPOGRAPHIC MAP 98, 105trade winds 62 [G]transform plate 32TRENCH, OCEANIC 57, 59, 60triangulation 94Triassic Period 12, 15tributary 52Tropic of Cancer 90Tropic of Capricorn 90TSUNAMIS 66

UVWultrasound 102 [G]undertow 65Universal Time 107Urals 81, 117valley 52, 74, 84, 86vent 38Vesuvius, Mount 24, 40, 117Victoria, Lake 54, 122Vinson Massif 111volcanic bomb 39VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS 38, 40,

42VOLCANISM 40VOLCANOES 27, 38, 40, 42,

55, 59, 78, 116, 119, 123Volga River 117water 9, 38, 44, 52, 54, 56,

76WATERCOURSES 52, 54, 72, 74waterfall 53wavelength 65, 66WAVES 64, 66, 72, 83Wegener, Alfred 34wind 62, 64, 73

XYZYangzi Jiang River 54, 119Yellowstone National Park 44Yenesey River 54, 119

128

Photo creditsTectonics and volcanism

page 39Pinatubo: Ed Wolfe, UnitedStates Department of theInterior, USGS, David A.Johnston Cascades VolcanoObservatory, Vancouver,Washington.

Kilauea: Douglas Peebles/CORBIS/Magma

page 44Old Faithful: William A.Bake/CORBIS/Magma

page 46San Andreas Fault: KevinSchafer/CORBIS/Magma

Los Angeles: EQEInternational, Inc.

Water and oceans

page 62Gulf Stream: Ocean RemoteSensing Group, JohnsHopkins University, AppliedPhysics Laboratory

page 65Ohahu Beach: Rick Doyle/CORBIS/Magma

page 68Bay of Fundy: Scott WalkingAdventure

The evolving landscape

page 73Monolith: Joel W.Rogers/CORBIS/Magma

page 74Grand Canyon: DavidMuench/CORBIS/Magma

page 77Mammoth Cave: DavidMuench/CORBIS/Magma

page 80Appalachians: William A.Bake/CORBIS/Magma

page 81Alps: Nathan Benn/CORBIS/Magma

Representations of Earth

page 95Aerial photographs: © 1984 Her Majesty theQueen in Right of Canada,reproduced from thecollection of the National AirPhoto Library with permissionof National Resources Canada.

page 102Nadar: Hulton-DeutschCollection/CORBIS/MagmaRadar: CCRS/www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.caSonar: USGS

page 103Healthy and diseasedvegetation: Felix Kogan/NOAA/NESDIS

page 104Hawaii: Radarsat Images ©1996. Courtesy of CanadianSpace Agency. Acquired byCSA. Received by CCRS.Processed by RSI.

page 105Hokkaido: Courtesy ofNASA/JPL/Caltech

page 107Greenwich: NationalMaritime Museum, London

The continents

page 111Ross Ice Shelf:Dr. John Anderson, RiceUniversity, Dept. of Geology& Geophysics

page 112Mount McKinley: RichardHamiltonSmith/CORBIS/Magma

Death Valley: LizHymans/CORBIS/Magma

page 113Panama Canal: DannyLehman/CORBIS/Magma

page 114Andes: Wolfgang Kaehler/

CORBIS/Magma

page 115Angel Falls: JamesMarshall/CORBIS/Magma

page 117Mont Blanc: MichaelBusselle/CORBIS/MagmaVesuvius: Tiziana and GianniBaldizzone/ CORBIS/Magma

page 119Mount Everest:WildCountry/CORBIS/Magma

Fujiyama: Earl & NazimaKowall/CORBIS/Magma

Huang He: Julia Waterlow;Eye Ubiquitous/CORBIS/Magma

page 120Ayers Rock: Yann Arthus-Bertrand/CORBIS/Magma

page 121Great Barrier Reef: YannArthus-Bertrand/CORBIS/Magma

page 122Sahara: Tiziana and GianniBaldizzone/CORBIS/Magma

page 123Rift Valley: WolfgangKaehler/CORBIS/MagmaNile: Nik Wheeler/CORBIS/MagmaKilimanjaro: SharnaBalfour; Gallo Images/CORBIS/Magma


Understanding The Earth

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Understanding TheEarth


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