the use of mandalas as a developmental assessment

Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD

THE USE OF MANDALAS AS A DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENT

OF EMERGING ADULTHOOD

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts in Marital and Family Therapy

Notre Dame de Namur University

Submitted by

Sara Barulich

December 2011

Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD ii

Signatures

I certify that I have read this thesis and that, in my opinion, it meets the thesis requirement for

the Master of Arts in Marriage and Family Therapy degree

Richard Carolan, Ed.D., ATR-BCProfessor & Chair

Thesis Director

I certify that I have read this thesis and that, in my opinion, it meets the thesis requirement for

the Master of Arts in Marriage and Family Therapy degree

Vicki Bynum, MFT, ATRSecond Reader

Approved for submission to the College of Arts and Sciences at Notre Dame de Namur University

John Lemmon, Ph.D.Interim Dean

College of Arts and Sciences

Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD iii

Acknowledgements

I would like to extend a sincere thanks to the faculty of the Art Therapy program at

NDNU for their support and wisdom. This thesis would not be in your hands if not for the

countless edits, emails, and encouragement from Laury Rappaport, Richard Carolan and Vicki

Bynum. Thank you to my friends and family for sustaining me and tolerating me throughout my

thesis and graduate school process.

Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD iv

Table of Contents

Title Page…………………………………………………………………………………………..i

Signatures…………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………iii

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………....iv

Appendix Contents……………………………………………………………………………..….v

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………....1

I. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..…2

II. Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………....9

III. Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………31

IV. Results…..………………………………………………………………………..……….….41

V. Discussion…………………………………………………………...………………………..44

References………………………………………………………………………………………..49

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………………54

Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD v

Appendix Contents

Appendix A Participant Recruitment Announcement…………………………………………54

Appendix B Informed Consent………………………………………………...………………55

Appendix C Permission to Use Artwork………………………………………………………59

Appendix D Debriefing Statement…………………………………………………………….60

Appendix E Participant Instructions………………………………………………………..…61

Appendix F Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (EAQ)……………………………………..63

Appendix G Mandala Rating Guide…………………………………………………………...68

Appendix H The Great Round of Mandala………………………………………………...….72

Appendix I Flow of the Great Round…………………………………………………………73

Appendix J Sorted Mandala Sample………………………………………………………….74

Running head: MANDALAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD 1

Abstract

This study hypothesized that mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home

would exhibit themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala and that

mandalas drawn by emerging adults living independently would exhibit themes in the mature

quadrant. An individual was qualified as an emerging adult if they were between the ages of 18

to 29, and had not achieved all of the following markers of adulthood: leaving home, finishing

school, becoming financially independent, getting married, and having a child. The study sample

included fifty-two participants, with a mean age of 26. Each participant was asked to use the art

materials to fill the provided circle with whatever came to mind. This mandala was later

categorized in the Great Round of Mandala by 3 independent mandala raters. The results

revealed that there was no statistical significance between the mandala quadrants of emerging

adults living at home and those living independently. Further results indicated a significant

relationship between mandala stage and participant age. Given this relationship, future research

may apply a study such as this to a wider sample across the life span.


Introduction

Stages and transitions of human development are not static and have been redefined

throughout time according to societal contexts. Consider, for example, that the developmental

period of young adulthood was once thought to span from the late teens until age 40: depending

on the theorist, that same duration of time is now divided into three or more distinct stages

(Henig, 2010; Newman & Newman, 2009; Arnett, 2007). While the definitions and analyses of

development may change, it is still important to understand the changes involved across the

lifespan and to develop awareness of these stages because society and the life course have a

reciprocal relationship. By noting the differences in each life stage one can also appreciate the

similarities of transition and transformation in each phase. The study of lifespan development is

a “means of comprehending the conflicts, opportunities, and achievements of central importance

to people living through different stages than one’s own” (Newman & Newman, 2009, p. xiii).

Likewise, this knowledge helps guide interactions among ages and facilitates growth at each life

stage. The growth occurring for the Millennial generation at present is shaping up differently

than generations past, and the impact of this change on societal and governmental institutions is

yet to be determined. The observed patterns of adolescence and young adulthood appear to be

shifting and are now being considered as a new stage of development being referred to as

emerging adulthood. (Fagan, 2011; Newman & Newman, 2009; Arnett, 2007; Children’s

Workforce Developmental Council, 2004).

Emerging Adulthood

The typical lifespan range outlined in many textbooks about development lists

adolescence occurring from 11 to 19 years of age, and young adulthood occurring from 18 to 45


years of age: a 27 year span of development (CWDC, 2004). This sizeable age range has lead

Jeffrey Arnett (2004) to propose a new stage known as emerging adulthood—a time between

adolescence and full-fledged adulthood (Henig, 2010; Sassler, Ciambrone, & Benway, 2008;

Mitchell, 2006; Arnett, 2000). This is not a period of extended adolescence as there is notably

less parental control and more independent exploration; however, it cannot be classically

considered young adulthood because that implies an early stage of adulthood has been reached

when it has not ( Mitchell, 2006; Arnett 2004). According to Arnett (2000), emerging adulthood

is characterized as a time of instability, self-focus, identity exploration, and transition. The

ability to engage in this stage is contextual and primarily found in industrialized countries

(Arnett, 2004). For example, the postponement of major life decisions relating to work, family

and responsibility (decisions often defining adulthood) has become the norm in the United States

(Murphy, Blustein, Bohling & Platt, 2010). This normalcy of emerging adulthood is being

shaped by the age cohort currently occupying this stage, the Millennials, those born after 1980

(Pew Research Report, 2010).

The Millennial generation is three times the size of Gen X and similar in size to the Baby

Boomers, at just over 77 million (Keene, 2010; Huntley, 2006). This is the generation that will

be charged with caring for the Baby Boomers, and yet their experience of adulthood is drastically

different. Young people are increasingly being denied access to the markers that traditionally

define adulthood: work, marriage, children, and home ownership (Huntley, 2006). As a result,

emerging adults are reshaping the paradigm of marriage and family and seeking increasing

amounts higher education to compete for entry-level positions (Henig, 2010; Huntley, 2006;

“Emerging Adulthood,” 2001). According to emerging adults, financial independence is a key

criterion for adulthood, and one that has been difficult in light of the current economic context


(Arnett, 2004). A 2010 Pew Research Center survey found 37% of 18-19 year olds are

unemployed or out of the work force entirely; and still, the unemployment rate for those under

age 25 is close to 20%. This is the highest recorded rate in the Labor Department (Keene &

Handrich, 2010; Hirsh, 2010). Not only are traditional markers of adulthood being shifted or

postponed, but the post-recession economy has also influenced the rise in a subset of Millennials

—boomerangs.

A boomerang individual refers to young people who choose, for varying reasons, to

cohabitate with their parents after a brief period of living on their own (“Boomerang

Generation,” 2011; Hirsh, 2010). A Pew Research Center survey in October 2009 found that

13% of 22-29 year olds have moved back to their parental homes after being on their own.

Likewise, the U.S. Census Bureau found that from 2007 (just before the recession) to 2010 (a

year after it ended) the number of adults ages 25-34 living at home rose 26%, from 4.7 million to

5.9 million. The movement to return home is not always financial. Emerging adulthood can be

very challenging psychologically and vocationally, leading some young people home for parental

emotional support during their stressful transition (Murphy, Blustein, Bohling, & Platt, 2010;

Beaupre, Turcotte, & Milan, 2006; Galambos, Barker, & Krahn, 2006). In contrast to emerging

adults living on their own, boomerangs experience these developmental challenges in the context

of family dynamics and shifting roles (Mitchell, 2006). The boomerang effect is dialing back the

societal clock about 60 years, to a time when people did not leave home until they were married

(Fagan, 2011; Rubin, 2010). If this effect continues, patterns of the late 20th century will change,

and Fagan (2011) notes, “we don’t know what that will look like.”

The Millennials are currently the largest generation in American history, and they are

already impacting businesses, the workplace, schools, and other organizations: to which Rainer


(2011) states “they are just too big to ignore” (p. 2). We are in a period of rapid change, and “if

it’s a true life stage, we need to start rethinking our definition of normal development and to

create systems of education, health care and social supports that take the new stage into account”

(Henig, 2010, p. 7). The recent provision in the new health care law extending coverage until age

22 is an example of the government addressing the revised timetable of adulthood (Rubin, 2010).

Given the shifts in the adulthood paradigm, the assessment of this cohort could provide much

needed knowledge towards the forthcoming institutional changes. The nature of assessment is to

identify characteristic information about a population that in this case can benefit from future

research. The nonverbal language of art can express personal growth, insight, and

transformation; it is a means of connecting what is inside, such as thoughts and feeling, with

outer realities and life experiences (Malchiodi, 2007). The use of art based assessment in this

study provides a concrete, tangible product that circumvents any defenses or resistance that may

occur in standard testing. Using art to assess the Millennials may provide developmental and

emotional insight otherwise missed in verbal expression that can be subject to bias or defenses.

Art and Development

Viktor Lowenfeld (1970) was a pioneer of looking at art as a reflection of development

and as a means of understanding growth. Art therapists have since adapted his theories and

stages to enhance their understanding of children’s and adolescent’s growth, leading to

applications in art as part of an assessment (Alter-Muri, 2002). As Ferrara (1991) explains, “art

contributes to overall development by providing the conduit for responding to experience and

expressing the change that occurs at every developmental stage” (Ferrara, 1991, p. 2). The way

in which an individual portrays their experiences can give an indication to some of the

unconscious ordering that is unique to that person, in other words, art can reveal the dimension


of psychological processes that are experienced and developing (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). It

is useful to look at these inner processes to unveil and possibly identify what an individual may

be grappling with, whether conscious of it or not. For example, an emerging adult may visually

portray a hint towards identity formation before actually being aware that they are undergoing

such a task. Circles are one of the earliest images children create, and the shape itself becomes a

touchstone in the lifelong process of growth and change; thus, the circular nature of mandalas is

thought to facilitate a sense of order than helps to orient oneself within one’s present life

situation (Fincher, 2010).

Mandala artwork is a directive that channels this notion of art as a reflection of

development, and like an assessment, each mandala holds specific information about the

creator’s current state of consciousness (Fincher, 2010). A mandala is a circular design used as a

meditation tool in religious and spiritual practices, but also became popularized by Carl Jung

(1973) as a therapeutic instrument. Jung explored the psychological meaning of mandalas and

found that they can be important indicators of the process of personal growth towards fulfilling

your individual identity and purpose in life (Fincher, 2010). Jung’s approach held that when

creating a mandala, one makes a personal symbol revealing who they are at that moment—an

idea leading to Joan Kellogg’s (1982) Great Round of Mandala, a map of twelve stages that

represent significant stages of personal and psychological development (Fincher, 2010). The

Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala represents a pattern of psychological

development which often coincides with lifespan stages, but is not necessarily linear, and is more

often a continuous cycle of tasks and challenges lived many times over. The Great Round

follows the natural process of growth towards wholeness; a process Jung believed unearthed


one’s individuality and uniqueness (Fincher, 2010; Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro 2007; Kellog

& Di Leo, 1982).

Jung suggested that the act of drawing mandalas had a calming and healing effect on its

creator while at the same time facilitating psychic integration and personal meaning in life (Jung,

1973 as cited in Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro, 2007, p. 149). The healing effect of mandala

creation relies on the symbolic representation of emotion and conflict, as well as the resulting

sense of order and integration. Arnett (2004) identified instability as a feature of emerging

adulthood, since individuals are frequently in transition and are at a loss for the structure

previously experienced in adolescence. Mandalas may be particularly useful for this population

as the internal sense of order provided by the art experience may affect these feelings of

instability.

Though emerging adulthood is a fairly recent idea, research surrounding the

characteristics of Milliennials is growing due to their numbers, buying power, and future impact

on society. However, emerging adulthood is yet to be researched in the field of art therapy. The

researcher was unable to find any current studies on emerging adulthood involving any type of

art directive or art as an assessment of development. Further, Keene (2008) postulates that due to

the effect of economic crisis, pre-2008 data is no longer relevant when evaluating the life

experience of Millennials and their perspective on the future (Keene, 2010). Art assessment can

provide a means of gaining insight that might otherwise be missed in a standard questionnaire, as

it taps into unconscious processes that are less likely to be masked through intentional defensive

response patterns. Given the necessity for current information regarding this cohort and the

absence of any art involvement, there is a need for this study.


In light of the current economic context and the changing course of development, this

study looks to identify similarities in developmental experiences and struggles that appear in the

artwork of emerging adults. Correlating cohort characteristics with their artwork may help

distinguish and identify their subconscious needs or challenges. Knowing common themes of

struggle in emerging adulthood may lead to more direct, possibly solution-focused therapy and

may influence the civic program needs for this cohort.

The purpose of this research is to explore the use of mandalas as a developmental assessment

of emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood as a life phase has only recently been proposed by

Jeffrey Arnett in 2000. This unique period of development where one is no longer an adolescent

but not yet a full-fledged adult is most notable at this time due to the current economic context.

To date, the researcher was unable to find any art-based research involving this cohort.

This study will examine mandalas created by emerging adults and apply them to The

Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala to assess development. This study

hypothesizes the following: 1). mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home

will exhibit themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala; and 2). mandalas

drawn by emerging adults living independently will exhibit themes in the mature quadrant of the

Great Round of Mandala.


Literature Review

This review of literature explores lifespan development, emerging adulthood, art in

relation to development, and the Great Round of Mandala. It begins with general information on

development across the lifespan, including the importance of developmental stages and the

traditional definitions of each according to Erikson, Freud, Jung and Piaget. Next the newly

proposed life phase of emerging adulthood is presented with the contextual reasons for its

inception. Within emerging adulthood, a specific group is highlighted in relation to the current

context: the “boomerangs,” those who leave their parental home yet return to live with them

again. Because this study is examining the art of a specific cohort, the work of Viktor Lowenfeld

(1970) is explored, observing art not only as a reflection of growth, but also as a means of

understanding development. Finally, mandala work is explored and illustrated in Joan Kellog’s

(1982) Twelve Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala as an assessment of

psychological maturity and development.

Lifespan Development

The study of lifespan development is vast and can be interpreted through a number of

varying theoretical lenses. While the definitions and analyses of development may change, it is

still important to understand the changes involved across the lifespan and to develop awareness

of these stages. By noting the differences in each life stage one can also appreciate the

similarities of transition and transformation in each phase. Developmental stages are not

necessarily age related, but they do tend to build or progress upon each other, often with an


influential overlap (Children’s Workforce Developmental Council, 2004; Newman & Newman,

2009).

Examination of development employs several theories to understand the lifespan:

psychosocial, psychosexual, analytical, and cognitive. Erikson’s (1950) psychosocial theory of

development takes many of these orientations into account when establishing stages and tasks of

growth by incorporating the work of Freud and the biological process with the importance of

environment and culture (Newman & Newman, 2009). Each of Erikson’s stages encapsulates a

conflict that a person confronts and ideally, masters; challenges of stages that are not

successfully completed may be expected to reemerge as problems in the future (Newman &

Newman, 2009).

Psychosocial Stages of Growth

A developmental stage is a period of life that is characterized by specific tasks and

directions. According to Newman and Newman (2009), Erikson proposed eight stages of

psychosocial development.

Infancy: birth to 18 months. Important events at this stage include attachment and basic

needs such as feeding. The conflict here is of trust versus mistrust, where a child develops a

sense of trust and safety when provided with reliable care and affection.

Early childhood: 2 to 3 years. Children at this stage work on developing a sense of

personal control, exhibited in tasks such as toilet training. By developing a sense of control over

physical skills a child gains a sense of independence leading to autonomy. When this sense is not

achieved a child experiences feelings of shame and doubt.


Preschool: 3 to 5 years. This is a time when children begin to explore their environment

by asserting control and power. The conflict at this stage is initiative versus guilt. When children

successfully assert themselves in an independent way they gain a sense of purpose. However,

when there is too much assertion of power, there is often negative feedback resulting in a feeling

of guilt.

School age: 6 to 11 years. The environment changes at this phase, where a child is met

with new social experiences and academic demands. The developmental conflict is of industry

versus inferiority. When children experience success in these new situations and in response to

these demands they gain a sense of competence. Failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Adolescence: 12 to 18 years. Puberty is a key struggle of development at this time, as the

body is changing and moral questions of identity arise. Social relationships develop and can aid

or hinder the sculpting of a teens’ identity through involvement in cliques. The conflict of

adolescence is of identity versus role confusion. Success or failure of this conflict results in a

strong or weak sense of self; in fact, this conflict is often revisited throughout the lifespan.

Young adulthood: 19-40 years. This twenty year span of life involves the conflict of

intimacy versus isolation. Based on the sense of self previously developed, individuals will find

themselves ready to be open to others, or to isolate.

Middle adulthood: 40 to 65 years. The developmental span of middle adulthood covers

everything from career to parenthood, with the conflict of generativity versus stagnation. As

individuals age, they look to what they are contributing to the world and others to achieve a

sense of usefulness and accomplishment. Failure to contribute, or shallow involvement can lead

to depression individuals enter old age.


Maturity: 65 to death. The last of Erikson’s stages is a reflection on life. The conflict for

older adults is of ego integrity versus despair. As individuals reflect on their time here, they may

consider the prior achievement of generativity and feel a sense of fulfillment. Individuals with

nothing to look back on or to be proud of may encounter feelings of regret and become bitter.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud’s psychosexual stages concern the development, expression, and controlling of

sexual impulses. Freud emphasized sexuality as the driving force behind growth, but notably

only focused on infancy through adolescence because “later life serves only to uncover new

modes of gratification and new sources of frustration” (Newman & Newman, 2009, p. 51). The

concept of sexuality here is broad and refers to everything from physical pleasure to intercourse;

it’s symbolism is positive, as it provides movement towards growth (Newman & Newman,

2009). According to Newman and Newman (2009), Freud’s theory of development involves five

stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Development begins in the first year of life at the oral stage. At this time the mouth is the

child’s method of exploring, discovering and interacting with the world, thus it is also the site of

sexual and aggressive gratification. Babies take things in orally, like milk, and experience

pleasure; likewise, they let things out orally, like cries, to express needs or frustrations. In the

anal stage, around age 2, the sexualized body part moves on to the anus. Children in this stage

learn to expel and withhold feces as they are developing control of their sphincter muscles. The

conflict at this time focuses on the child’s will versus the demands of the culture, or more

simply, toilet training. At age 3 the phallic stage begins and may last until age 6. Children in the

phallic stage exhibit heightened genital sensitivity and engage in self-stimulation. This new sense


of sexuality is sometimes observed as the Oedipal complex in boys or the Electra complex in

girls. The Oedipal/Electra complex involves the child having a strong, sexualized attraction to

the parent of the opposite sex. The child becomes fixated on this parent and may view the same

sex parent as a rival for attention. The complex resolves as the child learns to identify with the

morals and values of their parents and achieves a new level of autonomy. Upon resolution of the

Oedipal or Electra complex, the child enters the latency stage from age 7 until puberty.

According to Freud, there are no new significant conflicts or impulses at this stage. Freud’s final

stage of development, the genital stage, begins at puberty. The child, now an adolescent learns to

satisfy sexual impulses in mature relationships (Newman & Newman, 2009).

Human Life Cycle

Jungian theory, born of psychoanalysis, is based on concepts of consciousness, ego, and

psychic energy, which lead us towards the ultimate goals of individuation, wholeness, and

selfhood (Arrington, 2008, p. 16). Like Freud, Jung identified the unconscious and personal

unconscious of the psyche, but also defined a third area known as the collective unconscious.

The collective unconscious is made up of archetypes which are “biological or primordial images

influenced by age, experience, and culture” (Arrington, 2001, p. 59). Archetypes are connected

to our instincts and act as a primary ordering system, fostering self-regulation and giving

meaning to life because they are both image and emotion (Arrington, 2001). According to

Samuels (1983, as cited in Arrington, 2001), archetypes are seen as inherited dispositions, and

therefore provide a blueprint for development. The archetype of the Self is an innate,

unconscious psychological structure that directs psychological growth and development: it is the

creator and source of psychic life. The ego resides initially in the unconscious, and is developed

through consciousness and the process of individuation (Arrington, 2001).


Jung’s human life cycle identifies the individuation process through the course of human

development (Arrington, 2001). The human life cycle (Jung 1933/1955; 1954/1974, as cited in

Arrington, 2001) begins collectively with childhood, from birth to puberty. This first stage is a

state of unconsciousness, as the individual is under the care, guidance, and heavy influence of the

mother. Early ego development at this time is under the power of the mother. The second stage

begins in youth and extends from puberty through midlife. During this expansive period of

development, adult consciousness begins to form, as does the progressive development of the

ego. Individuals master age specific tasks and develop in their own uniqueness. Bridges (1977,

as cited in Arrington, 2001) identified the midlife stage, age 40 to 50, as the gap or threshold of

growth. This is a period in the individuation process when one looks inward and explores the

development of the Self archetype. Individuals explore their dreams and self-images that were

previously unrecognized, as they learn to understand and know the Self. Jung’s third stage, after

age 50, is when wisdom develops. Individuals have a consciousness here that calls for a dialogue

between the ego and the archetypal images that are reflected in the activities of the Self. The

final stage is aging, a period that occurs when consciousness and ego recede into

unconsciousness (Jung 1933/1955; 1954/1974, as cited in Arrington, 2001).

As cultures continue to develop, so do the definitions of lifespan development. Erickson’s

psychosocial stages include emerging adulthood in an expansive age range of 19 to 40 years. The

psychosexual stages of development follow an individual only until puberty. Jung’s human life

cycle, like Erickson, includes the emerging adulthood stage in a range from puberty until age 40.

Newman and Newman (2009) divided adulthood into three distinct phases, emphasizing this

differentiation as a product of changes in modern society. The stage of emerging adulthood must


also be considered as the economy, culture, and environment shape the timing of traditional

markers that once defined life stages.

Emerging Adulthood

In 2000, Jeffrey Arnett proposed a new phase of the life span between adolescence and

full-fledged adulthood now termed emerging adulthood, occurring from the late teens to the mid-

to late twenties. It is not a time of extended adolescence since there is notably less parental

control and more independent exploration; however, it is not yet young adulthood because this

implies that an early stage of adulthood has been reached, when it has not (Arnett, 2004).

Emerging adulthood is characterized by a high degree of demographic diversity and instability,

and viewed as time of reflection, change, and exploration (Mitchell, 2006).

Arnett (2004) identified and defined the five main features of this new life period. First, it

is a time of identity exploration, when the emerging adult learns more about whom they are and

what they want out of life. Erickson (1950) originally designated identity exploration as the

adolescent crisis, but he also noted the “prolonged adolescence” typically found in industrialized

societies; thus, young people in this stage were granted a psychological moratorium. While this

process does begin in adolescence as Erickson stated, it is however, intensified in emerging

adulthood. In addition to identity exploration, the emerging adult also learns about their abilities

and interests as they try out various possibilities in work and begin to lay the foundation for their

chosen interest. Exploring and experimenting with love and intimate relationships at this time

typically delays marriage; however, Erikson (as cited in Mitchell, 2006) noted that this delay

allows for more time to develop emotional maturity and a capacity for intimacy.


According to Arnett (2004), the second feature of emerging adulthood is characterized as

a time of instability. Individuals during this time frequently move from one residence to another,

often including a return to the parental home. This instability is also felt in the loss of structure

one previously experienced in adolescence, which leads to the third feature: emerging adulthood

is the most self-focused age of life. Emerging adults now must make their own decisions, as no

one can tell them what they want but them. Their self-focus helps develop living skills required

in adulthood, with the ultimate goal of self-sufficiency. Fourth, emerging adulthood is the age of

feeling in-between and in transition. Individuals are in limbo between the restrictions of

adolescence and the responsibilities of adulthood. Criteria for adulthood include accepting

responsibility for one’s self, making independent decisions, and becoming financially

independent: the achievement of which is gradual and incremental. Lastly, the fifth feature of

emerging adulthood is that of an age of possibilities. Individuals have the opportunity to

transform their lives: to be who they want to be and live how they want to live, free of their

parents image. Emerging adults have not yet reached the commitments and obligations of

adulthood, thus creating a time for hopes to flourish (Arnett, 2004).

Context

Emerging adulthood is primarily found in industrialized countries, and is thought to be a

result of the rise in ages of marriage and parenthood, the lengthening of higher education, and

prolonged job instability (Arnett, 2004). Early in the 20th century, psychologist G. Stanley Hall

established the term “adolescence” to describe a new life stage that appeared to delay the

transition of youth into adulthood (Winograd & Winograd, 2011). Just as adolescence was born

out of social changes at the turn of the century, emerging adulthood as a distinct life phase is a

product of recent cultural and economic shifts (Henig, 2010).


Young people are being increasingly denied access to the markers that traditionally

define adulthood: work, marriage, children, and home ownership (Huntley, 2006). In

industrialized, information-based economies, young people are finding they need increasing

amounts of education to compete in a job market with fewer entry-level positions (“Emerging

Adulthood,” 2001; Henig, 2010). The paradigm of marriage and family during this life phase has

shifted with the cultural acceptance of cohabitation, premarital sex, and birth control. Even the

proverbial ‘biological clock’ is seemingly delayed: there is less rush to reproduce since women

now have access to assisted reproductive technology (Henig, 2010). The normalcy of emerging

adulthood is being shaped by the age cohort currently occupying this stage—those born after

1980, termed the Millennials (Pew Research Report, 2010).

Millennials. The Millennials make up a generation almost three times the size of Gen X

(the preceding generation) and have edged out the Baby Boomers as the largest generation in

American history, at approximately 78 million (Rainer & Rainer, 2011; Keene & Handrich,

2010; Huntley, 2006). It is this cohort, the first generation to come of age in the new millennium

that is the focus of the newly defined stage of emerging adulthood. Keene and Handrich (2010)

however, posit that since the advent of the Great Recession in late 2007, data prior to 2008 is no

longer relevant or accurate when concerning Millennial values. The effect of economic collapse

has influenced their behavior, life experience, and perspective on the future (Keene and

Handrich, 2010). Not only are traditional markers of adulthood being shifted or postponed, but

the post-recession economy has also influenced the rise in a subset of Millennials—boomerangs.

Boomerangs. The term boomerang refers to young people who choose to cohabitate with

their parents after a brief period of living on their own (“Boomerang Generation,” 2011; Hirsh,

2010). Home returning appears to be a continuous process, more so a circular migration than a


one-time transition (Beaupre, Turcotte, & Milan, 2006; Goldscheider & Goldscheider, 1999 as

cited in Mitchell, 2006). During this distinct transitional behavior, young people can revert to a

previous state to refocus on new experiences, roles, and expectations, illustrating the fluidity of

life stage development (Mitchell, 2006). As mentioned in the context of emerging adulthood,

this is a time of instability and uncertainty and for young people who have lost the structure of

academic life (graduated), coming home recreates boundaries that help them to feel sheltered and

anchored (Robbins, 2001 as cited in Mitchell, 2006).

As Newman (2011) states, “many of our ideas about normative family practices only go

back to the period of postwar prosperity that gave birth to the baby boomers” (as cited in Van

Gelder, 2011, p. 94). The flight of baby boomers leaving home was the anomaly, thus the

problem may be not that young people are staying at home, but that they are expected to leave

(Van Gelder, 2011). In contrast to the boomers’ rebellion, the Millennials seem to get along well

with their parents, and according to a Pew Research study in 2010, they are more likely to be

living with family now (47%) than were Gen X (43%) or Boomers (39%) at this life stage

(Keene & Handrich, 2010; Sullivan, 2007). Young people also admit, as found in a study by

Settersten (1998), their ideas concerning age deadlines for leaving and returning home are based

in folk theories of development.

One primary justification for returning home appears to be economic (Van Gelder, 2011;

Balingit, 2010; Hirsh, 2010; Pew Research Center, 2010; Sullivan, 2007; Beaupre, Turcotte, &

Milan, 2006). A Pew Research Center survey conducted in October 2009 found that 13% of 22-

29 year olds returned home as a result of the recession (Pew Research Center 2010). Four

months later, the Pew Research Center found 37% of 18-29 year olds are unemployed or out of

the workforce entirely; and still, the unemployment rate for those under age 25 is close to 20%,


the highest recorded rate in the Labor Department (Keene & Handrich, 2010; Hirsh, 2010). It is

not that all Boomerangs aren’t making money; in fact, a 2010 Charles Schwab online survey

reported only 28% of those living at home are unemployed. The remainders of those surveyed

were working, but unable to support themselves: young people are frequently overqualified for

entry level jobs, and unable to earn a livable wage (Van Gelder, 2011).

However, this movement is not purely financial, as this trend has been increasing since

the mid-1990’s, rising 7% between 1995 and 2003 (Sassler, Ciambrone, & Benway, 2008). One

reason may be a reduced stigma and an increased social acceptance regarding the return, and

though men find it more stigmatizing, sons have a higher rate of return that daughters ( Sassler et

al., 2008; Beaucpre et al., 2006; Mitchell, 2006). In addition, the experience of emerging

adulthood can be very challenging psychologically and vocationally, leading some young people

home for parental emotional support during their stressful transition (Murphy, Blustein, Bohling,

& Platt, 2010; Beaupre, Turcotte, & Milan, 2006; Galambos, Barker, & Krahn, 2006). Another

reported reason for return is to maintain the standard of living they enjoyed with their parents,

after finding it impossible to afford on their own (Hirsh, 2010; Beaupre et al., 2006). Crimmins

et al., (1991, as cited in Mitchell, 2006, p. 79) call this the “intergenerational taste effect” where

the luxuries of one generation become the necessity of the next. Thus, it appears young people

are willing to sacrifice some independence in order to maintain this standard of living (Mitchell,

2006).

This research seeks to discover not only if the challenges of emerging adulthood are

evident in art, but also if these challenges appear different between groups of emerging adults

living at home and those living independently. Emerging adults in different living situations may

experience different stressors and have different goals, thus they may be operating from different


psychological processes. Art can reveal the subconscious dimension of these differing

experiences (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970), thus enabling a better understanding of development

among emerging adults and their boomerang subgroup.

Art and Development

According to Arrington (1986), “all individuals consciously and unconsciously

communicate their fundamental thoughts and inner feelings through selecting and spontaneously

expressing visual constructs” (Arrington, 2001, p. 73). These visual constructs are a part of the

nonverbal, universal language of visual symbols that all children possess, and like other

developmental processes, it develops generally in a predictable sequence (Arrington, 2001).

Artwork generally moves from unstructured to structured, and because the appearance of visual

constructs is developmentally predictable, the art can imply parallel stages of psycho-social-

emotional-stages of maturation. (Arrington, 2001).

Viktor Lowenfeld (1970) was a pioneer of looking at art as a reflection of development

and as a means of understanding growth. Art therapists have since adapted his theories and

stages to enhance their understanding of children’s and adolescent’s growth in social, emotional,

intellectual, and kinesthetic expression (Alter-Muri, 2002). As Ferrara (1991) explains, “art

contributes to overall development by providing the conduit for responding to experience and

expressing the change that occurs at every developmental stage” (Ferrara, 1991, p. 2). Lowenfeld

established five developmental stages in art expression that coincide and weave between the

stages of development theorized by Piaget (cognitive), Freud (psychosexual), Erikson

(psychosocial), and Jung (analytical). The following will classify the various forms of growth as

they are exhibited through art and discussed within theoretical context.


Intellectual Growth

The symbolic use of art can express cognitive development as shown through a child’s

growing awareness of their self and their environment (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970; Ferrara,

1991). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development concerns the nature of intelligence and how

humans come to acquire, organize, and use it (Newman & Newman, 2009). Ferrara’s 1991 study

on art as a reflection of development provides the following parallels of cognitive development

as seen in art. In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, from birth to approximately 2 years of age, art

begins as a kinesthetic pleasure of arm movements resulting in scribbles. From approximately 2

to 7 years of age, scribbles and marks appear to be placed purposely and are often named by the

child even if unrecognizable, as the marks begin to relate to known things in this preoperational

stage. These first attempts at representational images reflect a child’s conceptual development. In

the concrete operational stage, between the ages of 7 and 11, a child achieves form concept

schema and produces symbols and pictures of collective expression. The development of these

schemas appears to parallel the developing capacity for logical thought. Drawings in this stage

reflect the mental development of environmental awareness. In the final stage of formal

operational thought, around age 11 or 12, the art of early adolescents departs from the use of

schemas and attempts to represent reality as a visual concept (Ferrara, 1991).

Social-Emotional Growth

Stages of social growth are often explained using Freud’s psychosexual theory and

Erikson’s psychosocial theory, both of which have correlated indicators in an individual’s art.

Artwork can reflect how a child is identifying with their experiences and the experiences of

others (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). During the oral-sensory stage of development an infant


discovers and experiences the world through sensory exploration reflected in play and in art as

the earliest form of self-expression (Ferrara, 1991). In the muscular-anal stage, a child faces the

psychosocial crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt, and it is here where they begin forming

a basis for self-worth and a sense of self-control. Art at this time of development provides a safe

container for children to develop autonomy within their own set of boundaries. In the next phase

of development the locomotor-genital stage deals with the crisis of initiative versus guilt. A child

at this time is able to organize goal-oriented activities as they are becoming assertive and

aggressive. The Oedipal conflict present in this stage sometimes leads to a sense of guilt, and a

child can learn to divert this sexual drive into art creation (Ferrara, 1991). Erikson (1963) noted

that art at this stage can be a practice ground where past failures can be reworked and

expectations can be tested. In the final stage of psychosexual theory, latency, Erikson claimed it

to be a crisis of industry versus inferiority, where a child realizes productivity earns approval.

Art can be a means of productivity, and again a safe container to invest libidinal energy (Ferrara,

1991).

This self-expression through art becomes a means of communicating with others—it is an

extension of the self into the world of reality where others can view it (Lowenfeld & Brittain,

1970). A child portrays pieces of society with which they can identify, indicating the growth of

their social awareness. Likewise, a lack of social consciousness can also become evident in

artwork. Lowenfeld (1970) deemed those who were socially handicapped showed this isolation

in art work with inconsistent, spatially uncorrelated items, often in isolation, indicating a lack of

ability to relate their experiences with others.

Just as art fosters communication with the social world, art provides an opportunity for

emotional release (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). Emotional involvement becomes apparent in art


work when viewing the variety and flexibility within the piece. Frequent, stereotyped repetitions

of objects may reflect rigid patterns of thinking and low emotional involvement, which may be

an expression in itself of detached feelings. However, art that is drawn from experience and

displays a direct inclusion of self reveals an emotionally free and uninhibited child (Lowenfeld &

Brittain, 1970).

Physical Growth

Physical growth is most obviously seen in art through an individual’s ability for visual

and motor coordination as well as body control. A concrete example of this is seen when a child

grows from scribbling across a page to random marks and eventually to controlled marks

(Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). Aside from the witnessed growth in muscle control, art also

displays conscious and unconscious projections of the body. Body imagery can be a projection of

self into a picture, whereas a physically active child will portray active motions and develop a

greater sensitivity to physical achievements. Conversely, a child may reflect their physical state

by emphasizing defects, injuries, or illness in their body image (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970).

Attention to the body is mirrored in the artwork: the changes of a child’s portrayed body schema

are a reflection of the child’s experience (Ferrara, 1991).

The Visual Construct Continuum

There are certain visual concepts that appear consistently in a person’s artwork, and

according to Arrington (2001, p. 73) the “creative process hooks into the right hemisphere and

allows patterns to form and emerge through the left hemisphere.” The visual construct continuum

includes various stages of art development that imply parallel stages of psycho-social-emotional

stages of maturation (Arrington, 2001). The continuum begins with random scribbles and is a


stage of rhythmic and kinesthetic exploration as well as the beginning of patterns. Next, circular,

vertical and horizontal forms become attempts to integrate known patterns. The development and

representation of suns and sun shapes can imply ability to center, as well as define self and

others. The continuum continues into the preschematic stage where body image begins to emerge

and there is a growing awareness of self. Art at this stage includes the refinement of personal

boundaries and varieties of body image projections; some may also include animal forms as a

way of distancing from self. As an individual grows into the schematic stage their art takes on a

consistent pattern of body image. The line detail and pictures present in artwork imply grounding

and an awareness of environment, self, and others. The use of color displays themes of energy

and emotions. As depth perception develops artwork indicates directionality and awareness that

things change over time and have a natural process. The final stage in the continuum is symbolic

art, indicating realism (Arrington, 2001).

Artwork can indicate social, emotional, physical and intellectual development. Visual

constructs and symbols tap into an unconscious process that displays development in ways that

appear to be consistent across developmental patterns. Examining these constructs in the artwork

of emerging adults may provide insight into the development of this new stage. Mandalas

provide a container and an organized way to create and examine the art.

Mandala

Mandala artwork is a directive that channels the notion of art as a reflection of

development: each mandala holds specific information about the creator’s current state of

consciousness (Fincher, 2010). A mandala is a circular design seen in psychology and in

religious and spiritual practices, and can be expressed in myriad ways: it can be drawn, painted,


modeled, or danced (Jung 1969). Mandalas are often associated with Tibetan Buddhism, where

they are used as a ritual instrument to assist in meditation and concentration. As a psychological

occurrence mandalas appear spontaneously in dreams, in certain stages of conflict, and in cases

of schizophrenia (Jung, 1969). According to Jung (1969, p. 3), a mandala occurs in “conditions

of psychic dissociation or disorientation,” The circular nature of the mandala tends to integrate

and unite opposites or conflicting images (Arrington, 2008). Carl Jung popularized the use of

mandalas an a therapeutic instrument and suggested that the act of drawing mandalas had a

calming and healing effect on its creator while at the same time facilitating psychic integration

and personal meaning in life (Jung, 1973 as cited in Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro, 2007, p.

149). The healing effect of mandala creation relies on the symbolic representation of emotion

and conflict, as well as the resulting sense of order and integration. In art therapy, a mandala is

considered any art form within a circular context (Henderson, Rosen & Mascaro, 2007).

Jung found the mandala to be an integrative art form in the individuation journey, and

suggested that it reveals the natural urge to live out our potential and achieve wholeness.

Mandalas can be seen as an attempt at self-healing, an effort not from conscious reflection, but

from an instinctive impulse. Kellog (1982) compares mandalas with a blood sample since it

reflects changes and processes at specific intervals. This captured moment of change was

eventually organized by Kellog (1982) in the fashion of a mandala progressing through a cycle.

The Great Round of Mandala

When creating a mandala, one makes a personal symbol revealing who they are at that

moment—an idea leading to Joan Kellogg’s (1982) Great Round of Mandala, a map of twelve

stages that represent significant stages of personal and psychological development (Fincher,


2010). This pattern of psychological development is not linear, but a continuous cycle of tasks

and challenges lived many times over. The Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala

represent a pattern of psychological development, which, like Erikson’s psychosocial stages, are

not linear. These phases often coincide with lifespan stages, as well as psychosocial and

psychosexual theories of development. The Great Round follows the natural process of growth

towards wholeness; a process Jung believed unearthed one’s individuality and uniqueness. The

Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala includes twelve phases organized around a

circle, each presented below and compiled from Fincher (2010), Kellogg (1982), and Arrington

(2008).

Stage 1: the void. This first stage recalls the experience prior to birth and resembles the

mind-set of a fetus in the womb. Life here is experienced as a waking dream, a state of

consciousness thought to be the origin and end of all form. The challenge of The Void is to wait,

to keep the faith, to trust the process, and to be patient with one’s self.

Stage 2: bliss. Bliss recalls the experience of a baby in the womb, one who does not

know or care, but is comfortable. This is a state of blissful union, with the containment of all

things. Consciousness here is diffused and dreamy, with no focus or boundaries: an impersonal,

disengaged perspective passively enjoying the world and its pleasures. This stage is a place of

sublime peace, with infinite love, where one does not yet notice they are without individuality.

Bliss holds many potentials and infinite possibilities, thus the task here is to discriminate among

them and focus on one possibility, giving up the others.

Stage 3: labyrinth or spiral. The blissful union of the previous stage is separated and

divided here. It recalls the connection with the womb through the umbilical cord and the severing


of that link during the birth process. This is the beginning of the journey towards individualized

consciousness—representing the activation of life forces within the psyche. Consciousness is

heightened and as energy increases there is a desire to move, create, and become, though lacking

the knowledge to do so. The task here is to take the information gathered from previous states of

mind and shape it all into a form that can be understood and appreciated.

Stage 4: the beginning. This stage recalls infant dependence on mother for nourishment,

and coincides with the psychosexual stage of oral dynamics. It is common to be narcissistic and

self-absorbed at this time, as consciousness reflects the dawning of self and the revelation that

one is unique. This stage marks the beginning of contained growth and is the psychological space

of early childhood, a phase of trust and attenuation of needs. The challenge of The Beginning is

to honor the new growth and be a good parent to one ’s self.

Stage 5: the target. Time here can be an unpleasant experience, with the awareness of

self as one who is suffering without knowing the reason. The Target recalls the toddler’s

antagonism towards mother, and coincides with the obsessive and constricted anal phase. Ritual

and routine become important here and there is a sense of struggling to maintain control in order

to cope. One feels vulnerable, angry, paranoid, and anxious, with a perspective of the world as a

dangerous place. The task of Stage 5 is to take courage, to confront fears, and to surrender one’s

claim on blissful infancy.

Stage 6: the dragon fight. The Dragon represents the archetypal parents, and the fight is

the separation of the ego from the pattern of the parents. The phase is a development of a distinct

sense of self, an identity issue typical in adolescence, though this stage is returned to many times

throughout the life course. It is normal to feel alienation, fear, and loneliness, as this is a time of


inner conflict. Depression may alternate with elation, excitement, and happiness—a passion for

change. The challenge here is to cease childhood claims on parents, to risk disobedience, and to

take responsibility for one’s own life.

Stage 7: the squaring of the circle. This stage marks the full-fledged establishment of

the ego, a quantum leap of consciousness. It’s the beginning of living life according to one’s own

values, where the perspective is of being on top of the world with bright and intense

consciousness. A feeling of inflation is common, as there is a strong sense of autonomy since one

has the ability to learn, plan, and love. One is ready to “do” rather than “just be.” The task in this

stage is to put one’s best efforts into the quest for a soul mate, to identify life work, and to make

commitments.

Stage 8: the functioning ego. This is the stage of full identity, typically associated with

adulthood. One now knows their self, what they want to do, and how to do it. It is the most

productive stage, with activity directed towards clearly defined goals and a sense of

responsibility for directing one’s own destiny. This attainment of individual consciousness

includes a clear sense of self firmly grounded in an accurate body image, and an active

enjoyment of work. Amidst all of this power and functionality the challenge is to balance

individual goals with the structure or organization.

Stage 9: crystallization. Crystallization reflects the completion of important endeavors.

Thinking with new clarity, one begins to achieve an understanding of their place in the world,

bringing feelings of satisfaction, harmony, and fulfillment. However, at the height of this

achievement one begins to sense their inevitable end, that everything created is also destroyed.

This stage recalls middle age and may be associated with mid-life crisis and related depressions.


The challenge of Crystallization is to enjoy success fully, without being too attached, since one

will soon relinquish it.

Stage 10: gates of death. The Gates of Death signifies the end of a cycle—from project

completion to the fulfillment of parenting responsibilities. Mid-life crisis can also be found here,

as normal ways of being become empty and meaningless. There is a sense of deflation and a

feeling of being bound, helpless, and forced to make sacrifices. This challenge is to reassess life

goals, to give up what one knows, and to come to terms with the inevitability of death.

Stage 11: fragmentation. This is a stage of altered consciousness—a time of fear,

confusion, and disorientation. The world does not make sense anymore and everything seems

fragmented, shattered, or chaotic. One re-experiences the loss and separation from bliss, as in

Stage 3. The task here is to surrender, face the shadows, and let the former disintegrate.

Stage 12: transcendent ecstasy. This is the blissful return home, where the journey has

come full circle. There is a transparent locus of consciousness, and feelings of joy, harmony, and

reverence. One is reunited with the higher Self and sees their all-important presence in the

perfect world. The final task is to accept the gift of grace gratefully and humbly, or as Fincher

(2010) so eloquently states “to carry the memory of the experiences like a glowing seed into the

darkness (p. 169).”

Mandalas are thought to be a snap shot of an individual’s current psychological state, and

this information examined in the context of The Great Round will help to identify and possibly

gain insight into the unique development of the Milliennial cohort in the new defined stage of

emerging adulthood. The Millennials are the largest generation in American history and a

significant portion of this cohort has returned to their parental home. This research postulates


that development among emerging adults may appear different between those living on their

own, and those that have for one reason or another, returned home. This study hypothesizes the

following: 1.) mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home will exhibit

themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala; and 2.) mandalas drawn by

emerging adults living independently will exhibit themes in the mature quadrant of the Great

Round of Mandala.


Methodology

Hypothesis

Mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental home will exhibit themes in

the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala. Mandalas drawn by emerging adults

living independently will exhibit themes in the mature quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala.

Research Design

This research methodology utilized a correlational design to determine if there was a

relationship between features of emerging adulthood and the quadrant of the Great Round of

Mandala. The study incorporated both quantitative and art-based components. Quantitative data

was based on the results of a questionnaire to gather information regarding the developmental

tasks of emerging adults. Data on the fulfillment of these tasks was considered when examining

mandala artwork. Joan Kellogg’s (1982) Great Round Mandala served as the art-based research

component.

Participants

Participants included emerging adults between the ages of 18-29. Those who fit criteria

for adulthood were excluded, and those who did not fit adulthood criteria were deemed emerging

adults. Adulthood was defined by the achievement of the following transitions: leaving home,

finishing school, becoming financially independent, getting married, and having a child (Sassler,


Ciambrone, & Benway, 2008; Sullivan, 2007; Arnett, 2004; Shanahan, 2000). For the purposes

of this study the researcher extended the term “married” to include those in a domestic lifelong

partnership so as not to exclude homosexual individuals living in states where gay marriage is

not legal.

Selection of Participants This study utilized a convenience sample obtained by word of

mouth, email, Facebook.com and Craigslist.com. An announcement (Appendix A) was posted on

the aforementioned websites as well as sent via email to potential participants, with the request to

forward on to others. The participant recruitment flyer called for those interested to contact the

researcher through [email protected]. Once initial contact had been made

and any questions resolved, the researcher contacted the participant regarding the research study

and provided a letter of informed consent (Appendix B) explaining the purpose, procedure, risks,

and benefits of the study. Individuals who agreed to participate received a debriefing statement

(Appendix D) in the mailed package containing the research materials. Other than age and the

criteria of adulthood, there were no other exclusionary criteria.

Location

Interested participants provided a mailing address where the researcher sent a packet

containing: participant instructions (Appendix E), consent for artwork (Appendix C), the

Emerging Adult Questionnaire (Appendix F), a piece of 9” x 12” white paper with a pre-drawn

circle, a bag of 16 crayons and 12 colored pencils, and a prepaid envelope addressed to the

researcher. Participants were instructed to sit in a quiet place of their choosing when creating

mailto:[email protected]


their mandala. Conducting this study by email and postal mail allowed for a more diverse group

of participants as they were not limited by proximity to the researcher.

Instruments

The instruments included the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (Appendix F) and a

small package of art materials. The Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (EAQ) was developed to

characterize the developmental tasks of emerging adulthood in the individual and the family life

cycle. The EAQ refers to the developmental tasks of youth and their parents in the domains of

individual-social tasks, and emotional-relational tasks (Yanir & Guttman, 2011). For the

purposes of this research study only the first domain concerning individual-social tasks was used,

as the domain involving parents was not relevant in this study. The domain of individual-social

tasks is comprised of 16 items utilizing a 7-point Likert scale, where high scores indicate a high

degree of fulfillment in social task items: personal and professional identity, economic

independence, relationships, everyday practical functioning, and a sense of being an adult. Also

included in this domain is a section inquiring about place of residence and the reasons for that

living situation. The population used to establish this questionnaire resided in Israel and was

entirely Jewish, urban, middle to upper-middle class, and secular. Although the questionnaire has

not been formally published, the individual-social task domain was found to carry a reliability

coefficient of 0.83 in preliminary testing.

Art Materials The art materials provided included a 9” x 12” piece of white paper with a

pre-drawn circle measuring 8.5” in diameter, 16 crayons, and 12 colored pencils. Because


mandala assessment observes the use and function of color, it was necessary to provide an

appropriate color spectrum.

Crayons: black, blue, brown, green, orange, red, violet, yellow, blue green, blue

violet, red orange, red violet, yellow green, yellow orange, white.

Colored pencils: black, blue, brown, burgundy, green, light blue, orange, pink,

red, yellow, violet.

Procedure

1. The researcher posted an announcement (Appendix A) on Facebook.com and

Craigslist.com calling for participants between the ages of 18-29 years. In addition, the

announcement was emailed to those known to the researcher to be within the age

parameter, with the request that recipients forward the email to other potential

participants, creating a snowball sample.

2. Interested participants responded to the announcement by contacting the researcher

through [email protected].

3. The researcher responded to qualifying participants with an informed consent (Appendix

B) explaining the purpose, procedure, benefits and risks of the study with request for

return with digital signature and participants’ mailing addresses. The researcher also

supplied her contact information, as well as the contact information for her thesis

supervisor, Richard Carolan, should participants have any questions.

4. Upon receipt of informed consent, the researcher sent, via postal mail, a package to the

participant containing: participant instructions (Appendix E), consent for use of artwork



(Appendix C), the Emerging Adult Questionnaire (Appendix F), a piece of white 9” x 12”

paper with a pre-drawn 8.5” diameter circle, a bag of 16 crayons and 12 colored pencils,

a debriefing statement (Appendix D), and a prepaid envelope addressed to the researcher.

5. Participants were asked to read and sign the consent for use of artwork form to grant

permission for their artwork to be used confidentially, for research purposes only.

6. Participants were asked to complete the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire.

7. Participants received instructions (Appendix E) on how to approach the art component:

a. Find a safe and comfortable space of your choosing with a flat work surface.

b. Take a quiet moment in whatever way is comfortable for you.

c. Using the provided art materials, or any other materials of your choosing, fill the

circle with color and form;

i. Draw whatever comes to mind—there is no right or wrong way to create a

mandala.

8. Participants were instructed to place materials in the prepaid envelope and mail to the

researcher.

9. Upon receipt of materials, the researcher mailed a letter to participants thanking them for

their participation in the research study and provided contact information for herself and

her thesis supervisor should they have any further questions.

Data Collection

Participants for this study were recruited by posting an announcement flyer (Appendix A)

on Facebook.com and Craigslist.com. In addition, the flyer was emailed to a convenience


sample, those known to the researcher who are within the age parameters and meet the inclusion

criteria. The researcher also requested that those contacted forward the email to other potential

participants, with the intention of creating a snowball sample. If interested, potential research

participants responded to the flyer by contacting the researcher at

[email protected]: this email address was created exclusively for this study

and was managed by the researcher alone. The researcher established contact with the potential

participant and answered any pending questions.

The researcher responded to participants by emailing the informed consent (Appendix B)

requesting its return with a digital signature and their mailing address. The researcher also

provided her contact information, as well as the contact information for her thesis study

supervisor, should the participants have any questions. Upon receipt of the informed consent, the

researcher sent, via postal mail, a package containing the research materials. The package

contained: participant instructions (Appendix E), consent for use of artwork (Appendix C), the

Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (Appendix F), a piece of 9” x 12” white paper with a pre-

drawn circle measuring 8.5” in diameter, a debriefing statement (Appendix D), and a prepaid

envelope addressed to the researcher. Art materials included in the package consisted of 16

crayons and 12 colored pencils.

Upon receiving the research materials, participant instructions (Appendix E) informed the

participants how to proceed through the package. Participants were asked to read and sign the

form for permission to use artwork. Next the participants were asked to complete the Emerging

Adulthood Questionnaire, which collected quantitative data to discern contextual information

regarding the developmental tasks of emerging adults.



Participants were then asked to follow the instructions (Appendix E) on how to approach

the art-based research component of the study. The provided art materials included a piece of

white 9” x 12” paper with a pre-drawn 8.5” diameter circle, and a bag of 16 crayons and 12

colored pencils. Participants were asked to create a mandala by using the provided art materials,

or additional materials of their choosing to fill the provided circle with whatever comes to their

mind. There was no time limit for this art directive. Upon completion of the mandala participants

read the debriefing statement (Appendix D). If participants wanted their mandala to be returned

to them, following the completion of the research study, they indicated this by writing “please

return” on the back of their mandala. Finally, participants placed all research materials in the

prepaid envelope addressed to the researcher send via postal mail. Participants did not include

the art materials in the return envelope, as the researcher indicated they were to keep them as a

token of the researcher’s appreciation for their participation.

Data Analysis

Both quantitative and art-based research methods were used to analyze data. The first

portion of the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (Appendix F) concerning demographic

information was analyzed for descriptive statistics, including the mean, median, and mode,

which is presented in visual charts. The domain of individual-social tasks was scored according

to the values defined by the EAQ authors (Yanir, & Guttman, 2011). A high or low score, which

is the mean score of all sub-dimensions, indicated a high or low degree of socially fulfilling

tasks. The individual scores from each sub-dimension including general identity, professional


identity, economic independence, maintenance of intimate relationships, and everyday practical

functioning were recorded into a database.

Mandalas created by participants served as art-based research data: themes, colors, and

patterns present were considered by four different mandala raters as they determined the

mandala’s place on the Great Round. Four raters were chosen based on their experience using the

Great Round and were given an inter-rater reliability test in order to establish reliability and

validity. The researcher provided each rater with a mandala rating guide (Appendix G) which

included a compilation of mandala descriptions at each stage (Kellog, 1982; Fincher, 2010).

Inter-rater reliability was established at the .73 level before the review of research data began.

Each rater received the collection of mandala artwork and was asked to assign their first and

second choice placement on the round, based on their professional knowledge and the provided

rating reference. Once the researcher received all analyzed mandala data she considered the

results from each rater and used a scoring system requiring 3 out of the 4 raters to agree on the

chosen stage. The researcher assigned the mandala appropriately, based on the established

scoring system, and input the mandala stage rating into the database with its corresponding

participant EAQ score.

The sample was divided into two groups: emerging adults who live at home and those

who do not—data ascertained from the demographic portion. The researcher used the Chi Square

Test for Independence to determine if there was any significant difference between mandala

stage and age, living situation, or EAQ score. The researcher also used this data and analysis to

determine if each group collectively resided in specific quadrants of the Great Round.


Risks

There was a possible risk to participating in this study. Participants may have experienced

stress related to participating in a research study. Participation in this study was entirely

voluntary, and as stated in the informed consent (Appendix B), participants were free to

withdraw from the study at any time. If needed, participants that live in the bay area may utilize

the psychotherapy resources listed below. If participants live outside the bay area the researcher

will assist them in finding psychotherapy resources in their region.

Integral Counseling Center (San Francisco)

2140 Pierce Street, San Francisco

(415) 776-3109; [email protected]

www.integralcounseling.org

National Alliance on Mental Illness

Information Helpline: 1 (800) 950-NAMI

(6264)

[email protected]

www.nami.org

Benefits

There are some potential benefits to participating in this study. Participants may have

enjoyed the calming nature of mandala creation and taken pleasure in using the art materials. In

addition, participants may have experienced a sense of fulfillment by contributing to the field of

art therapy research.


Confidentiality

All data was kept confidential and was used for research purposes only. To ensure

confidentiality participants were assigned an alpha-numerical code placed on all forms and

artwork. Informed Consent and Art Consent forms were stored separately from any data that

contained codes. Data will be kept for three years and then appropriately destroyed; however, if

this study is published data will be kept for seven years and then appropriately destroyed.

Protection of Human Participants

The proposal for this study was reviewed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at

Notre Dame de Namur University. This research follows the guidelines of the American

Psychological Association (APA), the Art Therapy Credentials Board (ATCB), and Notre Dame

de Namur University (NDNU).


Results

The study sample included 55 participants including 40 females (73%) and 15 males

(27%). The age range of participants was ages 19 to 29, with a mean age of 25 and a mode of 26.

Participants were located in various states throughout the country but were primarily from

California (85%). Of the 55 emerging adult participants, 27 (49%) lived in their parental home

and 28 (51%) lived on their own, either with roommates, a partner, or alone.

Three mandala raters assessed the sample independently and assigned each mandala to

their first and second choice stage placement. Inter-rater reliability was established at the .73

level before the review of research data began. Final placement of each mandala required two out

of three raters to agree on a stage. Three mandalas/participants were disregarded from further

analysis due to not obtaining a unanimous stage assignment. The final mandala sample included

an even split of 26 participants living at home and 26 who had moved out, for a total of 52 rated

mandalas. See Figure 1 for the summary of rated mandalas of the sample (N = 52).

A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the relation between

mandala stage and participant age. The relation between these variables was significant, χ2(81, N

= 52) = .0015, p < .05. Mandalas of older participants were more likely to be in the middle of the

round (Stages 5 & 6) than were younger participants, as seen in Figure 2.

A chi-square analysis revealed that mandalas of emerging adults living at home and

mandalas of those who live on their own are not significantly different in their quadrant

placement on The Great Round, χ 2(4, N = 52) = 3.6, p > .05, therefore not supporting the

hypothesis. A chi-square analysis of mandala stage and participant EAQ score revealed no

significant difference, χ2(48, N = 52) = .818, p > .05.


See Appendix J for the mandala sample, sorted by assigned stage.

Figure 1. Mandala distribution on The Great Round.


19 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 290

1

2

3

4

5

6

Stage 2Stage 3Stage 5Stage 6Stage 7Stage 8Stage 9Stage 11Stage 12

Age

Am

ount

of M

anda

las

Figure 2. Amount of mandalas in each stage, by age.


Discussion

Threats to validity in this study were kept to a minimum; however there are some features

of the sample that may affect the generalizability of results. The sample was of respectable size,

including 55 emerging adults, however 73% were female. In addition, the participant

questionnaire did not include any questions regarding race, and so the ethnicity of the sample is

unknown. In order to extend the proximity of participant selection, this study was conducted by

mail; therefore, the researcher was not present when each participant completed their mandala

and there is the possibility that they did not themselves do the artwork. Despite these threats to

validity, the confidence in the generalizability of this study lies in the overall sample size and

that the divided groups of emerging adults (living at home and living independently) were

equivalent in size.

This study hypothesized that mandalas drawn by emerging adults living at their parental

home would exhibit themes in the adolescent quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala and that

mandalas drawn by emerging adults living independently would exhibit themes in the mature

quadrant of the Great Round of Mandala. The hypothesis was not supported, as there was no

significant difference found between living situation and Great Round quadrant. It is interesting

to note, however, that the majority of mandalas by the emerging adult sample as a whole fell into

the adolescent quadrant (Figure 3), specifically in Stages 5 and 6. Stage 5, the target, is a time of

ritual, routine, and a struggle to maintain control (Fincher, 2010). This conflict directly relates to

the instability emerging adults feel in the loss of structure they previously experienced in

adolescence (Arnett, 2004). The target mandalas of emerging adults may be indicative of the

emerging adult struggle to define their own structure. Stage 6, the dragon fight, represents the

separation of the ego from the parents, and is most notably a search for one’s identity. As Kellog


(1986) noted, individuals return to this stage many times throughout the life course, as one’s

identity is constantly evolving. Identity exploration was originally designated as an adolescent

crisis, and while Arnett (2004) agrees that it does begin in adolescence as Erickson (1950) stated,

the crisis is intensified in emerging adulthood. The dragon fight mandalas of the emerging adult

sample may be a reflection of their struggle to learn about whom they are and what they want out

of life. The challenge of the dragon fight is to take responsibility for one’s own life (Fincher,

2010), which is consequently also a defining challenge of emerging adulthood.

Figure 3. The percentage of mandalas in each quadrant of the Great Round. Refer to Appendix I

for the complete Great Round quadrant diagram.

Although there was no difference in the quadrant placement of mandalas by emerging

adults living at home and those living independently, each group had a distinct secondary


quadrant to their adolescent majority. Second to the adolescent quadrant, mandalas of those

living at home were primarily in the death quadrant. Conversely, the secondary quadrant for

emerging adults living independently was in the childhood quadrant. Thus, although the

adolescent quadrant of tasks and challenges embodies the whole of emerging adulthood, those in

different living situations are also at opposite ends of the Great Round spectrum: one group

moving to finish their present journey of the round, and the other having just begun another trip

into its cyclical pattern of development.

The second most prevalent stage for emerging adults living at home was Stage 11,

fragmentation. In this stage everything seems fragmented, shattered, or chaotic: another nod to

the instability of emerging adulthood. One re-experiences the loss and separation from the

comfort of childhood and the task here is to surrender to the fear, and move forward. Emerging

adults living at home have essentially returned to the structure and comfort they knew as

children, and the mandalas in stage 11 may represent their re-experience of having to separate in

order to move on independently outside their parental home.

The second most prevalent stage for emerging adults living independently was Stage 2,

bliss. This stage is a comfortable, carefree time that holds many potentials and infinite

possibilities. The task of this stage is to discriminate among the choices and focus on one

possibility, moving forward into a more individualized consciousness (Fincher, 2010). The bliss

mandalas of emerging adults living independently may be representative of the joy and freedom

they experience living on their own, and the new possibilities of individuality they are now faced

with.


Research Implications

This study has implications for art therapy research in general, which is in constant need

of validation. Although the mandala stages of emerging adults in different living situations were

not significantly different, the mandalas of the sample as a whole provided interesting insight

into the developmental challenges of emerging adulthood. This information may be of use for art

therapists who may be working with Millennial clients, or the next cohort to enter the emerging

adulthood phase. Art based assessments offer a unique glimpse into a client’s life, but they have

yet to prove high enough standards of validity and reliability to be used as a sole measure. This

study may aid in the advancement of research considering the value of art based developmental

assessment.

Limitations

There are limitations to this study that must be kept in mind when considering

generalizability. Participants were recruited for the study primarily by internet, thus the sample

was limited to an internet savvy population. The period of emerging adulthood is unique to

relatively affluent communities that provide the resources for people to explore their options into

the early and mid-20’s, thus recruitment for participants did not take culture or socio-economic

status into consideration. The researcher did receive feedback from several participants that they

did not agree with the study’s definition of adulthood, which was based on Arnett’s (2004)

theory of emerging adulthood. Arnett (2007) notes that some aspects of the theory of emerging

adulthood are likely to be modified with further research, and the main features of emerging

adulthood will certainly vary among cultures.


Finally, there may be limitations regarding the mandalas, as their categorization may be

subject to the experiential bias of the mandala raters. There was no uniform training for the

raters, although each received the same rating guide as a foundation. Raters were chosen based

on their experience and professed confidence in their stage identification of The Great Round.

Future Research

Additional research is needed to explore the value of mandalas as an assessment tool.

Considering that there was significance between age and mandala stage, future research may

apply a study such as this to a wider sample across the life span. Also, given the observed

controversy surrounding the definition of adulthood, a future study may look at this definition as

a general, changing concept across race, location, or socio-economic status. Likewise, research

may surround the difference of adulthood in the gay community, as marriage and children are

often considered entry into adulthood, and both features can be considered controversial or even

illegal for homosexual individuals.

Research of art therapy in general is needed to further the validity of its use and to gain the

respect it deserves in the study and advancement of psychology.


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Appendix A

Participant Recruitment Announcement

BE PART OF A STUDY ON EMERGING ADULTHOOD

Are you between 18 and 29 years of age?

Are you definitely not a teenager, but maybe not yet a full-fledged adult?

What is an emerging adult? Emerging adults have not yet achieved full adulthood which is

defined as: leaving home, finishing school, becoming financially independent, getting married,

and having a child. If you have not accomplished all of the previous milestones, you are probably

what is now being called an “emerging adult.”

The purpose of this research is to learn more about emerging adults in light of our economic

context and to explore the use of mandalas as a reflection that development. Yes, there is art

involved; however, creativity and skill are completely irrelevant. I promise!

If you have questions about eligibility or wish to participate please contact me:

[email protected]



Appendix B

Informed Consent to Participate in a Research Project

Title of Research: The use of mandalas as a developmental assessment of emerging adulthood

Name of Principle Investigator (PI): Laury Rappaport, Ph. D., ATR-BC

Contact Information for the PI: (650) 508-3674; E-mail: [email protected]

Name of Student Investigator (SI): Sara Barulich

Contact Information for the SI: (650) 619-6028; [email protected]

A. Research Purpose and Background

The purpose of this research is to explore the use of mandalas as a developmental

assessment of emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood as a life phase has only recently been

proposed by Jeffrey Arnett in 2000. This unique period of development where one is no longer

an adolescent but not yet a full-fledged adult is most notable at this time due to the current

economic context. To date, there is no art-based research involving this cohort. Art can not only

be a reflection of development, but also a means of understanding growth. Examining this

burgeoning phase of emerging adulthood through art would provide a unique insight into the

experience and growth of this cohort.

B. Procedure

In voluntarily consenting to participate in this research study, I understand:

1. I will be asked to complete a questionnaire regarding emerging adulthood.

2. I will be asked to create a mandala.

3. I will be asked to return research materials via postal mail.


4. Artwork may be reproduced for use in a research thesis and for possible presentation

and/or publication.

5. The researcher will return original artwork to me within six months of submission if I

indicate this request.

C. Risks

There is a minimal risk to participating in this study. Participants may experience stress related to

participating in a research study. If at any point participants find that engaging in the study

becomes too overwhelming they may drop out at any time. If needed, participants that live in the

bay area may utilize the psychotherapy resources listed below. If the participant lives outside the

bay area the researcher will assist them in finding psychotherapy resources in their region.

Integral Counseling Center (San Francisco)

2140 Pierce Street, San Francisco

(415) 776-3109; [email protected]

www.integralcounseling.org

National Alliance on Mental Illness

Information Helpline: 1 (800) 950-NAMI

(6264)

[email protected]

www.nami.org

D. Benefits

There are some potential benefits to participating in this study. Participants may enjoy the

calming nature of mandala creation and take pleasure in using the art materials. In addition,


participants may experience a sense of fulfillment by contributing to the field of art therapy

research.

E. Confidentiality

All data will be kept confidential and will be used for research purposes only. To ensure

confidentiality participants will be assigned a numerical code to be placed on all forms and

artwork. Informed Consent and Art Consent forms will be stored separately from any data that

containing codes. Data will be kept for three years and then appropriately destroyed; however, if

this study is published data will be kept for seven years and then appropriately destroyed.

F. Alternatives

I am free to decline to participate in this research study.

G. Costs/Compensation

There will be no costs to me as a result of participating in this research study. There will be no

compensation for my participation in this research study.

H. Questions

Sara Barulich, the Student Investigator, will be available to answer any questions concerning my

involvement in the research project. She may be reached by phone: (650) 619-6028; by E-mail:

[email protected], or in writing at the Art Therapy Psychology Department,

Notre Dame de Namur University, 1500 Ralston Avenue, Gavin Hall, Belmont CA 94002. Dr.

Laury Rappaport, the Principle Investigator, will also be available to answer any questions


regarding this research study. Dr. Laury Rappaport may be reached by phone: 650-508-3674; or

by E-mail: [email protected].

PARTICIPATION IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY IS VOLUNTARY. I am free to choose

not to participate in this research study, or I may withdraw my participation at any point

without penalty.

Print Name ___________________________ Date_____________________________

Research Participant

Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________

Research Participant

Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________

Principle Investigator


Appendix C

Permission to Use Artwork

I hereby give permission to Sara Barulich to use my artwork and photographs of my artwork in

an art therapy research project. I understand that my name will not be attached to my artwork.

The researcher will not reveal my identity to any other researchers involved in this project.

I also understand that some of the artwork or photographs of my artwork may be used in

professional art therapy publications or presentations. No information related to my identity will

be used in any way in these publications or presentations.

Print Name ___________________________ Date_____________________________ Research Participant

Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________ Research Participant

Signature ____________________________ Date______________________________ Principle Investigator


Appendix D

Debriefing Statement

Thank you for your participation in this study! The data collected is for research purposes

only. The purpose of this research was to explore the use of mandalas as a developmental

assessment of emerging adulthood. All information obtained will remain confidential. Your

participation in this research is a valuable contribution to the field of art therapy research, of

which there is none for emerging adults. Your involvement will also add to research concerning

the characteristics of this newly identified phase of development.

Sara Barulich, the Student Investigator, will be available to answer any questions

concerning my involvement in the research project. She may be reached by phone: (650) 619-

6028; by E-mail: [email protected], or in writing at the Art Therapy

Psychology Department, Notre Dame de Namur University, 1500 Ralston Avenue, Gavin Hall,

Belmont CA 94002. Dr. Laury Rappaport, the Principle Investigator, will also be available to

answer any questions regarding this research study. Dr. Laury Rappaport may be reached by

phone: 650-508-3674; or by E-mail: [email protected].

If you are in need of additional support and live in the bay area, please utilize the

psychotherapy resources listed below. If you live outside the bay area the researcher will assist

you in finding psychotherapy resources in your region.

Integral Counseling Center (San Francisco)2140 Pierce Street, San Francisco(415) 776-3109; [email protected]

National Alliance on Mental IllnessInformation Helpline: 1 (800) 950-NAMI (6264)[email protected]


Appendix E

Participant Instructions

Dear Participant,

To begin, I would like to thank you for sharing your valuable time and energy with this study

and for contributing to the field of art therapy research. Your participation is very much

appreciated!

Please take some time to look over and read the package contents. If you have any questions

about the research study or the details of this package, please feel free to contact me.

1. Please read and sign the consent forms.

2. Please complete the Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire.

3. Please approach the art component as follows: (this is in no way related to artistic ability)

a. Find a safe and comfortable space of your choosing with a flat work surface.

b. Take a quiet moment in whatever way is comfortable for you.

c. Using the provided art materials, or any other materials of your choosing, fill the

circle with color and form;

i. Draw whatever comes to mind—there is no right or wrong way to create a

mandala.

4. Following the completion of your art piece, please read the debriefing statement.

5. Once finished, please place all materials in the provided pre-paid envelope and deposit in

the mail. Please keep the art materials as a small token of my appreciation. If you would


like your art piece returned to you after the study, please indicate this by writing “please

return” on the back of your mandala.

Once again, thank you for participating in this study! Please feel free to contact me with any

questions or concerns that you may have.

In gratitude,

Sara Barulich

231 2nd Avenue

San Mateo, CA 94401

[email protected]


Appendix F

Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire (EAQ)

The following questions refer to characteristics of the lives of emerging adults. There are

no right and wrong answers to these questions. Please answer all questions sincerely, and

as accurately as you possibly can.

Demographic details:

1) Gender M / F

2) Year of birth: _______

3) City, State: ________

4) You reside with:

a) Parents

b) Permanent intimate partner

c) Roommates in a rented apartment

d) Dormitory

e) Alone

5) Relationship Status:

a) Single

b) Committed Relationship

c) Married/lifelong partnership:

Years of marriage ___

6) Number of brothers and sisters including yourself ___________

7) Education, highest attained:

a) High school

b) Junior College

c) College

d) Graduate School

e) Current student, level:_________

f) Other: ________

8) Occupation:____________________

a) Part time

b) Full time


In the following questionnaire, please rate the suitable answer for you on the scale from 1 to 7. Please note that the terms of the scales change according to the questions. Thank you very much for your cooperation!

The questions in the following section of the questionnaire refer to various aspects of your life at the present time.

1) To what extent do you consider yourself a mature person?1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not at all absolutely

2) To what extent are you financially independent?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


3) To what extent do you finance by yourself your daily expenses?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not at all fully

4) If you reside separately from your parents, who finance the rent?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

my parents finance the I finance

rent fully the rent fully by myself

5) At this stage of your life, to what extent, in your opinion, can you be financially independent?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


6) To what extent is it clear to you, what will be your profession in life?


1 2 3 4 5 6 7

have no idea absolutely clear

7) Do you think that you will practice in the future the area which you study right now?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


8) To what extent is the area you intend to practice similar to your parents' occupational area?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

very similar very different

9) To what extent are you active in order to establish your professional direction?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not at all very much so

10) A commitment for an intimate relationship is absolutely unnecessary at my age.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

don't agree at all agree completely

11) Do you have, or have you had in the past after the age of 21, a significant intimate relationship for over half a year with one permanent partner?

yes / no

12) To what extent do you believe that within a year or two, you will live with a permanent intimate partner?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

no chance absolutely sure


13) In your opinion, to what extent are you ready for a permanent intimate relationship?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


14) To what extent would you like to have in the future a relationship or family life similar to that of your parents?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

absolutely different very similar

15) How much do the things that you are doing nowadays promote you towards your goals in life?1 2 3 4 5 6 7


16) To what extent do you feel mature enough to decide on your direction in life?1 2 3 4 5 6 7


17) In your opinion, to what extent will your general lifestyle in the future resemble that of your parents?1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Will be very different will be very similar

18) To what extent would you say that you are still "searching for your inner self"?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


19) Please specify to what extent you perform by yourself each of the following:


1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not at all completely by myself

laundry: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

food: 1 2 3 4 5 6

cleaning: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

shopping: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

errands: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

health: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20) Family reasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 not at all very essential

Thank you for your participation!


Appendix G

Mandala Rating Guide(Compilation of Kellog (1982) & Fincher (2010))

Quadrant: Childhood

Stage Common Symbols Colors

Stage 1: The Void -A lustrous white area, often in center

-spiders webBlack &

White

Blue &

Yellow

Stage 2: Bliss -images of water

-snake

-lack of form or symmetry

-fluidity

-numerous similar tiny forms

-may spill out of mandala

Blues

Yellows

Pale Orchids

Pastel Pinks

Stage 3: Labyrinth/Spiral

-spiral pattern

-curving lines

-green spiral = growth

-no pronounced center design

Springtime

Pastels

Brights


Quadrant: Adolescence

Stage 4: Beginning -a center form such as dot, circle,

upward pointing triangle

-small boat at sea

-figure eight

-curved lines

-circle within a circle

Pale Pinks

Lavenders

Blues

Stage 5: The Target -resemble a target

-concentric circles of colors and

patterns radiate outward

-sometimes see mandala as

sphere to identify target

Bright

Clashing

Stage 6: The Dragon Fight -division of two halves

-3rd object or motif imposed on

split

-landscapes

-split is only straight line

-most lines curved

Nature

Complementary

Quadrant: Maturity


Quadrant: Death

Stage 7: Squaring of the Circle

-designs of four: crosses, squares,

stars, flowers

-more straight lines

Gold

Yellow

Stage 8: The Functioning Ego

-designs of five: stars, flowers,

etc.

-four armed swastika

Stage 9: Crystallization -symmetrically balanced designs

-contains even numbers greater

than four: six pointed star, eight

petaled flower

-a center with projections

expanding outward

-appear static, capture of dazzling

display

Feeling Tones

Variety

Contrasts of

dark & bright

Stage 10: Gates of Death -suggest cross of crucifixion

-each quadrant may be different

color

-wheel motif

-designs with X

-downward pointing triangle

Dark Indigo Blue

Reds

Stage 11: Fragmentation -pie image, each slice different

-quilt with no order or harmony

-no center

-layered colors, messy

Dark

Muddy

Overly bright

Psychedelic

Stage 12: Transcendent Ecstasy

-suggest fountain of light

-human figures with outstretched

arms

-birds in flight

-chalice receiving infusion from

above

-implied focal point near top

Combination of

dark & light


Appendix H

The 12 Archetypal Stages of the Great Round of Mandala

Kellog (1982)


Appendix I

The Great Round Flow

Adapted by Phillis Frame, M.A., A.T.R.

from Joan Kellog, M.A., A.T.R. (1982)


Appendix J

Sorted Mandala Sample

Stage 2: Bliss


Stage 3: Labyrinth/Spiral


Stage 5: The Target


Stage 6: Dragon Fight


Stage 7: The Squaring of the Circle

Stage 8: The Functioning Ego


Stage 9: Crystallization


Stage 11: Fragmentation


Stage 12: Transcendent Ecstasy

the use of mandalas as a developmental assessment

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