the violin

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Routledge Music BibliographiesSERIES EDITOR: BRAD EDEN

COMPOSERSIsaac Albniz (1998)Walter A. ClarkC. P. E. Bach (2002)Doris Bosworth PowersSamuel Barber (2001)Wayne C. WentzelBla Bartk, 2nd Edition (1997)Elliott AntokoletzVincenzo Bellini (2002)Stephen A. WillierAlban Berg (1996)Bryan R. SimmsLeonard Bernstein (2001)Paul F. LairdJohannes Brahms (2003)Heather PlattBenjamin Britten (1996)Peter J. HodgsonWilliam Byrd, 2nd Edition (2005)Richard TurbetElliott Carter (2000)John L. LinkCarlos Chvez (1998)Robert ParkerFrdric Chopin (1999)William SmialekAaron Copland (2001)Marta Robertson and RobinArmstrongFrederick Delius (2005)Mary L. HuismanGaetano Donizetti (2000)James P. CassaroEdward Elgar (1993)Christopher KentGabriel Faur (1999)Edward R. PhillipsChristoph Willibald Gluck, 2ndEdition (2003)Patricia HowardG.F. Handel, 2nd Edition (2004)Mary Ann Parker

Paul Hindemith (2005)Stephen LuttmanCharles Ives (2002)Gayle SherwoodScott Joplin (1998)Nancy R. Ping-RobbinsZoltn Kodly (1998)Mchel Houlahan and PhilipTackaFranz Liszt, 2nd Edition (2004)Michael SaffleGuillaume de Machaut (1995)Lawrence EarpFelix Mendelssohn Bartholdy(2001)John Michael CooperGiovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina(2001)Clara MarvinGiacomo Puccini (1999)Linda B. FairtileMaurice Ravel (2004)Stephen ZankGioachino Rossini (2002)Denise P. GalloCamille Saint- Sans (2003)Timothy S. FlynnAlessandro and Domenico Scarlatti(1993)Carole F. VidaliHeinrich Schenker (2003)Benjamin AyotteAlexander Scriabin (2004)Ellon D. CarpenterJean Sibelius (1998)Glenda D. GossGiuseppe Verdi (1998)Gregory HarwoodToms Luis de Victoria (1998)Eugene Casjen CramerRichard Wagner (2002)Michael Saffle

Adrian Willaert (2004)David Michael Kidger

GENRESAmerican Music Librarianship(2005)Carol June BradleyCentral European Folk Music(1996)Philip V. BohlmanChamber Music, 2nd Edition (2002)John H. BaronChurch and Worship Music (2005)Avery T. Sharp and JamesMichael FloydConcerto (2006)Stephen D. LindemanEthnomusicology (2003)Jennifer C. PostJazz Scholarship and Pedagogy,Third Edition (2005)Eddie S. MeadowsMusic in Canada (1997)Carl MoreyThe Musical (2004)William A. EverettNorth American Indian Music(1997)Richard KeelingOpera, 2nd Edition (2001)Guy MarcoThe Recorder, 2nd Edition (2003)Richard Griscom and DavidLasockiSerial Music and Serialism (2001)John D. Vander WegString Quartets (2005)Mara E. ParkerThe Violin (2006)Mark KatzWomen in Music (2005)Karin Pendle

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New York London

Published in 2006 byRoutledge Taylor & Francis Group 270 Madison AvenueNew York, NY 10016

Published in Great Britain byRoutledge Taylor & Francis Group2 Park SquareMilton Park, AbingdonOxon OX14 4RN

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCRoutledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Katz, Mark, 1970-The violin : a research and information guide / Mark Katz.

p. cm. -- (Routledge music bibliographies)Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and indexes.ISBN 0-8153-3637-3 (hb)1. Violin--Bibliography. I. Title. II. Series.

ML128.V4K38 2006016.7872--dc22 2005030659

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To Beth and Anna

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vii

Contents

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction 1The Goal and Scope of the Guide 2How to Use This Book 3

I Reference and General Studies 5General Music Reference 5Electronic Resources 6General Violin Bibliographies 7Discography 8Periodicals 8

General 9Acoustics and Construction 10Violin Playing and Violin Music 12

General Studies of the Violin 12

II The Violin: Acoustics and Construction 19Acoustics and Mechanics 19

General Studies 19Sound Vibration and Radiation 22Studies by Materials, Parts 23

Violin Making: Construction and Repair 36Reference 36History and General Studies 37Treatises, Manuals, and Guides 43Experimental Violins 48Studies by Region 50

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viii Contents

Violin Makers 62Collective Studies and Reference 62Individual Makers and Families 65

The Bow 85General 85Physics and Mechanics 85History 86Construction, Repair, and Maintenance 86Bow Makers 88Studies of Individual Makers and Families 88

Collecting and Dealing 90Authentication: Frauds and Forgeries 93

III Violin Playing and Performance Practice 95History of Violin Playing 95

General Studies 95Studies by Period 96Studies by Region 104Studies by Style 108Studies by Technique; Performance Practice 114

Pedagogy 126History, General Studies, and Reference 126Manuals, Methods, and Treatises (and Commentary

Thereupon) 128Competitions 142Health Issues 143Violin Playing and Recording Technology 144

IV Violin Music 147Reference: Lists and Guides 147General Surveys 149Studies by Genre 150

Concertos 150Sonatas and Other Keyboard-Accompanied Works 154Unaccompanied Violin 156Other 158

Studies by Period 159Studies by Region 160Studies by Composer 169

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Contents ix

V Violinists, Violinist-Composers, and Violin Teachers 277Reference 277Collective Biographies 278Studies by Region 288Women Violinists 291Violinists of African Descent 292Folk Violinists 292Individual Biographies 293

Author Index 379

Name Index 395

Subject Index 407

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xi

Acknowledgments

When I first came up with the crazy idea to write a bibliography of the violin,she not only humored me, but encouraged me. Nearly a dozen years later, mymind and wrists numbed by the seemingly endless project of indexing the book,she stepped in to provide some much-needed assistance. And in all the years inbetween her love and support have sustained me. So my first and deepest thanks,as usual, must go to my wife, Beth Jakub.

However, this project would never have gotten off the ground without accessto libraries and the assistance of librarians (not to mention that boon to allscholars, interlibrary loan). I would like to acknowledge the staffs (or should thatbe staves?) of three music libraries where I completed the majority of my work,in particular: Calvin Elliker (sadly, no longer with us), Amy Marino, and CharlesReynolds at the University of Michigan Music Library; Patricia Baughman,Denise Gallo, Bill Harvey, Karen Moses, Samuel Perryman, and Stephanie Poxonat the Library of Congress Music Division; and Benjamin Altman, Robert Follet,Betsy Nelson, and Ned Quist at the Arthur Friedheim Library of the PeabodyConservatory. I sincerely appreciate all their work on my behalf as well as theircheerful tolerance of my microscopic handwriting.

At the Peabody Conservatory, where I teach in the Department of Musicol-ogy, many excellent students have lent their assistance to this project. My thanksgo to Jeffrey Lindon, Ken Osowski, Christian Tremblay, and especially ElizabethFord and Aeja Killworth, who worked as my research assistants. I am also gratefulfor the help of my colleague Andrew Talle, whose superb German I exploited onmany occasions.

I am fortunate to have an excellent publisher in Routledge, and offer mysincere thanks to Richard Carlin, Shannon McLachlan, Simina Calin, SarahBlackmon, and Laura Lawrie for their diligence, patience, and good humor. Ialso want to mention fellow Routledge author John Baron, whose excellentChamber Music: A Research and Information Guide was ever near at hand andserved me well as model and foil.

Finally, I must thank my daughter, Anna, whose recent appearance gave meevery incentive to bring this project to a timely conclusion.

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1Introduction

Apparently, every century or so what the world needs is a new bibliography ofthe violin. The last time (in fact, also the first time) a broad, general guide to theliterature on the violin was undertaken was in 1879, the same year Joachimpremiered Brahmss violin concerto. That was the year Englishman EdwardHeron-Allen started work on what was to become his magnum opus, De FidiculisBibliographia (item 11 in this volume), published in its final form in 1894 andstill a work of great value today.

The intervening years, however, have seen some fine specialized bibliogra-phies. Luigi Torris La Costruzione ed i Costruttori degli Istrumenti ad Arco, firstpublished in 1907 {140}, and Roberto Regazzis Complete Luthiers Manual of1990 {142}, for example, are both valuable resources on the literature on violinmaking. Some bibliographies focus on segments of the repertoire, such as Rose-Marie Johnsons Violin Music by Women Composers {646}, and others, like thegreat encyclopedias The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians {1} andMusik in Geschichte und Gegenwart {2} have selected, unannotated bibliogra-phies on a variety of violin-related subjects. Still, a century has passed with nosuccessor to De Fidiculis.

I now know why. It is an endless, or at least seemingly endless task. It isgenerally agreed that the first book to mention the violin was published in 1532(Hans Gerles Musica Teusch auf die Instrument die grossen unnd kleynen Geygen{578}) and since then innumerable books and articles on every aspect of the violinhave come down to us. It is an abundant and extraordinarily diverse literature,bound by no one discipline. As might be expected, writings by violinists, violinmakers, composers, musicologists, ethnomusicologists, music theorists, andmusic educators all appear in this book. But among others, acousticians, biolo-gists, chemists, dendrochronologists, dentists, dermatologists, economists, engi-neers (biomedical, electrical, and mechanical), folklorists, historians, journalists,

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2 The Violin: A Research and Information Guide

kinesiologists, novelists, psychologists, physicists, physiologists, and statisticiansare here, too. (Dendrochronologists, dentists, and dermatologists? See {8184}for articles on dating violins through tree-ring analysis, and {635} and {632} foritems on fiddlers neck, and on jaw disease among violinists.) This interdisci-plinarity has been one of the great pleasures and challenges of this project. Evenwith my training as a violinist and musicologist, many of the terms, concepts,perspectives, and philosophies I encountered while compiling this book were newto me. In the process I learned a tremendous deal and can only hope that I havefairly represented the work of those whom Ive cited.

THE GOAL AND SCOPE OF THE GUIDE

With this book I have sought to offer a comprehensive research guide to theviolin, one that represents the wide variety of writings on the instrument, itsmakers, music, players, and performance practices. By comprehensive, however,I do not mean complete. I am confident that a truly complete bibliography of theviolin will never exist. Such a work would have hundreds, perhaps thousands ofcitations on Paganini and Stradivari alone; it would include tens, even hundreds,of thousands of newspaper essays and reviews, and, collectively, countless linernotes, term papers, short stories, masters theses, poems, program notes, andunpublished jottings and scrawlings. This bibliography would run to dozens ofvolumes and would be hopelessly unwieldy, not to mention prohibitively expen-sive. A certain selectivity, therefore, is both necessary and desirable. Specifically,the present guide includes published books and articles, and unpublished doctoral(Ph.D. and D.M.A.) dissertations in English, French, German, and Italian writtenbefore 2004 (although some works from that year do appear). I have not includedauction catalogs, reviews (of books, music, or recordings), newspaper articles,editorials, pedagogical material not accompanied by substantial text, and (with afew exceptions) prefaces to scores. Only works on the violin proper are cited,which excludes the viol family, the viola, cello, and bass, and folk violins thatare significantly different from the traditional instrument (such as the NorwegianHardanger fiddle). (However, certain works on the violin cited here also includeinformation on other instruments as well.) Although the vast majority of thewritings are nonfiction, I have cited selected novels and short stories, particularlyabout Paganini and Stradivari, around whom a substantial fictional literature hasarisen. (I have not included any of the countless poems on the violin, of whichthousands were written in the Victorian period alone.) Finally, although theInternet is an incredibly valuable resource, I have not cited writings that appearonly on the Web. Many of these sites are ephemeral, likely to disappear or changeaddress without warning, and thus would prove difficult and often impossible forreaders to find. However, I have cited several electronic resources in the Referenceand General Studies section that either index books and articles or have scanned


Introduction 3

such writings for online viewing. These sites, too, may disappear, but most areassociated with universities or well-funded businesses, and are likely to exist forsome time.

None of this is to say that I have accounted for every book, article, anddissertation in English, French, German, and Italian. Even this would lead to abloated, redundant book. (For example, there is no need to include all of thedozens of obituaries written for Fritz Kreisler, or every crackpot theory publishedon the secret of Stradivaris violins.) Above all, I have sought balance. Althoughfor obvious reasons I include the best and most influential works, some of thepoorest, most misleading, works are here, too, precisely to caution readers aboutthem. I also have attempted a balance between the old and new, the populist andscholarly, and the light-hearted and profound (although with a bit more weighton the latter of each pair). In seeking this balance, I hope to have produced botha substantial and useful guide, one that will well serve the needs of students,scholars, performers, bibliophiles, and others. Still, I recognize that I may haveomitted writings that some readers will feel ought to be present. I encouragethose readers to alert me or the publisher of any omissions (or corrections, forthat matter) in the event that a second edition is prepared.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

This book is divided into five main parts: Reference and General Studies; TheViolin: Acoustics and Construction; Violin Playing and Performance Practice;Violin Music; and Violinists, Violinist-Composers, and Violin Teachers. Eachsection is divided into multiple subsections, and within each subsection entriesare arranged chronologically. (If several editions of a book have been published,the item is placed according to the date of its first edition.) Although there canbe good reasons for alphabetical arrangement, a chronological ordering providesthe reader with something of a historiography of each subject. At a glance onecan, for example, see how attitudes toward vibrato have changed over the courseof a century, or how new priorities have emerged in the scholarship on Beethovensviolin music. And because the index is alphabetically arranged, readers can easilyfind specific authors. (There are just a few exceptions to the chronological order-ing: entries 14, which cite general music reference works, are in order of theirrelative applicability, as I deem it, to the research someone using this book mightconduct; and entries 510, all electronic resources, are in alphabetical orderbecause they are constantly updated a chronological ordering would be difficultand provide little useful information.)

Each citation provides the usual bibliographic information: author, title,edition, place of publication, publisher, date, and pages. I have decided not toinclude either ISBNs or Library of Congress call numbers. It has become so easyto find books or articles electronically with just a fragment of a citation (and,



sometimes, even if it is misspelled), that these identifiers are no longer indispens-able. For the sake of efficiency I have employed a few abbreviations in thecitations: R. stands for reprint edition, and E., F., G., and I. refer to English,French, German, and Italian translations. Otherwise, citations conform to theguidelines set out in the Chicago Manual of Style.


5I

Reference and General Studies

GENERAL MUSIC REFERENCE

1. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2d ed. Ed. StanleySadie and John Tyrrell. 29 vols. London: Macmillan, 2001. Online athttp://www.grovemusic.com.

The standard English-language encyclopedia of music, with entries writ-ten by leading scholars. The entry on the violin, written by David Boyden,Chris Goertzen, Peter Holman, Robin Stowell, Peter Walls, and others, isthorough and well researched. The encyclopedia also includes manyentries on violinists and violin makers. Entries are accompanied byselected bibliographies.

Of use for research on jazz violinists is The New Grove Dictionary ofJazz, 2d ed., ed. Barry Kernfeld (London: Macmillan, 2002). Entries fromthis and its parent encyclopedia are regularly updated on the New GroveWeb site, listed above.

2. Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine Enzyklopdie der Musik.2d ed. Ed. Ludwig Finscher. 27 vols. (projected). Kassel and New York:Brenreiter; Stuttgart: Metzler, 1994. Online at http://www.mgg-online.com.

Along with The New Grove, MGG (as it is often abbreviated) is one ofthe major music encyclopedias in print today. Its entries are written byexperts in their respective fields and include brief bibliographies. The

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encyclopedia is divided into a Sachteil, a 10-volume subject encyclopedia,and a Personenteil, a 17-volume biographical encyclopedia, of which13 volumes had been completed by late 2005. The articles on the violinhave been collected and published separately in {56}.

3. The Harvard Dictionary of Music. 4th ed. Ed. Don Michael Randel.Cambridge, MA, and London: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 2003.xxvii, 978pp.

An authoritative one-volume music dictionary. Its entry on the violin isbrief and useful, and largely focuses on the history of violin construction.

4. Duckles, Vincent and Ida Reed. Music Reference and Research Materials:An Annotated Bibliography. 5th ed. New York: Schirmer, 1997. xviii, 812pp.

A broad, annotated bibliography of music reference works. Includeschapters on encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, discographies,yearbooks, directories, and catalogs. Cites many writings on the violin.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

See also {1}. These resources are by subscription only, but can be accessed through

many public and university libraries in the United States and elsewhere.

5. IIMP. http://music.chadwyck.com/.

The International Index of Music Periodicals. Indexes articles and reviewsfrom hundreds of academic and popular music journals from 1874 to thepresent, including string journals such as Journal of the Violin Society ofAmerica, Strad, and Strings. The JVSA is indexed beginning with vol. 10(1990), Strad begins with vol. 80 (1969), and Strings with vol. 10 (1996).All articles published after 1996 are abstracted.

6. JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org. JSTOR, short for Journal Storage, is an online depository of more than

400 academic journals across all disciplines. The entire contents of thethese journals have been electronically scanned, allowing users to readarticles online, view illustrations, search for words or phrases withinarticles, and download and print articles. As of late 2005, JSTOR includedmore than 30 music journals. None is devoted solely to stringed instru-ments, but there are hundreds of relevant articles and reviews available inthe journals that have been archived.


Reference and General Studies 7

7. The Music Index. http://www.hppmusicindex.com.

Indexes over 700 academic and popular journals on all types of musicsince 1974. Like IIMP, it indexes Journal of the Violin Society of America,Strad, and Strings, though with slightly different coverage. Regularlyupdated. The Music Index also exists in paper form, which startedcoverage in 1949.

8. ProQuest Digital Dissertations. http://www.lib.umi.com/dissertations. An extensive database of information on doctoral dissertations and mas-

ters theses. Lists more than 2 million titles, with abstracts available formost works written after 1980 and the full text of many dissertations andtheses available in downloadable form. Because rarely more than a fewhard copies of any individual dissertation exist, and because most do notcirculate (except through interlibrary loan), this is a very valuableresource.

9. RILM. http://biblioline.nisc.com/scripts/login.dll?BiblioLine.

RILM, or Rpertoire International de Littrature Musicale, indexes books,articles, dissertations, and other writings (thus making it broader than theperiodical-only indexes) published since 1967. Entries provide full bib-liographic information and a concise abstract. (Despite the French name,RILMs abstracts are in English.) RILM is also published in print andCD-ROM form.

10. WorldCat. http://firstsearch.oclc.org/.

A meta-catalog that draws on the online catalogs of hundreds of librar-ies worldwide. Provides detailed bibliographic information on books,theses, scores, recordings, videos, and archival collections. This Web sitealso provides access to a variety of other indexes, such as Article First(a periodical index) and ECO (Electronic Collection Online).

GENERAL VIOLIN BIBLIOGRAPHIES

For more circumscribed bibliographies on violin making, see {140},{142}, and {143}; on violin music, see {63948}; on violinists, see{1200}.

11. Heron-Allen, Edward. De Fidiculis Bibliographia. London: GriffithFarran, 189094. 2 vols., x, 416pp., lxxviii (supplement). R. (in one vol.)London: Holland, 1961. x, 416pp., lxxviii.



An important and monumental bibliography of the violin. Covers alltopics related to the violin published in many formats (books, pamphlets,articles, etc.).

Most items are annotated and provide insightful summaries, often withbiographical information on the author. Includes novels, poems, religioustracts, catalogs, patents, and songs. The organization is idiosyncraticforexample, books, book extracts, and periodical articles are found in differentsections, regardless of the topicalthough the indexes provide a helpfulguide. Although more than a century old, Heron-Allens work remainsvaluable because of its perceptive annotations and its inclusion of writingsunlikely to be cited in any other source (including the present volume).This work supersedes the authors Libri desiderati: Prolegema to Defidiculis bibliographia, Libri desiderati: Postscriptum to De fidiculisbibliographia, and other pamphlets written before 1894 connected withthe bibliography.

12. Bonaventura, Arnaldo. Saggio di una bibliografia dell violino e deiviolinisti. Rivista delle biblioteche e degli Archivi 17 (January 1906): 19.

A classified and unannotated bibliography of the violin; categoriesinclude violin making and makers, history, violin playing, violinists, andreference.

DISCOGRAPHY

See also {38}. For discographies of individual violinists and works,consult the entries in the Violinists and Violin Music sections of this book.

13. Creighton, James. Discopaedia of the Violin, 18891971. Toronto: Uni-versity of Toronto Press, 1974. xvi, 987pp. 2d ed. 4 vols. Burlington,Ontario: Records Past, 1994. 1610pp.

A monumental violin discography. Organized alphabetically by violinist(of which there are thousands listed); each entry lists the violinists record-ings (arranged by composer) and identifies the label, catalog number, andmatrix number of each recording. The dates the recordings were made,however, are not provided. Indexes list composers, popular titles of works(e.g., the Kreutzer sonata), record manufacturers, and the violiniststhemselves.

PERIODICALS

The following journals are devoted specifically to the violin or to theviolin family in general. Many general music periodicals not listed



here, such as Etude, Instrumentalist, Jacobs Orchestra Monthly, MusicalAmerica, Musical Courier, Musique et Instruments, and Zeitschrift frInstrumentenbau, frequently contain articles on the violin or have regularviolin departments. Place of publication often changes over the course ofa periodicals life; locations provided here are either the location of theirfounding (if the journal is now defunct) or the most current location asof 2005.

GENERAL14. The Fiddler: A Monthly Journal for Professionals and Amateurs of All

Stringed Instruments Played with the Bow. London, 188486.

Perhaps the first periodical devoted solely to stringed instruments. Mostissues include profiles of celebrated violinists of the past, articles on thehistory and construction of the violin, as well as anecdotes, sayings, andbits of advice to performers.

15. Strad. London, 1890.

Addresses the gamut of topics and issues related to the violin family.Includes interviews with performers and luthiers, practical exercises withmusical examples, analyses of the string literature, and record, music,and book reviews. It is the longest-running violin periodical, and oneof the longest-running music periodicals of any kind. A well-respectedjournal and a valuable resource. The journals Internet address ishttp://www.thestrad.com/.

16. Violin World. New York, 18921928.

Subtitled A Monthly Journal Published in the Interests of String Instru-ments and their Players. Its brief, non-scholarly articles cover a varietyof topics on the violin, violin makers, and violinists.

17. Violin Times. London, 18931907.

Subtitled A Monthly Journal for Professional and Amateur Violinists andQuartet Players. Edited by Eugene Polonaski, a pedagogue and formereditor of Strad, and Edward Heron-Allen, author of {11}, {151}, etc.Includes concert notices, book and music reviews, articles on the history ofthe violin, profiles of performers past and present, and a variety of opinionpieces.

18. Strings: The Fiddlers Magazine. London, 189498.

Covers a variety of subjects of interest to violinists, including technique,famous violinists, and the violin itself; also includes short stories and poemson the violin. Established and edited by John Broadhouse, author of {175}.



19. Violinist. Chicago, 190037.

Offers articles on a wide array of topics, including profiles of violinistspast and present, analyses of works for violin, advice on technique andrecital programming, and discussion of violin making and violin makers.A valuable resource.

20. The Cremona. London, 190611.

Full title: The Cremona, With Which is Incorporated The Violinist, aRecord of the String World. The editorial in the first issue (17 December1906) describes The Cremona as an independent journal dealing withstringed instruments, their history, their uses, and their players which shall appeal not only to the great mass of musicians and players,but which shall be indispensable to the enthusiast, the collector andthe virtuoso (1). Includes articles on the violin, violinists, and com-posers, auction records, book, music, and concert reviews, and worksof fiction.

21. The Violin and String World. London, 190813.

Continued the Violin Times and was published as a supplement to theMusical Standard, with which it later merged.

22. Violins and Violinists. Chicago, 193860.

Covers all areas, but contributed particularly (and valuably) to the studyof violin makers and violin making. Established and edited by ErnestDoring, also a frequent contributor to the journal (see the Author Indexfor a list of selected writings).

23. Strings: The Magazine for Players and Makers of Bowed Instruments.St. Anselmo, CA, 1986.

Comparable to Strad, although with more emphasis on American topicsand popular music. The journals Internet address is http://www.strings-magazine.com/.

ACOUSTICS AND CONSTRUCTION24. Fiddlestrings. New York, 191828.

The house journal for Muller & Kaplan, Stringmakers. As the first issuestates, I am a catalog-magazine. My aim is to make the first pages sointeresting that you will read the last pages, the ones that will bringthe business (2). In addition to ads for the companys strings, itprovides articles on string making and string care, violin makers, andviolinists.



25. Horvaths Bulletin. New York, 1924?

Devoted largely to violin making and the violin trade, although with fea-tures on violinists and violin playing. The official organ of the AmericanViolin Trade Association. Founded by Julius Horvath and published untilat least 1929.

26. Die Geige und verwandte Instrumente: Monatsschrift fr Geiger undGeigenbauer. Berlin, 192528.

A monthly journal devoted to the interests of violin makers and violinists.Issues include detailed photographs and descriptions (including measure-ments) of important instruments. Edited by violin maker Otto Mckel,author of {181}.

27. Violin Makers Journal. Vancouver, 195761.

The official monthly publication of the Violin Makers Association ofBritish Columbia.

28. Violin and Guitar Makers. Miami, AZ, 195993.

The journal of the Violin and Guitar Makers Association of Arizona, laterthe Violin Makers Association of Arizona International. The journalchanged to Violin Makers Association of Arizona International Journal,and had that title when it ceased publication.

29. Catgut Acoustical Society Newsletter and Catgut Acoustical Society Jour-nal. Poughkeepsie, NY, 19642003.

An important scholarly journal, established by Carleen Maley Hutchins,for researchers and makers of string instruments, with particular attentionto the practical applications of studies in acoustics. Articles are oftenhighly technical, and cover subjects such as cavity mode frequencies,string vibration, the acoustic properties of bridges and sound posts, andexperimental instruments. Issues often include book reviews and confer-ence reports as well. The Newsletter was published between 1964 and1984, after which it became the Catgut Acoustical Society Journal.Selected articles have been reprinted in {62} and {68} (and many are citedthroughout this volume). As of 2004, the contents of selected volumesare listed on the Societys Web site at http://www.catgutacoustical.org/JOURNAL/index.htm.

30. Journal of the Violin Society of America. Poughkeepsie, NY, 1974. An important journal that publishes new research on violin making, acous-

tics, violin makers, and related topics. (Many of its articles are transcriptsof presentations given at the Societys annual meetings.) The journalsInternet address is http://www.vsa.to/journal.htm.



31. American Lutherie: The Quarterly Journal of the Guild of AmericanLuthiers. Tacoma, WA, 1985.

Aimed at those who make, restore, and repair stringed instruments, includ-ing the violin family, the gamba family, lutes, and guitars. Articles providepractical advice, profile makers, review products and books, and reporton conferences. Selected articles from 1985 to 1993 have been reprintedin The Big Red Book of American Lutherie, vols. 13, available throughthe Guild of American Luthiers. As of 2004, the contents of issues176 were listed on the Guilds Web site, http://www.luth.org/backissues/biindex.htm.

32. Arte Liutaria. Florence, 198589.

Focuses on the study and restoration of old stringed instruments. Editedby the violin maker Carlo Vettori.

VIOLIN PLAYING AND VIOLIN MUSIC33. American String Teacher. Fairfax, VA, 1951.

The journal of the American String Teachers Association (ASTA).ASTAs Web site (with links to its journal) is http://www.astaweb.com/.Articles typically focus on the practical aspects of pedagogy and tech-nique.

34. Devils Box. Madison, AL, 1967.

A quarterly journal published by the Tennessee Folklore Society for thepurpose of promoting and preserving fiddling and related music (DevilsBox 17 [Spring 1983]: 2.) Articles profile and interview fiddlers, discusstrends in fiddling, provide transcriptions, etc. Note that it was first pub-lished as individual issues up to no. 27, and then switched to volumedesignation beginning after no. 27 with vol. 9.

35. Violexchange: A Quarterly Review of Rare and Out-of-Print String Liter-ature. Ann Arbor, MI, 198692.

Largely dedicated to the exploration of little-known works for strings,with each issue discussing and reprinting (or publishing for the first time)particular works. Also includes interviews with musicians and instrumentmakers and reprints of older articles on strings and string repertoire.

GENERAL STUDIES OF THE VIOLIN

The following items provide information on two or more of the broadcategories used in this bookacoustics and construction, violin playing



and performance practice, violin music, and violinists, violinist-composers,and violin teachers. See also {1201} and {1215}.

36. Adler, Eduard. Die Behandlung und Erhaltung der Streichinstrumente.Leipzig: Merseburger, 1895. 60pp. 2d ed. Leipzig: Merseburger, 1910.60pp. 3d ed. Leipzig: Merseburger, 1924. 60pp.

A broad guide to the violin; illustrates the parts of the violin and listsmakers, literature, and repertoire.

37. Vercheval, Henri. Dictionnaire du violoniste. Paris: Fischbacher, 1923.192pp. I. Dizionario del Violinista. Trans. Nella de Angeli. Bologna: Sarti,1924. 248pp.

An almanac of useful facts for the violinist. The first part lists musicalterms; the second provides a lightly annotated list of violinists and violinand bow makers.

38. Bachmann, Alberto. An Encyclopedia of the Violin. Trans. Frederick H.Martens. New York: Appleton, 1925. xiv, 470pp. R. New York: Da Capo,1966. vi, 470pp.

A valuable single-volume guide to all matters violinistic. The first 7 of25 chapters discuss the instrument and its construction, and include listsof violin and bow makers, a glossary of varnish ingredients, and detaileddescriptions of violin, bow, string, and rosin manufacture, along withdozens of illustrations. Chapters 8 through 16 focus on violin playing,with historical discussion of and practical advice on left- and right-handtechniques. Chapter 17 provides analyses of the following works: BachsChaconne, Beethovens Violin Concerto, Kreutzer Sonata, and twoRomances, Tartinis Devils Trill Sonata, the violin concertos of Men-delssohn, Brahms, Saint-Sans in A minor and B minor, and Bruch(G minor), Lalos Symphonie Espagnole, and Saint-Sanss Introductionand Rondo Capriccioso. The subject of Chapter 18 is violin collecting inEurope and America. Chapter 19 focuses on chamber music, with anannotated list of accomplished string quartet ensembles and suggestedtempos for each movement of the Haydn and Beethoven quartets.Chapter 20 is a discography of various works for violin. Chapter 21 is aglossary of musical terms and 22 a biographical dictionary of violinists.Chapter 23 provides a selected bibliography. Chapter 24 addresses thedevelopment of violin music, and the final chapter supplies a classifiedlist of the violin literature. Bachmanns Encyclopedia supersedes hisearlier French-language guide, Le Violon (Paris: Fischbacher, 1906) andremains a good source of information.

39. Pincherle, Marc. Feuillets dHistoire du Violon. Paris: Legouix, 1927.181pp.



A collection of 17 essays on various aspects of the violin. The first ofthree main parts, History, Biography, Aesthetics, includes articles onJean-Pierre Guignon, Eugne Ysae, and the correspondence of Viottiand Baillot. A second section includes five articles on Czech violinists(including Otakar evck), composers, and music. The final part,Technique, History of the Forms, includes pieces on ornamentationin Corellis sonatas, Kreislers arrangements, and Viottis violinmethod.

40. Debaar, Mathieu. Le violon: Son historique, Sa littrature. Verviers: Nau-tet-Hans, 1935. 78pp. 2d ed. Brussels: Schott, 1937. 84pp.

A history of the violin for the general reader; discusses violin making andviolin makers, violin music, and violinists. Includes lists of violinistsarranged by country.

41. Farga, Franz. Geigen und Geiger. Zurich: Mller, 1940. 334pp. 7th ed.Zurich: Mller, 1983. 367pp. E. Violins and Violinists. Trans. EgonLarsen. New York: Macmillan; London: Rockliff, 1950. xvi, 223pp. 2ded. London: Barrie & Rockliff; New York: Praeger, 1969. xv, 247pp.

A popular general study of the violin. Part I, Violins, discusses the earlyhistory of the violin and provides chapters on various schools of violinmaking. (A chapter on British lutherie is contributed by E. W. Lavender.)Part II, Violinists, surveys the celebrated violinists up to the mid-20thcentury. Not always factually reliable, although later editions correct theerrors of the earlier ones.

42. Piccoli, Georges. Trois sicles de lhistoire du violon. Nice: Delrieu, 1954.127pp.

A broad history of violin music and violin playing, with particular atten-tion given to Italy and France.

43. Pincherle, Marc. Le violon. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1966.128pp. 2d ed. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1974. 127pp.

A general history of the violin aimed at a broad audience. Five chapterscover the origins and form of the instrument, violin makers, technique,violin literature, and violinists. Mus. exx., bib.

44. Audibert, Henri. Brviaire technique scientifique du violiniste, mementode connaissances, histoire, lutherie, violinistes, Paganini, experimenta-tion, pedagogie, acoustique. Narbonne: Audibert, 1970. vi, 418pp.

A self-published catch-all survey of all matters violinistic. Includeschapters on lutherie, performance practice, Paganini, and pedagogy.Numerous figures.



45. Kolneder, Walter. Das Buch der Violine. Zurich and Freiburg: Atlantis,1972. 626pp. 2d ed. Zurich and Freiburg: Atlantis, 1978. 626pp. 3d ed.Zurich and Freiburg: Atlantis, 1984. 626pp. 4th ed. Zurich and Freiburg:Atlantis, 1989. 612pp. 5th ed. Zurich and Freiburg: Atlantis, 1993. 612pp.E. The Amadeus Book of the Violin. Trans. and ed. Reinhard G. Pauly.Portland, OR: Amadeus, 1998. 597pp.

A useful, informative, and well-researched sourcebook. The first (andshortest) part of the book describes the physical characteristics, construc-tion, and repair of the violin and bow. Part Two chronicles the instrumentshistory. Its many brief chapters cover the pre- and early history of theviolin, violin and bow makers from several centuries and more than adozen countries, as well as experimental violins, and amateur violin mak-ing. Part Three (the longest of the book) addresses performance, pedagogy,and composition, and proceeds chronologically from the 16th to the 20thcenturies, profiling, summarizing, and listing dozens of violinists, works,and treatises as well as discussing issues of performance practice. Wellillustrated with photographs, drawings, and musical examples, andincludes a substantial bibliography. The English edition, published post-humously, includes revisions and additions by Reinhard Pauly.

46. Nelson, Sheila. The Violin and Viola: History, Structure, Techniques.London: Benn; New York: Norton, 1972. xv, 277pp. R. New York: Dover,2003. xv, 277pp.

Explores the history, construction, and performance of the violin and viola.Chapters cover the earliest forms of the instruments, 17th- and 18th-century violin makers, the string quartet, the orchestra, and the rise anddevelopment of the string virtuoso. Illustrations, musical examples, andbibliography.

47. Melkus, Eduard. Die Violine, eine Einfhrung in die Geschichte der Vio-line und des Violinspiels. Bern: Hallwag, 1973. 124pp. 4th ed. Mainz:Schott, 2000. 193pp. F. Le violon: une introduction son histoire, sonfacture et son jeu. Trans. Evelyne Kolatte. Lausanne: Payot, 1972.123pp.

A broad study of the violin, written by a noted scholar of the instru-ment, with chapters devoted to construction, acoustics (contributed byGregor Widholm), performance practice, and repertoire. Generouslyillustrated.

48. Wechsberg, Joseph. The Glory of the Violin. New York: Viking, 1973.314pp.

An engaging survey of the violin. The first of three main parts focuses onthe development of the instrument and the great violin makers. (It includes



chapters on the Amati family, Antonio Stradivari, the Guarneri family, andJacob Stainer.) The second part explores the world of violin collecting anddealing, and discusses labels, frauds, and great collectors. The final sectionsurveys the great violinists of the distant and near past. Illustrated.

49. Schwarz, Vera, ed. Violinspiel und Violinmusik in Geschichte und Gegen-wart. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1975. 333pp.

Collects the papers, most in German, presented at the InternationalViolin Congress in Graz, Austria, in 1972. Divided into five sections:Violin Music, Violin Playing, Problems of Pedagogy, String Playing asa Profession, and Violin Construction. Papers by David Boyden {387},Peter Guth {480}, Marianne Kroemer {573}, Boris Schwarz {1165},and Rudolf Stephan {691} are abstracted separately. A broad and usefulcompendium.

50. Gill, Dominic, ed. The Book of the Violin. New York: Rizzoli, 1984. 256pp. An informative and richly illustrated survey of the violin. Chapters

address the anatomy of the violin and bow, music in the Baroque,Classical, Romantic, and Modern periods, the violin concerto, and jazzand folk violin playing. Includes a chronology of violinists from JosephJoachim to Anne-Sophie Mutter, a discography, glossary, and biblio-graphy.

51. Boyden, David D., et al. The New Grove Violin Family. New York: Norton,1989. 315pp.

A broad guide to stringed instruments drawn from essays, written by avariety of leading scholars, first published in the 1980 edition of the NewGrove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. (Much of the text was revisedand corrected for this book.) Nine chapters are devoted to the violin andits construction and makers; violin technique; violin repertoire; the folkviolin; the viola; the cello; the bass; the bow; and acoustics. Two appen-dices provide a glossary and an index of violin and bow makers. Includesmany illustrations, musical examples, and a bibliography.

52. Stowell, Robin, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Violin. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992. xvi, 303pp.

A useful collection of essays by a variety of (mostly) British scholars onthe history, literature, and performance of the violin. Fifteen chapters coverthe origins, development, and physics of the instrument; violinists andviolin playing from the Baroque to the 20th century; pedagogy; solo andensemble repertoire, and the violin in jazz and non-Western music.Includes 40 musical examples, and 45 illustrations, a list of violin treatises,a glossary, and an extensive bibliography.



Includes the following essays, which are annotated separately: PeterCooke, The ViolinInstrument of Four Continents, John Dilworth,The Violin and BowOrigins and Development, Adrian Eales, TheFundamentals of Violin Playing and Teaching, Max Harrison, The Vio-lin in Jazz, Simon McVeigh, The Violinists of the Baroque and ClassicalPeriods, Bernard Richardson, The Physics of the Violin, Robin Stowell,The Nineteenth-Century Bravura Tradition, Technique and PerformingPractice, The Concerto, The Sonata, Other Solo Repertory, ThePedagogical Literature, Eric Wen, The Twentieth Century, and PaulZukofsky, Aspects of Contemporary Technique.

53. Menuhin, Yehudi and Catherine Meyer. The Violin. Paris: Flammarion,1996. 301pp.

A coffee-table-type book on the violin. Lavishly illustrated, with histori-cal, philosophical, and autobiographical essays by Menuhin groupedunder headings including The Object that Creates the Sound, TheViolin Maker, The Violin Player, The Violin Teacher, The ViolinComposer, and Violins of the World.

54. String Anthology: A Compendium of Articles on String Playing and Teach-ing from The Instrumentalist from 1946 to 1997. Northfield, IL: Instru-mentalist, 1997. 828pp.

Reprints more than 300 articles originally published in The Instrumentaliston all aspects of the violin (as well as the cello, viola, and bass). Themajority of articles focus on technique and pedagogy. A smaller numberof articles addresses instrument repair and profile individual violinists andteachers. A valuable resource.

55. Dawes, Richard, ed. The Violin Book. London: Balafon; San Francisco:Miller Freeman, 1999. 126pp.

An informative and well-illustrated guide to the violin for the generalreader. Chapters, written by a variety of respected scholars and instru-ment makers, address the physical properties of the instrument, violinmaking, violin playing, and violin repertoire. Notable for its numerousdetailed photographs of the parts of the violin and the violin-makingprocess. Provides a list of recommended recordings and a brief bibliog-raphy.

56. Nobach, Christiana, ed. Streichinstrumente. Kassel: Brenreiter; Stuttgart:Metzler, 2002. 357pp.

A broad guide to stringed instruments drawn from essays published inthe second edition of the German encyclopedia Musik in Geschichte undGegenwart {2}. The first major part surveys instrument building both in



terms of process and history, with a separate section devoted to bowmaking. A later section is devoted solely to the violin (other sectionsconcern the viola, cello, bass, and viol family), and discusses its history,acoustical characteristics, and techniques. Includes illustrations, musicalexamples, and extensive bibliographies.


19

II

The Violin: Acoustics and Construction

ACOUSTICS AND MECHANICS

GENERAL STUDIES

See also {29}, {45}, {47}, {51}, {56}, {174}.57. Savart, Flix. Mmoire sur la construction des instruments cordes et

archet. Paris: Roret, 1819. 118pp. R. Geneva: Minkoff, 1972. vi, 120pp.

A pioneering and oft-cited study of the scientific principles that govern theconstruction and tone production of stringed instruments. Explains the prop-erties of vibrating strings, instrument plates, and air cavities. Draws on thethen-recent work of physicist Ernst Chladni, and illustrates many so-calledChladni patterns, which demonstrate how materials vibrate. Includes a sec-tion on Savarts invention, the trapezoidal violin. Reprinted in {171}.

58. Giltay, J. W. Bow Instruments: Their Form and Construction. London:Reeves, 1923. x, 129pp. R. St. Clair Shores, MI: Scholarly, 1976. 139pp.

A study of the physical properties of the violin. Chapters address thestrings, bridge, the belly and back and the vibration of the air they enclose,the sound post, the f-holes, bass bar, and mute, and the effect of age onthe functioning of the violin. Numerous figures.

59. Schelling, John C. The Violin as a Circuit. Journal of the AcousticalSociety of America 35 (March 1963): 32638.



Uses the analogy of the circuit to understand the function of instrumentsof the violin family. Diagrams. Reprinted in {68} and in the CatgutAcoustical Society Journal 4 (May 2001): 1325.

60. Brick, M. J. How Does the Violin Work? Strad 65 (May 1964): 2327. The first in a 16-part series that sets out to explain the acoustical and

mechanical properties of the violin in language suitable for the nonscien-tist. Numerous diagrams.

61. Peterlongo, Paolo. Strumenti ad arco. Milano, SIEI, 1973. 268pp. G. DieStreichinstrumente und die physikalischen Grundprinzipien ihres Funktion-ierens. Trans. Silvia Kincel. Frankfurt: Das Musikinstrument, 1976. 171pp.E. The Violin: Its Physical and Acoustic Principles. Trans. Bill Hopkins.London: Elek, 1979; New York: Crescendo/Taplinger, 1979. 160pp.

Explores the mechanical and acoustic workings of the violin. Twenty shortchapters discuss the various parts of the violin, as well as the physiologyof violin playing, violin adjustment and repair, and the testing and eval-uation of instruments. Includes many diagrams and photographs.

62. Hutchins, Carleen Maley, ed. Musical Acoustics. 2 vols. Stroudsburg, PA:Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 197576. xv, 478pp.; xvii, 379pp.

A valuable collection of mostly technical articles on the physical proper-ties of the violin. The first volume is divided into six sections: generalpapers, the bowed string, the bridge, the sound post, wood, and varnish.The articles are largely from the 20th century and in English, though some(such as an 1840 article by Flix Savart) come from earlier times or arein other languages. The second volume is similar, but is divided into threeparts: body vibrations, radiation, and musical focus. Both volumes includemany illustrations, charts, and tables. The articles, many by leading schol-ars, are reprinted from the Catgut Acoustical Society Newsletter, Journalof the Acoustical Society of America, Journal of the Physical Society ofJapan, Zeitschrift fr Instrumentenbau, and other sources. See {68} forthe sequel to this set.

63. Cremer, Lothar. Physik der Geige. Stuttgart: Hirzel, 1981. 368pp. E. ThePhysics of the Violin. Trans. John S. Allen. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press,1983. ix, 450pp.

A rigorous study of the acoustical properties of the violin. Divided intothree main parts, which consider the oscillation of bowed and pluckedstrings, the body of the instrument (esp. the bridge), and the radiationof sound from the violin. Aimed at acousticians and violin makers.Numerous equations and diagrams. The English edition updates theGerman original. For an earlier work on the same topic by the author,


The Violin 21

see Die Geige aus der Sicht des Physikers (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck &Ruprecht, 1971). For a study of the subject aimed at the layreader,see {67}.

64. Hutchins, Carleen Maley. A History of Violin Research. Journal of theAcoustical Society of America 73 (May 1983): 142140.

A very useful overview of the research on the mechanical and acousticalproperties of the violin from the 17th to the 20th centuries. Discusses thework of, among others, Flix Savart, Hermann von Helmholtz, C. V.Raman, John C. Schelling, and Frederick Saunders, as well as the authorsown research. Includes numerous illustrations and an extensive bibliog-raphy. For an update by the same author, see A History of ViolinResearch, Catgut Acoustical Society Journal 4 (May 2000): 410.

65. Richardson, Bernard. The Physics of the Violin. In The CambridgeCompanion to the Violin, ed. Robin Stowell, 3045. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Provides an overview of the basic acoustical and mechanical functions ofthe violin. Illustrated.

66. Weinreich, Gabriel. What Science Knows about ViolinsAnd What itDoes not Know. American Journal of Physics 61 (December 1993):106777.

Surveys the state of scientific knowledge about the violin as of the early1990s in two main categories: Physics of the Bowed String and TheViolin as a Radiator of Sound. Also considers the limits of what currentscience can reveal about the violin. Identifies what the author calls TheNew Secret of Stradivarius, which is that there is no way to differentiatebetween the highest and lowest quality violins in terms of physicallymeasurable properties, even though most violinists will instantlyand intuitively know which is which. Written in generally nontechnicallanguage accessible to the nonscientist. Illustrated.

67. Beament, James. The Violin Explained: Components, Mechanism, andSound. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997. viii, 245pp.

Explains the physical aspects of the violin, the mechanisms by whichviolins produce sound, and the ways in which violin sound is perceivedby the human ear. Written in a nontechnical manner for the layreader;numerous charts and diagrams. For a technical one-volume survey,see {63}.

68. Hutchins, Carleen Maley and Virginia Benade, eds. Research Papers inViolin Acoustics: 19751993. 2 vols. Woodbury, NY: Acoustical Societyof America, 1997. xix, 1312pp.



A companion to Hutchinss earlier compilation of technical articles {62};represents the explosion of research in the last quarter of the 20th century.Volume 1 opens with an introductory survey of 350 years of violinresearch followed by sections organized around the following topics:sound radiation, the bowed string, the bridge, the sound post, bass bar,and tailpiece, normal bending modes of unattached violin plates, modesof the completed violin body, and violin air cavity resonance modes. Thearticles in Volume 2 focus on the following subjects: the interrelation ofstring, wood, and cavity resonances of the whole violin, wood, varnish,psychoacoustics, the Catgut Acoustical Society, acoustic theory andresearch, and the future of violin research. Each section is preceded ageneral overview of the topic. The articles, many by leading scholars, arereprinted from Acustica, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,Journal of the Audio Engineering Society of America, Journal of theCatgut Acoustical Society, and other sources. Includes biographies of theauthors and a bibliography.

69. Curtin, Joseph. Innovation in Violinmaking. Catgut Acoustical SocietyJournal 3 (May 1999): 1822.

Reflects on the role of innovation in such a tradition-bound craft; notesthat acousticians, engineers, and material scientists can contribute toimproving the performance of the violin.

SOUND VIBRATION AND RADIATION

See also {132}. Additional articles on these subjects, not abstracted here,are included in the anthologies {62} and {68}.

70. Hutchins, Carleen Maley, Alvin S. Hopping, and Frederick A. Saunders.The Air Tone of the Violin. Strad 70 (September 1959): 16163.

Explains the significance of the air tone (also known as blow tone), theresonant frequency of a violins air cavity.

71. Dunnwald, Heinrich. Ein erweiteres Verfahrung zur objektiven Bestim-mung der Klangqualitat von Violinen. Acustica 71 (1990): 26976.

Based on measurements of the frequency response of about 700 violins,the author proposes an objective standard for determining the soundquality of violins; suggests that the celebrated tone of old Italian violinsis a function of craftsmanship but not aging.

72. Hutchins, Carleen Maley. A Study of the Cavity Resonances of a Violinand Their Effects on its Tone and Playing Abilities. Journal of theAcoustical Society of America 87 (1990): 39297.


The Violin 23

Describes experiments in which the resonance of a violin is measuredwith holes drilled in it and after being buried in sand, experiments thatdemonstrate the important effect that the motion of air within the violinbody has on the tone of a (normal) violin. Photographs and graphs.Reprinted in {68}.

73. Hutchins, Carleen Maley and Duane Voskuil. Mode Tuning for the ViolinMaker. Catgut Acoustical Society Journal 2 (November 1993): 59.

Summarizes findings on the relationships among five key resonant fre-quencies of the violins body and suggests how violin makers can adjusttheir instruments, and thus the relationship of these frequencies, toimprove the sound of their instruments.

74. Weinreich, Gabriel. Directional Tone Color. Journal of the AcousticalSociety of America 101 (April 1997): 233846.

Describes and examines the phenomenon the author calls directional tonecolor, the rapid variation of a violins sound radiation pattern at frequen-cies above 1 kHz that can give the illusion that different notes in a solosound as if they are coming from different directions. Considers howunderstanding directional tone color can shed light on the use of vibrato,on solo versus orchestral playing, the projection of violin sound in a hall,and on the electronic reproduction of violin sound. Includes graphs, pho-tographs, and musical examples.

STUDIES BY MATERIALS, PARTSWood

See also {109}, {151}, {224}, {226}, {253}, {302}, {340}, {359}, {397}and many of the treatises cited in {167} through {188}. Additional arti-cles, not abstracted here, are included in {62} and {68}.

75. McCollister, E. H. Violin Woods of the Pacific Northwest. Violinist 26(February 1920): 5358.

Describes various woods to be found in Oregon and Washington suitablefor violin making.

76. Haines, Daniel W. On Musical Instrument Wood. 2 parts. Catgut Acous-tical Society Newsletter 31 (November 1979): 2332; 33 (May 1980):1923.

Reports on an extensive study of the mechanical properties of woods usedto make violins, guitars, and pianos, in particular their stiffness, density,and vibrational damping. Part I considers untreated wood, Part II, treated(i.e., with filler or varnish, or through exposure to light or water). Includes



diagrams, graphs, and data tables. Reprinted in {68}. See also the authorslater article on the same subject, The Essential Mechanical Properties ofWood Prepared for Musical Instruments, Catgut Acoustical SocietyJournal 4 (November 2000): 2032.

77. Shigo, Alex L. and Karl Roy. Violin Woods: A New Look. Durham:University of New Hampshire, 1983. iv, 67pp.

Presents information on the characteristics of the wood used for violins,especially spruce and maple. Intended to guide violin makers in theselection of wood for their instruments. Includes many detailed photo-graphs of wood samples. In parallel German and English texts.

78. Fulton, William. The Acoustic Properties of Spruce. Journal of theViolin Society of America 7, no. 1 (1984): 3756.

Discusses the physical characteristics of spruce, a wood usually used forviolin top plates. Quotes from several historical and contemporary writ-ings on the subject.

79. Minato, K. and H. Yano. Improvement of the Acoustic and HygroscopicProperties of Wood by a Chemical Treatment and Application to the ViolinParts. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 92 (September 1992):122227.

A technical article on the effect of treating the wood of various parts ofthe violin (top plate, bass bar, bridge, sound post) with formaldehyde;concludes that such treatment protects the wood against humidity andimproves the instruments sound quality. In a later article, the authorstested the effect of other chemical treatments. See Chemical Treatmentof Wood for Musical Instruments, Journal of the Acoustical Society ofAmerica 94 (December 1996): 338091.

80. Hutchins, Carleen Maley. A Measurable Effect of Long-term Playing onViolin Family Instruments. Catgut Acoustical Society Journal 3 (May1998): 3840.

Based on tests conducted over a period of years, reports that long-termplaying of stringed instruments increases the flexibility of the wood, whichmay translate to increased power.

81. Topham, John and Derek McCormick. A Dendrochronological Investi-gation of British Stringed Instruments of the Violin Family. Journal ofArchaeological Science 25 (1998): 114957.

Reports on a pilot study in the use of dendrochronology (tree-ring anal-ysis) as a method for confirming the dates of violins. Forty-seven stringedinstruments attributed to British makers of the 17th to 19th centuries were


The Violin 25

tested. The authors conclude that dendrochronology can be a reliablemethod of dating instruments. For later studies of other collections ofinstruments, see Tophams A Dendrochronological Survey of MusicalInstruments from the Hill Collection at the Ashmolean Museum inOxford, Galpin Society Journal, no. 55 (April 2002): 24468, andA Dendrochronological Survey of Stringed Instruments from ThreeCollections in Edinburgh, London and Paris, Galpin Society Journal,no. 56 (June 2003): 13246, as well as {82}.

82. Topham, John and Derek McCormick. A Dendrochronological Investi-gation of Stringed Instruments of the Cremonese School (16661757)Including The Messiah Violin Attributed to Antonio Stradivari. Journalof Archaeological Science 27 (2000): 18392.

Reports the results of dendrochronological (tree-ring) studies of 33Cremonese violins made during the late 17th and early 18th centuries,including 20 by Stradivari. Among the Strads studied was the violinknown as The Messiah, long thought to have been by Stradivarius butthen later ruled out as a Strad because the wood had been thought tohave dated from after the makers death. The authors date the violinswood to within Stradivaris lifetimeonce again suggesting that thatthe violin is a Strad. Provides charts, tables, maps, and photographs.The authors findings were independently confirmed in Henri D. Gris-sino-Mayer et al., A Dendroarchaeological Re-examination of theMessiah Violin and Other Instruments Attributed to Antonio Stradi-vari, Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (February 2004): 16774.See also {359}.

83. Burckle, Lloyd and Henri D. Grissino-Mayer. Stradivari, Violins, TreeRings, and the Maunder Mininum: A Hypothesis. Dendrochronologia21, no. 1 (2003): 4145.

Noting that many hypotheses have been offered to explain the superiorsound of instruments by Stradivari and his contemporaries, but that allseem lacking, the authors present an alternative hypothesis based on theMaunder Minimum. The Maunder Minimum was a period (16451715)of longer winters and cooler summers that slowed the growth of trees,and resulted in wood of increased density. The authors suggest that theunusual quality of the wood, combined with other environmental factors,may help explain the apparently unsurpassed quality of certain instrumentsmade during this time.

84. Topham, John and Derek McCormick. Working Methods of Early Clas-sical Violin Makers: Implications of Recent Dendrochronological Stud-ies. Catgut Acoustical Society Journal 4 (May 2003): 5967.



Drawing on dendrochronological (tree-ring) studies of violins by Stradi-vari, Guarneri, and other luthiers, the authors conclude that the greatmakers often used fairly young wood (between 3 and 20 years old), werenot overly concerned with bookmatching two-piece top plates (i.e., usingsymmetrically grained wood for each half), and did not have, as is some-times maintained, a secret source of wood, given that there are significantsimilarities between the woods of makers from different regions. Includesillustrations, graphs, and references.

Top and Back Plates

Additional articles are included in {62} and {68}.85. Starkman, Martin. Violin Arching. Strad 80 (November 1969): 31314,

31921.

Provides a method for designing templates for the arching of violin plates.86. Nigogosian, Vahakn and Albert Mell. To Graduate or not to Graduate.

Journal of the Violin Society of America 3 (Summer 1977): 5867. Discusses the pros and cons of varying the thickness (graduating) of a

violins plates.

87. Hutchins, Carleen Maley. The Acoustics of Violin Plates. ScientificAmerican 245 (October 1981): 17086.

Reports the findings of a decades-long investigation into the physical andvibrational qualities of the top and back plates of the violin necessary toproduce a fine instrument. This is a clear exposition of the topic suitablefor general readers. Includes several photographs, diagrams, and graphs.Reprinted in {68}, which also includes several more technical articles onplate tuning and arching.

88. Lolov, Athanas. Bent Plates in Violin Construction. Galpin SocietyJournal, no. 37 (March 1984): 1015.

Suggests that Stradivari (and perhaps other Cremonese makers of that era)may have created the top plates of his violins through bending the wood,rather than carving, as is typical, and that this method may account forthe legendary quality of the instruments.

89. Loen, Jeffrey S. Reverse Graduation in Fine Cremonese Violins. CatgutAcoustical Society Journal 4 (May 2003): 2739.

Based on the study of the top plates of 105 Cremonese violins made byStradivari, Guarneri, and others, reports that the majority of so-calledGolden Age violins have reverse graduated top plates, meaning that they


The Violin 27

are thinnest at the center and thicker at the edges, unlike most of theviolins made after 1750. Includes illustrations and tables.

Varnish

See also {38}, {62}, {68}, {76}, {140}, {148}, {151}, {152}, {155},{161}, {16788} passim, {189}, {227}, {229}, {253}, {258}, {285},{340}, {414}, {429}.

90. Gheroldi, Vincenzo, ed. Varnishes and Very Curious Secrets Cremona1747. Trans. Minni Vesconi. Cremona: Cremonabooks, 1999. 251pp.

A translation of an anonymous and previously unpublished Italian 18th-century manuscript of varnish recipes and instructions, known as the Triv-ulziana Manuscript 4 [H113]. Includes three essays by the editor and one byLuciano Colombo on the manuscript and on violin varnish more generally.

91. Mailand, Eugne. Dcouverte des anciens vernis italiens employes pourles instruments cordes et a archets. Paris: Lahure, 1859. 168pp. G. Daswiederentdeckte Geheimnis des altitalienischen Geigenlackes. Leipzig: deWit, 1903. 74pp. 2d ed. Leipzig: de Wit, 1913. 74pp. R. (of 1903 ed.)Die wiederentdeckte Geheimnisse des altitalienischen Geigenlackes.Munich: Katzbichler, 1975. 74, viipp.

A pioneering and influential study of the varnish used by the Italianmasters between about 1550 and 1740. The first of two parts summarizesand comments on numerous early treatises on varnishing. The second partaddresses practical matters and discusses the preparation of instrumentsbefore varnishing, the coloration of varnishes, and various formulas andrecipes.

92. Fry, George. The Varnishes of the Italian Violin-makers of the Sixteenth,Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. London: Stevens & Sons, 1904.xii, 170pp. R. Cape Coral, FL: Virtuoso: 1977. xi, 128pp. Waterbury, CT:Brohan, 1999. 140pp.

A study of Italian violin varnishes in an attempt to discover the secretsof the classic violin makers. Boasts that every variety of the old varnishescould be reproduced with facility from turpentine and linseed-oil withoutthe admixture of colouring matter in any form (7). An appendix lists theingredients of 16 different varnishes. Although now outdated, it remainsan oft-cited work.

93. Greilsamer, Lucien. Le vernis de Crmone: tude historique et cri-tique. Paris: Socit franaise dimprimerie et de libraire, 1908. viii,175pp.



Surveys the research on the varnish used by the Italian master luthiers.Offers critical assessments of work by Victor Grivel, Eugne Mailand,M. Mordret, Charles Reade, Flix Savart, Labb Sibire, Auguste Tol-becque, and others. Reprints several historical varnish recipies. Bib.

94. Christ-Iselin, Wilhelm. Zur Frage des Cremoneser Geigenlackes: eineHypothese. Basel: Frobenius, 1920. 63pp. 2d ed. Leipzig: Breitkopf &Hrtel, 1920. xii, 71pp. E. The Mystery of Cremona Varnish: An AttemptedSolution. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hrtel, 1923. 43pp.

Claims to have discovered the secret of Cremonese varnish, namely, tomake use of tempera in laying a first coat on white string instruments before varnishing (4, English ed.).

95. Michelman, Joseph. Violin Varnish: A Plausible Re-creation of the Varnishused by the Italian Violin Makers Between the Years 1550 and 1750.Cincinnati, OH: Author, 1946. xi, 185pp.

Offers what the author calls a plausible recreation of the lost art ofviolin varnishing. The first three chapters provide a useful review of theliterature (with extensive quotations of many writings). Subsequent chap-ters (there are 18 in all), discuss a variety of materials, methods, andrecipes. The author was a chemist by training, and in his work on varnishused only materials, equipment, and methods that would have been avail-able to Stradivari et al. For this book, it was not possible to confirm thatthe authors recipes matched those of the Italian masters because of theunavailability of varnish samples, although in subsequent articles ({98},{100}, {102}, {103}) the author was able to report on chemical analysesof old varnish.

96. Araklian, Sourne. Le violon: Prcepts et notices dun luthier. Tehran:Institut Franco-Iranien, 1952. 67pp. G. Die Geige: Retschlage und Betra-chtungen Eines Geigenbauers. Frankfurt: Das Musikinstrument, [1958].67pp. E. The Violin: Precepts and Observations of a Luthier, My Varnish,Based on Myrrh. Trans. Peter Armitage. Frankfurt: Das Musikinstrument,1981. 81pp.

A collection of observations on the craft of violin making. The first oftwo parts includes brief chapters on the thickness of the violins belly andback, on the bridge, f-holes, bass bar, and sound post. The second, andmain part, focuses on the authors varnish, which is based on myrrh, aningredient he believes was introduced to the classic Italian violin makersfrom the Near East. Provides several different myrrh-based varnishrecipes.


The Violin 29

97. Apps, Howard Llewellyn. Cremona Varnish: Was it a Secret? Strad 71(July 1960): 97101.

Reviews various theories by Ole Bull, Charles Reade, W. M. Morris, andEugne Mailand about the secrets of Italian violin varnish.

98. Michelman, Joseph. Which Is ItViolin Varnish or Finish? Strad 71(August 1960): 13335.

Argues that the wood of old Italian instruments has received some pre-liminary treatment separate and distinct from the varnish on the surfaceof the instruments. Accordingly, the term varnish does not suffice todescribe the finish used by the old Italian luthiers; it is composed of twocomponentsthe pre-treatment and the varnish (133). The authorexplains the use of his own violin finish in the August 1962, March 1963,and June 1969 issues of Strad.

99. Apps, Howard Llewellyn. Some Spirit Varnishes Compared. Strad 73(June 1962): 5559.

Argues that spirit varnishes, usually considered inferior to oil varnishes,can be used successfully on violins; compares three different commercialspirit varnish recipes.

100. Michelman, Joseph. Chemical Research on the Violin. Strad 76 (Octo-ber 1965): 2057.

It is the purpose of this article to explain chemical research on the violin,particularly on the finish, its objectives, difficulties and the obstacles inconducting the research, the results that have been obtained to date, etc.(205). Cites numerous articles on the subject.

101. Clare, Henry. Violin Priming. 2 parts. Strad 78 (May 1967): 1721;(June 1967): 5357.

An experienced violin maker offers advice and instructions on the prep-aration of a violin (known as priming or sizing) before it is varnished.Provides his own primer recipe.

102. Michelman, Joseph. Queer Element in the Old Italian Violin Varnish.Strad 78 (December 1967): 297301.

Reports on an analysis of a varnish sample taken from a 1730s violin byCamilo Camilli and the surprising presence of barium. Concludes thatBarium should now be added to the list of tell-tale elements that confirmthe rediscovery of the old Italian violin varnish (301).



103. Michelman, Joseph. Three More Clues that Confirm the Rediscovery ofthe Lost Varnish. Strad 82 (June 1971): 6773.

Reports on the authors analysis of varnishes used by Gagliano and Albaniinstruments, and identifies potassium, tin, and silicon as the maincomponents.

104. Fulton, William. Varnishes. Journal of the American Violin Society 2(Fall 1976): 10418.

An often technical discussion of the authors varnish experiments, includ-ing his attempt to recreate the varnish used by the 17th-century Englishluthier Christopher Love Morley.

105. Condax, Louis W. Final Summary Report on Violin Varnish ResearchProject. Catgut Acoustical Society Newsletter 37 (1982): 3136.

Reviews the authors years of research into the nature of the varnishesused by many of the great Italian luthiers between 1540 and 1760. Iden-tifies rosin oil as a key to creating a varnish that displays a range of huesdepending on the angle from which it is viewed, a characteristic of theold varnishes known as dichroism. Takes issue with the conclusions ofFry {92} and Michelman {95}. This article was originally published in1970 as a report to the Mellon Institute. (See also Condaxs ViolinVarnishes Created by Two Prominent Authors, George Fry and JosephMichelman: Their Comparisons to the Old Masters, Catgut AcousticalSociety Newsletter 6 [1966]).

106. Baese, Geary. Classic Italian Violin Varnish. Ft. Collins, CO: Author,1985. 99pp.

Aims to stimulate the revival and maintenance of the grand tradition ofartistic violin varnish (vii). In three parts covering the history of Italianviolin varnish, the materials used in various varnishes, and the preparationand application of varnish. The author summarizes his and others researchon varnish in Classic Italian Violin Varnish, Journal of the Violin Societyof America 8, no. 3 (1987): 5075.

107. Carletti, Gabriele. Vernici in liuteria. Padua: Zanibon, 1985. 141pp.

Provides a practical guide to the use of varnishes. Chapters address eachstep of the process, from the selection of plants to use in making varnish,to the preparation of the wood, to the application and polishing of varnish.Also includes chapters on the use of lacquer and enamel. Includes numer-ous formulas and recipes.


The Violin 31

108. Colombo, Luciano. Antiche vernici perliuteria. Cremona: Turris, 1997.76pp.

A clear and useful overview of research on the secret of the varnishused by Stradivari, Guarneri, and the other master luthiers. Summarizesthe work of Sacconi, Fry, Michelman, and Hutchins, among others. Par-allel Italian and English text.

109. Schleske, Martin. On the Acoustical Properties of Violin Varnish. CatgutAcoustical Society Journal 3 (November 1998): 2743.

Based on experiments conducted by the author, observes that varnish hasa significant effect on the vibration of spruce, and that different varnishrecipes affect the wood in measurably different ways.

Strings

See also {24}, {29}, {38}, {57}, {58}, {62}, {63}, {66}, {151}, {152},{16788} passim, {204}, {258}, {385}, {435}, {604}.

Mechanics and Acoustics110. Sundt, E. V. Why Cant We Have Better Violin Strings? Etude 68

(September 1950): 1819, 51, 53. An engineer and violinist reports on three years of experiments on the

tension, weight, diameter, strength, and loudness of gut and metal strings.Notes that metal strings consistently outperform gut, but there is still agreat deal of room for improvement in string performance.

111. Schelling, John C. The Physics of the Bowed String. Scientific American230 (January 1974): 8795.

Seeks to answer the question, What actually happens when a violin stringis bowed? Provides an overview of old and newer research to explainthe complex phenomenon. Includes photographs, illustrations, and graphs.

112. Pickering, Norman C. The Bowed String. Mattituck, NY: Amereon, 1991.iv, 132pp.

Presents a wealth of information on the acoustics, mechanics, design,construction, and manufacture on strings for the violin family. Written ingenerally nontechnical language for musicians and instrument makers(although some terms are left unexplained). Includes many diagrams andillustrations. More recent (and technical) writings on the subject by



Pickering include A New Type of String for Bowed Instruments, Journalof the Violin Society of America 15, no. 1 (1997): 2544 and (with FanTao) Why Strings Sound Different, Journal of the Violin Society ofAmerica 17, no. 3 (2001): 7391.

113. Schumacher, Robert T. and James Woodhouse. Computer Modellingof Violin Playing. Contemporary Physics 36 (MarchApril 1995):7992.

Reviews recent research on the oscillation of bowed stringsspecificallyin the area of computer simulationaimed at understanding the soundproduction of the violin. Clearly written, though assumes a certain famil-iarity with the technical language of physics. Includes equations andfigures.

History114. Witek, Anton. The Wire E. Violinist 24 (August 1919): 28994. A brief history of the steel E string and advice on its use.

115. Dann, Elias. The Second Revolution in the History of the Violin. CollegeMusic Symposium 17 (Fall 1977): 6471.

Considers the widespread change from gut to metal strings in the early20th century, citing it as the second revolution in the history of the violin(the first occurring in the 18th century with changes in the bow, and theviolins neck and bass bar). Discusses several historic recordings madeby violinists using gut strings.

116. Pickering, Norman C. Modern Strings: Where They Come From, HowBest to Use Them. Strings 2 (Winter 1988): 812.

Chronicles the history of string making, from the development of metal-wound strings to the introduction of aluminum and then synthetic mate-rials in string making. Also offers practical advice on the installation andmaintenance of strings.

117. Perfuffo, Mimmo. Italian Violin Strings in the Eighteenth and NineteenthCenturies: Typologies, Manufacturing Techniques and Principles ofStringing. Recercare 9 (1997): 157203.

Sets out to correct misconceptions about historical violin strings andstringing, in particular arguing that strings were generally thicker than hasbeen thought. Provides data on string tension and gauge. Summary inItalian.

118. Bonta, Stephen. Readers Comments: The Making of Gut Strings in 18th-Century Paris. Galpin Society Journal 52 (April 1999): 37685.


The Violin 33

Discusses gut string making in 18th-century Paris. Includes translationsof articles on Boyaudier (gut string maker) and Corde (string) fromDiderots Encyclopdie.

Construction, Manufacture, Materials119. A New E String. Violinist 2 (June 1902): 7. Notes that a violinist in Kalamazoo, Michigan, has reported success using

braided silk fishing line as an E string.

120. Bobzin, Charles. The Making of Strings for Musical Instruments froma Commercial and Sentimental Standpoint. Crescendo 2 (November1909): 56, 9.

Discusses the state of string manufacture and its market in the UnitedStates and Europe. Includes figures on prices, import duties, tensilestrength, and so on. Notes that metal strings were first produced in Bostonin 1875.

121. Manufacturing Gut Strings. Violinist 21 (April 1917): 14549. Explains the process by which gut strings are made; includes photographs

of a string factory. A similar, briefer article on the subject appeared inViolinist 7 (April 1909).

122. Herwig, Charles. The Evil of the Wire E String. Fiddlestrings 1 (1918): 5. Condemns the steel E string for producing a coarse and unmusical tone,

and urges violinists to use gut E strings, as was traditional. Also publishedin Violinist 24 (April 1919): 12930.

123. Scott, James. Violin Silken Strings: Their Origin, Formation, and Curi-osities. Strad 30 (April 1919): 9597.

Describes the properties of silk strings (which were used only as E strings)and their creation in the cocoons of the silkworm. Illustrated.

124. Tiny, Paul. Les cordes dinstruments de musique: ce quil faut savoirsur leur fabrication. Musique et Instruments 22 (October 1931): 877,881.

Describes the various stages of gut string manufacture.

125. Abbot, Djilda and Ephraim Segerman. Gut Strings. Early Music 4(October 1976): 43037.

Offers practical advice on the use of gut strings; discusses factors suchas string length, tuning, pitch distortions, and string material andconstruction.



126. Schuster, Oskar. The Manufacture of Strings for Musical Instruments.Journal of the Violin Society of America 2 (Fall 1976): 89103.

A discussion of string manufacture, with particular attention to the han-dling of sheep gut, from the president of Gustav Pirazzi and Company,makers of Pirastro strings. Photographs.

127. Firth, Ian M. Construction and Performance of Quality CommercialStrings. Journal of the Violin Society of America 8, no. 2 (1987):7589.

Investigates the construction and physical properties of strings made byPirastro. Includes graphs, data tables, and photographs of strings takenthrough an electron microscope. Reprinted from the Catgut AcousticalSociety Newsletter 47 (May 1987).

128. Rickard, James. Manufacturing Strings for the Violin Family. Journalof the Violin Society of America 10, no. 2 (1989): 66106.

The author, of DAddario string makers, explains the manufacturing pro-cess, with accompanying photographs. Includes a discussion of stringmaking in Korea.

Bass Bar

See also {58}, {62}, {63}, {67}, {68}, {79}, {96}, {160}.129. Bretos, J., C. Santamaria, and J. Alonso Moral. Effect of The Bass Bar

on the Free Violin Top Plate Studied by Finite Element Analysis. CatgutAcoustical Society Journal 3 (November 1998): 1620.

Reports on a study of the vibration of the bass bar and top plate, conclud-ing that the bass bar serves not only a structural purpose but also has asignificant impact on the volume and timbre of the violin.

130. Rodgers, Oliver E. On the Function of the Violin Bass Bar. CatgutAcoustical Society Journal 3 (November 1999): 1518.

Reviews research done on the function and design of the bass bar. Con-cludes that bass bars are likely heavier than is necessary for optimalfunctioning and that the asymmetrical placement of the bass bar is crucialto good sound production.

Sound Post

See also {29}, {58}, {63}, {67}, {68}, {79}, {96}, {160}.131. Lorenzen, L. J. The Violin Sound Post as a Phase Regulator. Journal

of the Violin Society of America 7, no. 4 (1986): 12233.


The Violin 35

Seeks to discover the exact function of the sound post, which has longbeen unclear. Explains his experiments with sound posts and offers theprovisional conclusion that the sound post acts as a mechanical feedbacksystem which works to subdue resonant peaks and smooth the responsecurve (133). Includes five figures.

132. Bissinger, George. Some Mechanical and Acoustical Consequences ofthe Violin Soundpost. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97(May 1995): 315464.

Based on a study of the sound radiation of the violin with and without asound post, concludes that the presence of the sound post lowers andboosts certain frequencies, decreases the mechanical response ofthe bridge, increases radiation efficiency, and alters radiation patternssignificantly. See also the authors later articles on the sound post, ModalAnalysis, Radiation and the Violins Soundpost, Sound and Vibration 29(August 1995): 1822, and Mode-ling the Sound of the Violin: the V-RModel and the Role of the Soundpost, Catgut Acoustical Society Journal3 (May 1998): 2939.

133. Rodgers, Oliver E. Effect of Sound Post Adjustment. Catgut AcousticalSociety Journal 3 (May 1997): 1924.

Compares the effect of the sound post on the tone of the violin whenharmonic analyses are made of a violin playing with the post in differentpositions.

Bridge

See also {58}, {62}, {63}, {68}, {79}, {96}, {160}, {179}.134. Mller, Helmut A. The Function of the Violin Bridge. Trans. E. Wall.

Catgut Acoustical Society Newsletter 31 (May 1979): 1922. Explains the mechanics and acoustics of the bridge in fairly nontechnical

language. Includes several illustrations. Originally published in Germanin the journal Das Musikinstrumente.

135. Larson, Daniel C. Instrument Set-Up for Historical Performance: AStudy of Early Bridges. Catgut Acoustical Society Journal 4 (November2003): 5363.

Reports on a study of early violin, viola, and cello bridges by importantItalian, French, and English makers of the 17th through 19th centuries.Notes that early violin and viola bridges are more varied in design andare thinner and have smaller feet than modern bridges, and are thicker onthe treble side than the bass side.



Chin Rest and Shoulder Rest

See also {50912}, {514}, {632}, {1574}.136. Doring, Ernest N. Chin and Shoulder Rests. Violins and Violinists 2

(January 1940): 16870. Briefly surveys the history and varieties of chin and shoulder rests.

Mute

See also

the violin

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