PortionsofthisbookhavebeenadaptedfromTheCraftofResearch,3rdedition,byWayneC.Booth,GregoryC.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams, 1995,2003,2008byTheUniversityofChicago;andTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition, 2010byTheUniversityofChicago.

TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Chicago60637TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Ltd.,London2007,2013byTheUniversityofChicago

Allrightsreserved.Published2013.PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

2221201918171615141312345

ISBN-13:978-0-226-81637-1(cloth)ISBN-13:978-0-226-81638-8(paper)ISBN-13:978-0-226-81639-5(e-book)

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Turabian,KateL.Amanualforwritersofresearchpapers,theses,anddissertations:ChicagoStyleforstudentsandresearchers/KateL.Turabian;revisedbyWayneC.Booth,

GregoryG.Colomb,JosephM.Williams,andtheUniversityofChicagoPresseditorialstaff. Eighthedition.pagescm. (Chicagoguidestowriting,editing,andpublishing)PortionsofthisbookhavebeenadaptedfromTheCraftofResearch,3rdedition,byWayneC.Booth,GregoryC.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams, 1995,2003,

2008byTheUniversityofChicago;andTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition, 2010byTheUniversityofChicago titlepageverso.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN978-0-226-81637-1(cloth:alkalinepaper) ISBN978-0-226-81638-8(paperback:alkalinepaper) ISBN978-0-226-81639-5(e-book)I.Dissertations,

Academic-Handbooks,manuals,etc.2.Academicwriting-Handbooks,manuals,etc.I.Booth,WayneC.II.Colomb,GregoryG.III.Williams,JosephM.IV.Title.V.Series:Chicagoguidestowriting,editing,andpublishing.LB2369.TS2013808.06 6378 dc23

2012036981

ThispapermeetstherequirementsofANSI/NISOZ39.48-1992(PermanenceofPaper).

2

AManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertationsChicagoStyleforStudentsandResearchers

KateL.Turabian

8thEdition

RevisedbyWayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,JosephM.Williams,andtheUniversityofChicagoPressEditorialStaff

TheUniversityofChicagoPressChicagoandLondon

3

OnWriting,Editing,andPublishingJacquesBarzun

TellingAboutSocietyHowardS.Becker

TricksoftheTradeHowardS.Becker

WritingforSocialScientistsHowardS.Becker

WhatEditorsWantPhilippaJ.BensonandSusanC.Silver

Permissions,ASurvivalGuideSusanM.Bielstein

TheCraftofTranslationJohnBiguenetandRainerSchulte,editors

TheCraftofResearchWayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams

TheDramaticWriterʼsCompanionWillDunne

GlossaryofTypesettingTermsRichardEckersley,RichardAngstadt,CharlesM.Ellerston,RichardHendel,NaomiB.Pascal,andAnitaWalkerScott

WritingEthnographicFieldnotesRobertM.Emerson,RachelI.Fretz,andLindaL.Shaw

LegalWritinginPlainEnglishBryanA.Garner

FromDissertationtoBookWilliamGermano

GettingItPublishedWilliamGermano

TheCraftofScientificCommunicationJosephE.HarmonandAlanG.Gross

StorycraftJackHart

APoetʼsGuidetoPoetryMaryKinzie

TheChicagoGuidetoCollaborativeEthnographyLukeEricLassiter

HowtoWriteaBAThesis

4

CharlesLipson

CiteRightCharlesLipson

TheChicagoGuidetoWritingaboutMultivariateAnalysisJaneE.Miller

TheChicagoGuidetoWritingaboutNumbersJaneE.Miller

MappingItOutMarkMonmonier

TheChicagoGuidetoCommunicatingScienceScottL.Montgomery

IndexingBooksNancyC.Mulvany

DevelopmentalEditingScottNorton

GettingintoPrintWalterW.Powell

TheSubversiveCopyEditorCarolFisherSaller

AManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertationsKateL.Turabian

StudentʼsGuideforWritingCollegePapersKateL.Turabian

TalesoftheFieldJohnVanMaanen

StyleJosephM.Williams

AHandbookofBiologicalIllustrationFrancesW.Zweifel

5

Contents

ANotetoStudents

Preface

PartI ResearchandWriting:FromPlanningtoProduction

WayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.WilliamsOverviewofPartI

1 WhatResearchIsandHowResearchersThinkaboutIt

1.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAims

1.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAsk

2 MovingfromaTopictoaQuestiontoaWorkingHypothesis

2.1FindaQuestioninYourTopic

2.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswers

2.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWork

2.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroup

3 FindingUsefulSources

3.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUse

3.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately

3.3SearchforSourcesSystematically

3.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliability

3.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferences

4 EngagingSources

4.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluate

4.2TakeNotesSystematically

4.3TakeUsefulNotes

4.4WriteasYouRead

4.5ReviewYourProgress

4.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanic

5 PlanningYourArgument

5.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNot

5.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReaders Questions

5.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaim

5.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgument

5.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrants

5.6AssembleanArgument

6 PlanningaFirstDraft

6.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlans

6.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReaders Needs

6.3FileAwayLeftovers

7 DraftingYourReport

7.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortable

7.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabits

7.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrack

7.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriately

7.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourText

7.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciously

6

7.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferIt

7.8BeOpentoSurprises

7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

7.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistance

7.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriter sBlock

8 PresentingEvidenceinTablesandFigures

8.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentations

8.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphic

8.3DesignTablesandFigures

8.4CommunicateDataEthically

9 RevisingYourDraft

9.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgument

9.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaim

9.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherent

9.4CheckYourParagraphs

9.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseIt

10 WritingYourFinalIntroductionandConclusion

10.1DraftYourFinalIntroduction

10.2DraftYourFinalConclusion

10.3WriteYourTitleLast

11 RevisingSentences

11.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentence

11.2DiagnoseWhatYouRead

11.3ChoosetheRightWord

11.4PolishItUp

11.5GiveItUpandPrintItOut

12 LearningfromYourReturnedPaper

12.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificComments

12.2TalktoYourInstructor

13 PresentingResearchinAlternativeForums

13.1PlanYourOralPresentation

13.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedTo

13.3PlanYourPosterPresentation

13.4PlanYourConferenceProposal

14 OntheSpiritofResearch

PartII SourceCitation

15 GeneralIntroductiontoCitationPractices

15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSources

15.2TheRequirementsofCitation

15.3TwoCitationStyles

15.4ElectronicSources

15.5PreparationofCitations

15.6CitationManagementSoftware

16 Notes-BibliographyStyle:TheBasicForm

16.1BasicPatterns

16.2Bibliographies

16.3Notes

7

16.4ShortFormsforNotes

17 Notes-BibliographyStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources

17.1Books

17.2JournalArticles

17.3MagazineArticles

17.4NewspaperArticles

17.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

17.6UnpublishedSources

17.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups

17.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

17.9PublicDocuments

17.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother

18 Author-DateStyle:TheBasicForm

18.1BasicPatterns

18.2ReferenceLists

18.3ParentheticalCitations

19 Author-DateStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources

19.1Books

19.2JournalArticles

19.3MagazineArticles

19.4NewspaperArticles

19.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

19.6UnpublishedSources

19.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups

19.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

19.9PublicDocuments

19.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother

PartIII Style

20 Spelling

20.1Plurals

20.2Possessives

20.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixes

20.4LineBreaks

21 Punctuation

21.1Periods

21.2Commas

21.3Semicolons

21.4Colons

21.5QuestionMarks

21.6ExclamationPoints

21.7HyphensandDashes

21.8ParenthesesandBrackets

21.9Slashes

21.10QuotationMarks

21.11Apostrophes

21.12MultiplePunctuationMarks

22 Names,SpecialTerms,andTitlesofWorks

22.1Names

8

22.2SpecialTerms

22.3TitlesofWorks

23 Numbers

23.1WordsorNumerals?

23.2PluralsandPunctuation

23.3DateSystems

23.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheText

24 Abbreviations

24.1GeneralPrinciples

24.2NamesandTitles

24.3GeographicalTerms

24.4TimeandDates

24.5UnitsofMeasure

24.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

24.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContexts

25 Quotations

25.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarism

25.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourText

25.3ModifyingQuotations

26 TablesandFigures

26.1GeneralIssues

26.2Tables

26.3Figures

Appendix:PaperFormatandSubmission

A.1GeneralFormatRequirements

A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElements

A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements

Bibliography

Authors

Index

9

ANotetoStudents

AManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertationshashelpedgenerationsofstudentssuccessfullyresearch,write,andsubmitpapersinvirtuallyallacademicdisciplines.Mostcommonlyknownas Turabian, inhonoroftheoriginalauthor,thisbookistheauthoritativestudentresourceon Chicagostyle.

PartIcoverseverystepoftheresearchandwritingprocessandprovidespracticaladvicetohelpyouformulatetherightquestions,readcritically,andbuildarguments.Italsoshowsyouhowtodraftandreviseyourpaperstostrengthenbothyourargumentsandyourwriting.Part2offersacomprehensiveguidetoChicago stwomethodsofsourcecitation,beginningwithhelpfulinformationongeneralcitationpracticesinchapter15.Inthehumanitiesandmostsocialsciences,youwilllikelyusethenotes-bibliographystyledetailedinchapters16and17;inthenaturalandphysicalsciencesandsomesocialsciences,youwillmorelikelyusetheauthor-date(alsocalledparentheticalcitations-referencelist)styledescribedinchapters18and19.Part3coversChicago srecommendededitorialstyle,whichwillhelpyoubringconsistencytoyourwritinginmatterssuchaspunctuation,capitalization,andabbreviations;thissectionalsoincludesguidanceonincorporatingquotationsintoyourwritingandonproperlypresentingtablesandfigures.Theappendixpresentsformattingandsubmissionrequirementsforthesesanddissertationsthatmanyacademicinstitutionsuseasamodel,butbesuretofollowanylocalguidelinesprovidedbyyourinstitution.

10

Preface

Studentswritingresearchpapers,theses,anddissertationsintoday scollegesanduniversitiesinhabitaworldfilledwithelectronictechnologiesthatwereunimaginedin1937 theyeardissertationsecretaryKateL.TurabianfirstassembledabookletofguidelinesforstudentwritersattheUniversityofChicago.Theavailabilityofword-processingsoftwareandnewdigitalsourceshaschangedthewaystudentsconductresearchandwriteuptheresults.Butthesetechnologieshavenotalteredthebasictaskofthestudentwriter:doingwell-designedresearchandpresentingitclearlyandaccurately,whilefollowingacceptedacademicstandardsforcitation,style,andformat.

Turabian s1937bookletreflectedguidelinesfoundinAManualofStyle,tenthedition analreadyclassicresourceforwritersandeditorspublishedbytheUniversityofChicagoPress.ThePressbegandistributingTurabian sbookletin1947andfirstpublishedtheworkinbookformin1955,underthetitleAManualforWritersofTermPapers,Theses,andDissertations.Turabianrevisedtheworktwicemore,updatingittomeetstudents needsandtoreflectthelatestrecommendationsoftheManualofStyle.Overtime,Turabian sbookhasbecomeastandardreferenceforstudentsofalllevelsatuniversitiesandcollegesacrossthecountry.Turabiandiedin1987atageninety-four,afewmonthsafterpublicationofthefifthedition.Forthatedition,aswellasthesixth(1996)andseventh(2007),membersofthePresseditorialstaffcarriedouttherevisions.Fortheseventhedition,WayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.WilliamsexpandedthefocusofthebookbyaddingextensivenewmaterialadaptedfromtheirbookTheCraftofResearch,nowinitsthirdedition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008).Amongthenewtopicscoveredwerethenatureofresearch,findingandengagingsources,takingnotes,developinganargument,draftingandrevising,andpresentingevidenceintablesandfigures.

Forthisneweighthedition,partIoffersupdatedcoverageonfindingandusingthemanytypesofdigitalsourcesthathavebecomeavailableinrecentyears.Part2offersacomprehensiveguidetothetwoChicagostylesofsourcecitation thenotes-bibliographyformatusedwidelyinthehumanitiesandmostsocialsciencesandtheauthor-dateformatfavoredinmanyofthesciencesandsomesocialsciences.Inadditiontomakingthetwocitationsystemsmoreconsistentstylistically,thiseditionoffersmanyexamplesforcitingnewtypesofdigitalsourcesnotpreviouslycovered.Part3addressesmattersofspelling,punctuation,abbreviation,andtreatmentofnumbers,names,specialterms,andtitlesofworks.Thefinaltwochaptersinthissectiontreatthemechanicsofusingquotationsandgraphics(tablesandfigures),topicsthatarediscussedfromarhetoricalperspectiveinpartI.Bothparts2and3havebeenupdatedforthiseditioninaccordancewiththesixteentheditionofTheChicagoManualofStyle(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010),orCMOS.TherecommendationsinthismanualinsomeinstancesdivergefromCMOSinsmallways,tobettersuittherequirementsofacademicpapersasopposedtopublishedworks.

TheappendixpresentsguidelinesforpaperformatandsubmissionthathavebecometheprimaryauthorityfordissertationofficesthroughouttheUnitedStates.Asrevised,theseguidelinesnowreflecttheincreasingtrendtowardelectronicsubmissionofpapers.ThisappendixisintendedprimarilyforstudentswritingPhDdissertationsandmaster sandundergraduatetheses,butthesectionsonformatrequirementsandelectronicfilepreparationwillalsoaidthosewritingclasspapers.Anextensivebibliography,organizedbysubjectarea,listscurrentsourcesforresearchandstyleissuesspecifictovariousdisciplines.

Theguidelinesinthismanualofferpracticalsolutionstoawiderangeofissuesencounteredbystudentwriters,buttheymaybesupplemented orevenoverruled bytheconventionsofspecificdisciplinesorthepreferencesofparticularinstitutionsordepartments.Allofthechaptersonstyleandformatremindstudentstoreviewtherequirementsoftheiruniversity,department,orinstructor,whichtakeprecedenceovertheguidelinespresentedhere.

Updatingabookthathasbeenusedbymillionsofstudentsoverseventy-fiveyearsisnosmalltask,andmanypeopleparticipatedinpreparingtheeighthedition.GregColombinitiatedtherevision,andhisdeathduringthelatterstagesoftheeffortwasagreatloss.Overtheyears,manyPressstaffmemberscametoknowGregwellandtotreasuretheirrelationshipwithhim.Hewillbemissed.GregwastheremainingmemberoftheremarkabletrioofauthorsthatalsoincludedWayneBoothandJoeWilliams.Althoughtheyaregonefromus,theirworkwillcontinuetocarrythefirm,encouragingguidancethathasbeenthehallmarkofTurabian smanual.Theonevoicethattheysoartfullymeldedoutoftheirthreewillalwaysanimatethiswork.

JonD Errico,Greg slongtimefriendandcolleagueattheUniversityofVirginia,completedtheworkonpartIthatGreghadbegunforthisedition.RussellDavidHarper,theprincipalreviserofthesixteentheditionofTheChicagoManualofStyle,producedtheinitialdraftsoftheremainingmanuscript.WithinthePress,theprojectwasdeveloped,inpartandinwhole,undertheguidanceofJennyGavacs,MaryE.Laur,DavidMorrow,andPaulSchellinger.

Theappendixbenefitedfromthegenerousadviceofexpertsfromarangeofcolleges,universities,andinstitutions:MatthewBootsofIndianaUniversity;GinnyBorstoftheUniversityofColorado Boulder;PhilippaCarteroftheUniversityofPittsburgh;MelissaGomisoftheUniversityofMichigan;PeggyHarrelloftheUniversityofSouthernIndiana;ElenaHsuoftheUniversityofWisconsin Madison;JerettLemonttoftheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley;GailMacMillanoftheVirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity;AustinMcleanofProQuest/UMI;ColleenMullarkeyoftheUniversityofChicago;BobPenmanoftheUniversityofTexasatAustin;LauraRymanofJamesMadisonUniversity;TimWatsonoftheOhioStateUniversity;andMarkZulaufoftheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign.AteamoflibrariansfromtheRegensteinLibraryattheUniversityofChicagoprovidedguidancefortheextensivebibliography:ScottLandvatter,CatherineMardikes,NancySpiegel,SarahG.Wenzel,andChristopherWinters.

TurningthemanuscriptintoabookrequiredtheeffortsofanotherteamatthePress.RuthGoringeditedthemanuscript,RosinaBusseproofreadthepages,andMaryE.Laurpreparedtheindex.MichaelBrehmprovidedthedesign,whileDavidO Connorsupervisedtheproduction.LizFischer,EllenGibson,andCarolKasperbroughtthefinalproducttomarket.

TheUniversityofChicagoPressEditorialStaff

11

PartI

ResearchandWritingFromPlanningtoProduction

WayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,&JosephM.Williams

12

13

14

OverviewofPartI

Weknowhowchallengedyoucanfeelwhenyoustartasubstantialresearchproject,whetherit saPhDdissertation,aBAormaster sthesis,orjustalongclasspaper.Butyoucanhandleanyprojectifyoubreakitintoitsparts,thenworkonthemonestepatatime.Thispartshowsyouhowtodothat.

Wefirstdiscusstheaimsofresearchandwhatreaderswillexpectofanyresearchreport.Thenwefocusonhowtofindaresearchquestionwhoseanswerisworthyourtimeandyourreaders attention;howtofindanduseinformationfromsourcestobackupyouranswer;andthenhowtoplan,draft,andreviseyourreportsoyourreaderswillseethatyouranswerisbasedonsoundreasoningandreliableevidence.

Severalthemesrunthroughthispart.

■Youcan tplungeintoaprojectblindly;youmustplanit,thenkeepthewholeprocessinmindasyoutakeeachstep.Sothinkbig,butbreaktheprocessdownintosmallgoalsthatyoucanmeetoneatatime.

■Yourbestresearchwillbeginwithaquestionthatyouwanttoanswer.Butyoumustthenimaginereadersaskingaquestionoftheirown:Sowhatifyoudon tanswerit?WhyshouldIcare?

■Fromtheoutset,youshouldtrytowriteeveryday,notjusttotakenotesonyoursourcesbuttoclarifywhatyouthinkofthem.Youshouldalsowritedownyourowndevelopingideastogetthemoutofthecozywarmthofyourheadintothecoldlightofday,whereyoucanseeiftheystillmakesense.Youprobablywon tusemuchofthiswritinginyourfinaldraft,butitisessentialpreparationforit.

■Nomatterhowcarefullyyoudoyourresearch,readerswilljudgeitbyhowwellyoureportit,soyoumustknowwhattheywilllookforinaclearlywrittenreportthatearnstheirrespect.

Ifyou reanadvancedresearcher,skimchapters1 4.Youwillseetheremuchthat sfamiliar;butifyou realsoteaching,itmayhelpyouexplainwhatyouknowtoyourstudentsmoreeffectively.Manyexperiencedresearchersreportthatchapters5 12havehelpedthemnotonlytoexplaintoothershowtoconductresearchandreportit,butalsotodraftandrevisetheirownreportsmorequicklyandeffectively.

Ifyou rejuststartingyourcareerinresearch,you llfindeverychapterofpart1useful.Skimitallforanoverviewoftheprocess;thenasyouworkthroughyourproject,rereadchaptersrelevanttoyourimmediatetask.

Youmayfeelthatthestepsdescribedherearetoomanytoremember,butyoucanmanagethemifyoutakethemoneatatime,andasyoudomoreresearch,they llbecomehabitsofmind.Don tthink,however,thatyoumustfollowthesestepsinexactlytheorderwepresentthem.Researchersregularlythinkaheadtofuturestepsastheyworkthroughearlieronesandrevisitearlierstepsastheydealwithalaterone.(Thatexplainswhywesooftenreferyouaheadtoanticipatealaterstageintheprocessandbacktorevisitanearlierone.)Andeventhemostsystematicresearcherhasunexpectedinsightsthatsendheroffinanewdirection.Workfromaplan,butbereadytodepartfromit,eventodiscarditforanewone.

Ifyou reaverynewresearcher,youmayalsothinkthatsomematterswediscussarebeyondyourimmediateneeds.Weknowthataten-pageclasspaperdiffersfromaPhDdissertation.Butbothrequireakindofthinkingthateventhenewestresearchercanstartpracticing.Youbeginyourjourneytowardfullcompetencewhenyounotonlyknowwhatliesaheadbutcanalsostartpracticingtheskillsthatexperiencedresearchersbegantolearnwhentheywerewhereyouarenow.

Nobookcanprepareyouforeveryaspectofeveryresearchproject.Andthisonewon thelpyouwiththespecificmethodologiesinfieldssuchaspsychology,economics,andphilosophy,muchlessphysics,chemistry,andbiology.Nordoesittellyouhowtoadaptwhatyoulearnaboutacademicresearchtobusinessorprofessionalsettings.

Butitdoesprovideanoverviewoftheprocessesandhabitsofmindthatunderlieallresearch,whereverit sdone,andoftheplansyoumustmaketoassembleareport,draftit,andreviseit.Withthatknowledgeandhelpfromyourteachers,you llcometofeelincontrolofyourprojects,notintimidatedbythem,andeventuallyyou lllearntomanageeventhemostcomplexprojectsonyourown,inboththeacademicandtheprofessionalworlds.

Thefirststepinlearningtheskillsofsoundresearchistounderstandhowexperiencedresearchersthinkaboutitsaims.

15

1WhatResearchIsandHowResearchersThinkaboutIt

1.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAims

1.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAsk

1.2.1ConceptualQuestions:WhatShouldWeThink?1.2.2PracticalQuestions:WhatShouldWeDo?1.2.3AppliedQuestions:WhatMustWeUnderstandBeforeWeKnowWhattoDo?1.2.4ChoosingtheRightKindofQuestion1.2.5TheSpecialChallengeofConceptualQuestions:AnsweringSoWhat?

Youdoresearcheverytimeyouaskaquestionandlookforfactstoanswerit,whetherthequestionisassimpleasfindingaplumberorasprofoundasdiscoveringtheoriginoflife.Whenonlyyoucareabouttheanswerorwhenothersneedjustaquickreportofit,youprobablywon twriteitout.Butyoumustreportyourresearchinwritingwhenotherswillacceptyourclaimsonlyaftertheystudyhowyoureachedthem.Infact,reportsofresearchtellusmostofwhatwecanreliablybelieveaboutourworld thatoncethereweredinosaurs,thatgermscausedisease,eventhattheearthisround.

Youmaythinkyourreportwilladdlittletotheworld sknowledge.Maybeso.Butdonewell,itwilladdalottoyoursandtoyourabilitytodothenextreport.Youmayalsothinkthatyourfutureliesnotinscholarlyresearchbutinbusinessoraprofession.Butresearchisasimportantoutsidetheacademyasin,andinmostwaysitisthesame.Soasyoupracticethecraftofacademicresearchnow,youprepareyourselftodoresearchthatonedaywillbeimportantatleasttothoseyouworkwith,perhapstousall.

Asyoulearntodoyourownresearch,youalsolearntouse andjudge thatofothers.Ineveryprofession,researchersmustreadandevaluatereportsbeforetheymakeadecision,ajobyou lldobetteronlyafteryou velearnedhowotherswilljudgeyours.Thisbookfocusesonresearchintheacademicworld,buteverydaywereadorhearaboutresearchthatcanaffectourlives.Beforewebelievethosereports,though,wemustthinkaboutthemcriticallytodeterminewhethertheyarebasedonevidenceandreasoningthatwecantrust.

Tobesure,wecanreachgoodconclusionsinwaysotherthanthroughreasonsandevidence:wecanrelyontraditionandauthorityoronintuition,spiritualinsight,evenonourmostvisceralemotions.Butwhenwetrytoexplaintoothersnotjustwhywebelieveourclaimsbutwhytheyshouldtoo,wemustdomorethanjuststateanopinionanddescribeourfeelings.

Thatishowaresearchreportdiffersfromotherkindsofpersuasivewriting:itmustrestonsharedfactsthatreadersacceptastruthsindependentofyourfeelingsandbeliefs.Theymustbeabletofollowyourreasoningfromevidencethattheyaccepttotheclaimyoudrawfromit.Yoursuccessasaresearcherthusdependsnotjustonhowwellyougatherandanalyzedatabutonhowclearlyyoureportyourreasoningsothatyourreaderscantestandjudgeitbeforemakingyourclaimspartoftheirknowledgeandunderstanding.

1.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAimsAllresearchersgatherfactsandinformation,whatwe recallingdata.Butdependingontheiraimsandexperience,theyusethosedataindifferentways.Someresearchersgatherdataonatopic storiesabouttheBattleoftheAlamo,forexample justtosatisfyapersonalinterest(orateacher sassignment).

Mostresearchers,however,wantustoknowmorethanjustfacts.Sotheydon tlookforjustanydataonatopic;theylookforspecificdatathattheycanuseasevidencetotestandsupportananswertoaquestionthattheirtopicinspiredthemtoask,suchaswhyhastheAlamostorybecomeanationallegend?

Experiencedresearchers,however,knowthattheymustdomorethanconvinceusthattheiranswerissound.Theymustalsoshowuswhytheirquestionwasworthasking,howitsanswerhelpsusunderstandsomebiggerissueinanewway.IfwecanfigureoutwhytheAlamostoryhasbecomeanationallegend,wemightthenansweralargerquestion:howhaveregionalmythsshapedournationalcharacter?

Youcanjudgehowcloselyyourthinkingtracksthatofanexperiencedresearcherbydescribingyourprojectinasentencelikethis:

1.IamworkingonthetopicX(storiesabouttheBattleoftheAlamo)2.becauseIwanttofindoutY(whyitsstorybecameanationallegend)3.sothatIcanhelpothersunderstandZ(howsuchregionalmythshaveshapedournationalcharacter).

Thatsentenceisworthacloselook,becauseitdescribesnotjusttheprogressofyourresearchbutyourpersonalgrowthasaresearcher.

1. Iamworkingonthetopic ResearchersoftenbeginwithasimpletopicliketheBattleoftheAlamo,perhapsbecauseitwasassigned,becausesomethingaboutitpuzzlesthem,orbecauseitmerelysparksaninterest.Butinexperiencedresearcherstoooftenstopthere,leavingthemselveswithnothingbutatopictoguidetheirwork.Theymounduphundredsofnotesbuthavenowaytodecidewhatdatatokeepandwhattodiscard.Whenitcomestimetowrite,theydumpeverythingintoareportthatreadslikeagrabbagofrandomfacts.Ifthosefactsarenewtoreaderswhohappentobeinterestedinthetopic,theymightreadthe

16

report.Buteventhosereaderswillwanttoknowwhatthosefactsaddupto.2. becauseIwanttofindouthoworwhy Moreexperiencedresearchersusuallybeginnotwithjustatopicbutwitharesearch

question,suchasWhyhasthestoryoftheAlamobecomeanationallegend?Andtheyknowthatreaderswillthinktheirfactsadduptosomethingonlywhenthosefactsserveasevidencetosupportitsanswer.Indeed,onlywithaquestioncanaresearcherknowwhichfactstolookforandwhichtokeep notjustthosethatsupportananswerbutalsothosethattestorevendiscreditit.Whenhethinkshehasenoughevidencetosupporthisanswerandcanrespondtodatathatseemtocontradictit,hewritesareportfirsttotesthisownthinking,thentosharehisanswerwithotherssothattheycantestittoo.

3. sothatIcanhelpothersunderstand Themostsuccessfulresearchers,however,realizethatreaderswanttoknownotonlythatananswerissoundbutwhythequestionwasworthasking.Sotheyanticipatethatreaderswillaskaquestionoftheirown:Sowhat?WhyshouldIcarewhytheAlamostoryhasbecomealegend?ThatSowhat?canvexeventhemostexperiencedresearcher,buteveryresearchermusttrytoansweritbeforeit sasked:Ifwecanfindthatout,wemightbetterunderstandthebiggerquestionofhowsuchstoriesshapeournationalcharacter.

Butashrewdresearcherdoesn tstopthere.Sheanticipatesherreaders askingSowhat?againbylookingforanother,stilllargeranswer:Andifwecanunderstandwhathasshapedournationalcharacter,wemightunderstandbetterwhoweAmericansthinkweare.Andbeforeyouask,whenweknowthat,wemightbetterunderstandwhyothersintheworldjudgeusastheydo.ThemostsuccessfulresearchersknowthatreaderscareaboutaquestiononlywhentheythinkthatitsanswermightencouragethemtosaynotSowhat?butThat sworthknowing!

Inshort,notallquestionsareequallygood.WemightaskhowmanycatssleptintheAlamothenightbeforethebattle,butsowhatifwefindout?Itishardtoseehowananswerwouldhelpusthinkaboutanylargerissueworthunderstanding,soit saquestionthat sprobablynotworthasking(thoughaswe llsee,wecouldbewrongaboutthat).

1.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAskExperiencedresearchersalsoknowthatdifferentreadersexpectthemtoaskandanswerdifferentkindsofquestions.Themostcommonquestionsinacademicworkareconceptual.Theonesmostcommonintheprofessionsarepractical.

1.2.1ConceptualQuestions:WhatShouldWeThink?AquestionisconceptualwhenyouranswertoSowhat?doesn ttellreaderswhattodobuthelpsthemunderstandsomeissue:

1.IamworkingonthetopicX2.becauseIwanttofindouthow/why/whetherY(Sowhatifyoudo?)3.sothatIcanhelpothersunderstandhow/why/whetherZ.

Ifyouwereexplainingyourresearch,theconversationmightgolikethis:

Iʼmworkingonthetopicofriskevaluation.

Why?

BecauseIwanttofindouthowordinarypeopleevaluatetheriskthattheywillbehurtbyterrorism.

Sowhatifyoudo?

OnceIdo,wemightbetterunderstandthebiggerquestionofhowemotionalandrationalfactorsinteracttoinfluencethewayordinarythinkersthinkaboutrisk.

Researchersinthehumanitiesandthesocialandnaturalsciencesworkmostlyonconceptualquestions,suchasHowdidShakespeare spoliticalenvironmentinfluencehisplays?WhatcausedtheextinctionofmostlargeNorthAmericanmammals?Whatarecometsmadeof?Theanswerstothosequestionsdon ttellushowtochangetheworld,buttheydohelpusunderstanditbetter.

Tobesure,theanswertoaconceptualquestionoftenturnsouttobeunexpectedlyrelevanttosolvingapracticalproblem.Andbeforewecansolveanyimportantpracticalproblem,weusuallymustdoconceptualresearchtounderstanditbetter.Butinmostoftheacademicworld,theprimaryaimofmostresearchersisonlytoimproveourunderstanding.

1.2.2PracticalQuestions:WhatShouldWeDo?

Youposeadifferentkindofquestion callitapracticalone whenyouranswertoSowhat?tellsreaderswhattodotochangeorfixsometrouble-someoratleastimprovablesituation:

1.IamworkingonthetopicX2.becauseIwanttofindoutY(Sowhatifyoudo?)3.sothatIcantellreaderswhattodotofix/improveZ.

Youwouldexplainyourworkonapracticalquestionlikethis:

Iʼmworkingonthetopicofcommunicatingriskeffectively.

Why?

BecauseIwanttofindoutwhatpsychologicalfactorscauseordinaryAmericanstoexaggeratetheirpersonalriskfromaterrorist

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attack.

Sowhatifyoudo?

ThenIcantellthegovernmenthowtocounteractthosefactorswhentheycommunicatewiththepublicabouttherealriskofterrorism.

Practicalquestionsaremostcommonoutsidetheacademicworld,especiallyinbusiness.Inacademicfieldssuchashealthcareandengineering,researcherssometimesaskpracticalquestions,butmoreoftentheyaskathirdkindofquestionthat sneitherpurelypracticalnorpurelyconceptual:callitanappliedresearchquestion.

1.2.3AppliedQuestions:WhatMustWeUnderstandBeforeWeKnowWhattoDo?Oftenweknowwemustdosomethingtosolveapracticalproblem,butbeforewecanknowwhatthatis,wemustdoresearchtounderstandtheproblembetter.Wecancallthatkindofresearchapplied.Withthismiddlekindofquestion,thethirdstepraisesaquestionwhoseanswerisnotthesolutiontoapracticalproblembutonlyasteptowardit.

IwanttofindouthowAmericanshavechangedtheirdailylivesinresponsetotheterroristattackson9/11.

Sowhatifyoudo?

ThenwecanunderstandthepsychologicalfactorsthatcauseordinaryAmericanstoexaggeratetheirpersonalriskfromaterroristattack.

Sowhatifyoudo?

Thenwecanunderstandhowtoreducetheeffectsofthosepsychologicalfactors.

Sowhatifyoudo?

Thenperhapsthegovernmentcanusethatinformationtocommunicatemoreeffectivelytherealriskfromterrorism.

Appliedquestionsarecommoninacademicfieldssuchasbusiness,engineering,andmedicineandincompaniesandgovernmentagenciesthatdoresearchtounderstandwhatmustbeknownbeforetheycansolveaproblem.

1.2.4ChoosingtheRightKindofQuestionSomenewresearchersdislikepurelyconceptualresearchquestionsbecausetheythinkthey retoo theoretical orirrelevanttothereal world.Sotheytrytocobbleanimplausiblepracticaluseontoaconceptualanswer:WhenweknowhowraceshapedthepoliticalimpactoftheAlamostories,wecanunderstandhowracismhasbeenusedtofosterpatriotismandtherebyeliminateracistappealstopatriotisminrelationtoconflictsintheMiddleEast.

Thatimpulseisunderstandable.Butunlessyou vebeenassignedanappliedorpracticalproblem,resistit.Youareunlikelytosolveanysignificantpracticalprobleminaclasspaper,andinanycase,mostoftheacademicworldseesitsmissionnotasfixingtheproblemsoftheworlddirectlybutasunderstandingthembetter(whichmayormaynothelpfixthem).

1.2.5TheSpecialChallengeofConceptualQuestions:AnsweringSoWhat?Withmostpracticalquestions,wedon thavetoanswerSowhat?becausethebenefitisusuallyobvious.Evenmostappliedquestionsimplythepracticalbenefitsoftheiranswers:fewreaderswouldquestionwhyaresearcheristryingtounderstandwhatcausesAlzheimer s.Withconceptualquestions,however,theanswertoSowhat?isoftennotobviousatall,eventoanexperiencedresearcher:SowhatifShakespearehadLadyMacbethdieoffstageratherthanon?Sowhatifsomeculturesusemasksintheirreligiousritualsandothersdon t?Whyisitimportanttoknowthat?

Foraresearchpaperinanintroductorycourse,yourinstructormaybesatisfiedwithanyplausibleanswertoSowhat?Soifearlyinyourresearchcareeryoufindyourselfstrugglingwiththatquestion,don ttakeitasasignoffailure,muchlessasevidencethatyou renotreadytodothework.Infact,youmightnotdiscovertheanswertoSowhat?untilyou vedraftedyourreport,maybenotevenuntilyou vefinishedit.Andeventhen,maybetheanswerwillmatteronlytoyou.

Butifyourprojectisathesisordissertation,it snotjustanadvisorthatyouhavetosatisfy.Youranswermustalsosatisfythoseinyourfield(representedbyyouradvisor),whowilljudgeyourworknotjustbythequalityofyouranswerbutbythesignificanceofyourquestion.Experiencedresearchersknowthatsomereaders,perhapsmany,willreadtheirreportandthink,Idon tagree.Theyacceptthatasaninevitablepartofsharingresearchonsignificantissues.Whattheycan tacceptisIdon tcare.

Soashardasitwillbe,themoreoftenyouimagineothersaskingSowhat?andthemoreoftenyoutrytoanswerit,ifonlytoyourownsatisfaction,themoreconfidentyoucanbethateventuallyyou lllearntosucceedateveryexperiencedresearcher stoughesttask toconvinceyourreadersthatyourreportisworththeirtime.(Inchapter10wediscusshowtowriteanintroductionthatmotivatesyourreadersatleasttostartreadingyourreport.)

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2MovingfromaTopictoaQuestiontoaWorkingHypothesis

2.1FindaQuestioninYourTopic

2.1.1SearchYourInterests2.1.2MakeYourTopicManageable2.1.3QuestionYourTopic2.1.4EvaluateYourQuestions

2.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswers

2.2.1DecideonaWorkingHypothesis2.2.2BewaretheRisksinaWorkingHypothesis2.2.3IfYouCanʼtFindanAnswer,ArgueforYourQuestion

2.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWork

2.3.1StateYourQuestionandWorkingHypotheses2.3.2StateYourReasons2.3.3SketchintheKindofEvidenceYouShouldLookFor2.3.4LookattheWhole

2.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroup

Aresearchprojectismorethancollectingdata.YoustartitbeforeyoulogontotheInternetorheadforthelibrary,andyoucontinueitlongafteryouhaveallthedatayouthinkyouneed.Inthatprocess,youfacecountlessspecifictasks,buttheyallaimatjustfivegeneralgoals.Youmustdothefollowing:

■Askaquestionworthanswering.■Findananswerthatyoucansupportwithgoodreasons.■Findreliableevidencetosupportyourreasons.■Draftareportthatmakesagoodcaseforyouranswer.■Revisethatdraftuntilreaderswillthinkyoumetthefirstfourgoals.

Youmightevenpostthosefivegoalsinyourworkspace.Researchprojectswouldbeeasyifyoucouldmarchstraightthroughthosesteps.Butasyou vediscovered(orsoonwill),research

anditsreportingareneverstraightforward.Asyoudoonetask,you llhavetolookaheadtoothersorrevisitanearlierone.You llchangetopicsasyouread,searchformoredataasyoudraft,perhapsevendiscoveranewquestionasyourevise.Researchislooping,messy,andunpredictable.Butit smanageableifyouhaveaplan,evenwhenyouknowyou lldepartfromit.

2.1FindaQuestioninYourTopicResearchersbeginprojectsindifferentways.Manyexperiencedonesbeginwithaquestionthatothersintheirfieldwanttoanswer:WhatcausedtheextinctionofmostlargeNorthAmericanmammals?Othersbeginwithjustavagueintellectualitchthattheyhavetoscratch.Theymightnotknowwhatpuzzlesthemaboutgiantslothsandmastodons,butthey rewillingtospendtimefindingoutwhethertheycantranslatetheiritchintoaquestionworthanswering.

Theyknow,moreover,thatthebestresearchquestionisnotonewhoseanswerotherswanttoknowjustforitsownsake;itisonethathelpsthemunderstandsomelargerissue(Sowhat?again).Forexample,ifweknewwhyNorthAmericanslothsdisappeared,wemightbeabletoansweralargerquestionthatpuzzlesmanyhistoricalanthropologists:DidearlyNativeAmericansliveinharmonywithnature,assomebelieve,ordidtheyhuntitslargestcreaturestoextinction?(Andifweknewthat,thenwemightalsounderstand )

Thentherearethosequestionsthatjustpopintoaresearcher smindwithnohintofwherethey lllead,sometimesaboutmatterssoseeminglytrivialthatonlytheresearcherthinksthey reworthanswering:Whydoesacoffeespilldryupintheformofaring?Suchaquestionmightleadnowhere,butyoucan tknowthatuntilyouseeitsanswer.Infact,thescientistpuzzledbycoffeeringsmadediscoveriesaboutthebehavioroffluidsthatothersinhisfieldthoughtimportant andthatpaintmanufacturersfoundvaluable.SowhoknowswhereyoumightgowithaquestionlikeHowmanycatssleptintheAlamothenightbeforethebattle?Youcan tknowuntilyougetthere.

Infact,aresearcher smostvaluableabilityistheknackofbeingpuzzledbyordinarythings:liketheshapeofcoffeerings;orwhyShakespearehasLadyMacbethdieoffstageratherthanon;orwhyyoureyebrowsdon tgrowaslongasthehaironyourhead.Cultivatetheabilitytoseewhat soddinthecommonplaceandyou llneverlackforresearchprojects,aseitherastudentoraprofessional.

Ifyouhaveatopic,skipto2.1.3tofindquestionsinit.Ifyoualreadyhaveaquestionortwo,skipto2.1.4totestthembythe

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criterialistedthere.Ifyou restilllookingforatopic,here saplantohelpyousearchforone.

2.1.1SearchYourInterests

Ifyoucanpickanytopicappropriatetoyourfield,askthesequestions:

■Whattopicsdoyoualreadyknowsomethingabout?Youcanlearnmore.■Whatwouldyouliketoknowmoreabout?Aplace?Aperson?Atime?Anobject?Anidea?Aprocess?■CanyoufindadiscussionlistontheInternetaboutissuesthatinterestyou?■Haveyoutakenpositionsonanyissuesinyourfieldindebateswithothersbutfoundthatyoucouldn tbackupyourviewswithgoodreasonsandevidence?

■Whatissuesdopeopleoutsideyourfieldmisunderstand?■Whattopicisyourinstructorworkingon?Wouldshelikeyoutoexploreapartofit?Don tbetooshytoask.■Doesyourlibraryhaverichresourcesinsomefield?Askyourinstructororalibrarian.■Whatothercourseswillyoutakeinyourfieldoroutofit?Findatext-bookandskimitforstudyquestions.■Ifyouhaveajobinmind,whatkindofresearchreportmighthelpyougetit?Employersoftenaskforsamplesofanapplicant swork.

Youcanalsoconsultprintsourcesforideas:

■SkimthetopicsinspecializedindexesinyourfieldsuchasPhilosopher sIndex,GeographicalAbstracts,Women sStudiesAbstracts,andsoon(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory2inyourfield).

■Skimajournalthatreviewstheyear sworkinyourfield(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory2inyourfield).

Academicresearchismeanttobeshared,buttheunderstandingitbringsmayalsobevaluabletoyouinthefuture.Sothinkahead:lookforaprojectthatmighthelpyouayearfromnow.Keepinmind,though,thatyoumaybeinforalongrelationshipwithyourtopic,sobesureitinterestsyouenoughtogetyouthroughtheinevitablerockystretches.

2.1.2MakeYourTopicManageable

Ifyoupickatopicwhosenamesoundslikeanencyclopediaentry bridges,birds,masks you llfindsomanysourcesthatyoucouldspendalifetimereadingthem.Youmustcarveoutofyourtopicamanageablepiece.Youcanstartbeforeyouheadtothelibrarybylimitingyourtopictoreflectaspecialinterestinit:Whatisitabout,say,masksthatmadeyouchoosethem?Whatparticularaspectoftheminterestsorpuzzlesyou?Thinkaboutyourtopicinacontextthatyouknowsomethingabout,thenaddwordsandphrasestoreflectthatknowledge:

masksinreligiousceremoniesmasksassymbolsinHopireligiousceremoniesmudheadmasksassymbolsofskyspiritsinHopifertilityceremonies

Youmightnotbeabletofocusyourtopicuntilafteryoustartreadingaboutit.Thattakestime,sostartearly(youcandomuchofthispreliminaryworkonline):

■Beginwithanoverviewofyourtopicinageneralencyclopedia(inthebibliographyseeitemsincategory2inthegeneralsources);thenreadaboutitinaspecializedone(seeitemsincategory2inyourfield).

■Skimasurveyofyourtopic(encyclopediaentriesusuallyciteafew).■Skimsubheadsunderyourtopicinanannualbibliographyinyourfield(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory4inyourfield).Thatwillalsogiveyouastartonareadinglist.

■SearchtheInternetforthetopic(butevaluatethereliabilityofwhatyoufind;see3.4.3).

Especiallyusefularetopicsthatsparkdebate:FisherclaimsthatHalloweenmasksrevealchildren sarchetypalfears,butdothey?Evenifyoucan tresolvethedebate,youcanlearnhowsuchdebatesareconducted(formoreonthis,see3.1.2).

2.1.3QuestionYourTopic

Dothisnotjustonce,earlyon,butthroughoutyourproject.Askquestionsasyouread,especiallyhowandwhy(seealso4.1.1 4.1.2).Trythefollowingkindsofquestions(thecategoriesarelooseandoverlap,sodon tworryaboutkeepingthemdistinct).

1.Askhowthetopicfitsintoalargercontext(historical,social,cultural,geographic,functional,economic,andsoon):

■Howdoesyourtopicfitintoalargerstory?Whatcamebeforemasks?Howdidmaskscomeintobeing?Why?Whatchangeshavetheycausedinotherpartsoftheirsocialorgeographicsetting?Howandwhydidthathappen?WhyhavemasksbecomeapartofHalloween?HowandwhyhavemaskshelpedmakeHalloweenthebiggestAmericanholidayafterChristmas?

■Howisyourtopicafunctioningpartofalargersystem?Howdomasksreflectthevaluesofspecificsocietiesandcultures?WhatrolesdomasksplayinHopidances?Inscarymovies?Inmasqueradeparties?Forwhatpurposesaremasksusedotherthandisguise?Howhastheboomingmarketforkachinamasksinfluencedtraditionaldesigns?

■Howdoesyourtopiccomparetoandcontrastwithothertopicslikeit?HowdomasksinNativeAmericanceremoniesdifferfromthoseinAfrica?WhatdoHalloweenmaskshavetodowithMardiGrasmasks?Howaremasksandcosmeticsurgeryalike?

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2.Askquestionsaboutthenatureofthethingitself,asanindependententity:

■Howhasyourtopicchangedthroughtime?Why?Whatisitsfuture?HowhaveHalloweenmaskschanged?Why?HowhaveNativeAmericanmaskschanged?Why?

■Howdothepartsofyourtopicfittogetherasasystem?WhatpartsofamaskaremostsignificantinHopiceremonies?Why?Whydosomemaskscoveronlytheeyes?Whydosofewmaskscoverjustthebottomhalfoftheface?

■Howmanydifferentcategoriesofyourtopicarethere?WhatarethedifferentkindsofHalloweenmasks?Whatarethedifferentqualitiesofmasks?WhatarethedifferentfunctionsofHalloweenmasks?

3.Turnpositivequestionsintoanegativeones:WhyhavemasksnotbecomeapartofChristmas?HowdoNativeAmericanmasksnotdifferfromthoseinAfrica?Whatpartsofmasksaretypicallynotsignificantinreligiousceremonies?

4.Askspeculativequestions:WhyaremaskscommoninAfricanreligionsbutnotinWesternones?WhyarechildrenmorecomfortablewearingHalloweenmasksthanaremostadults?Whydon thuntersincamouflagewearmasks?

5.AskWhatif?questions:howwouldthingsbedifferentifyourtopicneverexisted,disappeared,orwereputintoanewcontext?Whatifnooneeverworemasksexceptforsafetyreasons?Whatifeveryoneworemasksinpublic?WhatifmoviesandTVwerelikeGreekplaysandalltheactorsworemasks?Whatifitwerecustomarytowearmasksonblinddates?Inmarriageceremonies?Atfunerals?

6.Askquestionsthatreflectdisagreementswithasource:ifasourcemakesaclaimyouthinkisweaklysupportedorevenwrong,makethatdisagreementaquestion(seealso4.1.2).Martinezclaimsthatcarnivalmasksuniquelyallowwearerstoescapesocialnorms.ButIthinkreligiousmasksalsoallowwearerstoescapefromthematerialrealmtothespiritual.Istherealargerpatternofallmaskscreatingasenseofalternativeformsofsocialorspirituallife?

7.Askquestionsthatbuildonagreement:ifasourceoffersaclaimyouthinkispersuasive,askquestionsthatextenditsreach(seealso4.1.1).Eliasshowsthatmaskedballsbecamepopularineighteenth-centuryLondoninresponsetoanxietyaboutsocialmobility.IsthesameanxietyresponsibleforsimilardevelopmentsinotherEuropeancapitals?Youcanalsoaskaquestionthatsupportsthesameclaimwithadditionalevidence.Eliassupportshisclaimaboutmaskedballsentirelywithpublishedsources.Isitalsosupportedbyevidencefromunpublishedsourcessuchaslettersanddiaries?

8.Askquestionsanalogoustothosethatothershaveaskedaboutsimilartopics.SmithanalyzedtheBattleofGettysburgfromaneconomicpointofview.WhatwouldaneconomicanalysisoftheBattleoftheAlamoturnup?

9.Lookforquestionsthatotherresearchersposebutdon tanswer.Manyjournalarticlesendwithaparagraphortwoaboutopenquestions,ideasformoreresearch,andsoon.Youmightnotbeabletodoalltheresearchtheysuggest,butyoumightcarveoutapieceofit.

10.FindanInternetdiscussionlistonyourtopic,then lurk, justreadingtheexchangestounderstandthekindsofquestionsthoseonthelistdiscuss.Ifyoucan tfindalistusingasearchengine,askateacherorvisitthewebsiteofprofessionalorganizationsinyourfield.Lookforquestionsthatsparkyourinterest.Youcanevenaskaquestionofthelist,solongasitisveryspecificandnarrowlyfocused,butwaituntilyouseewhetherquestionsfromstudentsarewelcomed.

2.1.4EvaluateYourQuestions

Notallanswersareequallyuseful,soevaluateyourquestionsandscrapthosethatareunlikelytoyieldinterestinganswers.Reconsiderwhenthefollowingistrue.

1.Youcananswerthequestiontooeasily.

■Youcanlookitup:WhatmasksareusedinNavajodances?■Youcansummarizeasource:WhatdoesFishersayaboutmasksandfears?

2.Youcan tfindgoodevidencetosupporttheanswer.

■Norelevantfactsexist:AreMayanmasksmodeledonspacealiens?■Thequestionisbasedonpreferenceortaste:AreBalineseorMayanmasksmorebeautiful?■Youmustreadtoomanysources:Howaremasksmade?Youdon twanttoplowthroughcountlessreportstofindthebestevidence(thisusuallyresultsfromaquestionthat stoobroad).

■Youcan tgetthesourcesthatyourreadersthinkarecrucial.Inevenmoderatelyadvancedprojects,you llbeexpectedtoworkwiththebestsourcesavailable;forathesisanddissertation,they reessential.Ifyoucan tobtainthosesources,findanotherquestion.

3.Youcan tplausiblydisprovetheanswer.

■Theanswerseemsself-evidentbecausetheevidenceoverwhelminglyfavorsoneanswer.HowimportantaremasksinInuitculture?Theanswerisobvious:Very.Ifyoucan timaginedisprovingaclaim,thenprovingitispointless.(Ontheotherhand,world-classreputationshavebeenwonbythosewhoquestionedaclaimthatseemedself-evidentlytrue forinstance,thatthesuncircledtheearth anddaredtodisproveit.)

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Don trejectaquestionbecauseyouthinksomeonemustalreadyhaveaskedit.Untilyouknow,pursueitsanswerasifyouaskedfirst.Evenifsomeonehasansweredit,youmightcomeupwithabetteransweroratleastonewithanewslant.Infact,inthehumanitiesandsocialsciencesthebestquestionsusuallyhavemorethanonegoodanswer.Youcanalsoorganizeyourprojectaroundcomparingandcontrastingcompetinganswersandsupportingthebestone(see6.2.5).

Thepointistofindaquestionthatyouwanttoanswer.Toomanystudents,bothgraduateandundergraduate,thinkthattheaimofeducationistomemorizesettledanswerstosomeoneelse squestions.Itisnot.Itistolearntofindyourownanswerstoyourownquestions.Todothat,youmustlearntowonderaboutthings,toletthempuzzleyou particularlythingsthatseemmostcommonplace.

2.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswersBeforeyougetdeepintoyourproject,tryonemorestep.Itisonethatsomebeginnersresistbutthatexperiencedresearchersusuallyattempt.Onceyouhaveaquestion,imaginesomeplausibleanswers,nomatterhowsketchyorspeculative.Atthisstage,don tworrywhetherthey reright.Thatcomeslater.

Forexample,supposeyouask,Whydosomereligionsusemasksinceremonieswhileothersdon t?Youmightspeculate,

Maybecultureswithmanyspiritsneedmaskstodistinguishthem.Maybemasksarecommoninculturesthatmixreligionandmedicine.MaybereligionsoriginatingintheMiddleEastwereinfluencedbytheJewishprohibitionagainstidolatry.

Evenageneralanswercansuggestsomethingworthstudying:

Maybeithastodowiththeroleofmasksinnonreligiousareasofaculture.

Trytoimagineatleastoneplausibleanswer,nomatterhowtentativeorspeculative.Ifafterlotsofresearchyoucan tconfirmit,youcanorganizeyourreportaroundwhythatanswerseemedreasonableatthetimebutturnedouttobewrongandsoisn tworththetimeofotherresearchers.Thatinitselfcanbeavaluablecontributiontotheconversationonyourtopic.(See10.1.1 10.1.2forhowtouseanapparentlygoodideathatturnsouttobewrong.)

Infact,lookfortwoorthreeplausibleanswers.Evenifyoupreferone,youcanimproveitbytestingitagainsttheothers,andinanyevent,youcan tshowthatananswerisrightifyoucan talsoshowwhyothersarewrong.Evenearlyintheproject,writeoutyouranswersasclearlyandasfullyasyoucan.Itistooeasytothinkthatyouhaveaclearideawhenyoudon t.Puttingafoggyideaintowordsisthebestwaytoclarifyit,ortodiscoverthatyoucan t.

2.2.1DecideonaWorkingHypothesis

Ifoneanswerseemspromising,callityourworkinghypothesisanduseittoguideyourresearch.Youcan,ofcourse,lookforevidencewithnomorethanaquestiontoguideyou,becauseanyquestionlimitsthenumberofplausibleanswers.Buteventhemosttentativeworkinghypothesishelpsyoutothinkahead,especiallyaboutthekindofevidencethatyou llneedtosupportit.Willyouneednumbers?quotations?observations?images?historicalfacts?Moreimportant,whatkindofevidencewoulddisproveyourhypothesis?Answerthosequestionsandyouknowthekindofdatatowatchforandtokeep.Infact,untilyouhaveahypothesis,youcan tknowwhetheranydatayoucollectarerelevanttoanyquestionworthasking.

Ifyoucan timagineanyworkinghypothesis,reconsideryourquestion.Reviewyourlistofexploratoryquestionstofindonethatyoucananswer;ifyouskippedthatstep,gobackto2.1.3.Youmayevendecidetostartoverwithanewtopic.Thatcoststimeintheshortrun,butitmaysaveyoufromafailedproject.Ifyou reworkingonathesisordissertation,youcanwaitlongertofirmupahypothesiswhileyoureadandponder,butdon tgetdeeplyintoyourprojectwithoutatleasttheglimmerofapossibleanswer.

Undernocircumstancesshouldyouputoffthinkingaboutahypothesisuntilyoubegindraftingyourreportor,worse,untilyou vealmostfinishedit.Youmightnotsettleonthebestanswertoyourquestionuntilyou vewrittenyourlastpage:writing,evenrevising,isitselfanactofdiscovery.Justdon twaituntilthatlastpagetostartthinkingaboutsomeanswer.

2.2.2BewaretheRisksinaWorkingHypothesis

Itisabadideatosettleonafinalanswertoosoon.Butmanynewresearchersandsomeexperiencedonesareafraidtoconsideranyworkinghypothesisearlyintheirproject,evenonetheyholdlightly,becausetheyfearitmightbiastheirthinking.Thereissomeriskofthat,butaworkinghypothesisneednotcloseyourmindtoabetterone.Eventhemostobjectivescientistdevisesanexperimenttotestforjustafewpredictedoutcomes,oftenjustone.Infact,researcherswhodon tstateahypothesisusuallyhaveoneinmindbutdon twanttoseempubliclycommittedtoit,lestitturnoutwrong.

Aworkinghypothesisisariskonlyifitblindsyoutoabetteroneorifyoucan tgiveitupwhentheevidencesaysyoushould.Soasinallrelationships,don tfalltoohardforyourfirsthypothesis:themoreyoulikeit,thelesseasilyyou llseeitsflaws.Despitethatrisk,it sbettertostartwithaflawedhypothesisthanwithnoneatall.

2.2.3IfYouCan tFindanAnswer,ArgueforYourQuestion

Wehavefocusedonquestionssomuchthatyoumightthinkthatyourprojectfailsifyoucan tansweryours.Infact,muchimportantresearchexplainswhyaquestionnoonehasaskedshouldbe,eventhoughtheresearchercan tanswerit:Doturtlesdream?Whyisyawningcontagiousbutbeingsleepyisn t?Orisit?Suchreportsfocusonwhythequestionisimportantandwhatagoodanswermightlooklike.Oryoumayfindthatsomeonehasansweredyourquestion,butincompletelyoreven,ifyou relucky,incorrectly.Ifyoucan tfindtherightanswer,youhelpreadersbyshowingthatawidelyacceptedoneiswrong.(See10.1.2forhowtousethisplaninyourintroduction.)

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Onlywhenyouaskquestionafterquestionwillyoudevelopthecriticalimaginationyou llneedinanyprofessionyoupursue.Infact,asexperiencedresearchersknow,mostissueshavefew,ifany,finalanswers,becausetherearenofinalquestions.Theyknowthatit sasimportanttoaskanewquestionasitistoansweranoldone,andthatonedaytheirnewquestionwillbecomeoldandyieldtoanewerresearcher sstillnewerone.

Yourjobistobecomethatnewerresearcher.

2.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWorkForashortpaper,youmightnotneedadetailedplan asketchofanoutlinemightdo.Butforalongproject,you llusuallyneedmore,especiallyforoneaslongasathesisordissertation.Thefirstplanthatcomestomindisusuallyanoutline,withitsI sandII sandA sandB sandsoon(see23.4.2.2).Ifyoupreferanoutline,useone,especiallyifyourprojectisrelativelyshort.Theproblemisthatanoutlinecanforceyoutospecifytoomuchtoosoonandsolockupafinalformbeforeyou vedoneyourbestthinking.

Toavoidthatrisk,manyresearchers,includingthoseoutsidetheacademicworld,planlongreportsonastoryboard.Astoryboardislikeanoutlinespreadoverseveralpages,withlotsofspaceforaddingdataandideasasyougo.Itismoreflexiblethananoutline:itcanhelpyouplanyoursearchforevidence,organizeyourargument,writeafirstdraft,andtestafinalone.Asopposedtolinesinanoutline,youcanphysicallymovestoryboardpagesaroundwithouthavingtoprintanewplaneverytimeyoutryoutaneworganization.Youcanspreaditspagesacrossawall,grouprelatedpages,andputminorsectionsbelowmajoronestocreateapicture ofyourprojectthatshowsyouataglancethedesignofthewholeandyourprogressthroughit.

2.3.1StateYourQuestionandWorkingHypotheses

Tostartastoryboard,stateatthetopofitsfirstpageyourquestionandworkinghypothesisasexactlyasyoucan.Thenaddplausiblealternativestohelpyouseemoreclearlyitslimitsandstrengths.Addnewhypothesesasyouthinkofthem,andcrossoffthoseyouprovewrong.Butsavethem,becauseyoumightbeabletouseoneoftheminyourintroduction(see10.1.1).

2.3.2StateYourReasons

Putatthetopofseparatepageseachreasonthatmightsupportyourbesthypothesis,evenifyouhaveonlyoneortwo(formoreonreasons,see5.4.2).Imagineexplainingyourprojecttoafriend.Yousay,IwanttoshowthatAlamostorieshelpeddevelopauniqueTexanidentity,andyourfriendasks,Whydoyouthinkso?Yourreasonsarethegeneralstatementsthatyouoffertosupportyouranswer:Well,first,thestoriesdistortedfactstoemphasizewhatbecamecentraltoTexanidentity;second,thestorieswerefirstusedtoshowthatTexas(andtheWildWest)wasanewkindoffrontier;third, andsoon.

Ifyoucanthinkofonlyoneortworeasons(you llusuallyneedmore),putplaceholdersatthetopsofpages:Reason3:SomethingaboutAlamostoriesmakingTexansfeelspecial.Ifyouknowonlyhowyouwantareasontosupportyouranswer,statethat:Reason4:SomethingtoshowthatAlamostoriesweremorethanjustmyth.Eachreason,ofcourse,needssupport,soforeachreason,askWhydoIthinkthat?WhatevidencewillIneedtoproveit?Thatwillhelpyoufocusyoursearchforevidence(see2.3.3and5.4.2).

Ifyou renewtoyourtopicorearlyinyourproject,yourreasonsmaybeonlyeducatedguessesthatyou llchange;ifyoudon t,youmightnotbeself-criticalenough.Butalistofreasons,nomatterhowspeculative,isthebestframeworktoguideyourresearchandfocusyourthinking,andcertainlybetterthannoreasonsatall.

2.3.3SketchintheKindofEvidenceYouShouldLookFor

Everyfieldprefersitsownkindsofevidence numbers,quotations,observations,historicalfacts,images,andsoon.Soforeachreason,sketchthekindofevidencethatyouthinkyou llneedtosupportit.Evenimaginewhatthemostconvincingevidencewouldlooklike.Ifyoucan timaginethekindofevidenceyou llneed,leavethatpartofthepageblank,thenreadsecondarysourcestofindoutthekindofevidencethatresearchersinyourfieldfavor(see3.1.2).

2.3.4LookattheWhole

Laythepagesonatableortapethemonawall.Thenstepbackandlookattheirorder.Whenyouplanafirstdraft,youmustputitspartsinsomeorder,soyoumightaswellthinkaboutonenow.Canyouseealogicinyourorder?causeandeffect?narrativetime?relativeimportance?complexity?length?(See6.2.5formoreprinciplesoforder.)Tryoutdifferentorders.Thisstoryboardisn tyourfinalplan;it sonlyatooltoguideyourthinkingandorganizewhatyoufind.

Whenyoufillapage,trydraftingthatsection,becausewritingoutyourideascanimproveyourthinkingateverystageofyourproject.

Somedayyoumayhavetheleisuretoamblethroughsources,readingjustwhatinterestsyou.Suchrandombrowsinghasopenedupimportantlinesofresearch.Butifyourreportisdueinamonthorso,youcan twaitforlightningtostrike;youneedaplan.Astoryboardisasimpleandreliabledevicetohelpyoucreateone.

2.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroupAdownsideofscholarlyresearchisitsisolation.Exceptforgroupprojects,you llread,think,andwritemostlyalone.Butitdoesn thavetobethatway,atleastnotentirely.Lookforsomeoneotherthanyourinstructororadvisorwhowilltalkwithyouaboutyourprogress,reviewyourdrafts,evenpesteryouabouthowmuchyouhavewritten.Thatmightbeagenerousfriend,butlookfirstforanotherwritersothatyoucancommentoneachother sideasanddrafts.

Betteryetisawritinggroupoffourorfivepeopleworkingontheirownprojectswhomeetregularlytodiscussoneanother swork.Earlyon,starteachmeetingwithasummaryofeachperson sprojectinthatthree-partsentence:I mworkingonthetopicX,becauseIwanttofindoutY,sothatI(andyou)canbetterunderstandZ.Asyourprojectsdevelop,startwithan elevatorstory, ashortsummaryofyourresearchthatyoumightgivesomeoneintheelevatoronthewaytothemeeting.Itshouldincludethatthree-partsentence,aworkinghypothesis,andthemajorreasonssupportingit(see13.4).

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Inlaterstages,thegroupsharesoutlinesanddraftssothattheycanserveassurrogatereaderstoanticipatehowyourfinalreaderswillrespond.Ifyourgrouphasaproblemwithyourdraft,sowillyourfinalreaders.Theycanevenhelpyoubrainstormwhenyoubogdown.Butformostwriters,awritinggroupismostvaluableforthedisciplineitimposes.Itiseasiertomeetaschedulewhenyouknowyoumustreportyourprogresstoothers.

Writinggroupsarestandardpracticeforthosepreparingthesesordissertations.Buttherulesmaydifferforaclasspaper.Someteachersthinkthatagrouporwritingpartnermightprovidemorehelpthanisappropriate,sobeclearwithyourinstructoraboutwhatyourgroupwilldo.Ifyoudon t,shemaydecidetheassistanceyouhavereceivedisinappropriate(see7.10).

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3FindingUsefulSources

3.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUse

3.1.1ConsultPrimarySourcesforEvidence3.1.2ReadSecondarySourcestoLearnfromOtherResearchers3.1.3ReadTertiarySourcesforIntroductoryOverviews

3.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately

3.2.1DetermineYourCitationStyle3.2.2RecordBibliographicData

3.3SearchforSourcesSystematically

3.3.1LookforSomeoneWhoKnowsSomethingaboutYourTopic3.3.2SkimtheInternet3.3.3TalktoReferenceLibrarians3.3.4BrowseinYourReferenceArea3.3.5SkimaFewSpecializedReferenceWorks3.3.6SearchYourLibraryCatalog3.3.7SearchGuidestoPeriodicalLiterature3.3.8BrowsetheShelves3.3.9ForAdvancedProjects,FollowBibliographicTrails

3.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliability

3.4.1EvaluatetheRelevanceofSources3.4.2EvaluatetheReliabilityofPrintSources3.4.3EvaluatetheReliabilityofOnlineSources

3.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferences

Onceyouhaveatleastaquestionandperhapsaworkinghypothesisalongwithafewtentativereasonsforsupportingit,youcanstartlookingforthedatayou llneedtosupportyourreasonsandtestyourhypothesis.Inthischapterweexplainhowtofindthosedataandinthenexthowtoworkwiththem.Butdon tthinkoffindingsourcesandreadingthemasseparatesteps.Onceyouhaveapromisingsource,readittofindothersources.Andasyoufillyourstoryboardwithnotes,you lldiscovergapsandnewquestionsthatonlymoresourcescanfill.Sowhilewediscussfindingandusingsourcesastwosteps,you llmoreoftendothemrepeatedlyandsimultaneously.

3.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUseDependingonyourexperience,readerswillexpectyoutousedifferentlevelsofsources,calledprimary,secondary,andtertiary(thinkfirst-,second-,andthirdhand).Thesearen tsharplydefinedcategories,buttheyroughlycharacterizehowresearchersthinkaboutmostsources.

3.1.1ConsultPrimarySourcesforEvidence

Infieldssuchasliterarystudies,thearts,andhistory,primarysourcesareoriginalworks diaries,letters,manuscripts,images,films,filmscripts,recordings,andmusicalscorescreatedbywriters,artists,composers,andsoon.Thosesourcesprovidedata thewords,images,andsoundsthatyouuseasevidencetosupportyourreasons.Datacanalsobeobjects:coins,clothing,tools,andotherartifactsfromtheperiodorbelongingtoapersonyou restudying.

Infieldssuchaseconomics,psychology,chemistry,andsoon,researcherstypicallycollectdatathroughobservationandexperiment.Inothers,researchersgatherevidencethroughinterviews.(Toconducteffectiveinterviews,youmustusereliablemethodsforelicitingandrecordingtheinformationyoucollect.)Insuchfields,evidenceconsistsofthedatathatresearcherscollect.Theprimarysourcesforthosecollecteddataarethepublicationsthatfirstpublishthem,rangingfromgovernmentandcommercialdatabasestoscholarlyjournals.

Experiencedresearcherslookfordatainprimarysourcesfirst.If,forexample,youwerewritingonAlamostories,you dtrytofindsourceswrittenatthetime letters,diaries,eyewitnessreports,andsoon.

3.1.2ReadSecondarySourcestoLearnfromOtherResearchers

Secondarysourcesarebooksandarticlesthatanalyzeprimarysources,usuallywrittenbyandforotherresearchers.AreportinascholarlyjournalanalyzingAlamostorieswouldbeasecondarysourceforresearchersworkingonthosestories.Secondarysources

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alsoincludespecializedencyclopediasanddictionariesthatofferessayswrittenbyscholarsinafield.Youusesecondarysourcesforthreepurposes:

1.Tokeepupwithcurrentresearch.Researchersreadsecondarysourcestokeepupwiththeworkofotherresearchers,toinformandrefinetheirthinking,andtomotivatetheirownworkbyaddingtoapublishedlineofresearch.

2.Tofindotherpointsofview.Aresearchreportisnotcompleteuntiltheresearcheracknowledgesandrespondstotheviewsofothersandtohisreaders predictablequestionsanddisagreements.Youcanfindmostofthoseotherpointsofviewinsecondarysources.Whatalternativestoyourideasdotheyoffer?Whatevidencedotheycitethatyoumustacknowledge?Somenewresearchersthinktheyweakentheircaseiftheymentionanyviewopposingtheirown.Thetruthistheopposite.Whenyouacknowledgecompetingviews,youshowreadersthatyounotonlyknowthoseviewsbutcanconfidentlyrespondtothem.Formoreonthis,see5.4.3.Moreimportant,youmustusethosecompetingviewstoimproveyourown.Youcan tunderstandwhatyouthinkuntilyou

understandwhyarationalpersonmightthinkdifferently.Soasyoulookforsources,don tlookjustforthosethatsupportyourviews.Bealertaswellforthosethatcontradictthem.

3.Tofindmodelsforyourownresearchandanalysis.Youcanusesecondarysourcestofindoutnotjustwhatothershavewrittenaboutyourtopicbuthowtheyhavewrittenaboutit,asmodelsfortheformandstyleofyourownreport.Imagineasecondarysourceasacolleaguetalkingtoyouaboutyourtopic.Asyourespond,you dwanttosoundlikesomeonewhoknowsthefield,andsoyou dtrytolearnhowshereasons,thelanguagesheuses,thekindsofevidencesheoffers,andthekindssherarelyorneveruses.The conversation wouldbeinwriting,soyou devenimitatestylisticdetailssuchaswhethershewritesinlongparagraphsorbreaksupherpageswithsubheadsandbulletpoints(commoninthesocialsciences,lesscommoninthehumanities).Youcanalsouseasecondarysourceasamodelforyourconceptualanalysis.If,forexample,youwereanalyzingAlamostories,

youmightstudyhowasourcetreatsCuster sLastStand.Isitsapproachpsychological,social,historical,political?Itsparticularreasonsorevidencewillprobablybeirrelevanttoyourproject,butyoumightsupportyouranswerwiththesamekindsofdataandreasoning,perhapsevenfollowingthesameorganization.Soifyoucomeacrossasourcethat snotexactlyonyourtopicbuttreatsonelikeit,skimittoseehowthatresearcherthinks

abouthismaterialandpresentsit.(Youdon thavetocitethatsourceifyouuseonlyitsgenerallogic,butyoumayciteittogiveyourownapproachmoreauthority.)

Researchersusedatareportedinsecondarysourcesonlywhentheycan tfindtheminprimarysources.Thenthey recautiousaboutusingthosesecondarysources,becausesecondhandreportsofdatahaveahigherrorrate.Ifyou redoingveryadvancedwork,checktheaccuracyofimportantquotations,facts,ornumbersfromsecondarysources.Thosewhopublishinrespectedplacesrarelymisreportdeliberately,buttheymakecarelessmistakesmoreoftenthannonexpertsthinkorexpertsadmit.

Ofcourse,ifyouwerestudyinghowtheAlamostoryhasbeenanalyzed,thensecondarysourcesofferingthoseanalyseswouldbeyourprimarysources.

Ifyou renewtoafield,youmayfindsecondarysourceshardtoread:theyassumealotofbackgroundknowledge,andmanyaren tclearlywritten(see11.2).Ifyou reworkingonatopicnewtoyou,youmightbeginwithanoverviewinaspecializedencyclopediaorreliabletertiarysource.

3.1.3ReadTertiarySourcesforIntroductoryOverviews

Tertiarysourcesarebasedonsecondarysources,usuallywrittenfornonspecialists.Theyincludegeneralencyclopediasanddictionaries,aswellasnewspapersandmagazineslikeTimeandtheAtlanticMonthlyandcommercialbookswrittenforageneralaudience.Well-editedgeneralencyclopediasofferaquickoverviewofmanytopics.Beware,however,ofonlineencyclopedias,suchasWikipedia,thatrelyonanonymouscontributionsratherthanoncarefullyeditedentrieswrittenbyestablishedresearchers.Wikipediahasprovedtoberelativelyaccurateinthesciences,butoverallitisunevenandsometimeswrong.Neverciteitasanauthoritativesource.

Besimilarlycautiousaboutusingmagazineandnewspaperarticles.Somedescriberesearchreportedinsecondarysourcesreliably,butmostoversimplifyorsimplymisreportit.Youwould,ofcourse,treatsuchasourceasprimaryifyouwerestudyinghowitdealswithatopic,suchasgenderbiasintheEncyclopediaBritannicaorhoaxesinWikipedia.

Onceyouunderstandkindsofsources,youcanbeginlookingforthem.

3.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriatelyBeforeyoulookforsources,youshouldknowhowtocitetheonesyoufind.Yourreaderswilltrustyourreportonlyiftheytrustyourevidence,andtheywon ttrustyourevidenceiftheycan tfindyoursources.Yourfirstobligationasaresearcheristociteyoursourcesaccuratelyandfullysothatyourreaderscanfindthem.

3.2.1DetermineYourCitationStyle

Mostfieldsrequireaspecificcitationstyle.Thetwomostcommononesaredescribedindetailinpart2:

■notes-bibliographystyle(orsimplybibliographystyle),usedwidelyinthehumanitiesandinsomesocialsciences(seechapters16and17)

■author-datestyle(orparentheticalcitations-referenceliststyle),usedinmostsocialsciencesandinthenaturalsciences(seechapters18and19)

Ifyouareuncertainwhichstyletouse,consultyourinstructor.Beforeyoustartcompilingyourlistofsources,readthegeneralintroductiontocitationsinchapter15andthen,dependingonthecitationstyleyouarerequiredtouse,readtheintroductionto

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bibliographystyle(chapter16)orauthor-datestyle(chapter18).

3.2.2RecordBibliographicData

Tosavetimeandavoiderrors,recordallthecitationinformationyouwillneedwhenyoufirstfindasource.Mostofthisinformationappearsonthetitlepageofabookorattheheadofajournalarticle.Thespecificinformationyouneeddependsonthetypeofsource,butforeachsource,recordatleastthefollowing:

■Whowroteorassembledthesource?■author(s)■editor(s)■translator(s)

■Whatdataidentifythesource?■titleandsubtitle■titleandsubtitleofanylargerworkthatcontainsthesource(suchasacollection,journal,ornewspaper)■pagenumbersifthesourceappearsinalargerwork■volumenumber■issuenumber■editionnumber■foronlinesources,URLanddateyouaccessedthematerial

■Whopublishedthesourceandwhen?■publisher sname■placeofpublication■dateofpublication

Foryourownuse,youmightrecordLibraryofCongresscallnumbers.Youwon tincludetheminbibliographiccitations,butyoumayfindthemhelpfulifyoumustconsultthesourceagain.

Atsomepoint,you llneedtoformatthisbibliographicinformationintoyourrequiredcitationstyle,soyoushouldrecordyoursourcesinthatstylenow.Youcanfindtemplatesandexamplesforbibliographystyleinfigure16.1andchapter17;forauthor-datestyle,refertofigure18.1andchapter19.

Asyourecordthesedata,you llbetemptedtotakeshortcuts,becauseit sboringworkandrulesaboutperiods,commas,andparenthesescanfeellikenit-picking.Butnothinglabelsyouabeginnerfasterthancitationsthatareinappropriate,orworse,incompleteorinaccurate.Sogetinthehabitofrecordingbibliographicdataforasourcefully,accurately,andappropriatelythemomentyouhandleit.Therearecomputerprogramsthatautomaticallyformatcitationsforyou.Theyareusefulaids,buttheycannotsubstituteforyourownknowledgeofpropercitationformsandmethods,andnotallofthesoftwareworksperfectly.

3.3SearchforSourcesSystematicallyAsyousearchforsources,youmustbeknowledgeablysystematic,becauseifyoumissanimportantone,you lllosecredibility.

3.3.1LookforSomeoneWhoKnowsSomethingaboutYourTopic

Youmightstartbyaskingaroundtofindsomeonewhoknowssomethingaboutyourtopicandstandardreferenceworksonit:advancedstudents,faculty,evenpeopleoutsidetheacademiccommunity.Youmightlookupyourtopicintheyellowpagesofthephonebook.Youwon talwaysfindsomeone,butyoumightgetlucky.

3.3.2SkimtheInternet

Beforecollege,manystudentsdoresearchonlyontheInternet,becausetheirhighschoollibrariesaresmall,becausetheyneedtofindonlyafewsources,andbecausetheirteachersaren tparticularaboutthequalityofthosesources.However,inmanyfieldsimportantandsignificantresearchisincreasinglyeitherpublishedorarchivedonline,soyoucanoftendousefulpreliminaryworkwithascholarlysearchenginesuchasGoogleScholar.Thebestofthesenotonlywillgiveyouaroughideaofthekindsofsourcesavailablebutwillalsoidentifyhowmanytimesaparticularsourcehasbeencitedinotherbooksorarticlesonthetopic.(Ifyoufindsourcesthatarecitedhundredsorthousandsoftimesbyotherwriters,youshouldfamiliarizeyourselfwiththem.)Onlinedatabasesandsearchenginesalsofrequentlytagtheirresultswithassociatedsearchkeywords.Atthisstageinyourresearch,followingthesetrailsofrelatedsearchtermscanhelpputyourresearchquestionintocontextsthatmightnototherwiseoccurtoyou.ButifyousearchjusttheInternet,you llmissimportantsourcesthatyou llfindonlybypokingaroundinyourlibrary.Ifyourlibrarycatalogisonline,youcanstartthere(see3.3.6).Onceagain,you llworkmostefficientlyifyouhaveaplan.

3.3.3TalktoReferenceLibrarians

Ifyoudon tknowhowtofindwhatyouneed,askalibrarian.Mostcollegelibrariesoffertoursofreferenceroomsandspecialcollectionsaswellasshortseminarsonhowtosearchthecatalog,databases,andothersourcesofinformation.Ifyou reanewresearcher,seizeeveryopportunitytolearnonlinesearchtechniquesinyourfield.

Youcanalsotalktolibrarianswhospecializeinyourarea.Theywon tfindsourcesforyou,buttheywillhelpyoulookforthem.Ifyouhavearesearchquestion,shareit:I mlookingfordataonXbecauseIwanttofindout Ifyouhaveaworkinghypothesisandreasons,sharethemtoo:I mlookingfordatatoshowY[yourreason]becauseIwanttoclaimZyourhypothesis].Rehearseyour

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questionstoavoidwastingyourtimeandtheirs.

3.3.4BrowseinYourReferenceArea

Researchersinallfieldssharecommonvaluesandhabitsofthought,buteveryfieldhasitsownwaysofdoingthings.Tolearnaboutthewaysofyourfield,browsetheshelvesinyourlibrary sreferenceroomthatholdguidestoyourfield sparticularresearchmethods,databases,andspecialresources(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory3inyourfield).Atleastfamiliarizeyourselfwiththefollowingresources(inthebibliography,seecategory4forlistsofsourcesinyourfield;manyarealsoonline):

■abibliographyofworkspublishedeachyearinyourfield,suchasPhilosopher sIndexorEducationIndex■summarybibliographiesofworksonaspecifictopiccollectedoverseveralyears(BibliographicIndexisabibliographyofbibliographies)

■collectionsofabstractsthatsummarizearticlesinnewspapersandinprofessionaljournals■reviewsoftheyear swork;lookforatitleinyourfieldbeginningwithReviewsin■fornewfields,websitesmaintainedbyindividualsorscholarlyassociations

Ifyouknowevenalittleofthesecondaryliteratureonyourtopic,youcanbeginlookingformoresubstantivesources(skipto3.3.7-3.3.8).Ifyoudon t,youmightstartwithsomespecializedreferenceworks.

3.3.5SkimaFewSpecializedReferenceWorks

StartbylookingupyourtopicinarelevantspecializedencyclopediaordictionarysuchastheEncyclopediaofPhilosophyortheConciseOxfordDictionaryofLiteraryTerms,whereyoumayfindanoverviewofyourtopicandoftenalistofstandardprimaryandsecondarysources(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategories1and2inyourfield).

3.3.6SearchYourLibraryCatalog

SUBJECTHEADINGSINBOOKS.Assoonasyoufindonerecentbookrelevanttoyourtopic,lookitupinyourlibrary sonlinecatalogtofinditsLibraryofCongresssubjectheadings;theywillbeatthebottomoftheentry.Forexample,theonlineentryforthisbookincludesthesetwotopics:

1.Dissertations,Academic.2.Academicwriting.

Youcanclickonthesubjectheadingstofindotherbooksonthesametopics.Manyofthosesourceswillhavestillmoresubjectheadingsthatcanleadyoutostillmoresources;itcanturnintoanendlesstrail.

KEYWORDS.Alsosearchyouronlinecatalogusingkeywordsfromyourquestionorworkinghypothesis Alamo,Texasindependence,JamesBowie.Ifyoufindtoomanytitles,startwiththosepublishedinthelasttenyearsbywell-knownuniversitypresses.Forawiderselection,searchWorldCatifyourlibrarysubscribes.Otherwise,searchtheLibraryofCongresscatalogathttp://www.loc.gov.Ithaslinkstolargeuniversitycatalogs.Startearlyifyouexpecttogetbooksoninterlibraryloan.

ARTICLES.Ifmostsourcesonyourtopicarearticles,locatearecentoneinyourlibrary sonlinedatabases.Itsdatabaseentrywillincludealistofkeywords.Searchforthemtofindmorearticlesonyourtopic.Inmostcases,youcanjustclickonthem.Usethekeywordstosearchthelibrarycatalogaswell.Somedatabasesalsoprovideabstractsofjournalarticlesthatyoucanskimforsearchterms.

3.3.7SearchGuidestoPeriodicalLiterature

Ifyou vedoneresearchbefore,you reprobablyfamiliarwithannualguidessuchasReaders GuidetoPeriodicalLiterature,whichcitessourcessuchasmagazinesandnewspapers.Mostspecializedfieldsalsohaveyearlyguidestosecondarysources,suchasArtAbstracts,HistoricalAbstracts,andAbstractsinAnthropology(inthebibliography,seeitemsincategory4inyourfield).Mostareavailableonlineorinotherdigitalforms.

Allthoseresourceswilldirectyoutomoresources,butnoneofthemcansubstituteforthekindofin-librarysearchthatturnsupanunexpectedlyusefulsource.

3.3.8BrowsetheShelves

Youmightthinkthatonlineresearchisfasterthanwalkingaroundyourlibrary.Butitcanbeslower,andifyouworkonlyonlineyoumaymisscrucialsourcesthatyou dfindonlyinthelibrary.Moreimportant,you llmissthebenefitsofserendipity achanceencounterwithasourcethatyoufindonlyinperson.

Ifyou reallowedinthestacks(whereallthebooksthatyoucancheckoutarekept),findtheshelfwithbooksonyourtopic.Thenscanthetitlesonthatshelfandtheonesabove,below,andoneitherside.Thenturnaroundandskimtitlesbehindyou;youneverknow.Whenyouspotapromisingtitle,especiallyonauniversitypressbookwithanewbinding,skimitstableofcontents,thenitsindexforkeywordsrelatedtoyourquestionoritsanswer.Thenskimitsbibliographyfortitlesthatlookrelevanttoyourproject.Youcandoallthatfasterwithbooksonashelfthanyoucanonline.

Ifthebooklookspromising,skimitsprefaceorintroduction.Ifitstilllookspromising,setitasideforacloserlook.Evenifitdoesn tseemrelevant,recorditsLibraryofCongresscallnumberandbibliographicdata(author,title,publisher,dateofpublicationandsoon;seepart2ofthismanualforthedetails),andinafewwordssummarizewhatthebookseemstobeabout.Amonthlater,youmightrealizethatit smoreusefulthanyouthought.

Youcanchecktablesofcontentsformanyjournalsonline,butbrowsinginthejournalsareaofalibrarycanbemoreproductive.Findthejournalsthathavepromisingarticles.Skimtablesofcontentsforthepriortenyears.Mostvolumesincludeayearly

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summarytableofcontents.Thentakeaquicklookatthejournalsshelvednearby.Skimtheirmostrecenttablesofcontents.Youwillbesurprisedathowoftenyoufindarelevantarticlethatyouwouldhavemissedhadyoudoneyourworkentirelyonline.

Ifyouarenewtoafield,youcangetaroughimpressionoftheacademicqualityofajournalbyitslook.Ifit songlossypaperwithlotsofillustrations,evenadvertisements,itmightbemorejournalisticthanscholarly.Thosearenotinfalliblesignsofunreliablescholarship,buttheyareworthconsidering.

3.3.9ForAdvancedProjects,FollowBibliographicTrails

Ifyou reintoadvancedwork,usethebibliographiesinyoursourcestofindnewsourcesandusetheirbibliographiesinturntofindmore.Dothis:

■Skimbibliographiesofrecentbooksonyourtopic;lookatanyworkmentionedinallormostofthem,alongwithotherpublicationsbyitsauthor.

■Ifyoufindasourceuseful,skimitsindexforauthorsmentionedonfourormorepages.■Lookforreviewsofresearchinthefirstfewparagraphsofjournalarticles.■LookforrecentPhDdissertationsevenmarginallyrelatedtoyourtopic.Almosteverydissertationreviewsresearchinitsfirstorsecondchapter.

Newsourcesarebest,butyoumaydiscoveranoldonewithdatalongneglected.

3.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliabilityYouwillprobablyfindmoresourcesthanyoucanuse,soyoumustevaluatetheirusefulnessbyskimmingquicklyfortwocriteria:relevanceandreliability.

3.4.1EvaluatetheRelevanceofSources

Onceyoudecideabookmightberelevant,skimitsystematically:

■Ifitsindexlistskeywordsrelatedtoyourquestionoritsanswers,skimthepagesonwhichthosewordsoccur.■Skimitsintroduction,especiallyitslastpage,wherewritersoftenoutlinetheirtext.■Skimitslastchapter,especiallythefirstandlastsixorsevenpages.■Ifyouhavetime,dothesameforchaptersthatlookrelevant,especiallythoseforwhichtheindexlistsmanyofyourkeywords.■Ifthesourceisacollectionofarticles,skimtheeditor sintroduction.

Besurethatyou relookingatabook smostrecentedition.Overtimeresearcherschangetheirviews,refiningthem,evenrejectingearlierones.

Ifyou redoingadvancedwork,readbookreviewsofpromisingsources(seesection4ofthebibliographyofresourcesinyourfield).

Ifyoursourceisajournalarticle,dothis:

■Readitsabstract,ifany.■Skimthelasttwoorthreeparagraphsoftheintroduction(orotheropeningsection)andallofanysectioncalled Conclusion.■Ifthearticlehasnoseparateintroductionorconclusion,skimitsfirstandlastfewparagraphs.■Skimthefirstparagraphortwoaftereachsubhead,ifany.

Ifyoursourceisonline,dothis:

■Ifitlookslikeaprintedarticle,followthestepsforajournalarticle.■Skimanysectionlabeled Introduction, Overview, Summary, orthelike.Ifthereisnone,lookforalinklabeled AbouttheSite orsomethingsimilar.

■Ifthesitehasalinklabeled SiteMap or Index, followitandcheckthelist,lookingforkeywordsrelatedtoyourquestionoritsanswers.Clicktoskimthosepages.

■Ifthesitehasasearchfunction,typeinkeywordsfromyourtopic.

3.4.2EvaluatetheReliabilityofPrintSources

Youcan tjudgeasourceuntilyoureadit,buttherearesignsofitsreliability:

1.Istheauthorareputablescholar?Mostpublicationsciteanauthor sacademiccredentials;youcanfindmorewithasearchengine.Mostestablishedscholarsarereliable,butbecautiousifthetopicisacontestedsocialissuesuchasguncontrolorabortion.Evenreputablescholarscanhaveaxestogrind,especiallyiftheirresearchissupportedbyaspecialinterestgroup.

2.Isthesourcecurrent?Manyreputablescholarswritebooksandarticlespopularizingtheresearchofothers.Butbythetimeyoureadthesetertiarysources,theymaybeoutofdate.Howfastasourcedatesvariesbysubject,socheckwithsomeonewhoknowsyourfield.Forjournalarticlesinthesocialsciences,morethantenyearsispushingthelimit.Forbooks,figurefifteenorso.Publicationsinthehumanitieshavealongerlifespan.

3.Isthesourcepublishedbyareputablepress?Youcantrustmostuniversitypresses,especiallythoseatwell-knownschools.Beforetheypublishamanuscript,theyaskexpertstoreviewit(aprocesscalledpeerreview).Youcanalsotrustsomecommercialpressesinsomefields,suchasNortoninliterature,Ablexinsciences,orWestinthelaw.Beskepticalofacommercialbookthatmakessensationalclaims,evenifitsauthorhasaPhDafterhisname.

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4.Wasthearticlepeer-reviewed?Mostscholarlyjournals,bothprintandonline,publishonlypeer-reviewedarticles.Fewcommercialmagazinesusepeerreview,andfewerstillcheckanauthor sfacts.Ifareporthasn tbeenpeer-reviewed,useitcautiously.

5.Hasthesourcereceivedgoodreviews?Ifthesourceisabookpublishedmorethanayearago,itmayhavebeenreviewedinajournalinthefield.Manyfieldshaveindexestopublishedreviewsthattellyouhowothersevaluateasource.(Seethebibliography.)

6.Hasthesourcebeenfrequentlycitedbyothers?Youcanroughlyestimatehowinfluentialasourceisbyhowoftenothersciteit.Todeterminethat,consultacitationindex(inthebibliographyseesection4inyourfield).

Thosesignsdon tguaranteethatasourceisreliable,buttheyshouldgiveyoureasonableconfidenceinit.Ifyoucan tfindreliablesources,acknowledgethelimitsoftheonesyouhave.Ofcourse,youmayfindanexcitingresearchproblemwhenyoudiscoverthatasourcethoughttobereliableisnot.

3.4.3EvaluatetheReliabilityofOnlineSources

Evaluateonlinesourcesasyoudothoseinprint,butmorecautiously.ThenumberofreliableInternetsourcesgrowseveryday,buttheyarestillislandsinaswampofmisinformation.IfyoufinddataavailableonlyontheInternet,lookforsitesoronlinepublicationswiththesesignsofreliability:

1.Thesiteissponsoredbyareputableorganization.Somesitessupportedbyindividualsarereliable;mostarenot.2.Itisrelatedtoareliableprofessionaljournal.3.Itsupplementsreliableprintsources.SomejournalsusetheInternettohostdiscussionsamongauthorsandreaders,toofferdata

toonewtobeinlibraries,toarchivedatanotinarticles,ortopresentillustrationstooexpensivetoprint.Manygovernmentandacademicdatabasesareonlyonline.

4.Itavoidsheatedadvocacyfororagainstacontestedsocialissue.5.Itdoesnotmakewildclaims,attackotherresearchers,useabusivelanguage,ormakeerrorsofspelling,punctuation,and

grammar.6.Itindicateswhenthesitewaslastupdated.Ifithasnodate,becautious.

Trustasiteonlyifscholarlyreaderswouldtrustthosewhomaintainit.Ifyoudon tknowwhomaintainsit,beskeptical.Onlineservicesnowprovidereliableeditionsofmanyoldertexts.You llalsofindwell-editedtextsatmanyuniversitysites.It s

one-stopshopping ;youneverhavetomovefromyourchair.Onlineservicesare,however,farlesscompletethanmostuniversitylibraries,andusingthemwillteachyounothingaboutdoingresearchinareallibrary.Some-dayeverythingeverprintedwillbeavailableonline(afuturethatgivessomeresearchersmixedfeelings).Butuntilthen,surfingtheInternetcan tcompletelyreplaceprowlingthestacks.

3.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferencesIfyouarewritingaclasspaper,you llusuallyhavetofocusnarrowlyonthekindsofsourcestypicallyusedinyourfield.ButifyouaredoinganadvancedprojectsuchasanMAthesisorPhDdissertation,findanopportunitytosearchbeyondthem.If,forexample,youweredoingaprojectontheeconomiceffectsofagriculturalchangesonLondongrainmarketsin1600,youmightreadsomeElizabethanplays,lookatpicturesofworking-classlife,orlookforcommentarybyreligiousfiguresonsocialbehavior.Conversely,ifyouwereworkingonvisualrepresentationsofdailylifeinLondon,youmightworkuptheeconomichistoryoftheperiodandplace.Youcan tdothisinthelimitedtimeyouhaveforshortpapers,butwhenyouhavemonthstoworkonamajorproject,trytolookbeyondthestandardkindsofreferencesrelevanttoyourquestion.Whenyoudo,youenrichnotonlyyourspecificanalysisbutyourrangeofintellectualreferenceandyourabilitytosynthesizediversekindsofdata,acrucialcompetenceofaninquiringmind.

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4EngagingSources

4.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluate

4.1.1LookforCreativeAgreement4.1.2LookforCreativeDisagreement

4.2TakeNotesSystematically

4.2.1CreateTemplatesforNotes4.2.2KnowWhentoSummarize,Paraphrase,orQuote4.2.3GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

4.3TakeUsefulNotes

4.3.1UseNote-TakingtoAdvanceYourThinking4.3.2TakeNotesRelevanttoYourQuestionandWorkingHypothesis4.3.3RecordRelevantContext4.3.4CategorizeYourNotesforSorting

4.4WriteasYouRead

4.5ReviewYourProgress

4.5.1SearchYourNotesforanAnswer4.5.2InventtheQuestion4.5.3Re-sortYourNotes

4.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanic

Onceyoufindasourceworthacloselook,don treaditmechanically,justminingitfordatatorecord.Note-takingisnotclericalwork.Whenyoutakenotesonasourcethoughtfully,youengagenotjustitswordsandideasbutalsoitsimplications,consequences,shortcomings,andnewpossibilities.Engageyoursourceasifitswriterweresittingwithyou,eagerforaconversation(it showyoushouldimagineyourreadersengagingyou).

4.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluateTakethetimetoreadyourmostpromisingsourcesatleasttwice,firstquicklyandgenerouslytounderstandthemontheirownterms.Ifyoudisagreetoosoon,youcanmisunderstandorexaggerateaweakness.

Thenrereadthemslowlyandcritically,asifyouwereamiablybutpointedlyquestioningafriend;imaginehisorheranswers,thenquestionthem.Ifyoudisagree,don tjustrejectasource:readitinwaysthatwillencourageyourownoriginalthinking.

Youprobablywon tbeabletoengageyoursourcesfullyuntilafteryou vedonesomereadinganddevelopedafewideasofyourown.Butfromtheoutset,bealertforwaystoreadyoursourcesnotpassively,asaconsumer,butactivelyandcreatively,asanengagedpartner.Atsomepoint,betterearlierthanlater,youmustlookforwaystogobeyondyoursources,evenwhenyouagreewiththem.

4.1.1LookforCreativeAgreement

Itisahappymomentwhenasourceconfirmsyourviews.Butifyoujustpassivelyagree,youwon tdevelopanyofyourownideas.So,whilegenerouslyacknowledgingthescopeofyoursource sargument,trytoextendwhatyoursourceclaims:Whatnewcasesmightitcover?Whatnewinsightscanitprovide?Isthereconfirmingevidenceyoursourcehasn tconsidered?Herearesomewaystoagreecreatively.

4.1.1.1OFFERADDITIONALSUPPORT.Youhavenewevidencetosupportasource sclaim.

SmithusesanecdotalevidencetoshowthattheAlamostoryhadmythicstatusbeyondTexas,butastudyofbig-citynewspapersoffersbetterevidence.

1.Sourcesupportsaclaimwitholdevidence,butmaybeyoucanoffernewevidence.2.Sourcesupportsaclaimwithweakevidence,butmaybeyoucanofferstrongerevidence.

4.1.1.2CONFIRMUNSUPPORTEDCLAIMS.Youcanprovesomethingthatasourcehasonlyassumedorspeculated.

Smithrecommendsvisualizationtoimprovesportsperformance,butastudyofthementalactivitiesofathletesshowswhythatis

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goodadvice.

1.SourceonlyspeculatesthatXmightbetrue,butmaybeyoucanofferevidencetoshowthatitdefinitelyis.2.SourceassumesthatXistrue,butmaybeyoucanproveit.

4.1.1.3APPLYACLAIMMOREWIDELY.Youcanextendapositiontonewareas.

Smithhasshownthatmedicalstudentslearnphysiologicalprocessesbetterwhentheyareexplainedwithmanymetaphorsratherthanbyjustone.Thesameappearstobetrueforengineerslearningphysicalprocesses.

1.Sourcecorrectlyapplieshisclaimtoonesituation,butmaybeitcanapplytonewones.2.SourceclaimsthatXistrueinaspecificsituation,butmaybeit strueingeneral.

4.1.2LookforCreativeDisagreement

Itisevenmoreimportanttonotewhenyoudisagreewithasource,becausethatmightsuggestaworkinghypothesisforyourwholereport.(Hereagain,youmustfirstbefairtowhatyoursourceactuallyargues;avoiddevelopingahypothesisbasedonhastyordeliberatemisinterpretationsofsources.)Soinsteadofjustnotingthatyoudisagreewithanotherwriter sviews,usethatdisagreementtoencourageyourownproductivethinking.Herearesomekindsofdisagreement(thesearen tsharplydefinedcategories;manyoverlap).

4.1.2.1CONTRADICTIONSOFKIND.Asourcesayssomethingisonekindofthing,butmaybeit sanotherkind.

Smithsaysthatcertainreligiousgroupsareconsidered“cults”becauseoftheirstrangebeliefs,butthosebeliefsarenodifferentinkindfromstandardreligions.

1.SourceclaimsthatXisakindofY(orlikeit),butmaybeit snot.2.SourceclaimsthatXalwayshasYasoneitsfeaturesorqualities,butmaybeitdoesn t.3.SourceclaimsthatXisnormal/good/significant/useful/moral/interesting/ ,butmaybeit snot.

(Youcanreversethoseclaimsandtheonesthatfollowtostatetheopposite:thoughasourcesaysXisnotakindofY,youcanshowthatitis.)

4.1.2.2PART-WHOLECONTRADICTIONS.Youcanshowthatasourcemistakeshowthepartsofsomethingarerelated.

Smithhasarguedthatsportsarecrucialtoaneducatedperson,butinfactathleticshavenoplaceincollege.

1.SourceclaimsthatXisapartofY,butmaybeit snot.2.SourceclaimsthatpartofXrelatestoanotherofitspartsinacertainway,butmaybeitdoesn t.3.SourceclaimsthateveryXhasYasoneofitsparts,butmaybeitdoesn t.

4.1.2.3DEVELOPMENTALOFHISTORICALCONTRADICTIONS.Youcanshowthatasourcemistakestheoriginanddevelopmentofatopic.

Smitharguesthattheworldpopulationwillcontinuetorise,butitwillnot.

1.SourceclaimsthatXischanging,butmaybeit snot.2.SourceclaimsthatXoriginatedinY,butmaybeitdidn t.3.SourceclaimsthatXdevelopsinacertainway,butmaybeitdoesn t.

4.1.2.4EXTERNALCAUSE-EFFECTCONTRADICTIONS.Youcanshowthatasourcemistakesacausalrelationship:

Smithclaimsthatjuvenilescanbestoppedfrombecomingcriminalsby“bootcamps.”Butevidenceshowsthatitmakesthemmorelikelytobecomecriminals.

1.SourceclaimsthatXcausesY,butmaybeitdoesn t.2.SourceclaimsthatXcausesY,butmaybetheyarebothcausedbyZ.3.SourceclaimsthatXissufficienttocauseY,butmaybeit snot.4.SourceclaimsthatXcausesonlyY,butmaybeitalsocausesZ.

4.1.2.5CONTRADICTIONSOFPERSPECTIVE.Mostcontradictionsdon tchangeaconceptualframework,butwhenyoucancontradictastandardviewofthings,youurgeotherstothinkinanewway.

Smithassumesthatadvertisingisapurelyeconomicfunction,butitalsoservesasalaboratoryfornewartforms.

1.SourcediscussesXinthecontextoforfromthepointofviewofY,butmaybeanewcontextorpointofviewrevealsanewtruth(theneworoldcontextcanbesocial,political,philosophical,historical,economic,ethical,genderspecific,etc.).

2.SourceanalyzesXusingtheory/valuesystemY,butmaybeyoucananalyzeXfromanewpointofviewandseeitinanewway.

Aswesaid,youprobablywon tbeabletoengagesourcesinthesewaysuntilafteryou vereadenoughtoformsomeviewsofyourown.Butifyoukeepthesewaysofthinkinginmindasyoubegintoread,you llengageyoursourcessoonerandmoreproductively.

Ofcourse,onceyoudiscoverthatyoucanproductivelyagreeordisagreewithasource,youshouldaskSowhat?Sowhatifyou

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canshowthatwhileSmithclaimsthateasternersdidnotembracethestoryoftheAlamoenthusiastically,infactmanydid?

4.2TakeNotesSystematicallyLiketheotherstepsinaresearchproject,note-takinggoesbetterwithaplan.

4.2.1CreateTemplatesforNotes

Youwilltakenotesmorereliablyifyousetupasystemthatencouragesyoutothinkbeyondthemerecontentofyoursourcesbyanalyzingandorganizingthatcontentintousefulcategories.Afewinstructorsstillrecommendtakingnotesinlonghandon3x5cards,asinfigure4.1.Acardlikethatmayseemold-fashioned,butitprovidesatemplateforefficientnote-taking,evenifyoutakenotesonalaptop.(Startanewpageforeachgeneralideaorclaimthatyourecordfromasource.)Hereisaplanforsuchatemplate:

■Atthetopofeachnewpage,createaspaceforbibliographicdata(author,shorttitle,pagenumber).■Createanotherspaceatthetopforkeywords(seeupperrightoffigure4.1).Thosewordswilllaterletyousortandre-sortyournotesbysubjectmatter(formoreonkeywords,see4.3.4).

■Createdifferentplacesoneachnewpagefordifferentkindsofnotes.Youmightevenlabeltheplaces(seefig.4.1,withplacesforClaim,Data,andMyQs).

■Inparticular,createasectionspecificallydedicatedtoyourownresponses,agreements,disagreements,speculations,andsoon.Thatwillencourageyoutodomorethansimplyrecordthecontentofwhatyouread.

■Whenyouquotethewordsofasource,recordtheminadistinctivecolororfontsizeandstylesothatyoucanrecognizequotationsataglance,andenclosetheminlargequotationmarksincasethefilelosesitsformatting.

■Whenyouparaphraseapassage(see4.2.2),recordtheparaphraseinadistinctivecolororfontsothatyoucan tpossiblymistakeitforyourownideas,andencloseitincurlybrackets(incasethefilelosesitsformatting).

Ifyoucan ttakenotesdirectlyonacomputer,makepapercopiesofthetemplate.

Figure4.1.Exampleofanotecard

4.2.2KnowWhentoSummarize,Paraphrase,orQuote

Itwouldtakeyouforevertotranscribetheexactwordsofeverysourceyoumightwanttouse,soyoumustknowwhennottoquotebuttosummarizeorparaphrase.

Summarizewhenyouneedonlythegeneralpointofapassage,section,orevenwholearticleorbook.Summaryisusefulforgeneralcontextorrelatedbutnotspecificallyrelevantdataorviews.Asummaryofasourceneverservesasgoodevidence(see5.4.2formoreonevidence).

Paraphrasewhenyoucanrepresentwhatasourcesaysmoreclearlyorpointedlythanitdoes.Paraphrasedoesn tmeanjustchangingawordortwo.Youmustuseyourownwordsandyourownphrasingtoreplacemostofthewordsandphrasingofthepassage(see7.9.2).Adirectquotationalwaysservesasbetterevidencethanaparaphrasedoes.

Recordexactquotationswhentheyservethesepurposes:

■Thequotedwordsconstituteevidencethatbacksupyourreasons.If,forexample,youwantedtoclaimthatpeopleindifferentregionsrespondedtotheBattleoftheAlamodifferently,youwouldquoteexactwordsfromdifferentnewspapers.Youwouldparaphrasethemifyouneededonlytheirgeneralsentiments.

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■Thewordsarefromanauthoritywhobacksupyourview.■Theyarestrikinglyoriginal.■Theyexpressyourideassocompellinglythatthequotationcanframetherestofyourdiscussion.■Theystateaviewthatyoudisagreewith,andtobefairyouwanttostatethatviewexactly.

Ifyoudon trecordimportantwordsnow,youcan tquotethemlater.Socopyorphotocopymorepassagesthanyouthinkyou llneed(formoreonphotocopying,see4.3.1).Neverabbreviateaquotationthinkingyoucanaccuratelyreconstructitlater.Youcan t.Ifyoumisquote,youfatallyundermineyourcredibility,sodouble-checkyourquoteagainsttheoriginal.Thencheckitagain.

4.2.3GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

Sloppynote-takinghascausedgriefforstudentsandprofessionalsalike,rangingfromridiculefortrivialerrorstoprofessionalexileforinadvertentplagiarism.Toavoidthatrisk,committoheartthesetwoironrulesforrecordinginformationinnotes:

■Alwaysunambiguouslyidentifywordsandideasfromasourcesothatweeksormonthslateryoucannotpossiblymistakethemforyourown.Asrecommendedabove,recordquotationsandparaphraseswithquotationmarks,aswellasinafontthatunambiguouslydistinguishesthemfromyourownideas.

■Neverparaphraseasourcesocloselythatareadercanmatchthephrasingandsenseofyourwordswiththoseinyoursource(see7.9.2).

Infact,ratherthanretypingquotationsofmorethanafewlines,downloadorphotocopythem.Addtothetopofthedownloadedorphotocopiedpagethenameofthesourceandkeywordsforsorting.

Thisisimportant:neverassumethatyoucanusewhatyoufindonlinewithoutcitingitssource,evenifit sfreeandpubliclyavailable.Nothingreleasesyoufromthedutytoacknowledgeyouruseofanythingyoudidnotpersonallycreateyourself.(Formoreonplagiarism,see7.9.)

4.3TakeUsefulNotesReaderswilljudgeyourreportnotjustbythequalityofyoursourcesandhowaccuratelyyoureportthembutalsobyhowdeeplyyouengagethem.Todothat,youmusttakenotesinawaythatnotonlyreflectsbutencouragesagrowingunderstandingofyourproject.

4.3.1UseNote-TakingtoAdvanceYourThinking

Manyinexperiencedresearchersthinkthatnote-takingisamatterofmerelyrecordingdata.Oncetheyfindasource,theydownloadorphotocopypagesorwritedownexactlywhat sonthem.Recordingandphotocopyingcanhelpyouquoteorparaphraseaccurately,butifthat sallyoudo,ifyoudon tengageyoursourcesactively,youwillsimplyaccumulatealotofinertdatathatarelikelytobeequallyinertinyourreport.

Ifyouphotocopylotsoftext,annotateitinawaythatengagesyourcriticalthinking.Startbypickingoutthosesentencesthatexpresscrucialelementsinachapterorarticle(itsclaim,majorreasons,andsoon).Highlightorlabeltheminthemargin.Thenmarkideasordatathatyouexpecttoincludeinyourreport.(Ifyouuseahighlighter,usedifferentcolorstoindicatethesedifferentelements.)

Thenonthebackofthephotocopiedpages,summarizewhatyou vehighlightedorsketcharesponsetoit,ormakenotesinthemarginthathelpyouinterpretthehighlighting.Themoreyouwriteaboutasourcenow,thebetteryouwillunderstandandrememberitlater.

4.3.2TakeNotesRelevanttoYourQuestionandWorkingHypothesis

Tomakeyournotesmostuseful,recordnotjustthefactsthatyouthinkyoucanuseasevidencebutalsodatathathelpyouexplainthosefactsandtheirrelationshiptoyourclaim.Youcancreateanotestemplatetohelpyouremembertolookforseveraldifferentkindsofinformation(see4.2.1).

Thefirstthreeitemsaredirectlyrelevanttoyourworkinghypothesis:

■reasonsthatsupportyourhypothesisorsuggestanewone■evidencethatsupportsyourreasons■viewsthatundermineorevencontradictyourhypothesis

Donotlimityournotestosupportingdata.Youwillneedtorespondtodatathatqualifyorevencontradictyourhypothesiswhenyoumakeyourcaseinsupportofit(see5.4.3).

Thesenextitemsmightnotsupportorchallengeyourhypothesis,buttheymayhelpyouexplainitscontextorsimplymakeyourreportmorereadable:

■historicalbackgroundofyourquestionandwhatauthoritieshavesaidaboutit,particularlyearlierresearch(see6.2.2and10.1.1)■historicalorcontemporarycontextthatexplainstheimportanceofyourquestion■importantdefinitionsandprinciplesofanalysis■analogies,comparisons,andanecdotesthatmightnotdirectlysupportyourhypothesisbutdoexplainorillustratecomplicatedissuesorsimplymakeyouranalysismoreinteresting

■strikinglyoriginallanguagerelevanttoyourtopic

4.3.3RecordRelevantContext

Thosewhomisreportsourcesdeliberatelyaredishonest,butanhonestresearchercanmisleadinadvertentlyifshemerelyrecords

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wordsandignorestheirroleorqualifications.Toguardagainstmisleadingyourreader,followtheseguidelines:

1.Donotassumethatasourceagreeswithawriterwhenthesourcesummarizesthatwriter slineofreasoning.Quoteonlywhatasourcebelieves,notitsaccountofsomeoneelse sbeliefs,unlessthataccountisrelevant.

2.Recordwhysourcesagree,becausewhytheyagreecanbeasimportantaswhytheydon t.Twopsychologistsmightagreethatteenagedrinkingiscausedbysocialinfluences,butonemightcitefamilybackground,theotherpeerpressure.

3.Recordthecontextofaquotation.Whenyounoteanimportantconclusion,recordtheauthor slineofreasoning:

NotBartolli(p.123):Thewarwascaused…byZ.

ButBartolli:ThewarwascausedbyYandZ(p.123),butthemostimportantwasZ(p.123),fortworeasons:First,…(pp.124–26);Second,…(p.126)Evenifyoucareonlyaboutaconclusion,you lluseitmoreaccuratelyifyourecordhowawriterreachedit.

4.Recordthescopeandconfidenceofeachstatement.Donotmakeasourceseemmorecertainorexpansivethanitis.Thesecondsentencebelowdoesn treportthefirstfairlyoraccurately.

Onestudyontheperceptionofrisk(Wilson1988)suggestsacorrelationbetweenhigh-stakesgamblingandsingle-parentfamilies.

Wilson(1988)sayssingle-parentfamiliescausehigh-stakesgambling.

5.Recordhowasourceusesastatement.Notewhetherit sanimportantclaim,aminorpoint,aqualificationorconcession,andsoon.Suchdistinctionshelpyouavoidmistakeslikethis:

OriginalbyJones:Wecannotconcludethatoneeventcausesanotherbecausethesecondfollowsthefirst.Norcanstatisticalcorrelationprovecausation.Butnoonewhohasstudiedthedatadoubtsthatsmokingisacausalfactorinlungcancer.

Misleadingreport:Jonesclaims“wecannotconcludethatoneeventcausesanotherbecausethesecondfollowsthefirst.Norcanstatisticalcorrelationprovecausation.”Therefore,statisticalevidenceisnotareliableindicatorthatsmokingcauseslungcancer.

4.3.4CategorizeYourNotesforSorting

Finally,aconceptuallydemandingtask:asyoutakenotes,categorizethecontentofeachoneundertwoormoredifferentkeywords(seetheupperrightcornerofthenotecardinfig.4.1).Avoidmechanicallyusingwordsonlyfromthenote:categorizethenotebywhatitimplies,byageneralidealargerthanthespecificcontentofthenote.Ifyou veusedonlinesearchenginesinyourhuntforsources,youwillalreadyhavefollowedsomekeywordtrails(see3.3.2).Recordthesekeywordtagsexactlyastheyappearinthesearchresults.Keepalistofthekeywordsyouuse,andusethesameonesforrelatednotes.Donotcreateanewkeywordforeverynewnote.

Thisstepiscrucialbecauseitforcesyoutodistillthecontentofanotedowntoawordortwo,andifyoutakenotesonacomputer,thosekeywordswillletyouinstantlygrouprelatednoteswithasingleFind-command.Ifyouusemorethanonekeyword,youcanrecombineyournotesindifferentwaystodiscovernewrelationships(especiallyimportantwhenyoufeelyouarespinningyourwheels;see4.5.3).

4.4WriteasYouReadWe vesaidthisbefore(andwillagain):writingforcesyoutothinkhard,sodon twaittonaildownanideainyourmindbeforeyouwriteitoutonthepage.Experiencedresearchersknowthatthemoretheywrite,thesoonerandbettertheyunderstandtheirproject.Thereisgoodevidencethatthemostsuccessfulresearcherssetafixedtimetowriteeveryday fromfifteenminutestomorethananhour.Theymightonlydraftaparagraphthatrespondstoasource,summarizesalineofreasoning,orspeculatesaboutanewclaim.Buttheywritesomething,nottostartafirstdraftoftheirreportbuttosortouttheirideasandmaybediscovernewones.Ifyoumissyourgoals,postaschedulebyyourcomputer.

Ifyouwritesomethingthatseemspromising,addittoyourstory-board.Youwillalmostcertainlyreviseitforyourfinaldraft,maybeevenomititentirely.Butevenifyoureuselittleofit,themoreyouwritenow,nomatterhowsketchily,themoreeasilyyou lldraftlater.Preparatorywritinganddraftingaren twhollydifferent,butit sagoodideatothinkofthemasdistinctsteps.

Ifyou renewtoatopic,muchofthisearlywritingmaybejustsummaryandparaphrase.Whenyourereadit,youmightseefewofyourownideasandfeeldiscouragedatyourlackoforiginalthinking.Don tbe.Summarizingandparaphrasingarehowweallgaincontrolovernewdata,newandcomplicatedideas,evennewwaysofthinking.Writingoutwhatwearetryingtounderstandisatypical,probablyevennecessary,stageinjustabouteveryone slearningcurve.

4.5ReviewYourProgressRegularlyreviewyournotesandstoryboardtoseewhereyouareandwhereyouhavetogo.Fullpagesindicatereasonswithsupport;emptypagesindicateworktodo.Considerwhetheryourworkinghypothesisisstillplausible.Doyouhavegoodreasonssupportingit?Goodevidencetosupportthosereasons?Canyouaddnewreasonsorevidence?

4.5.1SearchYourNotesforanAnswer

Wehaveurgedyoutofindaworkinghypothesisoratleastaquestiontoguideyourresearch.Butsomewritersstartwithaquestion

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sovaguethatitevaporatesastheypursueit.Ifthathappenstoyou,searchyournotesforageneralizationthatmightbeacandidateforaworkinghypothesis,thenworkbackwardtofindthequestionitanswers.

Lookfirstforquestions,disagreements,orpuzzlesinyoursourcesandinyourreactiontothem(see2.1.3and4.1).Whatsurprisesyoumightsurpriseothers.Trytostatethatsurprise:

IexpectedthefirstmythicstoriesoftheAlamotooriginateinTexas,buttheydidnʼt.Theyoriginatedin…

ThattentativehypothesissuggeststhattheAlamomythbeganasanational,notaregional,phenomenon amodestbutpromisingstart.

Ifyoucan tfindahypothesisinyournotes,lookforapatternofideasthatmightleadyoutoone.Ifyougathereddatawithavaguequestion,youprobablysortedthemunderpredictablekeywords.Formasks,thecategoriesmightbetheirorigins(African,Indian,Japanese, ),uses(drama,religion,carnival, ),materials(gold,feather,wood,...),andsoon.Forexample:

Egyptians—mummymasksofgoldfornobility,woodforothers.

Aztecs—masksfromgoldandjadeburiedonlyinthegravesofthenobility.

NewGuineatribes—masksforthedeadfromfeathersfromrarebirds.

ThosefactscouldsupportageneralstatementsuchasMask-makingculturesusethemostvaluablematerialsavailabletocreatereligiousmasks,especiallyforthedead.

Onceyoucangeneratetwoorthreesuchstatements,trytoformulateastilllargergeneralizationthatmightincludethemall:

Manyculturesinvestgreatmaterialandhumanresourcesincreatingmasksthatrepresenttheirdeepestvalues.generalizationEgyptians,Aztecs,andOceanicculturesallcreatedreligiousmasksoutoftherarestandmostvaluablematerials.AlthoughinOceanicculturesmostmalesparticipateinmask-making,boththeEgyptiansandAztecssetasidesomeoftheirmosttalentedartistsandcraftsmenformask-making.

Ifyouthinkthatsomereadersmightplausiblydisagreewiththatgeneralization,youmightbeabletoofferitasaclaimthatcorrectstheirmisunderstanding.

4.5.2InventtheQuestion

Nowcomesatrickypart.It slikereverseengineering:you vefoundtheanswertoaquestionthatyouhaven tyetasked,soyouhavetoreasonbackwardtoinventthequestionthatyournewgeneralizationanswers.Inthiscase,itmightbeWhatsignsindicatethesignificanceofmasksinthesocietiesofthosewhomakeandusethem?Asparadoxicalasitmayseem,experiencedresearchersoftendiscovertheirquestionaftertheyanswerit,theproblemtheyshouldhaveposedaftertheysolveit.

4.5.3Re-sortYourNotes

Ifnoneofthathelps,tryre-sortingyournotes.Whenyoufirstselectedkeywordsforyournotes,youidentifiedgeneralconceptsthatcouldorganizenotjustyourevidencebutyourthinking.Ifyouchosekeywordsrepresentingthoseconceptscarefully,youcanre-sortyournotesindifferentwaystogetanewslantonyourmaterial.Ifyourkeywordsnolongerseemrelevant,reviewyournotestocreatenewonesandreshuffleagain.

4.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanicThismaybethetimetoaddressaproblemthatafflictsevenexperiencedresearchersandatsomepointwillprobablyafflictyou.Asyoushufflethroughhundredsofnotesandadozenlinesofthought,youstartfeelingthatyou renotjustspinningyourwheelsbutspiralingdownintoablackholeofconfusion,paralyzedbywhatseemstobeanincreasinglycomplexandultimatelyunmanageabletask.

Thebadnewsisthatthere snosurewaytoavoidsuchmoments.Thegoodnewsisthatmostofushavethemandtheyusuallypass.Yourswilltooifyoukeepmovingalong,followingyourplan,takingonsmallandmanageabletasksinsteadoftryingtoconfrontthecomplexityofthewholeproject.It sanotherreasontostartearly,tobreakabigprojectintoitssmalleststeps,andtosetachievabledeadlines,suchasadailypagequotawhenyoudraft.

Manywriterstrytolearnfromtheirresearchexperiencebykeepingajournal,adiaryofwhattheydidandfound,thelinesofthoughttheypursued,whytheyfollowedsomeandgaveuponothers.Writingisagoodwaytothinkmoreclearlyaboutyourreading,butit salsoagoodwaytothinkmoreclearlyaboutyourthinking.

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5PlanningYourArgument

5.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNot

5.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReaders Questions

5.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaim

5.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgument

5.4.1StateandEvaluateYourClaim5.4.2SupportYourClaimwithReasonsandEvidence5.4.3AcknowledgeandRespondtoReadersʼPointsofView5.4.4EstablishtheRelevanceofYourReasons

5.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrants

5.6AssembleanArgument

Mostofuswouldratherreadthanwrite.Thereisalwaysanotherarticletoread,onemoresourcetotrackdown,justabitmoredatatogather.Butwellbeforeyou vedonealltheresearchyou dliketodo,therecomesapointwhenyoumuststartthinkingaboutthefirstdraftofyourreport.Youmightbereadywhenyourstoryboardstartstofillupandyou resatisfiedwithhowitlooks.Youwillknowyou rereadywhenyouthinkyoucansketchareasonablecasetosupportyourworkinghypothesis(see2.3).Ifyourstoryboardisfullandyoustillcan tpulltogetheracasestrongenoughtoplanadraft,youmayhavetorethinkyourhypothesis,perhapsevenyourquestion.Butyoucan tbecertainwhereyoustandinthatprocessuntilyoutrytoplanthatfirstdraft.

Ifyou renotanexperiencedwriter,wesuggestplanningyourfirstdraftintwosteps:

■Sortyournotesintotheelementsofaresearchargument.■Organizethoseelementsintoacoherentform.

Inthischapter,weexplainhowtoassembleyourargument;inthenext,howtoorganizeit.Asyougainexperience,you lllearntocombinethosetwostepsintoone.

5.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNotThewordargumenthasbadassociationsthesedays,partlybecauseradioandTVstagesomanyabrasiveones.Buttheargumentinaresearchreportdoesn ttrytointimidateanopponentintosilenceorsubmission.Infact,there srarelyan opponent atall.Likeanygoodargument,aresearchargumentresemblesanamiableconversationinwhichyouandyourimaginedreadersreasontogethertosolveaproblemwhosesolutiontheydon tyetfullyaccept.Thatdoesn tmeantheyopposeyourclaims(thoughtheymight).Itmeansonlythattheywon tacceptthemuntiltheyseegoodreasonsbasedonreliableevidenceanduntilyourespondtotheirreasonablequestionsandreservations.

Inface-to-faceconversation,making(nothaving)acooperativeargumentiseasy.Youstateyourreasonsandevidencenotasalecturerwouldtoasilentaudiencebutasyouwouldengagetalkativefriendssittingaroundatablewithyou:youofferaclaimandsomereasonstobelieveit;theyprobefordetails,raiseobjections,oroffertheirpointsofview;yourespond,perhapswithquestionsofyourown;andtheyaskmorequestions.Atitsbest,it sanamiablebutthoughtfulback-and-forththatdevelopsandteststhebestcasethatyouandtheycanmaketogether.

Inwriting,thatkindofcooperationisharder,becauseyouusuallywritealone(unlessyou reinawritinggroup;see2.4),andsoyoumustnotonlyansweryourimaginedreaders questionsbutaskthemontheirbehalf asoftenandassharplyasrealreaderswill.Butyouraimisn tjusttothinkupcleverrhetoricalstrategiesthatwillpersuadereaderstoacceptyourclaimregardlessofhowgooditis.Itistotestyourclaimandespeciallyitssupport,sothatwhenyousubmityourreporttoyourreaders,youofferthemthebestcaseyoucanmake.Inagoodresearchreport,readersheartracesofthatimaginedconversation.

Nowaswe vesaid,reasoningbasedonevidenceisn ttheonlywaytoreachasoundconclusion,sometimesnoteventhebestway.Weoftenmakegooddecisionsbyrelyingonintuition,feelings,orspiritualinsight.Butwhenwetrytoexplainwhywebelieveourclaimsaresoundandwhyothersshouldtoo,wehavenowaytodemonstratehowwereachedthem,becausewecan tofferintuitionsorfeelingsasevidenceforreaderstoevaluate.Wecanonlysaywehadthemandaskreaderstotakeourclaimonfaith,arequestthatthoughtfulreadersrarelygrant.

Whenyoumakearesearchargument,however,youmustlayoutyourreasonsandevidencesothatyourreaderscanconsiderthem;thenyoumustimagineboththeirquestionsandyouranswers.Thatsoundsharderthanitis.

5.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReadersʼQuestionsItiseasytoimaginethekindofconversationyoumusthavewithyourreaders,becauseyouhavethemeveryday:

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A:Ihearyouhadahardtimelastsemester.Howdoyouthinkthisonewillgo?[Aposesaproblemintheformofaquestion.]

B:Better,Ihope.[Banswersthequestion.]

A:Whyso?[AasksforareasontobelieveBʼsanswer.]

B:Iʼmtakingcoursesinmymajor.[Boffersareason.]

A:Likewhat?[AasksforevidencetobackupBʼsreason.]

B:HistoryofArt,IntrotoDesign.[Boffersevidencetobackuphisreason.]

A:Whywilltakingcoursesinyourmajormakeadifference?[AdoesnʼtseetherelevanceofBʼsreasontohisclaimthathewilldobetter.]

B:WhenItakecoursesIʼminterestedin,Iworkharder.[Boffersageneralprinciplethatrelateshisreasontohisclaimthathewilldobetter.]

A:Whataboutthatmathcourseyouhavetotake?[AobjectstoBʼsreason.]

B:IknowIhadtodropitlasttimeItookit,butIfoundagoodtutor.[BacknowledgesAʼsobjectionandrespondstoit.]

IfyoucanseeyourselfasAorB,you llfindnothingnewintheargumentofaresearchreport,becauseyoubuildoneoutoftheanswerstothosesamefivequestions.

■Whatisyourclaim?■Whatreasonssupportit?■Whatevidencesupportsthosereasons?■Howdoyourespondtoobjectionsandalternativeviews?■Whatprinciplemakesyourreasonsrelevanttoyourclaim?

Ifyouaskandanswerthosefivequestions,youcan tbesurethatyourreaderswillacceptyourclaim,butyoumakeitmorelikelythatthey lltakeit andyou seriously.

5.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaimWedescribedtheearlystagesofresearchasfindingaquestionandimaginingatentativeanswer.Wecalledthatansweryourworkinghypothesis.Nowaswediscussbuildinganargumenttosupportthathypothesis,wechangeourterminologyalasttime.Whenyouthinkyoucanwriteareportthatbacksupyourhypothesiswithgoodreasonsandevidence,you llpresentthathypothesisasyourargument sclaim.Yourclaimisthecenterofyourargument,thepointofyourreport(someteacherscallitathesis).

5.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgumentAtthecoreofyourargumentarethreeelements:yourclaim,yourreasonsforacceptingit,andtheevidencethatsupportsthosereasons.Tothatcoreyou lladdoneandperhapstwomoreelements:onerespondstoquestions,objections,andalternativepointsofview;theotheranswersthosewhodonotunderstandhowyourreasonsarerelevanttoyourclaim.

5.4.1StateandEvaluateYourClaim

Startanewfirstpageofyourstoryboard(oroutline).Atthebottom,stateyourclaiminasentenceortwo.Beasspecificasyoucan,becausethewordsinthisclaimwillhelpyouplanandexecuteyourdraft.Avoidvaguevaluewordslikeimportant,interesting,significant,andthelike.Comparethetwofollowingclaims:

Masksplayasignificantroleinmanyreligiousceremonies.

Inculturesfrompre-ColumbianAmericatoAfricaandAsia,masksallowreligiouscelebrantstobringdeitiestolifesothatworshipersexperiencethemdirectly.

Nowjudgethesignificanceofyourclaim(Sowhat?again).Asignificantclaimdoesn tmakeareaderthinkIknowthat,butratherReally?Howinteresting.Whatmakesyouthinkso?(Review2.1.1.)Thesenexttwoclaimsaretootrivialtojustifyreading,muchlesswriting,areporttobackthemup:

ThisreportdiscussesteachingpopularlegendssuchastheBattleoftheAlamotoelementaryschoolstudents.(Sowhatifitdoes?)

TeachingournationalhistorythroughpopularlegendssuchastheBattleoftheAlamoiscommoninelementaryeducation.(Sowhatifitis?)

Ofcourse,whatyourreaderswillcountasinterestingdependsonwhattheyknow,andifyou reearlyinyourresearchcareer,that ssomethingyoucan tpredict.Ifyou rewritingoneofyourfirstreports,assumethatyourmostimportantreaderisyou.Itisenoughifyoualonethinkyouranswerissignificant,ifitmakesyouthink,Well,Ididn tknowthatwhenIstarted.If,however,youthinkyourownclaimisvagueortrivial,you renotreadytoassembleanargumenttosupportit,becauseyouhavenoreasontomake

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one.

5.4.2SupportYourClaimwithReasonsandEvidence

Itmayseemobviousthatyoumustbackupaclaimwithreasonsandevidence,butit seasytoconfusethosetwowordsbecauseweoftenusethemasiftheymeantthesamething:

Whatreasonsdoyoubaseyourclaimon?

Whatevidencedoyoubaseyourclaimon?

Buttheymeandifferentthings:

■Wethinkuplogicalreasons,butwecollecthardevidence;wedon tcollecthardreasonsandthinkuplogicalevidence.Andwebasereasonsonevidence;wedon tbaseevidenceonreasons.

■Areasonisabstract,andyoudon thavetociteitssource(ifyouthoughtofit).Evidenceusuallycomesfromoutsideyourmind,soyoumustalwaysciteitssource,evenifyoufounditthroughyourownobservationorexperiment;thenyoumustshowwhatyoudidtofindit.

■Reasonsneedthesupportofevidence;evidenceshouldneednosupportbeyondareferencetoareliablesource.

Theproblemisthatwhatyouthinkisatruefactandthereforehardevidence,yourreadersmightnot.Forexample,supposearesearcheroffersthisclaimandreason:

EarlyAlamostoriesreflectedvaluesalreadyintheAmericancharacter.claimThestoryalmostinstantlybecamealegendofAmericanheroicsacrifice.reason

Tosupportthatreason,sheoffersthis hard evidence:

Soonafterthebattle,manynewspapersusedthestorytocelebrateourheroicnationalcharacter.evidence

Ifreadersacceptthatstatementasafact,theymayacceptitasevidence.Butskepticalreaders,thekindyoushouldexpect(evenhopefor),arelikelytoaskHowsoonis soon ?Howmanyis many ?Whichpapers?Innewsstoriesoreditorials?Whatexactlydidtheysay?Howmanypapersdidn tmentionit?

Tobesure,readersmayacceptaclaimbasedonlyonareason,ifthatreasonseemsself-evidentlytrueorisfromatrustedauthority:

Weareallcreatedequal,reasonsonoonehasanaturalrighttogovernus.claim

Infact,instructorsinintroductorycoursesoftenacceptreasonssupportedonlybywhatauthoritativesourcessay:WilsonsaysXaboutreligiousmasks,YangsaysY,SchmidtsaysZ.Butinadvancedwork,readersexpectmore.Theywantevidencedrawnnotfromasecondarysourcebutfromprimarysourcesoryourownobservation.

Reviewyourstoryboard:Canyousupporteachreasonwithwhatyourreaderswillthinkisevidenceoftherightkind,quantity,andqualityandisappropriatetotheirfield?Mightyourreadersthinkthatwhatyouofferasevidenceneedsmoresupport?Orabettersource?Ifso,youmustfindmoredataoracknowledgethelimitsofwhatyouhave.

Yourclaim,reasons,andevidencemakeupthecoreofyourargument,butitneedsatleastonemoreelement,maybetwo.

5.4.3AcknowledgeandRespondtoReaders PointsofView

Youmaywishitweren tso,butyourbestreaderswillbethemostcritical;they llreadfairlybutnotaccepteverythingyouwriteatfacevalue.Theywillthinkofquestions,raiseobjections,andimaginealternatives.Inconversationyoucanrespondtoquestionsasothersaskthem.Butinwritingyoumustnotonlyanswerthosequestionsbutaskthem.Ifyoudon t,you llseemnottoknowor,worse,nottocareaboutyourreaders views.

Readersraisetwokindsofquestions;trytoimagineandrespondtoboth.

1.Thefirstkindofquestionpointstoproblemsinsideyourargument,usuallyitsevidence.Imagineareadermakinganyofthesecriticisms,thenconstructaminiargumentinresponse:

■Yourevidenceisfromanunreliableorout-of-datesource.■Itisinaccurate.■Itisinsufficient.■Itdoesn tfairlyrepresentalltheevidenceavailable.■Itisthewrongkindofevidenceforourfield.■Itisirrelevant,becauseitdoesnotcountasevidence.Thenimaginethesekindsofreservationsaboutyourreasonsandhowyouwouldanswerthem:

■Yourreasonsareinconsistentorcontradictory.■Theyaretooweakortoofewtosupportyourclaim.■Theyareirrelevanttoyourclaim(wediscussthismatterin5.4.4).

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2.Thesecondkindofquestionraisesproblemsfromoutsideyourargument.Thosewhoseetheworlddifferentlyarelikelytodefinetermsdifferently,reasondifferently,evenofferevidencethatyouthinkisirrelevant.Ifyouandyourreadersseetheworlddifferently,youmustacknowledgeandrespondtotheseissuesaswell.Donottreatthesedifferingpointsofviewsimplyasobjections.Youwilllosereadersifyouarguethatyourviewisrightandtheirsiswrong.Instead,acknowledgethedifferences,thencomparethemsothatreaderscanunderstandyourargumentonitsownterms.Theystillmightnotagree,butyou llshowthemthatyouunderstandandrespecttheirviews;theyarethenmorelikelytotrytounderstandandrespectyours.

Ifyou reanewresearcher,you llfindthesequestionshardtoimaginebecauseyoumightnotknowhowyourreaders viewsdifferfromyourown.Evenso,trytothinkofsomeplausiblequestionsandobjections;it simportanttogetintothehabitofaskingyourselfWhatcouldcastdoubtonmyclaim?Butifyou rewritingathesisordissertation,youmustknowtheissuesthatothersinyourfieldarelikelytoraise.Sohoweverexperiencedyouare,practiceimaginingandrespondingtosignificantobjectionsandalternativearguments.Evenifyoujustgothroughthemotions,you llcultivateahabitofmindthatyourreaderswillrespectandthatmaykeepyoufromjumpingtoquestionableconclusions.

Addthoseacknowledgmentsandresponsestoyourstoryboardwhereyouthinkreaderswillraisethem.

5.4.4EstablishtheRelevanceofYourReasons

Evenexperiencedresearchersfindthislastelementofargumenthardtograsp,hardertouse,andevenhardertoexplain.Itiscalledawarrant.Youaddawarranttoyourargumentwhenyouthinkareadermightrejectyourclaimnotbecauseareasonsupportingitisfactuallywrongorisbasedoninsufficientevidence,butbecauseit sirrelevantandsodoesn tcountasareasonatall.

Forexample,imaginearesearcherwritesthisclaim.

TheAlamostoriesspreadquicklyclaimbecausein1836thiscountrywasnʼtyetaconfidentplayerontheworldstage.reason

Imaginethatshesuspectsthatherreaderswilllikelyobject,It struethattheAlamostoriesspreadquicklyandthatin1836thiscountrywasn taconfidentplayerontheworldstage.ButIdon tseehownotbeingconfidentisrelevanttothestory sspreadingquickly.Thewritercan trespondsimplybyofferingmoreevidencethatthiscountrywasnotaconfidentplayerontheworldstageorthatthestoriesinfactspreadquickly:herreaderalreadyacceptsbothastrue.Instead,shehastoexplaintherelevanceofthatreasonwhyitstruthsupportsthetruthofherclaim.Todothat,sheneedsawarrant.

5.4.4.1HOWAWARRANTWORKSINCASUALCONVERSATION.Supposeyoumakethislittleargumenttoanewfriendfromafarawayland:

Itʼs5°belowzeroreasonsoyoushouldwearahat.claim

Tomostofus,thereasonseemsobviouslytosupporttheclaimandsoneedsnoexplanationofitsrelevance.Butsupposeyourfriendasksthisoddquestion:

Sowhatifitis5°below?WhydoesthatmeanIshouldwearahat?

Thatquestionchallengesnotthetruthofthereason(itis5 below)butitsrelevancetotheclaim(youshouldwearahat).Youmightthinkitoddthatanyonewouldaskthatquestion,butyoucouldanswerwithageneralprinciple:

Well,whenitʼscold,peopleshoulddresswarmly.

Thatsentenceisawarrant.Itstatesageneralprinciplebasedonourexperienceintheworld:whenacertaingeneralconditionexists(it scold),we rejustifiedinsayingthatacertaingeneralconsequenceregularlyfollows(peopleshoulddresswarmly).Wethinkthatthegeneralwarrantjustifiesourspecificclaimthatourfriendshouldwearahatonthebasisofourspecificreasonthatit s5 below,becausewe rereasoningaccordingtothisprincipleoflogic:ifageneralconditionanditsconsequencearetrue,thenspecificinstancesofitmustalsobetrue.

Inmoredetail,itworkslikethis(warning:whatfollowsmaysoundlikealessoninLogic101):

■Inthewarrant,thegeneralconditionisit scold.Itregularlyleadsustodrawageneralconsequence:peopleshoulddresswarmly.Westatethatasatrueandgeneralprinciple,Whenit scold,peopleshoulddresswarmly.

■Thespecificreason,it s5 below,isavalidinstanceofthegeneralconditionit scold.■Thespecificclaim,youshouldwearahat,isavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequence,peopleshoulddresswarmly.■Sincethegeneralprinciplestatedinthewarrantistrueandthereasonandclaimarevalidinstancesofit,we re warranted toassertastrueandvalidtheclaimwearahat.

Butnowsupposesixmonthslateryouvisityourfriendandhesaysthis:

Itʼsabove80°tonight,reasonsowearalong-sleevedshirt.claim

Thatmightbaffleyou:Howcouldthereason(it sabove80 )berelevanttotheclaim(wearalong-sleevedshirt)?Youmightimaginethisgeneralprincipleasawarrant:

Whenitʼsawarmnight,peopleshoulddresswarmly.

Butthatisn ttrue.Andifyouthinkthewarrantisn ttrue,you lldenythatthereasonsupportstheclaim,becauseit sirrelevanttoit.Butsupposeyourfriendaddsthis:

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Aroundhere,whenitʼsawarmnight,youshouldprotectyourarmsfrominsectbites.

Nowtheargumentwouldmakesense,butonlyifyoubelieveallthis:

■Thewarrantistrue(whenit sawarmnight,youshouldprotectyourarmsfrominsectbites).■Thereasonistrue(it sabove80 tonight).■Thereasonisavalidinstanceofthegeneralcondition(80 isavalidinstanceofbeingwarm).■Theclaimisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequence(wearingalong-sleevedshirtisavalidinstanceofprotectingyourarmsfrominsectbites).

■Nounstatedlimitationsorexceptionsapply(acoldsnapdidn tkillallinsectsthenightbefore,thepersoncan tuseinsectrepellentinstead,andsoon).

Ifyoubelieveallthat,thenyoushouldaccepttheargumentthatwhenit s8o atnight,it sagoodideatowearalong-sleevedshirt,atleastatthattimeandplace.

Weallknowcountlesssuchprinciples,andwelearnmoreeveryday.Ifwedidn t,wecouldn tmakeourwaythroughourdailylives.Infact,weexpressourfolkwisdomintheformofwarrants,butwecallthemproverbs:Whenthecat saway,themicewillplay.Outofsight,outofmind.Coldhands,warmheart.

5.4.4.2HOWAWARRANTWORKSINANACADEMICARGUMENT.Hereisamorescholarlyexample,butitworksinthesameway:

Encyclopediasmustnothavebeenwidelyownedinearlynineteenth-centuryAmerica,claimbecausewillsrarelymentionedthem.reason

Assumethereasonistrue:thereislotsofevidencethatencyclopediaswereinfactrarelymentionedinearlynineteenth-centurywills.Evenso,areadermightwonderwhythatstatementisrelevanttotheclaim:Youmayberightthatmostsuchwillsdidn tmentionencyclopedias,butsowhat?Idon tseehowthatisrelevanttoyourclaimthatfewpeopleownedone.Ifawriterexpectsthatquestion,hemustanticipateitbyofferingawarrant,ageneralprinciplethatshowshowhisreasonisrelevanttohisclaim.

Thatwarrantmightbestatedlikethis:

Whenavaluedobjectwasnʼtmentionedinearlynineteenth-centurywills,itusuallywasnʼtpartoftheestate.warrantWillsatthattimerarelymentionedencyclopedias,reasonsofewpeoplemusthaveownedone.claim

Wewouldaccepttheclaimassoundifandonlyifwebelievethefollowing:

■Thewarrantistrue.■Thereasonisbothtrueandavalidinstanceofthegeneralconditionofthewarrant(encyclopediaswereinstancesofvaluedobjects).

■Theclaimisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequenceofthewarrant(notowninganencyclopediaisavalidinstanceofsomethingvaluablenotbeingpartofanestate).

Andiftheresearcherfearedthatareadermightdoubtanyofthoseconditions,shewouldhavetomakeanargumentsupportingit.Butthat snottheendoftheproblem:isthewarranttruealwaysandwithoutexception?Readersmightwonderwhetherinsome

partsofthecountrywillsmentionedonlylandandbuildings,orwhetherfewpeoplemadewillsinthefirstplace.Ifthewriterthoughtthatreadersmightwonderaboutsuchqualifications,shewouldhavetomakeyetanotherargumentshowingthatthoseexceptionsdon tapply.

Nowyoucanseewhywesorarelysettleargumentsaboutcomplexissues:evenwhenweagreeontheevidence,wecanstilldisagreeoverhowtoreasonaboutit.

5.4.4.3TESTINGTHERELEVANCEOFAREASONTOACLAIM.Totesttherelevanceofareasontoaclaim,constructawarrantthatbridgesthem.First,statethereasonandclaim,inthatorder.Here stheoriginalreasonandclaimfromthebeginningofthissection:

In1836,thiscountrywasnʼtaconfidentplayerontheworldstage,reasonsotheAlamostoriesspreadquickly.claim

Nowconstructageneralprinciplethatincludesthatreasonandclaim.Warrantscomeinallsortsofforms,butthemostconvenientistheWhen-thenpattern.Thiswarrant covers thereasonandclaim.

Whenacountrylacksconfidenceinitsglobalstature,itquicklyembracesstoriesofheroicmilitaryevents.

Wecanformallyrepresentthoserelationshipsasinfigure5.1.

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Figure5.1.Argumentstructure

Toacceptthatclaim,readersmustacceptthefollowing:

■Thewarrantistrue.■Thespecificreasonistrue.■Thespecificreasonisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconditionsideofthewarrant.■Thespecificclaimisavalidinstanceofthegeneralconsequencesideofthewarrant.■Nolimitingconditionskeepthewarrantfromapplying.

Ifthewriterthoughtthatreadersmightdenythetruthofthatwarrantorreason,shewouldhavetomakeanargumentsupportingit.Ifshethoughttheymightthinkthereasonorclaimwasn tavalidinstanceofthewarrant,she dhavetomakeyetanotherargumentthatitwas.

Asyougainexperience,you lllearntocheckargumentsinyourhead,butuntilthenyoumighttrytosketchoutwarrantsforyourmostdebatablereasons.Afteryoutestawarrant,addittoyourstoryboardwhereyouthinkreaderswillneedit.Ifyouneedtosupportawarrantwithanargument,outlineitthere.

5.4.4.4WHYWARRANTSAREESPECIALLYDIFFICULTFORRESEARCHERSNEWTOAFIELD.Ifyou renewinafield,youmayfindwarrantsdifficultforthesereasons:

■Advancedresearchersrarelyspellouttheirprinciplesofreasoningbecausetheyknowtheircolleaguestakethemforgranted.Newresearchersmustfigurethemoutontheirown.(It slikehearingsomeonesay Wearalong-sleevedshirtbecauseit sabove8otonight. )

■Warrantstypicallyhaveexceptionsthatexpertsalsotakeforgrantedandthereforerarelystate,forcingnewresearcherstofigurethemoutaswell.

■Expertsalsoknowwhennottostateanobviouswarrantoritslimitations,onemorethingnewresearchersmustlearnontheirown.Forexample,ifanexpertwroteIt searlyJune,sowecanexpectthatwe llsoonpaymoreforgasoline,hewouldn tstatetheobviouswarrant:Whensummerapproaches,gaspricesrise.

Ifyouofferawell-knownbutrarelystatedwarrant,you llseemcondescendingornaive.Butifyoufailtostateonethatreadersneed,you llseemillogical.Thetrickislearningwhenreadersneedoneandwhentheydon t.Thattakestimeandfamiliaritywiththeconventionsofyourfield.

Sodon tbedismayedifwarrantsseemconfusing;they redifficultevenforexperiencedwriters.Butknowingaboutthemshouldencourageyoutoaskthiscrucialquestion:inadditiontothetruthofyourreasonsandevidence,willyourreadersseetheirrelevancetoyourclaim?Iftheymightnot,youmustmakeanargumentdemonstratingit.

5.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrantsFinally,it simportanttonotethattherearetwokindsofargumentsthatreadersjudgeindifferentways:

■Oneinfersaclaimfromareasonandwarrant.Theclaiminthatkindofargumentisbelievedtobecertainlytrue.■Theotherbasesaclaimonreasonsbasedonevidence.Theclaiminthatkindofargumentisconsideredtobeprobablytrue.

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Asparadoxicalasitmayseem,researchersputmorefaithinthesecondkindofargument,thekindbasedonevidence,thaninthefirst.

Thisargumentpresentsaclaimbasedonareasonbasedonevidence:

Needle-exchangeprogramscontributetoincreaseddrugusage.claimWhentheirparticipantsrealizethattheycanavoidtheriskofdiseasefrominfectedneedles,theyfeelencouragedtousemoredrugs.reasonAstudyofthosewhoparticipatedinonesuchprogramreportedthat34%oftheparticipantsincreasedtheiruseofdrugsfrom1.7to2.1timesaweekbecausetheysaidtheyfeltprotectedfromneedle-transmitteddiseases.evidence

Ifweconsidertheevidencetobebothsoundandsufficient(wemightnot),thentheclaimseemsreasonable,thoughbynomeanscertain,becausesomeonemightfindnewandbetterevidencethatcontradictstheevidenceofferedhere.

Thisnextargumentmakesthesameclaimbasedonthesamereason,buttheclaimissupportednotbyevidencebutbylogic.Theclaimmustbetrueifthewarrantandreasonaretrueandifthereasonandclaimarevalidinstancesofthewarrant:

Needle-exchangeprogramscontributetoincreaseddrugusage.claimWhenparticipantsrealizethattheycanavoidtheriskofdiseasefrominfectedneedles,theyfeelencouragedtousemoredrugs.reasonWhenevertheconsequencesofriskybehaviorarereduced,peopleengageinitmoreoften.warrant

Butwehavetobelievethatthewarrantisalwaystrueinallcaseseverywhere,aclaimthatmostofuswould orshould deny.Fewofusdriverecklesslybecausecarshaveseatbeltsandcollapsiblesteeringcolumns.

Allargumentsrelyonwarrants,butreadersofaresearchargumentaremorelikelytotrustaclaimwhenit snotinferredfromaprinciplebutratherbasedonevidence,becausenomatterhowplausiblegeneralprinciplesseem,theyhavetoomanyexceptions,qualifications,andlimitations.Thosewhomakeclaimsbasedonwhattheythinkareunassailableprinciplestoooftenmissthosecomplications,becausetheyareconvincedthattheirprinciplesmustberightregardlessofevidencetothecontrary,andiftheirprinciplesareright,soaretheirinferences.Suchargumentsaremoreideologicalthanfactual.Sosupportyourclaimswithasmuchstrongevidenceasyoucan,evenwhenyouthinkyouhavethepoweroflogiconyourside.Addawarranttonaildownaninference,butbasetheinferenceonevidenceaswell.

5.6AssembleanArgumentHereisasmallargumentthatfitstogetherallfiveparts:

TVaimedatchildrencanaidtheirintellectualdevelopment,butthatcontributionhasbeenoffsetbyafactorthatcoulddamagetheiremotionaldevelopment—toomuchviolence.claimParentsagreethatexampleisanimportantinfluenceonachildʼsdevelopment.Thatʼswhyparentstelltheirchildrenstoriesaboutheroes.Itseemsplausible,then,thatwhenchildrenseedegradingbehavior,theywillbeaffectedbyitaswell.Inasingleday,childrenseecountlessexamplesofviolence.reasonEveryday,theaveragechildwatchesalmostfourhoursofTVandseesabouttwelveactsofviolence(Smith1992).evidenceTarnovhasshownthatchildrendonʼtconfusecartoonviolencewithreallife(2003).acknowledgmentofalternativepointofviewButthatmaymakechildrenmorevulnerabletoviolenceinothershows.Iftheyonlydistinguishbetweencartoonsandpeople,theymaythinkrealactorsengagedingraphicviolencerepresentreallife.responseWecannotignorethepossibilitythatTVviolenceencouragesthedevelopmentofviolentadults.claimrestated

Mostofthoseelementscouldbeexpandedtofillmanyparagraphs.Argumentsindifferentfieldslookdifferent,buttheyallconsistofanswerstojustthesefivequestions:

■Whatareyouclaiming?■Whatareyourreasons?■Whatevidencesupportsyourreasons?■Butwhataboutotherpointsofview?■Whatprinciplemakesyourreasonsrelevanttoyourclaim?

Yourstoryboardshouldanswerthosequestionsmanytimes.Ifitdoesn t,yourreportwillseemincompleteandunconvincing.

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6PlanningaFirstDraft

6.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlans

6.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReaders Needs

6.2.1ConvertingaStoryboardintoanOutline6.2.2SketchaWorkingIntroduction6.2.3IdentifyKeyTermsExpressingConceptsThatUnitetheReportandDistinguishItsParts6.2.4UseKeyTermstoCreateSubheadsThatUniquelyIdentifyEachSection6.2.5OrderYourReasons6.2.6MakeYourOrderClearwithTransitionalWords6.2.7SketchaBriefIntroductiontoEachSectionandSubsection6.2.8ForEachSection,SketchinEvidence,Acknowledgments,Warrants,andSummaries6.2.9SketchaWorkingConclusion

6.3FileAwayLeftovers

Onceyouassembleyourargument,youmightbereadytodraftit.Butexperiencedwritersknowthatthetimetheyinvestinplanningadraftmorethanpaysoffwhentheywriteit.Todrafteffectivelythough,youneedmorethanjusttheelementsofasoundargument;youneedaplantoassemblethemintoacoherentone.Someplans,however,arebetterthanothers.

6.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlansAvoidcertainapproaches.

1.Donotorganizeyourreportasanarrativeofyourproject,especiallynotasamysterystorywithyourclaimrevealedattheend.Fewreaderscarewhatyoufoundfirst,thenproblemsyouovercame,thenleadsyoupursued,onandontotheend.YouseesignsofthatinlanguagelikeThefirstissuewas ThenIcompared FinallyIconclude.

2.Donotpatchtogetheraseriesofquotations,summariesofsources,ordownloadsfromtheInternet.Teacherswanttoseeyourthinking,notthatofothers.Theyespeciallydislikereportsthatreadlikeacollageofwebpages.Dothatandyou llseemnotonlyanamateurbutworse,possiblyaplagiarist(see7.9).

3.Donotmechanicallyorganizeyourreportaroundthetermsofyourassignmentortopic.Ifyourassignmentlistsissuestocover,don tthinkyoumustaddressthemintheordergiven.IfyouwereaskedoryoudecidetocompareandcontrastFreud sandJung sanalysesoftheimagination,youwouldnothavetoorganizeyourreportintwoparts,thefirstonFreud,thesecondonJung.Itwouldbemoreproductivetobreakthosetwobigtopicsintotheirparts,thenorganizeyourreportaroundthem(formoreonthis,see6.2.5 6.2.6).

6.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReadersʼNeedsSomefieldsstipulatetheplanofareport.Readersintheexperimentalsciences,forexample,expectreportstofollowsomeversionofthis:

Introduction—MethodsandMaterials—Results—Discussion—Conclusion

Ifyoumustfollowapresetplan,askyourinstructororfindasecondarysourceforamodel.Butifyoumustcreateyourown,itmustmakesensenotjusttoyoubutvisiblytoyourreaders.Tocreatethatvisibleform,gobacktoyourstoryboardoroutline.

6.2.1ConvertingaStoryboardintoanOutline

Ifyouprefertoworkfromanoutline,youcanturnyourstoryboardintoone:

■StartwithasentencenumberedIthatstatesyourclaim.■AddcompletesentencesunderitnumberedII,III, ,eachofwhichstatesareasonsupportingyourclaim.■Undereachreason,usecapitalletterstolistsentencessummarizingyourevidence;thenlistbynumberstheevidenceitself.Forexample(thedataareinventedfortheillustration):

I.Introduction:Valueofclassroomcomputersisuncertain.II.Differentuseshavedifferenteffects.A.Allusesincreasenumberofwordsproduced.1.Study1:950vs.7802.Study2:1,103vs.922

B.Labsallowstudentstointeract.

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III.Studiesshowlimitedbenefitonrevision.A.StudyA:writersoncomputersaremorewordy.1.Averageof2.3morewordspersentence2.Averageof20%morewordsperessay

B.StudyB:writersneedhardcopytoreviseeffectively.1.22%fewertyposwhendoneonhardcopyvs.computerscreen2.2.26%fewerspellingerrors

IV.Conclusion:Toosoontotellhowmuchcomputersimprovelearning.A.Fewreliableempiricalstudies.B.Littlehistorybecausemanyprogramsareintransition.

Aspareroutlineisjustphrases,withnoformallayersofI,A,1,andsoon.

Introduction:benefitsuncertainDifferentuses/differenteffects

MorewordsMoreinteraction

RevisionstudiesStudyAlongersentencesStudyBlongeressays

Conclusion:Toosoontojudgeeffects

Whenyoustartaproject,aspareoutlinemaybethebestyoucando,andforashortprojectitmaybeallyouneed,solongasyouknowthepointofeachitem.Butanoutlineofcompletesentencesisusuallymoreuseful.Moreusefulyetisastoryboard,especiallyforalongproject.

6.2.2SketchaWorkingIntroduction

Bereadytowriteyourintroductiontwice,firstasketchforyourself,thenafinaloneforyourreadersafteryou verevisedyourdraftandknowwhatyouhavewritten.Thatfinalintroductionwillusuallyhavefourparts,soyoumightaswellbuildyourworkingintroductiontoanticipatethem(seechapter9).

1.Brieflysketchtheresearchyou vereadthatisspecificallyrelevanttoyourtopic.In5.4.1,wesuggestedthatyouwriteyourclaimatthebottomofanewfirstpageofyourstoryboard.Now,atthetop,sketchthepriorresearchthatyouintendtoextend,modify,orcorrect.Donotlistalltheresearchremotelyrelevanttoyourtopic.Manysemi-experiencedresearcherslistscoresofreports,thinkingthey llimpressreaderswiththeirdiligence.Butanendlesslistofirrelevantreferencesislessimpressivethanitisannoying.IfyouwereworkingonAlamostories,forexample,youwouldn tciteeveryhistoricalanalysisofthebattle,butonlythespecificresearchthatyouintendtoextend,modify,orcorrect.

Listyoursourcesinanorderusefultoyourreaders.Iftheirhistoricalsequenceisimportant,listthemchronologically.Ifnot,groupthembysomeotherprinciple:theirquality,significance,pointofview.Thenorderthosegroupsinwhateverwaybesthelpsyourreadersunderstandthem(see6.2.5forprinciplesoforder).Undernocircumstancesshouldyoulistyoursourcesintheorderyouhappenedtoreadthemornowrememberthem.

2.Rephraseyourquestionasalackofknowledgeorgapinunderstanding.Afteryousketchthatresearch,tellreaderswhatpartofityouwillextend,modify,orcorrect.Dothatbyrestatingyourquestionassomethingthattheresearchhasgottenwrong,explainedpoorly,orfailedtoconsider.

WhyistheAlamostorysoimportantinournationalmythology?

→FewhistorianshavetriedtoexplainwhytheAlamostoryhasbecomesoimportantinournationalmythology.

Writersdothisalmostalwaysandinmanyways,soasyouread,notehowyoursourcesdoit.

3.Ifyoucan,sketchananswertoSowhatifwedon tfindout?Whatlargerissuewillyourreadersnotunderstandifyoudon tansweryourresearchquestion?

Ifweunderstoodhowsuchstoriesbecamenationallegends,wewouldbetterunderstandournationalvalues,perhapsevenwhatmakesusdistinct.

Atthispoint,youmayfindanylargersignificancehardtoimagine.Additifyoucan,butdon tspendalotoftimeonit;we llreturntoit(see10.1.3).

4.Reviseandpositionyourclaim.Youwroteyourclaimonthefirstpageofyourstoryboard.Nowdecideifthat swhereyouwanttoleaveit.Youhavetwochoicesforwheretostateitinyourreport:

■attheendofyourintroductionandagainclosetothebeginningofyourconclusion■onlyinyourconclusion,asakindofclimaxtoyourreasoning

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Ifyou vedonefewadvancedprojects,weurgeyoutostateyourclaimattheendofyourintroductionandagainnearthebeginningofyourconclusion.Whenreadersseeaclaimearly,attheendofyourintroduction,theyknowwhereyou retakingthemandsocanreadwhatfollowsfaster,understanditbetter,andrememberitlonger.Whenyouputyourclaimfirst,italsohelpskeepyouontrack.

Somenewresearchersfearthatiftheyrevealtheirclaimintheirintroduction,readerswillbeboredandstopreading.Othersworryaboutrepeatingthemselves.Bothfearsarebaseless.Ifyouaskaninterestingquestion,readerswillwanttoseehowwellyoucansupportitsanswer.

Ifyouleaveyourclaimatthebottomofyourintroductionpage,restateaversionofitatthetopofanewconclusionpageattheendofyourstoryboard.Ifyoucan,makethisconcludingclaimmorespecificthantheoneintheintroduction.

Insomefields,writersconventionallystatetheirclaimonlyinafinalsectionheadedDiscussionorConclusion.Inthosecases,manyreadersjustskimtheintroduction,thenjumptotheconclusion.Soforthatkindofreader,writeyourintroductioninawaythatintroducesnotonlythebodyofyourpaperbutyourconclusionaswell.

Ifyoudecidetoannounceyourclaimonlyinyourconclusion,moveittothetopofanewconclusionpage.Butifyoudo,you llneedanothersentencetoreplaceitattheendofyourintroduction,onethatlaunchesyourreaderintothebodyofyourreport.Thatsentenceshouldincludethekeytermsthatyouusethroughoutyourreport(see6.2.3).

Wesuggestthatyouwritethatlaunchingsentencewhenyoudraftyourfinalintroduction(see10.1.4).Sofornow,makeaplaceforitatthebottomoftheintroductionpageofyourstoryboard,eitherbysketchingaroughversionofitorbymakinganotetoadditlater.

Somewritersadda roadmap attheendoftheirintroduction,layingouttheorganizationoftheirreport:

Inpart1,1discuss…Part2addressestheissueof…Part3examines…

Readersdifferonthis.Roadmapsarecommoninthesocialsciences,butmanyinthehumanitiesfindthemclumsy.Evenifyourreadersmightobject,youcanaddaroadmaptoyourstoryboardtoguideyourdrafting,thencutitfromyourfinaldraft.Ifyoukeepit,makeitshort.

6.2.3IdentifyKeyTermsExpressingConceptsThatUnitetheReportandDistinguishItsParts

Toperceiveyourreportascoherent,readersmustseeafewcentralconceptsrunningthroughallofitsparts.Butreaderswon trecognizethoserepeatedconceptsifyourefertotheminmanydifferentwords.Readersneedtoseespecifictermsthatrepeatedlyrefertothoseconcepts,noteverytimeyoumentiononebutoftenenoughthatreaderscan tmissthem.Thosetermsrunningthroughthewholemightincludethewordsyouusedtocategorizeyournotes,buttheydefinitelymustincludeimportantwordsfromyourquestionandclaim.Readersmustalsoseemorespecificconceptsineachpartthatdistinguishthatpartfromallotherparts.

Beforeyoustartdrafting,therefore,identifythekeyconceptsthatyouintendtorunthroughyourwholereportandselectthetermthatyouwillusemostoftentorefertoeachone.Thendothesamefortheconceptsthatdistinguisheachsectionfromothersections.Asyoudraft,youmayfindnewonesanddropsomeoldones,butyou llwritemorecoherentlyifyoukeepyourmostimportanttermsandconceptsinthefrontofyourmind.

Hereisaspecificmethodtoidentifytheglobalconceptsthatunitethewholereport:

1.Ontheintroductionandconclusionpagesofyourstoryboard,circlefourorfivewordsthatexpressyourmostimportantconcepts.Youshouldfindthosewordsinthemostexplicitstatementofyourclaim.

■Ignorewordsobviouslyconnectedtoyourtopic:Alamo,battle,defeat.■Focusonconceptsthatyoubringtotheargumentandintendtodevelop:aftermathofdefeat,triumphinloss,heroicideals,sacrifice,nationalspirit,andsoon.

2.Foreachconcept,selectakeytermthatyoucanrepeatthroughthebodyofyourpaper.Itcanbeoneofyourcircledwordsoranewone.Listthosekeytermsonaseparatepage.Ifyoufindfewwordsthatcanserveaskeyterms,yourclaimmaybetoogeneral(review5.4.1).

Youcanfollowthesameproceduretofindthekeytermsthatunifyeachsection.Lookatthereasonyoustatedatthetopofeachreasonpage,andcircleitsimportantwords.Someofthosewordsshouldberelatedtothewordscircledintheintroductionandconclusion.Therestshouldidentifyconceptsthatdistinguishthatsectionfromothers.Selectakeytermforeachkeyconcept.

Now,asyoudraft,keepinfrontofyouboththegeneraltermsthatshouldrunthroughyourwholereportandthespecifictermsthatdistinguisheachsectionfromothersections.Theywillhelpyoukeepyourself andthusyourreaders ontrack.Iflateryoufindyourselfwritingsomethingthatlacksthoseterms,don tjustwrenchyourselfbacktothem.Intheactofdrafting,youmightbediscoveringsomethingnew.

6.2.4UseKeyTermstoCreateSubheadsThatUniquelyIdentifyEachSection

Evenifreportsinyourfielddon tusesubheads(seeA.2.2.4intheappendix),werecommendthatyouusetheminyourdrafts.Createthemoutofthekeytermsyouidentifiedin6.2.3.Ifyoucannotfindkeytermstodistinguishasection,lookcloselyathowyouthinkitcontributestothewhole.Readersmaythinkitrepetitiveorirrelevant.

Ifyourfieldavoidssubheads,usethemtokeepyourselfontrack,thendeletethemfromyourlastdraft.

6.2.5OrderYourReasons

Findingagoodorderforthesectionsofareportcanbethehardestpartofplanning.Whenyouassembledyourargument,youmaynothaveputyourreasonsinanyparticularorder(onebenefitofastoryboard).Butwhenyouplanadraft,youmustimposeonthemsomeorderthatbestmeetsyourreaders needs.Thatisnoteasy,especiallywhenyou rewritingonanewtopicinanewfield.

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Whenyou renotsurehowbesttoorderyourreasons,considerthefollowingoptions.

■Comparisonandcontrast.Thisistheformyou dchooseifyouwerecomparingtwoormoreentities,concepts,orobjects.Buttherearetwowaystocompareandcontrast,andoneisusuallybetterthantheother.If,forexample,youwerecomparingwhetherHopimaskshavemorereligioussymbolismthanInuitmasks,youmightdecidetodevotethefirsthalfofyourpapertoInuitmasksandthesecondtoHopimasks.Thisorganization,however,toooftenresultsinapairofunrelatedsummaries.Trybreakingthetopicsintotheirconceptualparts.Inthecaseofmasks,itwouldbetheirsymbolicrepresentation,designfeatures,stagesofevolution,andsoon.

Thereareseveralotherstandardwaystoorderyourideas.Twofocusonthesubjectmatter:

■Chronological.Thisisthesimplest:earlier-to-laterorcause-to-effect.■Part-by-part.Ifyoucanbreakyourtopicintoitsconstituentparts,youcandealwitheachpartinturn,butyoumuststillorderthosepartsinsomewaythathelpsreadersunderstandthem.

Youcanalsoorganizethepartsfromthepointofviewofyourreaders abilitytounderstandthem:

■Shorttolong,simpletocomplex.Mostreadersprefertodealwithlesscomplexissuesbeforetheyworkthroughmorecomplexones.

■Morefamiliartolessfamiliar.Mostreadersprefertoreadwhattheyknowaboutbeforetheyreadwhattheydon t.■Lesscontestabletomorecontestable.Mostreadersmovemoreeasilyfromwhattheyagreewithtowhattheydon t.■Lessimportanttomoreimportant(orviceversa).Readersprefertoreadmoreimportantreasonsfirst,butthosereasonsmayhavemoreimpactwhentheycomelast.

■Earlierunderstandingasabasisforlaterunderstanding.Readersmayhavetounderstandsomeevents,principles,definitions,andsoonbeforetheyunderstandanotherthing.

Oftentheseprinciplescooperate:whatreadersagreewithandmosteasilyunderstandmightalsobeshortestandmostfamiliar.Buttheymayalsoconflict:reasonsthatreadersunderstandmosteasilymightbetheonestheyrejectmostquickly;whatyouthinkisyourmostdecisivereasonmighttoreadersseemleastfamiliar.Noruleshere,onlyprinciplesofchoice.

Whateverorderyouchoose,itshouldreflectyourreaders needs,nottheorderthatthematerialseemstoimposeonitself(asinanobviouscompare-contrastorganization),andleastofalltheorderinwhichideasoccurredtoyou.

6.2.6MakeYourOrderClearwithTransitionalWords

Becertainthatyourreaderscanrecognizetheorderyouchose.Starteachpageofreasonsinyourstoryboardwithwordsthatmaketheprincipleoforderclear:First,Second,Later,Finally,Moreimportant,Amorecomplexissueis ,Asaresult.Don tworryifthesewordsfeelawkwardlyobvious.Atthispoint,they remoreforyourbenefitthanforyourreaders .Youcanreviseorevendeletetheclumsyonesfromyourfinaldraft.

6.2.7SketchaBriefIntroductiontoEachSectionandSubsection

Justasyourwholereportneedsanintroductionthatframeswhatfollows,sodoeseachofitssections.Ifasectionisonlyapageortwo,youneedjustashortparagraph;forasectionseveralpageslong,youmightneedtosketchintwoormoreparagraphs.Thisopeningsegmentshouldintroducethekeytermsthatarespecialtoitssection,ideallyinasentenceatitsendexpressingitspoint.Thatpointmightbeareason,aresponsetoadifferentpointofview,orawarrantyoumustexplain.Inasectionthatyouthinkwillbelongerthanfivepagesorso,youmightstateitspointbothattheendofitsintroductionandagaininaconclusion.

6.2.8ForEachSection,SketchinEvidence,Acknowledgments,Warrants,andSummaries

Intheirrelevantsections,sketchoutthepartsofyourargument.Rememberthatmanyofthosepartswillthemselvesmakeapointthatmustbesupportedbysmallerarguments.

6.2.8.1EVIDENCE.Mostsectionsconsistprimarilyofevidencesupportingreasons.Sketchtheevidenceafterthereasonitsupports.Ifyouhavedifferentkindsofevidencesupportingthesamereason,groupandordertheminawaythatwillmakesensetoyourreaders.

6.2.8.2EXPLANATIONSOFEVIDENCE.Youmayhavetoexplainyourevidence whereitcamefrom,whyit sreliable,exactlyhowitsupportsareason.Usuallytheseexplanationsfollowtheevidence,butyoucansketchthembeforeifthatseemsmorelogical.

6.2.8.3ACKNOWLEDGMENTSANDRESPONSES.Imaginewhatreadersmightobjecttoandwhere,thensketcharesponse.Responsesaretypicallysub-argumentswithatleastaclaimandreasons,oftenincludingevidenceandevenanotherresponsetoanimaginedobjectiontoyourresponse.

6.2.8.4WARRANTS.Ifyouthinkyouneedawarranttojustifytherelevanceofareason,developitbeforeyoustatethereason.(Ifyou reusingawarrantonlyforemphasis,putitafterthereason.)Ifyouthinkreaderswillquestionthetruthofthewarrant,sketchaminiargumenttosupportit.Ifreadersmightthinkthatyourreasonorclaimisn tavalidinstanceofthewarrant,sketchanargumentthatitis.

6.2.8.5SUMMARIES.Ifyourpaperismorethantwentyorsopages,youmightbrieflysummarizetheprogressofyourargumentattheendofeachmajorsection,especiallyifyourreportisfact-heavyindates,names,events,ornumbers.Onefactafteranothercanblur

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thelineofanargument.Whathaveyouestablishedinthissection?Howdoesyourargumentshapeupthusfar?Ifinyourfinaldraftthosesummariesseemtooobvious,cutthem.

Writersindifferentfieldsmayarrangetheseelementsinslightlydifferentways,buttheelementsthemselvesandtheirprinciplesoforganizationarethesameineveryfieldandprofession.Andwhatiskeyineveryreport,regardlessoffield,isthatyoumustorderthepartsofyourargumentnotmerelytoreflectyourownthinkingbuttohelpyourreadersunderstandit.

6.2.9SketchaWorkingConclusion

Youshouldhavestatedyourconcludingclaimatthetopoftheconclusionpageofyourstoryboard.Ifyoucanaddtothesignificanceofthatclaim(anotheranswertoSowhat?),sketchitaftertheclaim(see10.2formoreonconclusions).

6.3FileAwayLeftoversOnceyouhaveafirstplan,youmaydiscoverthatyouhavealotofmaterialleftthatdoesn tfitintoit.Resisttheimpulsetoshoehornleftoversintoyourreportinthebeliefthatifyoufoundit,yourreadersshouldreadit.Infact,ifyoudon thavemoreleftoversthanwhatyouused,youmaynothavedoneenoughresearch.Fileawayleftoversforfutureuse.Theymaycontaintheseedsofanotherproject.

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7DraftingYourReport

7.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortable

7.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabits

7.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrack

7.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriately

7.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourText

7.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciously

7.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferIt

7.8BeOpentoSurprises

7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism

7.9.1SignalEveryQuotation,EvenWhenYouCiteItsSource7.9.2DonʼtParaphraseTooClosely7.9.3UsuallyCiteaSourceforIdeasNotYourOwn7.9.4DonʼtPleadIgnorance,Misunderstanding,orInnocentIntentions

7.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistance

7.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriter sBlock

Somewritersthinkthatoncetheyhaveanoutlineorstoryboard,theycandraftbyjustgrindingoutsentences.Ifyou vewrittenalottoexploreyourideas,youmayeventhinkthatyoucanplugthatpreliminarywritingintoadraft.Experiencedwritersknowbetter.Theyknowtwothings:exploratorywritingiscrucialbutoftennotrightforadraft,andthoughtfuldraftingcanbeanactofdiscoverythatplanningandstoryboardingcanpreparethemforbutneverreplace.Infact,mostwritersdon tknowwhattheycanthinkuntiltheyseeitappearinwordsbeforethem.Indeed,youexperienceoneofthemostexcitingmomentsinresearchwhenyoudiscoveryourselfexpressingideasthatyoudidnotknowyouhaduntilthatmoment.

Sodon tlookupondraftingasmerelytranslatingastoryboardoroutlineintowords.Ifyoudraftwithanopenmind,youcandiscoverlinesofthoughtthatyoucouldn thaveimaginedbeforeyoustarted.Butlikeotherstepsintheprocess,evensurprisesworkbetterwithaplan.

7.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortableWritersdraftindifferentways.Someareslowandcareful:theyhavetogeteveryparagraphrightbeforetheystartthenextone.Todothat,theyneedameticulousplan.Soifyoudraftslowly,plancarefully.Otherwritersletthewordsflow,skippingaheadwhentheygetstuck,omittingquotations,statistics,andsoonthattheycanpluginlater.Iftheyarestoppedbyastylisticissuesuchaswhethertorepresentnumbersinwordsornumerals,theyinserta[?]andkeeponwritinguntiltheyrunoutofgas,thengobackandfixit.Butquickdraftersneedlotsoftimetorevise.Soifyoudraftquickly,startearly.Draftinwhateverwayworksforyou,butexperiencedwritersusuallydraftquickly,thenreviseextensively.

7.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabitsMostofuslearntowriteintheleastefficientway underpressure,rushingtomeetadeadline,withaquickdraftthenightbeforeandmaybeafewminutesinthemorningforproofreading.Thatrarelyworksforashortpaper,almostneverforalongerone.Youneedtimeandaplanthatsetssmall,achievablegoalsbutkeepsyoureyeonthewhole.

Mostimportant,draftregularlyandoften,notinmarathonsessionsthatdullyourthinkingandkillyourinterest.Setasmallgoalandareasonablequotaofwordsforeachsession,andsticktoit.Whenyouresumedrafting,youneednotstartwhereyouleftoff:reviewyourstoryboardtodecidewhatyou rereadytodrafttoday.Reviewhowitwillfitintoitssectionandthewhole:Whatreasondoesthissectionsupport?Wheredoesitfitintheoveralllogic?Whichkeytermsstatetheconceptsthatdistinguishthissection?Ifyou reblocked,skiptoanothersection.Whateveryoudo,don tsubstitutemorereadingforwriting.Chronicprocrastinatorsareusuallysointimidatedbythesizeoftheirprojectthatitparalyzesthem,andtheyjustkeepputtingoffgettingstarted.Youcanovercomethatdestructivehabitbybreakingyourprojectintosmall,achievablegoals(see7.11).

7.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrackAsyoudraft,keepinfrontofyouaseparatelistofthekeytermsforyourgeneralconceptsthatshouldrunthroughyourwhole

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report.Fromtimetotime,checkhowoftenyou veusedthosewords,boththosethatrunthroughthewholereportandthosethatdistinguishonesectionfromanother.Butdon tletthosewordsstiflefreshthinking.Ifyoufindyour-selfwandering,letyourselfgoforawhile.Youmaybedevelopinganinterestingidea.Followituntilyouseewhereittakesyou.

7.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriatelyWecoveredthisissuewhenwediscussednote-taking(4.2.2).Youshouldbuildmostofyourreportoutofyourownwordsthatreflectyourownthinking.Muchofthesupportforthatthinkingwillbeinquotations,paraphrases,andsummaries.Differentfields,however,usethemindifferentproportions.Ingeneral,researchersinthehumanitiesquotemostoften;socialandnaturalscientiststypicallyparaphraseandsummarize.Butyoumustdecideeachcaseforitself,dependingonhowyouusetheinformationinyourargument.Herearesomeprinciples:

■Summarizewhendetailsareirrelevantorasourceisn timportantenoughtowarrantmorespace.■Paraphrasewhenyoucanstatewhatasourcesaysmoreclearlyorconciselythanthesource,orwhenyourargumentdependsonthedetailsofasourcebutnotonitsspecificwords.(Beforeyouparaphrase,however,read7.9.)

■Quoteforthesepurposes:

■Theexactwordingconstitutesevidencethatbacksupyourreasons.■Apassagestatesaviewthatyoudisagreewith,andtobefairyouwanttostateitexactly.■Thequotedwordsarefromanauthoritywhobacksupyourview.■Thequotedwordsarestrikinglyoriginal.■Thequotedwordsexpressyourkeyconceptssocompellinglythatthequotationcanframetherestofyourdiscussion.

Youmustbalancequotations,paraphrases,andsummarieswithyourownfreshideas.Donotmerelyrepeat,orworse,download,wordsandideasofothersandstitchthemtogetherwithafewsentencesofyourown.Allteachershavegroundtheirteethoversuchreports,dismayedbytheirlackoforiginalthinking.Inanadvancedprojectsuchasathesisordissertation,readersrejectapatchworkofborrowingsoutofhand.

Readersvalueresearchonlytothedegreethattheytrustitssources.Soforeverysummary,paraphrase,orquotationyouuse,citeitsbibliographicdataintheappropriatecitationstyle(seepart2).

7.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourTextYoucaninsertquotationsintoyourtextintwoways:

■Runfourorfewerquotedlinesintoyourrunningtext.■Setofffiveormorelinesasanindentedblock.

Youcanintegratebothrun-inandblockquotationsintoyourtextintwoways:

1.Dropinthequotationasanindependentsentenceorpassage,introducedwithafewexplanatorywords.Butavoidintroducingallofyourquestionswithjustasays,states,claims,andsoon:

Diamondsays,“ThehistoriesoftheFertileCrescentandChina…holdasalutarylessonforthemodernworld:circumstanceschange,andpastprimacyisnoguaranteeoffutureprimacy”(417).

Instead,providesomeinterpretation:

Diamondsuggeststhatonelessonwecanlearnfromthepastisnottoexpecthistorytorepeatitself.“ThehistoriesoftheFertileCrescentandChina…holdasalutarylessonforthemodernworld”(417).

2.Weavethegrammarofthequotationintothegrammarofyoursentence:

Politicalleadersshouldlearnfromhistory,butDiamondpointsoutthatthe“lessonforthemodernworld”inthehistoryoftheFertileCrescentandChinaisthat“circumstanceschange,andpastprimacyisnoguaranteeoffutureprimacy”(417).Soonelessonfromhistoryisthatyoucanʼtcountonittorepeatitself.

Tomakeaquotedsentencemeshwithyours,youcanmodifythequotation,solongasyoudon tchangeitsmeaningandyouclearlyindicateaddedorchangedwordswithsquarebracketsanddeletionswiththreedots(calledellipses).Thissentencequotestheoriginalintact:

Posnerfocusesonreligionnotforitsspiritualitybutforitssocialfunctions:“AnotablefeatureofAmericansocietyisreligiouspluralism,andweshouldconsiderhowthisrelatestotheefficacyofgovernancebysocialnormsinviewofthehistoricalimportanceofreligionasbothasourceandenforcerofsuchnorms”(299).

Thisversionmodifiesthequotationtofitthegrammarofthewriter ssentence:

Inhisdiscussionofreligiouspluralism,PosnersaysofAmericansocietythat“anotablefeature…is[its]religiouspluralism.”Weshouldconsiderhowitssocialnormsaffect“theefficacyofgovernance…inviewofthehistoricalimportanceofreligionasbothasourceandenforcerofsuchnorms”(299).

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(Seechapter25formoreonintegratingquotationswithyourtext.)Whenyourefertoasourcethefirsttime,usehisorherfullname.DonotprecedeitwithMr.,Mrs.,Ms.,orProfessor(see24.2.2

fortheuseofDr.,Reverend,Senator,andsoon).Whenyoumentionasourcethereafter,usejustthelastname:

AccordingtoStevenPinker,“claimsaboutalanguageinstinct…havevirtuallynothingtodowithpossiblegeneticdifferencesbetweenpeople.”1Pinkergoesontoclaimthat…

Exceptwhenreferringtokings,queens,andpopes,neverrefertoasourcebyhisorherfirstname.Neverthis:

AccordingtoStevenPinker,“claimsaboutalanguageinstinct…”Stevengoesontoclaimthat…

7.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciouslyIfyouareusingbibliography-stylecitations(see3.2.1),youwillhavetodecideasyoudrafthowtousefootnotesandendnotes(fortheirformalrequirements,seechapter16).Youmustciteeverysourceinanote,ofcourse,butyoumayalsodecidetousefootnotesandendnotesforsubstantivematerialthatyoudon twanttoincludeinthebodyofyourtextbutalsodon twanttoomit.(Youmightalsousesuchsubstantivenotesincombinationwithparentheticalcitationsinauthor-datestyle;see18.3.3.)

■Ifyoucitesourcesinendnotes,putsubstantivematerialinfootnotes.Otherwiseyouforcereaderstokeepflippingtothebackofyourreporttocheckeveryendnotetoseewhetheritissubstantiveorbibliographical.

■Usesubstantivefootnotessparingly.Ifyoucreatetoomany,youriskmakingyourpageslookchoppyandbrokenup.

Inanyevent,keepinmindthatmanyreadersignoresubstantivefootnotesontheprinciplethatinformationnotimportantenoughforyoutoincludeinthetextisnotimportantenoughforthemtoreadinafootnote.

7.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferItBythispointyoumaybesosurethatyourevidencesupportsyourreasonsthatyou llthinkreaderscan tmissitsrelevance.Butevidenceneverspeaksforitself,especiallynotalongquotation,animage,atable,orachart.Youmustspeakforitbyintroducingitwithasentencestatingwhatyouwantyourreaderstogetoutofit.

Forexample,it shardtoseehowthequotedlinesinthisnextpassagesupporttheintroductorysentence:

WhenHamletcomesupbehindhisstepfatherClaudiusatprayer,hecoollyandlogicallythinksaboutwhethertokillhimonthespot.claim

NowmightIdoit[killhim]pat,nowheispraying:AndnowIʼlldoʼt;andsohegoestoheaven;AndsoamIrevengʼd…[Butthis]villainkillsmyfather;andforthat,I,hissoleson,dothissamevillainsendtoheaven.Why,thisishireandsalary,notrevenge.evidence

Nothinginthoselinesobviouslyreferstocoolrationality.Comparethis:

WhenHamletcomesupbehindhisstepfatherClaudiusatprayer,hecoollyandlogicallythinksaboutwhethertokillhimonthespot.claimFirsthewantstokillClaudiusimmediately,butthenhepausestothink:IfhekillsClaudiuswhileheispraying,hesendshissoultoheaven.ButhewantsClaudiusdamnedtohell,sohecoollydecidestokillhimlater:reason

NowmightIdoit[killhim]pat,nowheispraying:AndnowIʼlldoʼt;andsohegoestoheaven;AndsoamIrevengʼd…[Butthis]villainkillsmyfather;andforthat,I,hissoleson,dothissamevillainsendtoheaven.Why,thisishireandsalary,notrevenge.evidence

Thatkindofexplanatoryintroductionisevenmoreimportantwhenyoupresentquantitativeevidenceinatableorfigure(see8.3.1).

7.8BeOpentoSurprisesIfyouwriteasyougoandplanyourbestcasebeforeyoudraft,you reunlikelytobeutterlysurprisedbyhowyourdraftdevelops.Evenso,beopentonewdirectionsfrombeginningtoend:

■Whenyourdraftingstartstoheadoffonatangent,gowithitforabittoseewhetheryou reontosomethingbetterthanyouplanned.

■Whenreportingyourevidenceleadsyoutodoubtareason,don tignorethatfeeling.Followitup.■Whentheorderofyourreasonsstartstofeelawkward,experimentwithnewones,evenifyouthoughtyouwerealmostdone.■Evenwhenyoureachyourfinalconclusion,youmaythinkofawaytorestateyourclaimmoreclearlyandpointedly.

Ifyougethelpfulnewideasearlyenoughbeforeyourdeadline,investthetimetomakethechanges.Itisasmallpriceforabig

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improvement.

7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarismItwillbeasyoudraftthatyouriskmakingoneoftheworstmistakesaresearchercanmake:leadingreaderstothinkthatyou retryingtopassofftheworkofanotherwriterasyourown.Dothatandyouriskbeingaccusedofplagiarism,achargethat,ifsustained,couldmeanafailinggradeorevenexpulsion.

Manyinstructorswarnagainstplagiarismbutdon texplainit,becausetheythinkitisalwaysanactofdeliberatedishonestythatneedsnoexplanation.Andtobesure,studentsknowtheycheatwhentheyputtheirnameonapaperboughtonlineorcopiedfromafraternityorsororityfile.MostalsoknowtheycheatwhentheypassoffastheirownpageafterpagecopiedfromasourceordownloadedfromtheInternet.Forthosecases,there snothingtosaybeyondDon t.

Butmanystudentsfailtorealizethattheyriskbeingchargedwithplagiarismeveniftheywerenotintentionallydishonestbutonlyignorantorcareless.Yourunthatriskwhenyougivereadersreasontothinkthatyou vedoneoneormoreofthefollowing:

■Youcitedasourcebutuseditsexactwordswithoutputtingtheminquotationmarksorinablockquotation.■Youparaphrasedasourceandcitedit,butinwordssosimilartothoseofyoursourcethattheyarealmostaquotation:anyonecouldseethatyouwerefollowingthesourcewordforwordasyouparaphrasedit.

■Youusedideasormethodsfromasourcebutfailedtociteit.

7.9.1SignalEveryQuotation,EvenWhenYouCiteItsSource

Evenifyouciteyoursource,readersmustknowwhichwordsareyoursandwhichyouquote.Youriskthechargeofplagiarismifyoufailtousequotationmarksorablockquotationtosignalthatyouhavecopiedaslittleasasinglelineofwords.

Itgetscomplicated,however,whenyoucopyjustafewwords.Readthis:

Becausetechnologybegetsmoretechnology,theimportanceofaninventionʼsdiffusionpotentiallyexceedstheimportanceoftheoriginalinvention.Technologyʼshistoryexemplifieswhatistermedanautocatalyticprocess:thatis,onethatspeedsupataratethatincreaseswithtime,becausetheprocesscatalyzesitself(Diamond1998,301).

IfyouwerewritingaboutJaredDiamond sideas,youwouldprobablyhavetousesomeofhiswords,suchastheimportanceofaninvention.Butyouwouldn tputthatphraseinquotationmarks,becauseitshowsnooriginalityofthoughtorexpression.Twoofhisphrases,however,aresostrikingthattheydorequirequotationmarks:technologybegetsmoretechnologyandautocatalyticprocess.Forexample,

Thepoweroftechnologygoesbeyondindividualinventionsbecausetechnology“begetsmoretechnology.”Itis,asDiamondputsit,an“autocatalyticprocess”(301).

Onceyoucitethosewords,youcanusethemagainwithoutquotationmarksorcitation:

Asoneinventionbegetsanotheroneandthatonestillanother,theprocessbecomesaself-sustainingcatalysisthatspreadsexponentiallyacrossallnationalboundaries.

Thisisagrayarea:wordsthatseemstrikingtosomereadersarecommonplacetoothers.Ifyouusequotationmarksfortoomanycommonphrases,readersmightthinkyou renaiveorinsecure,butifyoufailtousethemwhenreadersthinkyoushould,theymaysuspectyou retryingtotakecreditforlanguageandideasnotyourown.Sinceit sbettertoseemnaivethandishonest,especiallyearlyinyourresearchcareer,usequotationmarksfreely.(Youmust,however,followthestandardpracticesofyourfield.Forexample,lawyersoftenusetheexactlanguageofastatuteorjudicialopinionwithnoquotationmarks.)

7.9.2Don tParaphraseTooClosely

Youparaphraseappropriatelywhenyourepresentanideainyourownwordsmoreclearlyorpointedlythanthesourcedoes.Butreaderswillthinkthatyoucrossthelinefromfairparaphrasetoplagiarismiftheycanmatchyourwordsandphrasingwiththoseofyoursource.Forexample,thesenextsentencesplagiarizethetwosentencesyoujustread:

Booth,Colomb,andWilliamsclaimthatappropriateparaphraseistheuseofoneʼsownwordstorepresentanideatomakeapassagefromasourceclearerormorepointed.Readerscanaccuseastudentofplagiarism,however,ifhisparaphraseissosimilartoitssourcethatsomeonecanmatchwordsandphrasesinthesentencewiththoseinthatsource.

Thisnextparaphrasebordersonplagiarism:

Appropriateparaphraserewritesapassagefromasourceintooneʼsownwordstomakeitclearerormorepointed.Readersthinkplagiarismoccurswhenasourceisparaphrasedsocloselythattheyseeparallelsbetweenwordsandphrases(Booth,Colomb,andWilliams2013).

Thisparaphrasedoesnotplagiarize:

AccordingtoBooth,Colomb,andWilliams(2013),paraphraseistheuseofyourownwordstorepresenttheideasofanothermoreclearly.Itbecomesplagiarismwhenreadersseeaword-for-wordsimilaritybetweenaparaphraseandasource.

Toavoidseemingtoplagiarizebyparaphrase,don treadyoursourceasyouparaphraseit.Readthepassage,lookaway,think

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aboutitforamoment;then,stilllookingaway,paraphraseitinyourownwords.Thencheckwhetheryoucanrunyourfingeralongyoursentenceandfindthesameideasinthesameorderinyoursource.Ifyoucan,socanyourreaders.Tryagain.

7.9.3UsuallyCiteaSourceforIdeasNotYourOwn

Thisruleismorecomplicatedthanitseems,becausemostofourownideasarebasedonorderivedfromidentifiablesourcessomewhereinhistory.Readersdon texpectyoutofindeverydistantsourceforeveryfamiliaridea,buttheydoexpectyoutocitethesourceforanideawhen(i)theideaisassociatedwithaspecificpersonand(2)it snewenoughnottobepartofafield scommonknowledge.

Forexample,psychologistsclaimthatwethinkandfeelindifferentpartsofourbrains.Butnoreaderwouldexpectyoutocitethatidea,becauseit snolongerassociatedwithaspecificsourceandit ssofamiliarthatnoonewouldthinkyouimpliedthatitwasyours.Ontheotherhand,somepsychologistsarguethatemotionsarecrucialtorationaldecisionmaking.Thatideaissonewandsocloselytiedtoparticularresearchersthatyou dhavetocitethem.

Theprincipleisthis:citeasourceforanideanotyourownwheneveraninformedreadermightthinkyou reimplyingthatitisyourown.Thoughthatseemsblackandwhite,ithasabiggrayareainthemiddle.Whenindoubt,checkwithyourinstructor.

7.9.4Don tPleadIgnorance,Misunderstanding,orInnocentIntentions

Tobesure,whatlookslikeplagiarismisoftenjusthonestignoranceofhowtouseandcitesources.Somestudentsmayhavegonetoschoolinpartsoftheworldinwhichverydifferentexpectationsgovernusingotherwriters work.Otherstudentssincerelybelievethattheydon thavetocitematerialtheyhavedownloadedfromtheInternetifthatmaterialisfreeandpubliclyavailable.Butthey rewrong.Thefactthatit spublicorfreeisirrelevant.Youmustciteanythingyouusethatwascreatedbysomeoneelse.

Manystudentsdefendthemselvesbyclaimingtheydidn tintendtomislead.Theproblemis,wereadwords,notminds.Sothinkofplagiarismnotasanintendedactbutasaperceivedone.Avoidanysignthatmightgiveyourreadersanyreasontosuspectyouofit.Wheneveryousubmitapaperwithyournameonit,youimplicitlypromisethatitsresearch,reasoning,andwordingareyoursunlessyouspecificallyattributetosomeoneelse.

Hereisthebestwaytothinkaboutthis:Ifthepersonwhoseworkyouusedreadyourreport,wouldsherecognizeanyofitashers,includingparaphrasesandsummaries,orevengeneralideasormethodsfromheroriginalwork?Ifso,youmustcitethoseborrowings.

7.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistanceExperiencedwritersregularlyshowtheirdraftstoothersforcriticismandsuggestions,andyoushouldtoo.Butinstructorsdifferonhowmuchhelpisappropriateandwhathelpstudentsshouldacknowledge.Whenyougethelp,asktwoquestions:

1.Howmuchhelpisappropriate?■Foraclasspaper,mostinstructorsencouragestudentstogetgeneralcriticismandminorediting,butnotdetailedrewritingorsubstantivesuggestions.

■Forathesis,dissertation,orworksubmittedforpublication,writersgetallthehelptheycanfromteachers,reviewers,andotherssolongastheydon tbecomevirtualghostwriters.

Betweenthoseextremesisagrayarea.Askyourinstructorwhereshedrawstheline,thengetallthehelpyoucanontherightsideofit.

2.Whathelpmustyouacknowledgeinyourreport?■Foraclasspaper,youusuallyaren trequiredtoacknowledgegeneralcriticism,minorediting,orhelpfromaschoolwritingtutor,butyoumustacknowledgehelpthat sspecialorextensive.Yourinstructorsetstherules,soask.

■Forathesis,dissertation,orpublishedwork,you renotrequiredtoacknowledgeroutinehelp,thoughit scourteousandoftenpolitictodosoinapreface(seeA.2.1.8andA.2.1.9).Butyoumustacknowledgespecialorextensiveeditingandciteinanotemajorideasorphrasesprovidedbyothers.

7.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriterʼsBlockIfyoucan tseemtogetstartedonafirstdraftorifyoustruggletodraftmorethanafewwords,youmayhavewriter sblock.Somecasesarisefromseriousanxietiesaboutschoolanditspressures;ifthatmightbeyou,seeacounselor.Butmostcaseshavecausesyoucanaddress:

■Youmaybestuckbecauseyouhavenogoalsorhavegoalsthataretoohigh.Ifso,createaroutineandsetsmall,achievablegoals.Donotbereluctanttousedevicestokeepyourselfmoving,suchasaprogresschartorregularmeetingswithawritingpartner.

■Youmayfeelsointimidatedbythesizeofthetaskthatyoudon tknowwheretobegin.Ifso,followoursuggestionsaboutdividingtheprocessintosmall,achievabletasks;thenfocusondoingonesmallstepatatime.Don tdwellonthewholetaskuntilyou vecompletedseveralsmallparts.

■Youmayfeelthatyouhavetomakeeverysentenceorparagraphperfectbeforeyoumoveontothenextone.Ifso,tellyourselfyou renotwritingadraftbutonlysketchingoutsomeideas;thengrityourteethanddosomequickanddirtywritingtogetyourselfstarted.Nexttimeyoucanavoidsomeofthisobsessionwithperfectionifyouwritealongthewayasyouresearch,remindingyourselfthatyouaren twritingafirstdraft.Andinanyevent,weallhavetocompromiseonperfectiontogetthejobdone.

Ifyouhaveproblemslikethesewithmostofyourwritingprojects,gotothestudentlearningcenter.Therearepeopletherewhohave

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workedwitheverykindofprocrastinatorandblockedwriterandcangiveyouadvicetailoredtoyourproblem.Ontheotherhand,somecasesofwriter sblockmayreallybeopportunitiestoletyourideassimmerinyoursubconsciouswhile

theycombineandrecombineintosomethingnewandsurprising.Ifyou restuckbuthavetime(anotherreasontostartearly),dosomethingelseforadayortwo.Thenreturntothetasktoseeifyoucangetbackontrack.

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8PresentingEvidenceinTablesandFigures

8.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentations

8.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphic

8.3DesignTablesandFigures

8.3.1FrameEachGraphictoHelpYourReadersUnderstandIt8.3.2KeeptheImageasSimpleasItsContentAllows8.3.3FollowGuidelinesforTables,BarCharts,andLineGraphs

8.4CommunicateDataEthically

Ifyourdataareintheformofnumbers,mostreadersgraspthemmoreeasilyifyoupresentthemgraphically.Butyoufacemanychoicesofgraphicforms,andsomeformswillsuityourdataandmessagebetterthanothers.Inthischapter,weshowyouhowtochoosetherightgraphicformanddesignitsothatreaderscanseebothwhatyourdataareandhowtheysupportyourargument.(Seepp.413 14inthebibliographyforguidestocreatingandusinggraphics;seechapter26fordetailsonformattinggraphics.)1

8.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentationsOrdinarily,presentquantitativedataverballywhentheyincludeonlyafewnumbers.(seechapter23forpresentingnumbersintext.)Presentthemgraphicallywhenmostofyourevidenceisquantitativeoryoumustcommunicatealargesetofdata.Butwhenthedataarefewandsimple,readerscangraspthemaseasilyinasentenceasinatableliketable8.1:

In1996,onaverage,menearned$32,144ayear,women$23,710,adifferenceof$8,434.

Table8.1.Male-femalesalaries($),1996

Table8.2.Changesinfamilystructure,1970–2000

Butifyoupresentmorethanfourorfivenumbersinapassage,readerswillstruggletokeepthemstraight,particularlyiftheymustcomparethem,likethis:

Between1970and2000,thestructureoffamilieschangedintwoways.In1970,85percentoffamilieshadtwoparents,butby1980thatnumberhaddeclinedto77percent,thento73percentby1990andto68percentby2000.Thenumberofone-parentfamiliesrose,particularlyfamiliesheadedbyamother.In1970,11percentoffamilieswereheadedbyasinglemother.By1980thatnumberroseto18percent,by1990to22percent,andto23percentby2000.Singlefathersheaded1percentoffamiliesin1970,2percentin1980,3percentin1990,and4percentin2000.Familieswithnoadultinthehomehaveremainedstableat3-4percent.

Thosedatacanbepresentedmoreeffectivelyingraphicform,asintable8.2.

8.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphicWhenyougraphicallypresentdataascomplexasinthatparagraph,youhavemanychoices.Thesimplestandmostcommonare

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tables,barcharts,andlinegraphs,eachofwhichhasadistinctiverhetoricaleffect.

■Toemphasizespecificvalues,useatableliketable8.2.■Toemphasizecomparisonsthatcanbeseenataglance,useabarchartlikefigure8.1.■Toemphasizetrends,usealinegraphlikefigure8.2.

Whileeachoftheseformscommunicatesthesamedata,readersrespondtothemindifferentways:

Figure8.1.Changesinfamilystructure,1970–2000

Figure8.2.Changesinfamilystructure,1970–2000

■Atableseemspreciseandobjective.Itemphasizesindividualnumbersandforcesreaderstoinferrelationshipsortrends(unlessyoustatetheminanintroductorysentence).

■Bothchartsandlinegraphsemphasizeavisualimagethatcommunicatesvalueslesspreciselybutmorequicklythandotheexactnumbersofatable.Buttheyalsodiffer:

■Abarchartemphasizescomparisonsamongdiscreteitems.

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■Alinegraphemphasizestrends,usuallyovertime.

Choosethegraphicformthatbestachievestheeffectyouintend,notthefirstonethatcomestomind.Howmanychoicesyoushouldconsiderdependsonyourexperience.Ifyou renewtoquantitativeresearch,limityourchoicesto

basictables,barcharts,andlinegraphs.Yourcomputersoftwaremayoffermorechoices,butignorethosethatyouaren tfamiliarwith.

Ifyouaredoingadvancedresearch,readerswillexpectyoutousethegraphicformbestsuitedtoyourpointandyourkindofdata,andtodrawfromalargerrangeofchoices.Inthatcase,consulttable8.7,whichdescribestherhetoricalusesofothercommonforms.Butyoumayhavetoconsidermorecreativewaysofrepresentingdataifyouarewritingadissertationorarticleinafieldinwhichresearchersroutinelydisplaycomplexrelationshipsinlargedatasets.

8.3DesignTablesandFiguresComputerprogramsnowletyoucreategraphicssodazzlingthatyoumightbetemptedtoletyoursoftwaremakeyourdesigndecisions.Butreadersdon tcarehowelaborateyourgraphicslookiftheyareconfusing,misleading,orirrelevanttoyourpoint.Youhavetodecidehowtomakethemclear,focused,andrelevant,thensetyoursoftwaretoreflectthatjudgment.(SeeA.3.1.3andA.1.3.4oncreatingandinsertingtablesandfiguresinyourpaper.)

8.3.1FrameEachGraphictoHelpYourReadersUnderstandIt

Agraphicrepresentingcomplexnumbersrarelyspeaksforitself.Youmustframeitsothatreadersknowwhattoseeinitandhowtounderstanditsrelevancetoyourargument.

1.Introducetablesandfigureswithasentenceinyourtextthatstateshowthedatasupportyourpoint.Includeinthatsentenceanyspecificnumberthatyouwantreaderstofocuson.(Thatnumbermustalsoappearinthetableorfigure.)

2.Labeleverytableandfigureinawaythatdescribesitsdataand,ifpossible,theirimportantrelationships.Foratable,thelabeliscalledatitleandissetflushleftabove;forafigure,thelabeliscalledacaption(orlegend)andissetflushleftbelow.(Fortheformsoftitlesandcaptions,seechapter26.)Keeptitlesandcaptionsshortbutdescriptiveenoughtoindicatethespecificnatureofthedataandtodifferentiateeverygraphicfromeveryotherone.

■Avoidmakingthetitleorcaptionageneraltopic:

NotHeadsofhouseholds

ButChangesinone-andtwo-parentheadsofhouseholds,1970–2000■Usenounphrases;avoidrelativeclausesinfavorofparticiples:

NotNumberoffamiliesthatsubscribetoweeklynewsmagazines

ButNumberoffamiliessubscribingtoweeklynewsmagazines

■Donotgivebackgroundinformationorcharacterizetheimplicationsofthedata:

NotWeakereffectsofcounselingondepressedchildrenbeforeprofessionalizationofstaff,1995–2004

ButEffectofcounselingondepressedchildren,1995–2004■Besurelabelsdistinguishgraphicspresentingsimilardata:

RiskfactorsforhighbloodpressureamongmeninMaywood,Illinois

RiskfactorsforhighbloodpressureamongmeninKingston,Jamaica

3.Putintothetableorfigureinformationthathelpsreadersseehowthedatasupportyourpoint.Forexample,ifnumbersinatableshowatrend,andifthesizeofthechangematters,addthechangetothefinalcolumn.Orifalineonagraphchangesinresponsetoaninfluencenotmentionedonthegraph,asinfigure8.3,addtexttotheimagetoexplainit:

Althoughreadingandmathscoresinitiallydeclinedbyalmost100pointsfollowingredistricting,thattrendwassubstantiallyreversedbytheintroductionofsupplementalmathandreadingprograms.

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Figure8.3.SATscoresforMid-CityHigh,1990–2005

Table8.3.Gasolineconsumption

Table8.4.Percapitamileageandgasolineconsumption,1970–2000

4.Highlightthepartofthetableorfigurethatyouwantreaderstofocuson,particularlyanynumberorrelationshipmentionedinthesentenceintroducingthetableorfigure.Forexample,wehavetostudytable8.3closelytoseehowitsupportsthefollowingintroductorysentence:

Mostpredictionsaboutgasolineconsumptionhaveprovedwrong.

Weneedanothersentenceexplaininghowthenumbersrelatetotheclaim,amoreinformativetitle,andvisualhelpthatfocusesusonwhattolookfor(table8.4):

Gasolineconsumptiondidnotgrowasmanyhadpredicted.EventhoughAmericansdrove23percentmoremilesin2000thanin1970,theyused32percentlessfuel.

Theaddedsentencetellsushowtointerpretthekeydataintable8.4,andthehighlighttellsuswheretofindit.

8.3.2KeeptheImageasSimpleasItsContentAllows

Someguidesencourageyoutoputasmuchdataasyoucanineverygraphic,butreaderswanttoseeonlythedatarelevanttoyourpoint,presentedinanimagefreeofdistractions.

1.Includeonlyrelevantdata.Ifyouwanttoincludedatajustfortherecord,labelitaccordinglyandputitinanappendix(seeA.2.3.2).

2.Makethegridsimple.

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■GraphicsBoxagraphiconlyifyougrouptwoormorefigures.Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Nevercreateathree-dimensionalbackgroundforatwo-dimensionalgraphic.Theaddeddepthcontributesnothingandcandistorthowreadersjudgevalues.Plotdataonthreedimensionsonlywhenyoucannotdisplaythedatainanyotherwayandyourreadersarefamiliarwithsuchgraphs.

■TablesNeverusebothhorizontalandverticallinestodividecolumnsandrows.Uselightgraylinesifyouwanttodirectyourreader seyesinonedirectiontocomparedataorifthetableisunusuallycomplex.Butavoidusinggraylinesorshadinginanythingthatwillbemicrofilmed,becausethephotographedimagemaybeblurred.Fortableswithmanyrows,lightlyshadeeveryfifthrow.Donotuseafontsizesmallerthanninepointsforadocumentthatwillbemicrofilmed.Smallerfontswillbeillegible.

■ChartsandgraphsUsegridlinesonlyifthegraphiciscomplexorreadersneedtoseeprecisenumbers.Makeallgridlineslightgray,unlessthetextwillbemicrofilmed.Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Nevercreateathree-dimensionalchartorgraphifyoucanrepresentthesamedataintwodimensions.Theaddeddepthcontributesnothingandcandistorthowreadersjudgevalues.Neveruseiconicbars(forexample,imagesofcarstorepresentautomobileproduction).Theyaddnothing,candistorthowreadersjudgevalues,andlookamateurish.

3.Useclearlabels.

■Labelrowsandcolumnsintablesandbothaxesinchartsandgraphs.(seechapter26forpunctuationandspellinginlabels.)■Usetickmarksandlabelstoindicateintervalsontheverticalaxisofagraph(seefig.8.4).■Ifpossible,labellines,barsegments,andthelikeontheimageratherthaninacaptionsettotheside.Dosointhecaptiononlyiflabelswouldmaketheimagetoocomplextoread.

■Whenspecificnumbersmatter,addthemtobars,segments,ordotsonlines.

8.3.3FollowGuidelinesforTables,BarCharts,andLineGraphs

8.3.3.1TABLES.Tableswithlotsofdatacanseemespeciallydense,sokeeptheirimageandcontentassimpleaspossible.

Table8.5.Unemploymentinmajorindustrialnations,1990–2000

Table8.6.Changesinunemploymentratesofindustrialnations,1990–2000

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■Ordertherowsandcolumnsbyaprinciplethatletsreadersquicklyfindwhatyouwantthemtosee.Donotautomaticallychoosealphabeticorder.

■Roundnumberstorelevantvalues.Ifdifferencesoflessthan1,000don tmatter,then2,123,499and2,124,886areirrelevantlyprecise.

■Sumtotalsatthebottomofacolumnorattheendofarow,notatthetoporleft.Comparetables8.5and8.6.Table8.5looksclutteredanditsitemsaren thelpfullyorganized.Table8.6isclearerbecauseitstitleismoreinformative,thetablehaslessdistractingvisualclutter,anditsitemsareorganizedtoletusseepatternsmoreeasily.

8.3.3.2BARCHARTS.Barchartscommunicateasmuchbyimageasbyspecificnumbers.Barsthatseemtobearrangedinnopatternimplynopoint,soifpossible,groupandarrangebarstogivereadersanimageofanorderthatmatchesyourpoint.

Forexample,lookatfigure8.4inthecontextoftheexplanatorysentencebeforeit.Theitemsarelistedalphabetically,anorderthatdoesn thelpreadersseethepoint.Incontrast,figure8.5supportstheclaimwithacoherentimage.

MostofthedesertareaintheworldisconcentratedinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.

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Figure8.4.Worldʼstenlargestdeserts

MostofthedesertareaintheworldisconcentratedinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.

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Figure8.5.Worlddistributionoflargedeserts

Instandardbarcharts,eachbarrepresents100percentofawhole.Butsometimesithelpsreadersiftheycanseespecificvaluesforpartsofthewhole.Youcandothatineitheroftwoways:

■A stackedbar chartsubdividesthebarsintoproportionalparts,asinthechartontheleftinfigure8.6.■A groupedbar chartusesaseparatebarforeachpartofthewholebutgroupsthebars,asinthechartontherightinfigure8.6.

Usestackedbarsonlywhenit smoreimportanttocomparewholevaluesthanitistocomparetheirsegments.Readers,however,can teasilygaugeproportionsbyeyealone,soifyoudousestackedbars,dothis:

■Arrangesegmentsinalogicalorder.Ifpossible,putthelargestsegmentatthebottominthedarkestshade.■Labelsegmentswithspecificnumbersandconnectcorrespondingsegmentswithgraylinestohelpclarifyproportions.

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Figure8.6.Stackedbarchartcomparedtogroupedbarchart

Figure8.7showshowastackedbarchartismorereadablewhenirrelevantsegmentsareeliminatedandthosekeptarelogicallyorderedandfullylabeled.

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Figure8.7.Stackedbarchartsshowinggeneratorsofnuclearenergy,1980–1999

Agroupedbarchartmakesiteasyforreaderstocomparepartsofawhole,butdifficultforthemtocomparedifferentwholesbecausetheymustdomentalarithmetic.Ifyougroupbarsbecausethesegmentsaremoreimportantthanthewholes,dothis:

■Arrangegroupsofbarsinalogicalorder;ifpossible,putbarsofsimilarsizenexttooneanother(orderbarswithingroupsinthesameway).

■Labelgroupswiththenumberforthewhole,eitheraboveeachgrouporbelowthelabelsonthebottom.

Mostdatathatfitabarchartcanalsoberepresentedinapiechart.Itisapopularchoiceinmagazines,tabloids,andannualreports,butit shardertoreadthanabarchart,anditinvitesmisinterpretationbecausereadersmustmentallycompareproportionsofsegmentswhosesizeishardtojudgeinthefirstplace.Mostresearchersconsiderthemamateurish.Usebarchartsinstead.

8.3.3.3LINEGRAPHS.Becausealinegraphemphasizestrends,readersmustseeaclearimagetointerpretitcorrectly.Tocreateaclearimage,dothefollowing:

■Choosethevariablethatmakesthelinegointhedirection,upordown,thatsupportsyourpoint.Ifthegoodnewsisareduction(down)inhighschooldropouts,youcanmoreeffectivelyrepresentthesamedataasanincreaseinretention(up).

■Plotmorethansixlinesononegraphonlyifyoucannotmakeyourpointinanyotherway.■Donotdependondifferentshadesofgraytodistinguishlines,asinfigure8.8.■Whenyoucreatealinegraphfromonlyafewvalues,thelineswillbelessprecise.Soifyouplotfewerthantenvalues(calleddatapoints),indicatethatbyaddingadotateachdatapoint,asinfigure8.9.Ifthosevaluesarerelevant,youcanaddnumbersabovethedots.Donotadddotstolinesplottedfromtenormoredatapoints.

Comparefigure8.8andfigure8.9.Beyonditsgeneralstory,figure8.8ishardertoreadbecausetheshadesofgraydonotdistinguishthelineswellandbecauseoureyeshavetoflickbackandforthtoconnectlineswithvariablesandtheirnumbers.Figure8.9makesthoseconnectionsclearer.

Thesedifferentwaysofshowingthesamedatacanbeconfusing.Youcancutthroughthatconfusionifyoufirstrepresentthesamedataindifferentways(yourcomputerprogramwillusuallyletyoudothatquickly)andthenasksomeoneunfamiliarwiththedatatojudgetherepresentationsforimpactandclarity.Besuretointroducetherepresentationswithasentencethatstatestheclaimyouwantthetableorfiguretosupport.

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Figure8.8.Foreign-bornresidentsintheUnitedStates,1870–1990

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Figure8.9.Foreign-bornresidentsintheUnitedStates,1870–1990

8.4CommunicateDataEthicallyYourgraphicmustbenotonlyclear,accurate,andrelevantbutalsohonest.Itshouldnotdistortitsdataortheirrelationshipstomakeapoint.Forexample,thetwobarchartsinfigure8.10displayidenticaldatayetseemtosenddifferentmessages.Thefullscaleinthefigureontheleftcreatesafairlyflatslope,whichmakesthedropinpollutionseemsmall.Theverticalscaleinthefigureontheright,however,beginsnotat0butat80.Whenascaleisthattruncated,itsdrawn-outslopeexaggeratessmallcontrasts.

Graphscanalsomisleadbyimplyingfalsecorrelations.Someoneclaimingthatunemploymentgoesdownwhenunionmembershipgoesdownmightofferfigure8.11asevidence.Andindeed,unionmembershipandtheunemploymentrateseemtomovetogethersocloselythatareadermightinfertheyarecausallyrelated.Butthescalefortheleftaxisinfigure8.11(unionmembership)differsfromthescalefortherightaxis(theunemploymentrate).Thetwoscaleshavebeendeliberatelyskewedtomakethetwodeclinesseemparallel.Theymayberelated,butthatdistortedimagedoesn tproveit.

Graphscanalsomisleadwhentheimageencouragesreaderstomisjudgevalues.Thetwochartsinfigure8.12seemtocommunicatedifferentmessageseventhoughtheyrepresentexactlythesamedata.Thesetwochartsare stackedarea charts.Despitetheirvisualdifferences,theyrepresentthesamedata.Thesestackedareachartsrepresentdifferencesinvaluesnotbytheanglesofthelinesbutbytheareasbetweenthem.Inbothcharts,thebandsforsouth,east,andwestareroughlythesamewidththroughout,indicatinglittlechangeinthevaluestheyrepresent.Thebandforthenorth,however,widenssharply,representingalargeincreaseinthevalueitrepresents.Inthechartontheleft,readersarelikelytomisjudgethetopthreebandsbecausetheyareontopoftherisingnorthband,makingthosebandsseemtoriseaswell.Inthechartontheright,ontheotherhand,thosethreebandsdonotrisebecausetheyareonthebottom.Hereonlythebandforthenorthrises.

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Figure8.10.CapitolCitypollutionindex,1982–1994

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Figure8.11.Unionmembershipandunemploymentrate,1993–1999

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Figure8.12.RepresentationofcollarcountiesamongStateU.undergraduates(percentageoftotal)

Herearefourguidelinesforavoidingvisualmisrepresentations:

■Donotmanipulateascaletomagnifyorreduceacontrast.■Donotuseafigurewhoseimagedistortsvalues.■Donotmakeatableorfigureunnecessarilycomplexormisleadinglysimple.■Ifthetableorfiguresupportsapoint,stateit.

Table8.7.Commongraphicformsandtheiruses

Data Rhetoricaluses

Barchart

Comparesthevalueofonevariableacrossaseriesofitemscalledcases(e.g.,averagesalariesforserviceworkersvariableinsixcompaniescases).

Createsstrongvisualcontrastsamongindividualcases,emphasizingcomparisons.Forspecificvalues,addnumberstobars.Canshowranksortrends.Verticalbars(calledcolumns)aremostcommon,butbarscanbehorizontalifcasesarenumerousorhavecomplexlabels.Seesection8.3.3.2.

Barchart,groupedorsplit

Comparesthevalueofonevariable,dividedintosubsets,acrossaseriesofcases(e.g.,averagesalariesvariableformenandwomenserviceworkerssubsetsinsixcompaniescases).

Contrastssubsetswithinandacrossindividualcases;notusefulforcomparingtotalvaluesforcases.Forspecificvalues,addnumberstobars.Groupedbarsshowrankingortrendspoorly;usefulfortimeseriesonlyiftrendsareunimportant.Seesection8.3.3.2.

Barchart,stacked

Comparesthevalueofonevariable,dividedintotwoormoreBestforcomparingtotalsacrosscasesandsubsetswithincases;difficulttocomparesubsetsacrosscases

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subsets,acrossaseriesofcases(e.g.,harassmentcomplaintsvariablesegmentedbyregionsubsetsinsixindustriescases).

(usegroupedbars).Forspecificvalues,addnumberstobarsandsegments.Usefulfortimeseries.Canshowranksortrendsfortotalvaluesonly.Seesection8.3.3.2.

Histogram

Comparestwovariables,withonesegmentedintorangesthatfunctionlikethecasesinabargraph(e.g.,serviceworkerscontinuousvariablewhosesalaryis$0-5,000,$5-10,000,$10-15,000,etc.segmentedvariable).

Bestforcomparingsegmentswithincontinuousdatasets.Showstrendsbutemphasizessegments(e.g.,asuddenspikeat$5-10,000representingpart-timeworkers).Forspecificvalues,addnumberstobars.

Imagechart

Showsvalueofoneormorevariablesforcasesdisplayedonamap,diagram,orotherimage(e.g.,statescasescoloredredorbluetoshowvotingpatternsvariable).

Showsthedistributionofthedatainrelationtopreexistingcategories;deemphasizesspecificvalues.Bestwhentheimageisfamiliar,asinamapordiagramofaprocess.

Piechart

Showstheproportionofasinglevariableforaseriesofcases(e.g.,thebudgetsharevariableofUScabinetdepartmentscases).

Bestforcomparingonesegmenttothewhole.Usefulonlywithfewsegmentsorsegmentsthatareverydifferentinsize;otherwisecomparisonsamongsegmentsaredifficult.Forspecificvalues,addnumberstosegments.Commoninpopularvenues,frownedonbyprofessionals.See8.3.3.2.

Linegraph

Comparescontinuousvariablesforoneormorecases(e.g.,temperaturevariableandviscosityvariableintwofluidscases).

Bestforshowingtrends;deemphasizesspecificvalues.Usefulfortimeseries.Toshowspecificvalues,addnumberstodatapoints.Toshowthesignificanceofatrend,segmentthegrid(e.g.,beloworaboveaverageperformance).See8.3.3.3.

Areachart

Comparestwocontinuousvariablesforoneormorecases(e.g.,readingtestscoresvariableovertimevariableinaschooldistrictcase).

Showstrends;deemphasizesspecificvalues.Canbeusedfortimeseries.Toshowspecificvalues,addnumberstodatapoints.Areasbelowthelinesaddnoinformationandwillleadsomereaderstomisjudgevalues.Confusingwithmultiplelines/areas.

Areachart,stacked

Comparestwocontinuousvariablesfortwoormorecases(e.g.,Profitvariableovertimevariableforseveralproductscases).

Showsthetrendforthetotalofallcases,plushowmucheachcasecontributestothattotal.Likelytomisleadreadersonthevalueorthetrendforanyindividualcase,asexplainedinsection8.4.

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Scatterplot

Comparestwovariablesatmultipledatapointsforasinglecase(e.g.,housingsalesvariableanddistancefromdowntownvariableinonecitycase)oratonedatapointformultiplecases(e.g.,brandloyaltyvariableandrepairfrequencyvariablefortenmanufacturerscases).

Bestforshowingthedistributionofdata,especiallywhenthereisnocleartrendorwhenthefocusisonoutlyingdatapoints.Ifonlyafewdatapointsareplotted,itallowsafocusonindividualvalues.

Bubblechart

Comparesthreevariablesatmultipledatapointsforasinglecase(e.g.,housingsales,variabledistancefromdowntown,variableandpricesvariableinonecitycase)oratonedatapointformultiplecases(e.g.,imageadvertising,variablerepairfrequency,variableandbrandloyaltyvariablefortenmanufacturerscases).

Emphasizestherelationshipbetweenthethirdvariable(bubbles)andthefirsttwo;mostusefulwhenthequestioniswhetherthethirdvariableisaproductoftheothers.Readerseasilymisjudgerelativevaluesshownbybubbles;addingnumbersmitigatesthatproblem.

1.Anoteonterminology:Thetermsforgraphicsvary,sowewillstipulateours.Inthischapter,weusethetermgraphicstorefertoallvisualrepresentationsofevidence.Anothertermsometimesusedforsuchrepresentationsisillustrations.Traditionally,graphicsaredividedintotablesandfigures.Atableisagridwithcolumnsandrowsthatpresentdatainnumbersorwordsorganizedbycategories.Figuresareallothergraphicforms,includinggraphs,charts,photographs,drawings,anddiagrams.Figuresthatpresentquantitativedataaredividedintocharts,typicallyconsistingofbars,circles,points,orothershapes,andgraphs,typicallyconsistingofcontinuouslines.Forasurveyofcommonfigures,seetable8.7.

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9RevisingYourDraft

9.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgument

9.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaim

9.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherent

9.4CheckYourParagraphs

9.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseIt

Somenewresearchersthinkthatoncetheyhaveadraft,they redone.Thoughtfulwritersknowbetter.Theywriteafirstdraftnotfortheirreadersbutforthemselves,toseewhethertheycanmakethecasetheyhopedto(orabetterone).Thentheyrevisetheirdraftuntiltheythinkitmeetstheneedsandexpectationsoftheirreaders.That shard,becauseweallknowourownworktoowelltoreaditasotherswill.Toreviseeffectively,youmustknowwhatreaderslookforandwhetheryourdrafthelpsthemfindit.Tothatend,ouradvicemayseemmechanical.Butonlywhenyoucananalyzeyourdraftobjectivelycanyouavoidreadingintoitwhatyouwantyourreaderstogetoutofit.

Wesuggestrevisingfromthetopdown:firstthe outerframe (introductionandconclusion),thenoverallorganization,thensections,paragraphs,sentences,andfinallystylisticissuessuchasspellingandpunctuation(forguidanceontheseissues,seepart3).Ofcoursenoonerevisessoneatly.Allofusfiddlewithwordsaswemoveparagraphsaroundandreorganizeaswereviseasentence.Butyou relikelytomakethebestrevisionsifyourevisefromwholetopart,evenifatthemomentyou rerevisingapartistheonlywholeyouhave.

Manyexperiencedresearchersfindthattheycanedithardcopymorereliablythantheycanedittextontheircomputerscreen.Youmighteditearlydraftsonthescreen,butyoumaycatchmoreerrorsandgetabettersenseoftheoverallstructureofyourreportifyoureadatleastonelaterversionofitonpaper,asyourreaderswill.

9.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgumentCompletingadraftisanaccomplishment,butdon tfinishthefirstdraftandthenmoveimmediatelytofine-tuningsentences.Afterthefirstdraft,partsofyourargumentwilllikelystillnotstanduptoarobustchallenge.Ifyouinvestalotoftimeinpolishingsentences,itcanbehardtolateracceptthatasectionofyourargumentneedstobereframed,especiallyifyouarenewtoresearch.Instead,checkyourargument sreasoning.Haveyouconsideredthestrongestrelevantcounterarguments?Haveyoulookedforevidencethatchallengesorcomplicatesyourreasons?Haveyouconsideredalternativeinterpretationsofyourevidence?Ifnot,nowisthetime.Ifyoufinditdifficulttothinkofsignificantalternativestoyourargument,nowthatyouhavecompletedadraft,yourprofessormightbewillingtotalkwithyouaboutwhereyourargumentoverlookslikelyobjections.

9.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaimYourreadersmustrecognizethreethingsquicklyandunambiguously:

■whereyourintroductionends■whereyourconclusionbegins■whatsentencesinoneorbothstateyourclaim

Tomakethefirsttwoclearlyvisible,youmightinsertasubheadorextraspacebetweenyourintroductionandbodyandanotherbetweenthebodyandconclusion.(Chapter10discussesrevisingyourlastdraftintroductionandconclusionindetail,particularlyhowandwhereyousignalyourclaim.)

9.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherentOnceyouframeyourreportclearly,checkitsbody.Readerswillthinkyourreportiscoherentwhentheyseethefollowing:

■whatkeytermsrunthroughallsectionsofthereport■whereeachsectionandsubsectionendsandthenextbegins■howeachsectionrelatestotheonebeforeit■whatroleeachsectionplaysinthewhole■whatsentenceineachsectionandsubsectionstatesitspoint■whatdistinctivekeytermsrunthrougheachsection

Toensurethatyourreaderswillseethosefeatures,checkforthefollowing:

1.Dokeytermsrunthroughyourwholereport?

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■Circlekeytermsintheclaiminyourintroductionandinyourconclusion(review7.3).■Circlethosesametermsinthebodyofyourreport.■Underlineotherwordsrelatedtoconceptsnamedbythosecircledterms.

Ifreadersdon tseeyourkeytermsinmostparagraphs,theymaythinkyourreportwanders.Revisebyworkingthosetermsintopartsthatlackthem.Ifyouunderlinedmanymorewordsthanyoucircled,besurethatreaderswillrecognizehowtheunderlinedwordsrelatetotheconceptsnamedinyourcircledkeyterms.Ifreadersmightmisstheconnections,changesomeofthoserelatedwordstothekeyterms.Ifyoureallydidstrayfromyourlineofreasoning,youhavesomeseriousrevisingtodo.

2.Isthebeginningofeachsectionandsubsectionclearlysignaled?Youcanusesubheadstosignaltransitionsfromonemajorsectiontothenext(review6.2.4).Inalongpaper,youmightaddan

extraspaceatthemajorjoints.Ifyouhaveaproblemdecidingwhatwordstouseinsubheadsorwheretoputthem,yourreaderswillhaveabiggerone,becausetheyprobablywon tseeyourorganization.(Forstylesofdifferentlevelsofheads,seeA.2.2.4.)

3.Doeseachmajorsectionbeginwithwordsthatsignalhowthatsectionrelatestotheonebeforeit?Readersmustnotonlyrecognizewheresectionsbeginandendbutalsounderstandwhytheyareorderedastheyare(see

6.2.5 6.2.6).SignalthelogicofyourorderwithwordssuchasConsequently,Incontrast,Moreimportantly,Somehaveobjectedthat,andsoon.

4.Isitclearhoweachsectionisrelevanttothewhole?Ofeachsection,askWhatquestiondoesthissectionanswer?Ifitdoesn thelptoansweroneofthefivequestionswhose

answersconstituteanargument(see5.2),thinkaboutitsrelevance:doesitcreateacontext,explainabackgroundconceptorissue,orhelpreadersinsomeotherway?Ifyoucan texplainhowasectionrelatestoyourclaim,considercuttingit.

5.Isthepointofeachsectionstatedinasentenceattheendofabriefintroductiontothatsection(oratitsend)?Ifyouhaveachoice,statethepointofasectionattheendofitsintroduction.Undernocircumstancesburythepointofa

sectioninitsmiddle.Ifasectionislongerthanfourorfivepages,youmightrestatethepointatitsend.6.Dothespecifictermsthatdistinguishasectionrunthroughit?

Justasthekeytermsthatunifyyourwholereportdistinguishitfromotherreports,soshouldthekeytermsthatdistinguisheachsectionandsubsectionrunthroughandunifythatsection.RepeatstepIforeachsection:findthesentencethatexpressesitspointandidentifythekeytermsthatdistinguishthatsectionfromtheothers.Thencheckwhetherthosetermsrunthroughthatsection.Ifyoufindnokeyterms,thenyourreadersmightnotseewhatdistinctideasthatsectioncontributestothewhole.

9.4CheckYourParagraphsEachparagraphshouldberelevanttothepointofitssection.Andlikesections,eachparagraphshouldhaveasentenceortwointroducingit,usuallystatingitspointandincludingthekeyconceptsthattherestoftheparagraphdevelops.Iftheopeningsentencesofaparagraphdon tstateitspoint,thenitslastoneshould.Orderyoursentencesbysomeprincipleandmakethemrelevanttothepointoftheparagraph(forprinciplesoforder,see6.2.5).

Avoidstringsofshortparagraphs(fewerthanfivelines)andverylongones(formostfields,morethanhalfapage).Reservetheuseoftwo-orthree-sentenceparagraphsforlists,transitions,introductionsandconclusionstosections,andstatementsthatyouwanttoemphasize.(Weuseshortparagraphsheresothatreaderscanmoreeasilyskim rarelyaconsiderationinreportwriting.)

9.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseItIfyoustartyourprojectearly,you llhavetimetoletyourreviseddraftcool.Whatseemsgoodonedayoftenlooksdifferentthenext.Whenyoureturntoyourdraft,don treaditstraightthrough;skimitstop-levelparts:itsintroduction,thefirstparagraphofeachmajorsection,andtheconclusion.Then,basedonwhatyouhaveread,paraphraseitforsomeonewhohasn treadit.Doestheparaphrasehangtogether?Doesitfairlysumupyourargument?Evenbetter,asksomeoneelsetoskimyourreportbyreadingjustitsintroductionandtheintroductiontoeachmajorsection:howwellthatpersonsummarizesyourreportwillpredicthowwellyourreaderswillunderstandit.

Finally,alwaysreviseinlightofateacher soradvisor sadvice.Notonlywouldyouannoyanyonewhotakestimetoreadadraftandmakesuggestionsonlytoseeyouignorethem,butyouwouldpassupanopportunitytoimproveyourreport.Thatdoesn tmeanyoumustfolloweverysuggestion,butyoushouldconsidereachonecarefully.

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10WritingYourFinalIntroductionandConclusion

10.1DraftYourFinalIntroduction

10.1.1EstablishaBriefContextofPriorResearch10.1.2RestateYourQuestionasSomethingNotKnownorFullyUnderstood10.1.3StatetheSignificanceofYourQuestion10.1.4StateYourClaim10.1.5DraftaNewFirstSentence

10.2DraftYourFinalConclusion

10.2.1RestateYourClaim10.2.2PointOutaNewSignificance,aPracticalApplication,orNewResearch(orAllThree)

10.3WriteYourTitleLast

Onceyouhaveafinaldraftandcanseewhatyouhaveactuallywritten,youcanwriteyourfinalintroductionandconclusion.Thesetwoframingpartsofyourreportcruciallyinfluencehowreaderswillunderstandandremembertherestofit,soit sworthyourtimetomakethemasclearandcompellingasyoucan.

Yourintroductionhasthreeaims.Itshoulddothefollowing:

■putyourresearchinthecontextofotherresearch■makereadersunderstandwhytheyshouldreadyourreport■givethemaframeworkforunderstandingit

Mostintroductionsrunabout10percentofthewhole(inthesciencestheyareoftenshorter).Yourconclusionalsohasthreeaims.Itshoulddothefollowing:

■leavereaderswithaclearideaofyourclaim■makereadersunderstanditsimportance■suggestfurtherresearch

Yourconclusionshouldusuallybeshorterthanyourintroduction.(Inthesesanddissertations,theintroductionandconclusionareusuallyseparatechapters.)

10.1DraftYourFinalIntroductionDifferentfieldsseemtointroducereportsindifferentways,butbehindmostofthemisapatternwiththefourpartsdescribedin6.2.2:

1.Openingcontextorbackground.Whenthissummarizesrelevantresearch,it scalledaliteraturereviewthatputsyourprojectinthecontextofotherresearchandsetsupthenextstep.Keepitshort.

2.Astatementofyourresearchquestion.Thisistypicallyastatementofwhatisn tknownorunderstoodorofwhatisflawedabouttheresearchyoucitedinstep1.Itoftenbeginswithbut,however,oranotherwordsignalingaqualification.

3.Thesignificanceofyourquestion.ThisanswersSowhat?Itiskeytomotivatingyourreaders.4.Yourclaim.Thisanswersyourresearchquestionexpressedinstep2.Hereisanabbreviatedexample(eachsentencecouldbe

expandedtoaparagraphormore):Forcenturies,riskanalystshavestudiedriskasaprobleminstatisticsandtherationalusesofprobabilitytheory.contextButriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthatordinarypeoplethinkaboutriskinwaysthatseemunrelatedtostatisticallybasedprobabilities.questionUntilweunderstandhownonexpertsthinkaboutrisk,animportantaspectofhumancognitionwillremainapuzzle.significanceItappearsthatnonexpertsjudgeriskbyvisualizingworst-casescenarios,thenassessinghowfrighteningtheimageis.claim

10.1.1EstablishaBriefContextofPriorResearch

Noteveryreportopenswithasurveyofresearch.Somebegindirectlywitharesearchquestionstatedassomethingnotknownorunderstood,followedbyareviewoftherelevantliterature.Thisisacommonstrategywhenthegapinknowledgeorunderstandingiswellknown:

Therelationshipbetweensecondhandsmokeandheartdiseaseisstillcontested.

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Butifthatgapisn twellknown,suchanopeningcanfeelabrupt,likethisone:

Researchersdonotunderstandhowordinarypeoplethinkaboutrisk.

Asarule,writerspreparereadersbydescribingthepriorresearchthattheirresearchwillextend,modify,orcorrect.Ifthereportisintendedforgeneralreaders,thecontextcanbebrief:

Wealltakeriskseveryday—whenwecrossthestreetoreathigh-fatfood,evenwhenwetakeabath.Thestudyofriskbeganwithgamesofchance,soithaslongbeentreatedmathematically.Bythetwentiethcentury,researchersusedmathematicaltoolstostudyriskinmanyareas:investments,commercialproducts,evenwar.Asaresult,mostresearchersthinkthatriskisastatisticallyquantifiableproblemandthatdecisionsaboutitshouldberationallybased.

Inareportintendedforotherresearchers,thisopeningcontexttypicallydescribesthespecificresearchthatthereportwillextendormodify.Itisimportanttorepresentthispriorresearchfairly,sodescribeitasthoseresearcherswould.

EversinceGirolamoCardanothoughtaboutgamesofchanceinquantitativetermsinthesixteenthcentury(Cardano1545),riskhasbeentreatedasapurelymathematicalproblem.AnalysesofrisksignificantlyimprovedintheseventeenthcenturywhenPascal,Leibniz,andothersdevelopedthecalculus(Bernstein1996).Inthetwentiethcentury,researcherswidenedtheirfocustostudyriskinallareasoflife:investments,consumerproducts,theenvironment,evenwar(Stimson1990;1998).Theseproblems,too,havebeenaddressedalmostexclusivelyfromamathematicalperspective.[Detaileddiscussionofcontemporaryresearchfollows.]

Somereports,especiallythesesanddissertations,goonlikethatforpages,citingscoresofbooksandarticlesonlymarginallyrelevanttothetopic,usuallytoshowhowwidelytheresearcherhasread.Thatkindofsurveycanprovidehelpfulbibliographytootherresearchers,especiallynewones,butbusyreaderswanttoknowaboutonlythespecificresearchthattheresearcherintendstoextend,modify,orcorrect.

Itisimportanttorepresentthispriorresearchfairlyandfully:describeitastheresearcheryou recitingwould,evenquoting,notselectivelyoroutofcontextbutasshewouldrepresentherownwork.

Earlyinyourcareeryoumightnotbeabletowritethisreviewofpriorresearchwithmuchconfidence,becauseyou reunlikelytoknowmuchofit.Ifso,imagineyourreaderassomeonelikeyourselfbeforeyoustartedyourresearch.Whatdidyouthennotknow?Whatdidyouthengetwrongthatyourresearchhascorrected?Howhasitimprovedyourownflawedunderstanding?Thisiswhereyoucanuseaworkinghypothesisthatyourejected:ItmightseemthatXisso,but (seealso4.1.2).

10.1.2RestateYourQuestionasSomethingNotKnownorFullyUnderstood

Aftertheopeningcontext,statewhatthatpriorresearchhasn tdoneorhowit sincomplete,evenwrong.Introducethatqualificationorcontradictionwithbut,however,orsomeothertermindicatingthatyou reabouttomodifythereceivedknowledgeandunderstandingthatyoujustsurveyed:

EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.contextButriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthatordinarypeoplethinkaboutriskinwaysthatareirrationalandunrelatedtostatisticallyrealisticprobabilities.Whatisnotunderstoodiswhethersuchnonexpertriskassessmentisbasedonrandomguessesorwhetherithassystematicproperties.questionrestated

10.1.3StatetheSignificanceofYourQuestion

Nowyoumustshowyourreadersthesignificanceofansweringyourresearchquestion.Imagineareaderaskingthatmostvexingquestion,Sowhat?,thenanswerit.Frameyourresponseasalargercostofnotknowingtheanswertoyourresearchquestion:

EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.contextButriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthat…Whatisnotunderstoodiswhethersuchnonexpertriskassessmentisbasedonrandomguessesorwhetherithassystematicproperties.questionrestated[Sowhat?]Untilweunderstandhowriskisunderstoodbynonexperts,animportantaspectofhumanreasoningwillremainapuzzle:thekindofcognitiveprocessingthatseemssystematicbutliesoutsidetherangeofwhatiscalled“rationalthinking.”significance

Alternativelyyoucanphrasethecostasabenefit:

EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.contextButriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthat…Whatisnotunderstoodiswhethersuchnonexpertriskassessmentisbasedonrandomguessesorwhetherithassystematicproperties.questionrestated[Sowhat?]Ifwecouldunderstandhowordinarypeoplemakedecisionsaboutrisksintheirdailylives,wecouldbetterunderstandakindofcognitiveprocessingthatseemssystematicbutliesoutsidetherangeofwhatiscalled“rationalthinking.”significance

YoumaystruggletoanswerthatSowhat?Itisaproblemthatonlyexperiencecansolve,butthefactis,evenexperiencedresearcherscanbevexedbyit.

10.1.4StateYourClaim

Onceyoustatethatsomethingisn tknownorunderstoodandwhyitshouldbe,readerswanttoseeyourclaim,theanswertoyourresearchquestion(weabbreviateagooddealinwhatfollows):

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EversinceGirolamoCardano…mathematicalperspective.contextButriskcommunicatorshavediscoveredthatordinarypeoplethinkaboutriskinwaysthataresystematicbutirrationalandunrelatedtostatisticallyrealisticprobabilities.question[Sowhat?]Untilweunderstandhowriskisunderstoodbynonexperts,animportantkindofhumanreasoningwillremainapuzzle:thekindofcognitiveprocessingthatseemssystematicbutliesoutsidetherangeofwhatiscalled“rationalthinking.”significanceItappearsthatnonexpertsassessrisknotbyassigningquantitativeprobabilitiestoeventsthatmightoccurbutbyvisualizingworst-casescenarios,thenassigningdegreesofriskaccordingtohowvividandfrighteningtheimageis.claim

Ifyouhavereasontowithholdyourclaimuntiltheendofyourpaper,writeasentencetoconcludeyourintroductionthatusesthekeytermsfromthatclaimandthatframeswhatfollows:

Itappearsthatnonexpertsassessrisknotbyassigningquantitativeprobabilitiesbutbysystematicallyusingpropertiesoftheirvisualimagination.promiseofclaim

Thosefourstepsmayseemmechanical,buttheyconstitutetheintroductionstomostresearchreportsineveryfield,bothinsidetheacademicworldandout.Asyoureadyoursources,especiallyjournalarticles,watchforthatfour-partframework.Youwillnotonlylearnarangeofstrategiesforwritingyourownintroductionsbutbetterunderstandtheonesyouread.

10.1.5DraftaNewFirstSentence

Somewritersfinditsodifficulttowritethefirstsentenceofareportthattheyfallintoclich s.Avoidthese:

■Donotrepeatthelanguageofyourassignment.■Donotquoteadictionarydefinition:Websterdefinesriskas■Donotpontificate:Forcenturies,philosophershavedebatedtheburningquestionof (Goodquestionsspeaktheirownimportance.)

Ifyouwanttobeginwithsomethinglivelierthanpriorresearch,tryoneormoreoftheseopeners(butnotethewarningthatfollows):

1.Astrikingquotation:

Assomeoneoncesaid,calculatingriskislikejudgingbeauty:itʼsallintheeyeoftheirrationalbeholder.

2.Astrikingfact:

Manypeopledriveratherthanflybecausethevividimageofanairplanecrashterrifiesthem,eventhoughtheyaremanytimesmorelikelytodieinacarcrashthanaplanewreck.

3.Arelevantanecdote:

GeorgeMilleralwaysdrovelongdistancestomeetclientsbecausehebelievedthattheriskofanairplanecrashwastoogreat.Evenwhenhebrokehisbackinanautomobileaccident,hestillthoughthehadmadetherightcalculation.“AtleastIsurvived.Theoddsofsurvivinganairplanecrasharezero!”

Youcancombineallthree:

Assomeoneoncesaid,calculatingriskislikejudgingbeauty:itʼsallintheeyeoftheirrationalbeholder.Forexample,manypeopledriveratherthanflybecausethevividimageofanairplanecrashterrifiesthem,eventhoughtheyaremorelikelytodieinacarcrashthanaplanewreck.Becauseofthissortofirrationalthinking,GeorgeMilleralwaysdrovelongdistancestomeetclientsbecausehebelievedthattheriskofanairplanecrashwastoogreat.Evenwhenhebrokehisbackinanautomobileaccident,hestillthoughthehadmadetherightcalculation.“AtleastIsurvived.Theoddsofsurvivinganairplanecrasharezero!”

Besuretoincludeintheseopenerstermsthatrefertothekeyconceptsyou llusewhenyouwritetherestoftheintroduction(andtherestofthereport).Inthiscase,theyincludecalculating,risk,vividimage,irrational,morelikely.

Nowthewarning:beforeyouwriteasnappyopening,besurethatothersinyourfieldusethem.Insomefieldsthey reconsideredtoojournalisticforseriousscholarship.

10.2DraftYourFinalConclusionIfyouhavenobetterplan,buildyourconclusionaroundtheelementsofyourintroduction,inreverseorder.

10.2.1RestateYourClaim

Restateyourclaimearlyinyourconclusion,morefullythaninyourintroduction:

Ordinarypeoplemakedecisionsaboutrisknotonarationalorquantifiablebasisbutonthebasisofatleastsixpsychologicalfactorsthatnotonlyinvolveemotionbutsystematicallydrawonthepowerofvisualimagination.

Atthispointyou reprobablysurewhatyourclaimis,butevenso,takethislastchancetorephraseittomakeitasspecificandcompleteasyoucan.

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10.2.2PointOutaNewSignificance,aPracticalApplication,orNewResearch(orAllThree)

Afterstatingyourclaim,remindreadersofitssignificance,orbetter,stateanewsignificanceorapracticalapplicationofyourclaim:

Thesefindingssuggestahithertounsuspectedaspectofhumancognition,aquantitativelogicindependentofstatisticalprobabilitiesinvolvingdegreesofprecisionorrealisminvisualization.Onceweunderstandthisimaginativebutsystematicassessmentofrisk,itshouldbepossibleforriskcommunicatorstobetterexplainriskineverydaylife.

Finally,suggestfurtherresearch.Thisgesturesuggestshowthecommunityofresearcherscancontinuetheconversation.Itmirrorstheopeningcontext:

Althoughthesefactorsimproveourunderstandingofrisk,theydonotexhaustthe“human”factorsinjudgmentsofit.Wemustalsoinvestigatetherelevanceofage,gender,education,andintelligence.Forexample,…

10.3WriteYourTitleLastYourtitleisthefirstthingyourreadersread;itshouldbethelastthingyouwrite.Itshouldbothannouncethetopicofyourreportandcommunicateitsconceptualframework,sobuilditoutofthekeytermsthatyouearliercircledandunderlined(review9.3).Comparethesethreetitles:

RiskThinkingaboutRiskIrrationalbutSystematicRiskAssessment:TheRoleofVisualImaginationinCalculatingRelativeRisk

Thefirsttitleisaccuratebuttoogeneraltogiveusmuchguidanceaboutwhatistocome.Thesecondismorespecific,butthethirdusesbothatitleandasubtitletogiveusadvancenoticeaboutthekeywordsthatwillappearinwhatfollows.Whenreadersseethekeywordsinatitleturnupagaininyourintroductionandthenagainthroughoutyourreport,they remorelikelytofeelthatitspartshangtogether.Two-parttitlesaremostuseful:theygiveyouplentyofopportunitytouseyourkeywordstoannounceyourkeyconcepts.

Atthispointyoumaybesosickofyourreportthatyouwantnothingmorethantokickitoutthedoor.Resistthatimpulse;youhaveonemoreimportanttask.

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11RevisingSentences

11.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentence

11.1.1AvoidLongIntroductoryPhrasesandClauses11.1.2MakeSubjectsShortandConcrete11.1.3AvoidInterruptingSubjectsandVerbswithMorethanaWordorTwo11.1.4PutKeyActionsinVerbs,NotinNouns11.1.5PutInformationFamiliartoReadersattheBeginningofaSentence,NewInformationattheEnd11.1.6ChooseActiveorPassiveVerbstoReflectthePreviousPrinciples11.1.7UseFirst-PersonPronounsAppropriately

11.2DiagnoseWhatYouRead

11.3ChoosetheRightWord

11.4PolishItUp

11.5GiveItUpandPrintItOut

Yourlastbigtaskistomakeyoursentencesasclearasyourideasallow.Onsomeoccasionsyoumayknowyourwritingisawkward,especiallyifyou rewritingaboutanunfamiliarandcomplextopicforintimidatingreaders.Infact,youmayevenfeelyou veforgottenhowtowriteclearlyatall.Youneedaplantorevisesentencesthatyoucanseeneedhelp,butevenmore,youneedawayfirsttoidentifythosethatyouthinkarefinebutthatreadersmightthinkarenot.

Wecan ttellyouhowtofixeveryproblemineverysentence,butwecantellyouhowtodealwiththosethatmostoftenafflictawriterstrugglingtosoundlikea seriousscholar, astylethatmostexperiencedreadersthinkisjustpretentious.Hereisashortexample:

1a.Anunderstandingofterroristthinkingcouldachieveimprovementsintheprotectionofthepublic.

Howeverimpressivethatsounds,thestudentwhowroteitmeantonlythis:

1b.Ifweunderstoodhowterroriststhink,wecouldprotectthepublicbetter.

Todiagnose1aandreviseitinto1b,however,youmustknowafewgrammaticalterms:noun,verb,activeverb,passiveverb,wholesubject,simplesubject,mainclause,subordinateclause.Ifthey reonlyadimmemory,skimagrammarguidebeforeyougoon.

11.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentenceJustasthekeytoaclearlywrittenreport,section,orparagraphisinitsfirstfewsentences,soisthekeytoaclearlywrittensentenceinitsfirstfewwords.Whenreadersgraspthosefirstsevenoreightwordseasily,theyreadwhatfollowsfaster,understanditbetter,andrememberitlonger.Itisthedifferencebetweenthesetwosentences:

2a.TheFederalistsʼargumentinregardtothedestabilizationofgovernmentbypopulardemocracyarosefromtheirbeliefinthetendencyoffactionstofurthertheirself-interestattheexpenseofthecommongood.

2b.TheFederalistsarguedthatpopulardemocracydestabilizedgovernment,becausetheybelievedthatfactionstendedtofurthertheirself-interestattheexpenseofthecommongood.

Towriteasentencelike2b,ortoreviseonelike2ainto2b,followthesesevenprinciples:

■Avoidintroducingmorethanafewsentenceswithlongphrasesandclauses;gettothesubjectofyoursentencequickly.■Makesubjectsshortandconcrete,ideallynamingthecharacterthatperformstheactionexpressedbytheverbthatfollows.■Avoidinterruptingthesubjectandverbwithmorethanawordortwo.■Putkeyactionsinverbs,notinnouns.■Putinformationfamiliartoreadersatthebeginningofasentence,newinformationattheend.■Chooseactiveorpassiveverbstoreflectthepreviousprinciples.■Usefirst-personpronounsappropriately.

Thoseprinciplesadduptothis:readerswanttogetpastashort,concrete,familiarsubjectquicklyandeasilytoaverbexpressingaspecificaction.Whenyoudothat,therestofyoursentencewillusuallytakecareofitself.Todiagnoseyourownwriting,lookforthosecharacteristicsinit.Skimthefirstsevenoreightwordsofeverysentence.Lookcloselyatsentencesthatdon tmeetthosecriteria,thenrevisethemasfollows.

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11.1.1AvoidLongIntroductoryPhrasesandClauses

Comparethesetwosentences(introductoryphrasesareboldfaced,wholesubjectsitalicized):

3a.Inviewofclaimsbyresearchersonhighereducationindicatingatleastonechangebymostundergraduatestudentsoftheirmajorfieldofstudy,first-yearstudentsseemnotwellinformedaboutchoosingamajorfieldofstudy.

3b.Researchersonhighereducationclaimthatmoststudentschangetheirmajorfieldofstudyatleastonceduringtheirundergraduatecareer.Ifthatisso,thenfirst-yearstudentsseemnotwellinformedwhentheychooseamajor.

Mostreadersfind3ahardertoreadthan3b,becauseitmakesthemworkthroughatwenty-four-wordphrasebeforetheyreachitssubject(first-yearstudents).Inthetwosentencesin3b,readersimmediatelystartwithasubject,Researchers,orreachitafteraveryshortclause,Ifthatisso.

Theprincipleisthis:startmostofyoursentencesdirectlywiththeirsubjects.Beginonlyafewsentenceswithintroductoryphrasesorclauseslongerthantenorsowords.Youcanusuallyreviselongintroductoryphrasesandsubordinateclausesintoseparateindependentsentencesasin3b.

11.1.2MakeSubjectsShortandConcrete

Readersmustgraspthesubjectofasentenceeasily,buttheycan twhenthesubjectislong,complex,andabstract.Comparethesetwosentences(thewholesubjectsineachareitalicized;theone-wordsimplesubjectisboldfaced):

4a.Aschoolsystemʼssuccessfuladoptionofanewreadingcurriculumforitselementaryschoolsdependsonthedemonstrationineachschoolofthecommitmentofitsprincipalandthecooperationofteachersinsettingreasonablegoals.

4b.Aschoolsystemwillsuccessfullyadoptanewreadingcurriculumforelementaryschoolsonlywheneachprincipaldemonstratesthatsheiscommittedtoitandteacherscooperatetosetreasonablegoals.

In4a,thewholesubjectisfourteenwordslong,anditssimplesubjectisanabstraction adoption.In4b,theclearerversion,thewholesubjectofeveryverbisshort,andeachsimplesubjectisrelativelyconcrete:schoolsystem,eachprincipal,she,teachers.Moreover,eachofthosesubjectsperformstheactioninitsverb:systemwilladopt,principaldemonstrates,sheiscommitted,teacherscooperate.

Theprincipleisthis:readerstendtojudgeasentencetobereadablewhenthesubjectofitsverbnamesthemaincharacterinafewconcretewords,ideallyacharacterthatisalsothe doer oftheactionexpressedbytheverbthatfollows.

Butthere sacomplication:youcanoftentellclearstoriesaboutabstractcharacters:

5.Noskillismorevaluedintheprofessionalworldthanproblemsolving.Theabilitytosolveproblemsquicklyrequiresustoframesituationsindifferentwaysandtofindmorethanonesolution.Infact,effectiveproblemsolvingmaydefinegeneralintelligence.

Fewreadershavetroublewiththoseabstractsubjects,becausethey reshortandfamiliar:noskill,theabilitytosolveproblemsquickly,andeffectiveproblemsolving.Whatgivesreaderstroubleisanabstractsubjectthatislongandunfamiliar.

Tofixsentenceswithlong,abstractsubjects,reviseinthreesteps:

■Identifythemaincharacterinthesentence.■Finditskeyaction,andifitisburiedinanabstractnoun,makeitaverb.■Makethemaincharacterthesubjectofthatnewverb.

Forexample,compare6aand6b(actionsareboldfaced;verbsarecapitalized):

6a.Withoutameansforanalyzinginteractionsbetweensocialclassandeducationinregardtothecreationofmorejobopportunities,successinunderstandingeconomicmobilityWILLREMAINlimited.

6b.EconomistsdonotentirelyUNDERSTANDeconomicmobility,becausetheycannotANALYZEhowsocialclassandeducationINTERACTtoCREATEmorejobopportunities.

Inbothsentencesthemaincharacteriseconomists,butin6athatcharacterisn tthesubjectofanyverb;infact,it snotinthesentenceatall:wemustinferitfromactionsburiedinnouns analyzingandunderstanding(whateconomistsdo).Werevise6ainto6bbymakingthemaincharacters,economists,socialclass,andeducation,subjectsoftheexplicitverbsunderstand,analyze,interact,andcreate.

Readerswantsubjectstonamethemaincharactersinyourstory,ideallyflesh-and-bloodcharacters,andspecificverbstonametheirkeyactions.

11.1.3AvoidInterruptingSubjectsandVerbswithMorethanaWordorTwo

Oncepastashortsubject,readerswanttogettoaverbquickly,soavoidsplittingaverbfromitssubjectwithlongphrasesandclauses:

7a.Someeconomists,becausetheywriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective,donotcommunicatewithlaypeopleeasily.

In7a,thebecauseclauseseparatesthesubjectsomeeconomistsfromtheverbdonotcommunicate,forcingustosuspendourmentalbreath.Torevise,movetheinterruptingclausetothebeginningorendofitssentence,dependingonwhetheritconnects

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morecloselytothesentencebeforeortheoneafter.Whenindoubt,putitattheend(formoreonthis,see11.1.5).

7b.Becausesomeeconomistswriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective,theydonotcommunicatewithlaypeopleeasily.Thisinabilitytocommunicate…

7c.Someeconomistsdonotcommunicatewithlaypeopleeasilybecausetheywriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective.Theyusepassiveverbsand…

Readersmanageshortinterruptionsmoreeasily:

8.Feweconomistsdeliberatelywriteinastylethatisimpersonalandobjective.

11.1.4PutKeyActionsinVerbs,NotinNouns

Readerswanttogettoaverbquickly,buttheyalsowantthatverbtoexpressakeyaction.Soavoidusinganemptyverbsuchashave,do,make,orbetointroduceanactionburiedinanabstractnoun.Makethenounaverb.

Comparethesetwosentences(nounsnamingactionsareboldfaced;verbsnamingactionsarecapitalized;verbsexpressinglittleactionareitalicized):

9a.DuringtheearlyyearsoftheCivilWar,theSouthʼsattemptatenlistingGreatBritainonitssidewasmetwithfailure.

9b.DuringtheearlyyearsoftheCivilWar,theSouthATTEMPTEDtoENLISTGreatBritainonitssidebutFAILED.

In9a,threeimportantactionsaren tverbsbutnouns:attempt,enlisting,failure.Sentence9bseemsmoredirectbecauseitexpressesthoseactionsinverbs:attempted,enlist,failed.

11.1.5PutInformationFamiliartoReadersattheBeginningofaSentence,NewInformationattheEnd

Readersunderstandasentencemostreadilywhentheygraspitssubjecteasily,andtheeasiestsubjecttograspisnotjustshortandconcretebutalsofamiliar.Comparehowthesecondsentenceineachofthefollowingpassagesdoesordoesn tcontributetoasenseof flow :

10a.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreatesablackhole.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolumechangesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

10b.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Ablackholeiscreatedbythecollapseofadeadstarintoapointnolargerthanamarble.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolumechangesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Mostreadersthink10bflowsbetterthan10a,partlybecausethesubjectofthesecondsentence,Ablackhole,isshorterandmoreconcretethanthelongersubjectof10a:Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarble.But10balsoflowsbetterbecausetheorderofitsideasisdifferent.

In10a,thefirstwordsofthesecondsentenceexpressnewinformation:

10a…blackholesinspace.Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreates…

Thosewordsaboutcollapsingstarsseemtocomeoutofnowhere.Butin10b,thefirstwordsechotheendoftheprevioussentence:

10b…blackholesinspace.Ablackholeiscreatedwhen…

Moreover,oncewemakethatchange,theendofthatsecondsentenceintroducesthethirdmorecohesively:

10b…thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointnolargerthanamarble.Somuchmattercompressedintosolittlevolumechanges…

Contrast10a;theendofitssecondsentencedoesn tflowintothebeginningofthethirdassmoothly:

10a.Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreatesablackhole.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolumechangesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Thatiswhyreadersthinkthatpassage10afeelschoppierthan10b:theendofonesentencedoesnotflowsmoothlyintothebeginningofthenext.

Thecorollaryoftheold-information-firstprincipleistoputnewinformationlast,especiallynewtechnicalterms.Sowhenyouintroduceone,putitattheendofitssentence.Comparethese:

11a.Calciumblockerscancontrolmusclespasms.Sarcomeresarethesmallunitsofmusclefibersinwhichthesedrugswork.Twofilaments,onethickandonethin,areineachsarcomere.Theproteinsactinandmyosinarecontainedinthethinfilament.Whenactinandmyosininteract,yourheartcontracts.

11b.Musclespasmscanbecontrolledwithdrugsknownascalciumblockers.Theyworkinsmallunitsofmusclefiberscalledsarcomeres.Eachsarcomerehastwofilaments,onethickandonethin.Thethinfilamentcontainstwoproteins,actinandmyosin.

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Whenactinandmyosininteract,yourheartcontracts.

In11a,thenewtechnicaltermsarecalciumblockers,sarcomeres,filaments,theproteinsactinandmyosin,buttheyfirstappearearlyintheirsentences.Incontrast,in11b,thosenewtermsfirstappeartowardtheendsoftheirsentences.Afterthat,they reoldinformationandsocanappearatthebeginningofthenextsentences.

Noprincipleofwritingismoreimportantthanthis:oldbeforenew,familiarinformationintroducesunfamiliarinformation.

11.1.6ChooseActiveorPassiveVerbstoReflectthePreviousPrinciples

Youmayrecalladvicetoavoidpassiveverbs goodadvicewhenapassiveverbforcesyoutowriteasentencethatcontradictstheprincipleswehavediscussed,asinthesecondsentenceofthispassage:

12a.Globalwarmingmayhavemanycatastrophiceffects.TropicaldiseasesanddestructiveinsectlifeevennorthoftheCanadianbordercouldbeincreasedpassiveverbbythisclimaticchange.

Thatsecondsentenceopenswithaneleven-wordsubjectconveyingnewinformation:Tropicaldiseases Canadianborder.Itisthesubjectofapassiveverb,beincreased,andthatverbisfollowedbyashort,familiarbitofinformationfromthesentencebefore:bythisclimaticchange.Thatsentencewouldbeclearerifitsverbwereactive:

12b.Globalwarmingmayhavemanycatastrophiceffects.ThisclimaticchangecouldincreaseactiveverbtropicaldiseasesanddestructiveinsectlifeevennorthoftheCanadianborder.

Nowthesubjectisfamiliar,andthenewinformationinthelongerphraseisattheend.Inthiscase,theactiveverbistherightchoice.

Butifyounevermakeaverbpassive,you llwritesentencesthatcontradicttheold-newprinciple.Wesawanexamplein10a:

10a.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Thecollapseofadeadstarintoapointperhapsnolargerthanamarblecreatesactiveverbablackhole.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolumechangesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Theverbinthesecondsentenceisactive,butthepassageflowsbetterwhenit spassive:

10b.Newquestionsaboutthenatureoftheuniversehavebeenraisedbyscientistsstudyingblackholesinspace.Ablackholeiscreatedpassiveverbbythecollapseofadeadstarintoapointnolargerthanamarble.Somuchmattersqueezedintosolittlevolumechangesthefabricofspacearounditinoddways.

Asentenceismorereadablewhenitssubjectisshort,concrete,andfamiliar,regardlessofwhetheritsverbisactiveorpassive.Sochooseactiveorpassivevoicebyconsideringwhichgivesyoutherightkindofsubject:short,concrete,andfamiliar.

Youcanbestjudgehowyourreaderswillrespondtoyourwritingifyouhavesomeonereaditbacktoyou.Ifthatpersonstumblesorseemstodrone,youcanbetthatyourreaderswilllikeyourproselessthanyoudo.

11.1.7UseFirst-PersonPronounsAppropriately

AlmosteveryonehasheardtheadvicetoavoidusingIorweinacademicwriting.Infact,opinionsdifferonthis.SometeacherstellstudentsnevertouseI,becauseitmakestheirwriting subjective. OthersencourageusingIasawaytomakewritingmorelivelyandpersonal.

MostinstructorsandeditorsdoagreethattwousesofIshouldbeavoided:

■InsecurewritersbegintoomanysentenceswithIthinkorIbelieve(ortheirequivalent,Inmyopinion).Readersassumethatyouthinkandbelievewhatyouwrite,soyoudon thavetosayyoudo.

■Inexperiencedwriterstoooftennarratetheirresearch:FirstIconsulted ,thenIexamined ,andsoon.Readerscarelessaboutthestoryofyourresearchthanaboutitsresults.

Butwebelieve,andmostscholarlyjournalsagree,thatthefirstpersonisappropriateontwooccasions.Thatlastsentenceillustratesoneofthem:webelieve thatthefirstperson

■AnoccasionalintroductoryI(orwe)believecansoftenthedogmaticedgeofastatement.Comparethisblunter,lessqualifiedversion:

13.Butwebelieve,andmostscholarlyjournalsagree,thatthefirstpersonisappropriateontwooccasions.

Thetrickisnottohedgesooftenthatyousounduncertainorsorarelythatyousoundsmug.

■Afirst-personIorweisalsoappropriatewhenit sthesubjectofaverbnaminganactionuniquetoyouasthewriterofyourargument.Verbsreferringtosuchactionstypicallyappearinintroductions(Iwillshow/argue/prove/claimthatX)andinconclusions(Ihavedemonstrated/concludedthatY).Sinceonlyyoucanshow,prove,orclaimwhat sinyourargument,onlyyoucansaysowithI:

14.Inthisreport,Iwillshowthatsocialdistinctionsatthisuniversityare…

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Ontheotherhand,researchersrarelyusethefirstpersonforanactionthatothersmustrepeattoreplicatethereportedresearch.Thosewordsincludedivide,measure,weigh,examine,andsoon.Researchersrarelywritesentenceswithactiveverbslikethis:

15a.IcalculatedthecoefficientofX.

Instead,they relikelytowriteinthepassive,becauseanyonecandothat:

15b.ThecoefficientofXwascalculated.

Thosesameprinciplesapplytowe,ifyou reoneoftwoormoreauthors.Butmanyinstructorsandeditorsobjecttotwootherusesofwe:

■theroyalweusedtoreferreflexivelytothewriter■theall-purposewethatreferstopeopleingeneral

Forexample:

16.Wemustbecarefultocitesourceswhenweusedatafromthem.Whenwereadwriterswhofailtodothat,wetendtodistrustthem.

Finally,though,yourinstructordecides.IfheflatlyforbidsIorwe,thensobeit.

11.2DiagnoseWhatYouReadOnceyouunderstandhowreadersjudgewhattheyread,youknowhowtowriteclearprose,butalsowhysomuchofwhatyoumustreadseemssodense.Youmightstrugglewithsomewritingbecauseitscontentisdifficult.Butyoumayalsostrugglebecausethewriterdidn twriteclearly.Thisnextpassage,forexample,isbynomeansthethickesteverwritten:

15a.RecognitionofthefactthatgrammarsdifferfromonelanguagetoanothercanserveasthebasisforseriousconsiderationoftheproblemsconfrontingtranslatorsofthegreatworksofworldliteratureoriginallywritteninalanguageotherthanEnglish.

Butinhalfasmanywords,itmeansonlythis:

15b.Onceweknowthatlanguageshavedifferentgrammars,wecanconsidertheproblemsofthosewhotranslategreatworksofliteratureintoEnglish.

Sowhenyoustruggletounderstandsomeacademicwriting(andyouwill),don tblameyourself,atleastnotfirst.Diagnoseitssentences.Iftheyhavelongsubjectsstuffedwithabstractnounsexpressingnewinformation,theproblemisprobablynotyourinabilitytoreadeasilybutthewriter sinabilitytowriteclearly.Inthiscase,unfortunately,themoreexperienceyougetwithacademicprose,thegreateryourriskofimitatingit.Infact,it sacommonprobleminprofessionalwritingeverywhere,academicornot.

11.3ChoosetheRightWordAnotherbitofstandardadviceisChoosetherightword.

1.Choosethewordwiththerightmeaning.Affectdoesn tmeaneffect;elicitdoesn tmeanillicit.Manyhandbookslistcommonlyconfusedwords.Ifyou reaninexperiencedwriter,investinone.

2.Choosethewordwiththerightlevelofusage.Ifyoudraftquicklyyouriskchoosingwordsthatmightmeanroughlywhatyouthinktheydobutaretoocasualforaresearchreport.Someonecancriticizeanotherwriterorknockhim;ariskcanseemfrighteningorscary.Thosepairshavesimilarmeanings,butmostreadersjudgethesecondineachpairtobeabitloose.

Ontheotherhand,ifyoutrytoohardtosoundlikeareal academic, youriskusingwordsthataretooformal.Youcanthinkorcogitate,drinkorimbibe.Thosepairsarecloseinmeaning,butthesecondineachistoofancyforareportwritteninordinaryEnglish.Wheneveryou retemptedtouseawordthatyouthinkisespeciallyfine,lookforamorefamiliarone.

Theobviousadviceistolookupwordsyou renotsureof.Butthey renottheproblem;theproblemistheonesyouaresureof.Worse,nodictionarytellsyouthatawordlikevisageorperambulateistoofancyforjustaboutanycontext.Theshort-termsolutionistoasksomeonetoreadyourreportbeforeyouturnitin(butbecautiousbeforeacceptingtoomanysuggestions;see7.10).Thelong-termsolutionistoreadalot,writealot,endurealotofcriticism,andlearnfromit.

11.4PolishItUpBeforeyouprintoutyourreport,readitonelasttimetofixerrorsingrammar,spelling,andpunctuation.Manyexperiencedwritersreadfromthelastsentencebacktothefirsttokeepfromgettingcaughtupintheflowoftheirideasandmissingthewords.Donotrelysolelyonyourspellchecker.Itwon tcatchcorrectlyspelledbutincorrectlyusedwordssuchastheir/there/they re,it s/its,too/to,accept/except,affect/effect,already/allready,complement/compliment,principal/principle,discrete/discreet,andsoon.Ifyou vehadthatkindofproblem,doaglobalsearchtocheckonsuchwords.Seechapter20formoreonspelling.

Ifyouusedalotofforeignwords,numbers,abbreviations,andsoon,checktherelevantchaptersinpart3ofthismanual.Finally,ifyourreporthasatableofcontentsthatliststitlesandnumbersforchaptersandsections,becertainthattheyexactly

matchthecorrespondingwordingandnumberinginthebodyofyourreport.Ifinyourtextyoureferbackorforwardtoother

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sectionsorchapters,besurethereferencesareaccurate.SomestudentsthinktheyshouldworryaboutthequalityoftheirwritingonlyinanEnglishcourse.Itistruethatinstructorsin

coursesotherthanEnglisharelikelytofocusmoreonthecontentofyourreportthanonitsstyle.Butdon tthinkthey llignoreitsclarityandcoherence.Ifahistoryorartinstructorcriticizesyourreportbecauseit sbadlywritten,don tpleadButthisisn tanEnglishcourse.Everycourseinwhichyouwriteisanopportunitytopracticewritingclearly,coherently,andpersuasively,askillthatwillserveyouwellfortherestofyourlife.

11.5GiveItUpandPrintItOutIfonethingisharderthanstartingtowrite,it sstopping.Weallwantanotherdaytogettheorganizationright,anotherhourtotweaktheopeningparagraph,anotherminuteto yougettheidea.Ifexperiencedresearchersknowonemorecrucialthingaboutresearchanditsreporting,it sthis:nothingyouwritewilleverbeperfect,andthebenefitofgettingthelast1percentoreven5percentrightisrarelyworththecost.Dissertationstudentsinparticularagonizeoverreachingastandardofperfectionthatexistslargelyintheirownminds.Nothesisordissertationhastobeutterlyperfect;whatithastobeisdone.Atsomepoint,enoughisenough.Giveitupandprintitout.(Butbeforeyouturnitin,leafthroughitonelasttimetobesurethatitlooksthewayyouwantitto:lookatpagebreaks,spacinginmargins,positionsoftablesandfigures,andsoon.)

Youmightnowthinkyourjobisdone.Infact,youhaveonelasttask:toprofitfromthecommentsonyourreturnedpaper.

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12LearningfromYourReturnedPaper

12.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificComments

12.2TalktoYourInstructor

Teachersarebaffledandannoyedwhenastudentlooksonlyatthegradeonhispaperandignoressubstantivecomments,or,worse,doesn tbothertopickupthepaperatall.Sinceyou llwritemanyreportsinyouracademicandprofessionallife,it ssmarttounderstandhowyourreadersjudgethemandwhatyoucandonexttimetoearnabetterresponse.Forthat,youneedonemoreplan.

12.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificCommentsWhenyoureadyourteacher scomments,focusonthosethatyoucanapplytoyournextproject.

■Lookforapatternoferrorsinspelling,punctuation,andgrammar.Ifyouseeone,youknowwhattoworkon.■Ifyourteachersaysyoumadefactualerrors,checkyournotes:Didyoutakebadnotesormisreportthem?Wereyoumisledbyanunreliablesource?Whateveryoufind,youknowwhattodoinyournextproject.

■Ifyourteacherreportsonlyherjudgmentsofyourwriting,lookforwhatcausesthem.Ifshesaysyourwritingischoppy,dense,orawkward,checkyoursentencesusingthestepsinchapter11.Ifshesaysit sdisorganizedorwandering,checkitagainstchapter9.Youwon talwaysfindwhatcausedthecomplaints,butwhenyoudoyou llknowwhattoworkonnexttime.

12.2TalktoYourInstructorIfyourteacher scommentsincludewordslikedisorganized,illogical,andunsupportedandyoucannotfindwhattriggeredthem,makeanappointmenttoask.Aswitheveryotherstepinyourproject,thatvisitwillgobetterifyouplanandevenrehearseit:

■Ifyourteachermarkedupspelling,punctuation,andgrammar,correctthoseerrorsinboldlettersbeforeyoutalktoyourteachertoshowherthatyoutookhercommentsseriously.Infact,youmightjotresponsesafterhercommentstoshowthatyou vereadthemclosely.

■Don tcomplainaboutyourgrade.Beclearthatyouwantonlytounderstandthecommentssothatyoucandobetternexttime.■Focusonjustafewcomments.Rehearseyourquestionssothatthey llseemamiable:not Yousaythisisdisorganizedbutyoudon tsaywhy, butrather CanyouhelpmeseewhereIwentwrongwithmyorganizationsoIcandobetternexttime?

■Askyourinstructortopointtopassagesthatillustrateherjudgmentsandwhatthosepassagesshouldhavelookedlike.DonotaskWhatdidn tyoulike? butrather WhereexactlydidIgowrongandwhatcouldIhavedonetofixit?

Ifyourteachercan tclearlyexplainherjudgment,shemayhavegradedyourpaperimpressionisticallyratherthanpointbypoint.Ifso,badnews:youmaylearnlittlefromyourvisit.

YoumightvisityourteacherevenifyougotanA.Itisimportanttoknowhowyouearnedit,becauseyournextprojectislikelytobemorechallengingandmayevenmakeyoufeellikeabeginneragain.Infact,don tbesurprisedifthathappenswitheverynewproject.Ithappenstomostofus.Butwithaplan,weusuallyovercomeit,andsocanyou.

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13PresentingResearchinAlternativeForums

13.1PlanYourOralPresentation

13.1.1NarrowYourFocus13.1.2UnderstandtheDifferencebetweenListenersandReaders

13.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedTo

13.2.1SketchYourIntroduction13.2.2DesignNotesfortheBodyofYourTalkSoThatYouCanUnderstandThemataGlance13.2.3ModelYourConclusiononYourIntroduction13.2.4PrepareforQuestions13.2.5CreateHandouts

13.3PlanYourPosterPresentation

13.4PlanYourConferenceProposal

Youmaybetooearlyinyourcareertothinkaboutpublishingyourwork,butyou llprobablysharesomeofitasanoralpresentationtoyourclass.Workingupatalkiseasierthanpreparingawrittenreport,butdoingitwellstillrequiresaplanandsomepractice.Infact,theabilitytostandupandtalkaboutyourworkclearlyandcogentlyisaskillthatyou llfindcrucialinanycareeryoupursue.Ifyou reworkingonaPhDdissertation,youprobablyexpecttosubmityourworkforpublicationeventually,butyoushouldlookforopportunitiestopresentitasatalkbeforeyousenditofftoaprofessionaljournal.

Inthischapter,weshowyouhowtouseyourplanforyourwrittentexttoprepareatalk.Wealsodiscussahybridformofpresentationcalledaposter,whichcombineselementsofwritingandspeech.Finally,wediscusshowtoprepareaconferenceproposalsothatyou llgetaninvitationtogiveatalk.

13.1PlanYourOralPresentationTalkshavesomeadvantagesoverwriting.Yougetimmediatefeedbackduringthequestion-and-answerperiodafterward,responsesthatmaybelessseverelycriticalthantheywouldbetoyourwrittenwork,especiallyifyouframeyourpresentationasonlyauditioningnewideasortestingnewdata.Buttoprofitfromthoseresponses,youmustplanatalkjustascarefullyasyouwouldawrittenreport.

13.1.1NarrowYourFocus

Youwillprobablyhaveonlyabouttwentyminutesforyourtalk.(Ifyouarereading,whichisrarelyagoodidea,thatmeansnomorethanseventotendouble-spacedpages.)Soyoumustboildownyourworktoitsessenceorfocusonjustpartofit.Herearethreecommonoptions:

■Problemstatementwithasketchofyourargument.Ifyourproblemisnew,focusonitsoriginality.Startwithashortintroduction:Briefliteraturereview Question Consequencesofnotknowingananswer Claim(review9.2);thenexplainyourreasons,summarizingyourevidenceforeach.

■Summaryofasubargument.Ifyourargumentistoobig,focusonakeysubargument.Mentionyourlargerprobleminyourintroductionandconclusion,butbeclearthatyou readdressingonlypartofit.

■Methodologyordatareport.Ifyouofferanewmethodologyorsourceofdata,explainwhyitmatters.Startwithabriefproblemstatement,thenfocusonhowyournewmethodsordatasolveit.

13.1.2UnderstandtheDifferencebetweenListenersandReaders

Speakershaveendlesswaystotormenttheirlisteners.Someroboticallyrecitememorizedsentencesorhunchoverpagesreadingeveryword,rarelymakingeyecontactwiththeiraudience.OthersramblethroughslidesofdatawithnomorestructurethanAndnowthisslideshows Suchpresentersthinkpassivelistenersarelikeactivereadersorengagedconversationalists.Theyarenot.

■Whenweread,wecanpausetoreflectandpuzzleoverdifficultpassages.Tokeeptrackoforganization,wecanlookatsubheads,evenparagraphindentations.Ifourmindwanders,wereread.

■Whenweconverse,wecanposequestionsaswethinkofthemandasktheotherpersontoclarifyalineofreasoningorjusttorepeatit.

Butaslistenersinanaudiencewecandononeofthosethings.Wemustbemotivatedtopayattention,andweneedhelptofollowacomplicatedlineofthought.Andifweloseitsthread,wemaydriftoffintoourownthoughts.Sowhenspeaking,youhavetobeexplicitaboutyourpurposeandyourorganization,andifyou rereadingapaper,youhavetomakeyoursentencestructurefarsimplerthaninawrittenreport.Sofavorshortersentenceswithconsistentsubjects(see11.1.2).Use I, we, and you alot.What

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seemsclumsilyrepetitivetoreadersisusuallywelcomedbylisteners.

13.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedToToholdyourlisteners attention,youmustseemtobenotlecturingatthembutratheramiablyconversingwiththem,askillthatdoesnotcomeeasily,becausefewofuscanwriteaswespeakandbecausemostofusneednotestokeepusontrack.Ifyoumustread,readnofasterthanabouttwominutesapage(ataboutthreehundredwordsapage).Timeyourselfreadingmoreslowlythanyouordinarilyspeak.Thetopofyourheadisprobablynotyourmostattractivefeature,sobuildinmomentswhenyoudeliberatelylookstraightoutatyouraudience,especiallywhenyou resayingsomethingimportant.Dothatatleastonceortwiceapage.

Farbetteristotalkfromnotes,buttodothatwellyouneedtopreparethemwell.

13.2.1SketchYourIntroduction

Foratwenty-minutetalk,yougetoneshotatmotivatingyouraudiencebeforetheytuneout,soprepareyourintroductionmorecarefullythananyotherpartofyourtalk.Baseitonthefour-partproblemstatementdescribedinsection10.1,plusaroadmap.(Thetimesinparenthesesinthelistbelowareroughestimates.)

Useyournotesonlytoremindyourselfofthefourparts,notasaword-for-wordscript.Ifyoucan trememberthecontent,you renotreadytogiveatalk.Sketchenoughinyournotestoremindyourselfofthefollowing:

1.theresearchthatyouextend,modify,orcorrect(nomorethanaminute)2.astatementofyourresearchquestion thegapinknowledgeorunderstandingthatyouaddress(thirtysecondsorless)3.ananswertoSowhat?(thirtyseconds)

Thosethreestepsarecrucialinmotivatingyourlisteners.Ifyourquestionisneworcontroversial,giveitmoretime.Ifyourlistenersknowitssignificance,mentionitquicklyandgoon.

4.Yourclaim,theanswertoyourresearchquestion(thirtysecondsorless)

Listenersneedtoknowyouranswerupfrontevenmorethanreadersdo,sostateatleastitsgist,unlessyouhaveacompellingreasontowaitfortheend.Ifyoudowait,atleastforecastyouranswer.

5.Aforecastofthestructureofyourpresentation(tentotwentyseconds).Themostusefulforecastisanoraltableofcontents:FirstIwilldiscuss Thatcanseemclumsyinprint,butlistenersneedmorehelpthanreadersdo.Repeatthatstructureasyouworkthroughthebodyofyourtalk.

Rehearseyourintroduction,notonlytogetitrightbutalsotobeabletolookyouraudienceintheeyeasyougiveit.Youcanlookdownatnoteslater.

Alltold,spendnomorethanthreeminutesorsoonyourintroduction.

13.2.2DesignNotesfortheBodyofYourTalkSoThatYouCanUnderstandThemataGlance

Donotwriteyournotesascompletesentences(muchlessparagraphs)thatyoureadaloud;notesshouldhelpyouseeataglanceonlythestructureofyourtalkandcuewhattosayatcrucialpoints.Sodonotcutandpastesentencesfromawrittentext;createyournotesfromscratch.

Useaseparatepageforeachmainpoint.Oneachpage,writeoutyourmainpointnotasatopicbutasaclaims,eitherinashortenedformor(onlyifyoumust)incompletesentences.Aboveit,youmightaddanexplicittransitionastheoralequivalentofasubhead: Thefirstissueis

Visuallyhighlightthosemainpointssothatyourecognizetheminstantly.Underthem,listastopicstheevidencethatsupportsthem.Ifyourevidenceconsistsofnumbersorquotations,you llprobablyhavetowritethemout.Otherwise,knowyourevidencewellenoughtobeabletotalkaboutitdirectlytoyouraudience.

Organizeyourpointssothatyoucoverthemostimportantonesfirst.Ifyourunlong(mostofusdo),youcanskipalatersectionorevenjumptoyourconclusionwithoutlosinganythingcrucialtoyourargument.Neverbuilduptoaclimaxthatyoumightnotreach.Ifyoumustskipsomething,usethequestion-and-answerperiodtoreturntoit.

13.2.3ModelYourConclusiononYourIntroduction

Makeyourconclusionmemorable,becauselistenerswillrepeatitwhenasked,WhatdidJonessay?Learnitwellenoughtopresentitlookingatyouraudience,withoutreadingfromnotes.Itshouldhavethesethreeparts:

■yourclaim,inmoredetailthaninyourintroduction(iflistenersaremostlyinterestedinyourreasonsordata,summarizethemaswell)

■youranswertoSowhat?(youcanrestateananswerfromyourintroduction,buttrytoaddanewone,evenifit sspeculative)■suggestionsformoreresearch,what sstilltobedone

Rehearseyourconclusionsothatyouknowexactlyhowlongittakes(nomorethanaminuteortwo).Thenwhenyouhavethatmuchtimeremaining,conclude,evenifyouhaven tfinishedyourlast(relativelyunimportant)points.Ifyouhadtoskiponeortwopoints,workthemintoananswerduringthequestion-and-answerperiod.Ifyourtalkrunsshort,don tadlib.Ifanotherspeakerfollowsyou,makeheragiftofyourunusedtime.

13.2.4PrepareforQuestions

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Ifyou relucky,you llgetquestionsafteryourtalk,soprepareanswersforpredictableones.Expectquestionsaboutdataorsources,especiallyifyoudidn tcovertheminyourtalk.Ifyouaddressmattersassociatedwithwell-knownresearchersorschoolsofresearch,bereadytoexpandonhowyourworkrelatestotheirs,especiallyifyoucontradictorcomplicatetheirresultsorapproach.Alsobereadytoanswerquestionsaboutasourceyouneverheardof.Thebestpolicyistoacknowledgethatyouhaven tseenitbutthatyou llcheckitout.Ifthequestionseemsfriendly,askwhythesourceisrelevant.Don tprepareonlydefensiveanswers.Useanswerstoquestionstoreemphasizeyourmainpointsorcovermattersthatyoumayhaveleftout.

Listentoeveryquestioncarefully;thentobesureyouunderstandthequestion,pausebeforeyourespondandthinkaboutitforamoment.Ifyoudon tunderstandthequestion,askthequestionertorephraseit.Don tsnapbackananswerreflexivelyanddefensively.Goodquestionsareinvaluable,evenwhentheyseemhostile.Usethemtorefineyourthinking.

13.2.5CreateHandouts

Youcanreadshortquotationsorimportantdataaloudforyourlisteners,butifyouhavelotsofthem,createahandout.Ifyouuseslides,passoutprintedcopies.Youmighthandoutanoutlineofyourmainpoints,withwhitespacefornotes.

13.3PlanYourPosterPresentationAposterisalargeboardonwhichyoulayoutasummaryofyourresearchalongwithyourmostrelevantevidence.Postersessionsareusuallyheldinhallwaysorinalargeroomfilledwithotherpresenters.Peoplemovefrompostertoposter,askingquestionsofthepresenters.Posterscombinetheadvantagesofwritingandspeaking.Thosewhoreadyourposterhavemorecontrolthanalistener,andtheycanrelyonprominentvisualsignalsthatyouusetoorganizeyourmaterial boxes,lines,colors,andlargerandsmallertitles.

Youcandesignyourposterusingavailablesoftwareandwebsitesthatproduceaserviceablefinalproduct.Forthetextitself,however,followtheguidelinesforapapertobereadaloud,withtwomoreconsiderations:

1.Layeryourargument.Presentyourargumentvisuallyinthreelevelsofdetail:

■Highlightanabstractoraproblemstatementandsummaryatthetopoftheposter(boxit,uselargertype,etc.).■Underit,listyourreasonsassubheadsinasectionthatsummarizesyourargument.■Underthat,restateyourreasonsandgroupevidenceunderthem.

2.Explainallgraphsandtables.Inadditiontoprovidingacaptionforeachgraphic,addasentenceortwoexplainingwhatisimportantinthedataandhowtheysupportyourreasonandclaim(review7.7and8.3.1).

13.4PlanYourConferenceProposalConferencesaregoodopportunitiestoshareyourwork,buttobeinvitedtospeak,youusuallyhavetosubmitaproposal.Writeitnotasaparagraph-by-paragraphsummaryofyourworkbutasathirty-second elevatorstory whatyouwouldtellsomeonewhoasked,asyoubothsteppedintoanelevatoronthewaytoyourtalk,Whatareyousayingtoday?Infact,acarefullypreparedandrehearsedelevatorstoryisespeciallyusefulforanyconversationaboutyourwork,particularlyinterviews.

Anelevatorstoryhasthreeparts:

■aproblemstatementthathighlightsananswertoSowhat?■asketchofyourclaimandmajorreasons■asummaryofyourmostimportantevidence

Conferencereviewersarelessinterestedinyourexactwordsthaninwhyanyoneshouldwanttolistentothem.Youraimsaretoposeyourresearchquestionandtoanswerthereviewer sSowhat?Sofocusonhowyourclaimcontributestoyourfieldofresearch,especiallyonwhat snovelorcontroversialaboutit.Ifyouaddressaquestionestablishedbypreviousresearch,mentionit,thenfocusonyournewdataoryournewclaim,dependingonwhichismoreoriginal.

Beawarethatreviewerswilloftenknowlessaboutyourtopicthanyoudoandmayneedhelptoseethesignificanceofyourquestion.SoevenafteryouanswerthatfirstSowhat?,askandansweritagain,andifyoucan,onemoretime.Whetheryourroleataconferenceistotalkoronlytolistendependsnotjustonthequalityofyourresearchbutalsoonthesignificanceofyourquestion.

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14OntheSpiritofResearch

Aswe vesaid,wecanreachgoodconclusionsinmanywaysotherthanresearch:wecanrelyonintuition,emotion,evenspiritualinsight.Butthetruthswereachinthosewaysarepersonal.Whenweaskotherstoacceptandactonthem,wecan tpresentourfeelingsasevidencetoconvinceothersofourclaims;wecanaskonlythattheytakeourreportofourinnerexperience andourclaims onfaith.

Thetruthsofresearch,however,andhowwereachedthemmustbeavailableforpublicstudy.Webaseresearchclaimsonevidenceavailabletoeveryoneandonprinciplesofreasoningthat,wehope,ourreadersacceptassound.Andthenthosereaderstestallofthatinallthewaysthattheyandotherscanimagine.Thatmaybeahighstandard,butitmustbeifweexpectotherstobasetheirunderstandingandactions,eventheirlives,onwhatweaskthemtobelieve.

Whenyouaccepttheprinciplesthatshapepublic,evidence-basedbelief,youaccepttwomorethatcanbehardtoliveby.Oneconcernsourrelationshiptoauthority.Nomorethanfivecenturiesago,thesearchforbetterunderstandingbasedonevidencewasoftenregardedasathreat.Amongthepowerful,manybelievedthatalltheimportanttruthswerealreadyknownandthatthescholar sjobwastopreserveandtransmitthem,certainlynottochallengethem.Ifnewfactscastdoubtonanoldbelief,thebeliefusuallytrumpedthefacts.Manywhodaredtofollowevidencetoconclusionsthatchallengedauthoritywerebanished,imprisoned,orevenkilled.

Eventoday,thosewhoreasonfromevidencecanangerthosewhoholdacherishedbelief.Forexample,somehistoriansclaimthat,basedonthesumoftheevidence,ThomasJeffersonprobablyfatheredatleastonechildbyhisslaveSallyHemings.Othersdisagree,notbecausetheyhavebettercounterevidencebutbecauseofafiercelyheldbelief:apersonofJefferson sstaturecouldn tdosuchathing(see5.5).Butintheworldofresearch,bothacademicandprofessional,goodevidenceandsoundreasoningtrumpbeliefeverytime,oratleasttheyshould.

Insomepartsoftheworld,it sstillconsideredmoreimportanttoguardsettledbeliefsthantotestthem.Butinplacesinformedbythevaluesofresearch,wethinkdifferently:webelievenotonlythatwemayquestionsettledbeliefsbutthatwemust,nomatterhowmuchauthoritycherishesthem solongaswebaseouranswersonsoundreasonsbasedonreliableevidence.

Butthatprinciplerequiresanother.Whenwemakeaclaim,wemustexpect,evenencourage,otherstoquestionnotjustourclaimbuthowwereachedit,toaskWhydoyoubelievethat?It softenhardtowelcomesuchquestions,butwe reobligedtolistenwithgoodwilltoobjections,reservations,andqualificationsthatcollectivelyimplyIdon tagree,atleastnotyet.Andthemorewechallengeoldideas,themorewemustbereadytoacknowledgeandanswerthosequestions,becausewemaybeaskingotherstogiveupdeeplyheldbeliefs.

Whensomestudentsencounterthesevalues,theyfinditdifficult,evenpainful,tolivebythem.Somefeelthatachallengetowhattheybelieveisn talivelysearchfortruthbutapersonalattackontheirdeepestvalues.Othersretreattoacynicalskepticismthatdoubtseverythingandbelievesnothing.Othersfallintomindlessrelativism:We reallentitledtoourownbeliefs,andsoallbeliefsarerightforthosewhoholdthem!Manyturnawayfromanactivelifeofthemind,rejectingnotonlyanswersthatmightdisturbtheirsettledbeliefsbuteventhequestionsthatinspiredthem.

Butinourworldsofwork,scholarship,civicaction,andevenpolitics,wecan treplacetestedknowledgeandhard-wonunderstandingwithpersonalopinion,arelativisticviewoftruth,orthecomfortable,settledknowledgeof authority.

Thatdoesnotmeanwerejectlong-heldandtime-testedbeliefslightly.Wereplacethemonlyafterwe repersuadedbysoundargumentsbackedbygoodreasonsbasedonthebestevidenceavailable,andafteranamiablebutsearchinggive-and-takethatteststhoseargumentsasseverelyaswecan.Inshort,webecomeresponsiblebelieverswhenwecanmakeourownsoundargumentsthattestandevaluatethoseofothers.

Youmayfinditdifficulttoseeallofthisatworkinapaperwrittenforaclass,butdespiteitscoldtype,aresearchreportwrittenforanyaudienceisaconversation,imaginedtobesure,butstillacooperativebutrigorousinquiryintowhatweshouldandshouldnotbelieve.

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PartII Source

Citation

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15GeneralIntroductiontoCitationPractices

15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSources

15.2TheRequirementsofCitation

15.2.1SituationsRequiringCitations15.2.2InformationRequiredinCitations

15.3TwoCitationStyles

15.3.1BibliographyStyle15.3.2Author-DateStyle

15.4ElectronicSources

15.4.1OnlineSources15.4.2OtherElectronicMedia

15.5PreparationofCitations

15.6CitationManagementSoftware

Yourfirstdutyasaresearcheristogetthefactsright.Yourseconddutyistotellreaderswherethefactscamefrom.Tothatend,youmustcitethesourcesofthefacts,ideas,orwordsthatyouuseinyourpaper.

15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSourcesThereatleastfourreasonstociteyoursources:

1.Togivecredit.Researchishardwork.Somewhodoitwellreceiveconcreterewards money,promotions,goodgrades,degrees,andsoon.Butnolessimportantisrecognition,theprideandprestigeofseeingone snameassociatedwithknowledgethatothersvalueanduse.Infact,forsomeresearchersthatistheonlyreward.Sowhenyoucitetheworkofanother,yougivethatwritertherecognitionheorshehasearned.

2.Toassurereadersabouttheaccuracyofyourfacts.Researcherscitesourcestobefairtootherresearchersbutalsotoearntheirreaders trust.Itisnotenoughtogetthefactsright.Youmustalsotellreadersthesourceofthefactssothattheycanjudgetheirreliability,evencheckthemiftheywish.Readersdonottrustasourcetheydonotknowandcannotfind.Iftheydonottrustyoursources,theywillnottrustyourfacts;andiftheydonottrustyourfacts,theywillnottrustyourargument.Youestablishthefirstlinkinthatchainoftrustbycitingyoursourcesfully,accurately,andappropriately.

3.Toshowreaderstheresearchtraditionthatinformsyourwork.Researcherscitesourceswhosedatatheyuse,buttheyalsociteworkthattheyextend,support,contradict,orcorrect.Thesecitationshelpreadersnotonlyunderstandyourspecificprojectbutconnectittootherresearchinyourfield.

4.Tohelpreadersfolloworextendyourresearch.Manyreadersusesourcescitedinaresearchpapernottocheckitsreliabilitybuttopursuetheirownwork.Soyourcitationshelpothersnotonlytofollowyourfootstepsbuttostrikeoutinnewdirections.

Youmustneverappeartotakecreditforworkthatisnotyourown(see7.9),andpropercitationguardsagainstthechargeofplagiarism.Butitalsostrengthensyourargumentandassistsotherswhowanttobuildonyourwork.

15.2TheRequirementsofCitationTofulfilltherequirementsofcitation,youneedtoknowwhentoincludeasourcecitationinyourpaperandwhatinformationaboutthesourcetoinclude.

15.2.1SituationsRequiringCitations

Chapter7,particularly7.9,discussesindepthwhenyoushouldcitematerialsfromothersources.Briefly,youshouldalwaysprovideacitationinthefollowingsituations:

■whenyouquoteexactwordsfromasource(seealsochapter25onquotations)■whenyouparaphraseideasthatareassociatedwithaspecificsource,evenifyoudon tquoteexactwordsfromit■whenyouuseanyidea,data,ormethodattributabletoanysourceyouconsulted

Asnotedin15.1,youmayalsousecitationstopointreaderstosourcesthatarerelevanttoaparticularportionofyourargumentbutnotquotedorparaphrased.Suchcitationsdemonstratethatyouarefamiliarwiththesesources,eveniftheypresentclaimsatodds

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withyourown.

15.2.2InformationRequiredinCitations

Overthelongtraditionofcitingsources,asresearchersindifferentfieldsbegantowriteindifferentways,theyalsodevelopeddistinctivewaysofcitinganddocumentingtheirsources.Whencitationmethodsbecamestandardized,researchershadtochoosefromnotjustoneortwostandardsbutmany.

Citationstylesdifferintheelementsincludedandintheformatoftheseelements,buttheyhavethesameaim:togivereaderstheinformationtheyneedtoidentifyandfindasource.Formostsources,includingbooks,articles,unpublisheddocuments,andotherwrittenmaterial,inprintorelectronicform,thatinformationmustanswerthesequestions:

■Whowrote,edited,ortranslatedthetext(sometimesallthree)?■Whatdataidentifythetext?Thisincludesthetitleandsubtitleofthework;titleofthejournal,collection,orseriesitappearsin,aswellasvolumenumber,editionnumber,orotheridentifyinginformation;andpagenumbersorotherlocatinginformationifthereferenceistoaspecificpartofalargertext.

■Whopublishedthetextandwhen?Thisincludesthenameofthepublisherandtheplaceanddateofpublication oranindicationthatthedocumenthasnotbeenpublished.

■Wherecanthetextbefound?Mostprintedsourcescanbefoundinalibraryorbookstore,informationthatgoeswithoutsaying.Forasourceobtainedonline,aURLorthenameofacommercialdatabasewillhelpreadersfindit.Foranitemfromaone-of-a-kindcollection,datawillincludetheplacewherethecollectionishoused.

Detailsvaryforothersources,suchassoundandvideorecordings,buttheyanswerthesamefourquestions:Whowrote,edited,translated,orwasotherwiseresponsibleforcreatingthesource?Whatdataidentifyit?Whopublisheditandwhen?Wherecanitbefound?

Yourreaderswillexpectyoutousethecitationstyleappropriatetotheirparticularfield,notjustbecausetheyarefamiliarwiththisstylebutbecausewhenyouuseit,youshowthemthatyouunderstandtheirvaluesandpractices.Thedetailsmayseemtrivial:whentousecapitals,periods,commas,andevenwheretoputaspace.Butifyoudonotgetthesesmallmattersright,manyofyourreaderswillquestionwhethertheycantrustyouonthebiggerones.Fewresearcherstrytomemorizeallthesedetails.Instead,theylearntheformsofthecitationstheyusemostsothattheydonotneedtolookthemuprepeatedly.Then,forcitingsourcesthatarelesscommonorhaveunusualelements,theyconsultabooklikethisone.

15.3TwoCitationStylesThisbookcoversthetwomostcommoncitationforms:notes-bibliographystyle,orsimplybibliographystyle(usedwidelyinthehumanitiesandinsomesocialsciences),andauthor-datestyle(usedinmostsocialsciencesandinthenaturalandphysicalsciences,andreferredtointhepreviouseditionofthisbookasparentheticalcitations-referenceliststyle).Ifyouarenotcertainwhichstyletouseinapaper,consultyourinstructor.

Youmaybeaskedtousedifferentstylesindifferentsettings(forexample,anarthistorycourseandapoliticalsciencecourse).Withinaspecificpaper,however,alwaysfollowasinglestyleconsistently.

Ifyouarenewtoresearch,readthissectionforabriefdescriptionofhowthetwocitationstyleswork.Then,ifyouareusingbibliographystyle,readchapter16foranoverviewofthisstyle,andrefertochapter17fordetailedguidelinesandexamplesforcitingmosttypesofsourcesyou relikelytoconsult.Ifyouareusingauthor-datestyle,theoverviewanddetailedguidelinesareinchapters18and19,respectively.

15.3.1BibliographyStyle

Inbibliography-stylecitations,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingasuperscriptnumberattheendofthesentenceinwhichyourefertoit:

Heconcludesthat“beingapersonisnotapatformula,butaquest,amystery,aleapoffaith.”1

Youthencitethesourceofthatquotationinacorrespondinglynumberednotethatprovidesinformationaboutthesource(author,title,andfactsofpublication)plusrelevantpagenumbers.Notesareprintedatthebottomofthepage(calledfootnotes)orinalistcollectedattheendofyourpaperortheendofeachchapter(calledendnotes).Allnoteshavethesamegeneralform:

N:1.JaronLanier,YouAreNotaGadget:AManifesto(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2010),5.

Ifyoucitethesametextagain,youcanshortensubsequentnotes:

N:5.Lanier,NotaGadget,133–34.

Inmostcases,youalsolistsourcesattheendofthepaperinabibliography.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedinanoteandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Eachbibliographyentryincludesthesameinformationcontainedinafullnote,butinaslightlydifferentform:

B:Lanier,Jaron.YouAreNotaGadget:AManifesto.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2010.

15.3.2Author-DateStyle

Inauthor-datecitations,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingaparentheticalcitation(includingauthor,date,and

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relevantpagenumbers)nexttoyourreferencetoit:

Heconcludesthat“beingapersonisnotapatformula,butaquest,amystery,aleapoffaith”(Lanier2010,5).

Attheendofthepaper,youlistallsourcesinareferencelist.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedinaparentheticalcitationandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Eachreferencelistentryincludescompletebibliographicalinformationforasource.Thepublicationdateimmediatelyfollowsthenameoftheauthor,makingiteasytofollowaparentheticalcitationtoitscorrespondingentryinthereferencelist:

R:Lanier,Jaron.2010.YouAreNotaGadget:AManifesto.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.

15.4ElectronicSourcesThestandardcitationformsevolvedintheageofprint,butresearchersnowincreasinglyrelyonsourcesthatarefoundonlineorinanotherelectronicmedium.Thesesourceshavebeenusedlongenoughforresearcherstohavecreatedstandardcitationformsadaptedtotheirspecialcharacteristics.

15.4.1OnlineSources

15.4.1.1INFORMATIONINCITATIONS.Whenyouciteonlinesources,youincludemanyofthesamepiecesofinformationasyouwouldforprintsources,butsometimesthisinformationisdifficulttofind,unavailable,orsubjecttochangewithoutnotice.Thesefactorscanmakeitmoredifficultforyourreaderstofindthesourcesyou vecited,andinsomecasestheymaymakeyouquestiontheauthorityandreliabilityofasource.

■Manywebsiteshavenoidentifiableauthor,publisher,orsponsor.Thismakesthemtheequivalentofanyotheranonymoussource,unlikelytobeauthoritativeorreliableenoughtousewithoutseriousqualification(see3.4.3).Thesamecautionappliestocontentsuchasusercommentsthatarepostedunderpseudonyms,evenifthewebsiteorblogtheyarepostedonisconsideredareliablesource.

■Onlinecontentcanberevisedwithoutnotice,andtherearenostandardsforindicatingrevisions.Arevisiondateononewebsitemayindicatecorrectionofaspellingerrorwhileonanotheritmaymarkchangesinfactualdataorclaims.

■Onlinecontentmaybesimultaneouslyavailablefrommorethanonesite,somemorereliablethanothers.■MostonlinesourcesarelocatedthroughaURL(uniformresourcelocator),butURLscomeandgo.Youcannotalwaysbecertaintheywillbeavailablemonths,weeks,orevendayslater,andtheirdisappearancewouldmakeitdifficultorimpossibleforyouoryourreaderstofindthecontentyouoriginallyconsulted.

Inyourresearch,chooseonlinesourcescarefully.Wheninformationisavailableonmultiplewebsitesorinmultiplemedia(printandonline),consultthemostreliableversionavailable,andalwayscitetheversionyouconsulted.

15.4.1.2TWOCATEGORIESOFSOURCES.Onlinesourcesfallintotwocategories.

1.Manyonlinesourcesarelikeprintsourcesineverythingexceptmedium forexample,anarticlepublishedinanonlinejournalinsteadofinaprintedjournal.Othersourcesofthistypeincludeonlinebooks,newspaperandmagazinearticles,andpublicdocuments.Citeanonlinesourceofthistypesimilarlytoaprintsource,beginningwithstandardfactsofpublication(author sname,title,date,andsoforth).Attheendofthecitation,addthedateyouaccessedthematerialandtheURL(see15.4.1.3)orthenameofthedatabasethroughwhichyouaccessedthesource(see15.4.1.4).Youcanfindexamplesofhowtocitesuchitemsundertherelevanttypeofsourceinchapter17(forbibliographystyle)andchapter19(forauthor-datestyle).

2.Othertypesofonlinesources,suchasinstitutionalorpersonalwebsitesandsocialnetworkingservices,areuniquetothemedium.Unlikemoretraditionalmedia,thesesourcesoftenlackoneormoreofthestandardfactsofpublication.Tocitesuchasource,youwillneedtogiveasmuchinformationaspossibleaboutitinadditiontoaURLandaccessdate(see15.4.1.3).Examplesofhowtocitetheseitemsappearin17.7(forbibliographystyle)and19.7(forauthor-datestyle).

15.4.1.3URLSANDACCESSDATES.Foranysourceyoucite,youmustalwaysincludethefullfactsofpublicationinadditiontoaURL.IftheURLchanges,interestedreaderswilloftenbeabletofindyoursourcebysearchingfortheauthor,title,andotherfactsofpublication.

CapitalizethecomponentsofaURLexactlyastheyappearonyourscreen.IftheURLendsinaslash,includeit.DonotenclosetheURLinbrackets.ItisbestnottobreakaURLattheendofaline,butifyouneedtodoso,see20.4.2forsomeguidelines.

IfawebsitegivesapreferredformoftheURLalongwiththecitationdataforasource,usethatratherthantheURLinyourbrowser saddressbar.SomesourcesareidentifiedbyaDOI(digitalobjectidentifier).URLsbasedonDOIsaremorepersistentandstablethanordinaryURLs.TociteasourcethatincludesaDOI,appendtheDOItohttp://dx.doi.org/inyourcitation.Forexamples,seethesectionsonjournalarticlesinfigure16.1(forbibliographystyle)orfigure18.1(forauthor-datestyle)andinchapters17and19.

Inaddition,everycitationofanonlinesourceshouldincludethedateyoulastaccessedit.Ifthesourceisrevisedordeleted,readers(andyourinstructor)willwanttoknowwhenthesourcewaslastavailabletoyou.Chapters17and19providemanyexamplesofaccessdatesincitations.

15.4.1.4COMMERCIALDATABASES.Manyonlinesources,includingjournalsandotherperiodicalsandsomeelectronicbooks,areaccessibleonlythroughacommercialdatabasewithrestrictedaccess(oftenthroughauniversityorothermajorlibrary).IfsuchadatabaselistsarecommendedURLalongwiththesource,usethatoneinsteadoftheoneinyouraddressbar.AURLbasedonaDOI,ifavailable,isthebestoption(see15.4.1.3).IfnosuitablyshortanddirectURLexists,however,youmaysubstitutethenameof

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thedatabasefortheURL(e.g.,LexisNexisAcademic).Forexamples,see17.1.10(bibliographystyle)and19.1.10(author-datestyle).

15.4.2OtherElectronicMedia

Publicationsavailableinotherelectronicmedia,suchasanelectronicbookavailablefordownloadorasaCD-orDVD-ROM,canoftenbecitedsimilarlytoprintedbooks,withtheadditionofinformationaboutthemediumorfileformat;see17.1.10and17.5.8(forbibliographystyle)or19.1.10and19.5.8(forauthor-datestyle).

Ifasourceisavailableinmorethanoneelectronicmedium(forexample,inmorethanoneelectronicbookformat),orbothelectronicallyandinprintform,consultthemostreliableandauthoritativeversion(see3.4),andalwayscitetheversionyouconsulted.

15.5PreparationofCitationsYoucaneasetheprocessofpreparingandcheckingcitationsifyouanticipatewhatyouwillneed.

■Usethemostauthoritativesources,intheirmostreliableversion.Ifyoufindsecond-orthirdhandinformation,trackdowntheoriginalsource.

■Ifasourceisavailableinmultipleversions,alwayscitetheoneyouactuallyconsulted.Theremaybesmallbutimportantdifferencesbetweentheversionsthatcouldaffecttheaccuracyofyourquotationsorotherreferencestothesource.

■Recordallbibliographicalinformationbeforeyoutakenotes.Seefigure16.1(forbibliographystyle)orfigure18.1(forauthor-datestyle)fortemplatesshowingwhatinformationisneededforseveralcommontypesofsources.

■Recordthepagenumber(s)foreveryquotationandparaphrase.■Asyoudraft,clearlyindicateeveryplacewhereyoumayneedtociteasource.Itismucheasiertoremoveanunnecessarycitationwhenyourevisethantorememberwhereyoumayhavereliedonsomeoneelse sideas.

■Whenyourdraftisinitsfinalform,consultchapter17or19toensurethateachcitationisinthecorrectform,includingpunctuationandspacing.

■Youcanassembleyourbibliographyorreferencelisteitherasyouconsultyoursourcesorasyoudraftandrevise.Besuretocheckeachdetailcarefully.

Gettingeachcitationrightmaybetedious,butaswitheveryotherphaseofresearch,ifyouanticipatewhatyouneedandmanagetheprocessfromthebeginning,youcancompleteeventhisleastexcitingpartofresearchfaster,moreeasily,andmorereliably.

15.6CitationManagementSoftwareIfyoudothebulkofyourbibliographicresearchonline,youmaywanttoconsiderusingcitationmanagementsoftwaretocollectdataaboutyoursources.ProgramslikeEndNote,RefWorks,andZoteroaredesignedtohelpyoubuilda library ofcitationsforavarietyofsourcetypes.Lateryoucanplugthesecitationsdirectlyintoyourpaperinoneofthecitationstylesdescribedinthismanual(referredtoinmostprogramsaseither Turabian or Chicago style).Afewthingstokeepinmind:

■Double-checkyourdata.Asyoubuildyourlibrary,checkeachfieldagainsttheactualsourceassoonasyouacquirethedataforit.Makesurethatauthors names,titlesofworks,dates,andsoforthareaccurateandthattheyareenteredintheappropriatefields.Youwillneedtodothiswhetheryouenteredthedatayourselforexportedthecitationfromalibrarycatalogorotherdatabase.

■Double-checkyourcitations.Oncethey vebeeninsertedinyourpaper,makesureeachcitationiscorrectlyformattedandpunctuatedaccordingtothecitationstyleyou vechosen.Reviewyourfinaldraftwithextracare.Citationsoftwareprogramsdomakeerrors,anditremainsyourresponsibilitytoensurethatyourcitationsareaccurate.Forexamplesofbibliography-stylecitations,seechapters16and17;forauthor-datestyle,seechapters18and19.

■Alwayskeepatleasttwocopiesofyourcitationslibrary.Ifyourschoolletsyoukeepacopyonitsserver,makesureyoualsohaveacopyonalocaldrive.

Theseprogramsworkbestforpapersthatciteonlyafewtypesofthemostcommonsources.Articlesinacademicjournals,especially,areeasytoworkwith.Ifyoucitemanydifferenttypesofsources,expecttospendextratimecorrectingyourcitationslibraryandeditingyourfinalpaper.Youmaychooseinsteadtorecordtheinformationinthecorrectcitationformatyourself,usingawordprocessororspreadsheetapplication.

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16Notes-BibliographyStyle:TheBasicForm

16.1BasicPatterns

16.1.1OrderofElements16.1.2Punctuation16.1.3Capitalization16.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks16.1.5Numbers16.1.6Abbreviations16.1.7Indentation

16.2Bibliographies

16.2.1TypesofBibliographies16.2.2ArrangementofEntries16.2.3SourcesThatMayBeOmitted

16.3Notes

16.3.1FootnotesversusEndnotes16.3.2ReferencingNotesinText16.3.3NumberingNotes16.3.4FormattingNotes16.3.5ComplexNotes

16.4ShortFormsforNotes

16.4.1ShortenedNotes16.4.2Ibid.16.4.3ParentheticalNotes

Acitationstyleusedwidelyinthehumanitiesandinsomesocialsciencesisthenotes-bibliographystyle,orbibliographystyleforshort.Thischapterpresentsanoverviewofthebasicpatternforcitationsinbibliographystyle,includingbibliographyentries,fullnotes,shortenednotes,andparentheticalnotes.ExamplesofnotesareidentifiedwithanN;examplesofbibliographyentriesareidentifiedwithaB.

Inbibliographystyle,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingasuperscriptnumberattheendofthesentenceinwhichyouquoteorotherwiserefertothatsource:

Accordingtoonescholar,“TherailroadshadmadeChicagothemostimportantmeetingplacebetweenEastandWest.”4

Youthencitethesourceofthatinformationinacorrespondinglynumberednotethatprovidesinformationaboutthesource(author,title,andfactsofpublication)plusrelevantpagenumbers.Notesareprintedatthebottomofthepage(calledfootnotes)orinalistcollectedattheendofyourpaperortheendofeachchapter(calledendnotes).Allnoteshavethesamegeneralform:

N:4.WilliamCronon,NatureʼsMetropolis:ChicagoandtheGreatWest(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1991),92–93.

Ifyoucitethesametextagain,youcanshortensubsequentnotes:

N:8.Cronon,NatureʼsMetropolis,383.

Inmostcases,youalsolistsourcesattheendofthepaperinabibliography.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedinanoteandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Eachbibliographyentryincludesthesameinformationcontainedinafullnote,butinaslightlydifferentform:

B:Cronon,William.NatureʼsMetropolis:ChicagoandtheGreatWest.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1991.

Readersexpectyoutofollowtherulesforcorrectcitationsexactly.Theserulescovernotonlywhatdatayoumustincludeandtheirorderbutalsopunctuation,capitalization,italicizing,andsoon.Togetyourcitationsright,youmustpaycloseattentiontomanyminutedetailsthatfewresearcherscaneasilyremember.Chapter17providesareadyreferenceguidetothosedetails.

16.1BasicPatterns

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Althoughsourcesandtheircitationscomeinalmostendlessvariety,youarelikelytouseonlyafewkinds.Whileyoumayneedtolookupdetailstocitesomeunusualsources,youcaneasilylearnthebasicpatternsforthefewkindsyouwillusemostoften.Youcanthencreatetemplatesthatwillhelpyourecordbibliographicaldataquicklyandreliablyasyouread.

Therestofthissectiondescribesthebasicpatterns,andfigure16.1providestemplatesforandexamplesofseveralcommontypesofsources.Chapter17includesexamplesofawiderangeofsources,includingexceptionstothepatternsdiscussedhere.

Figure16.1.Templatesfornotesandbibliographyentries

Thefollowingtemplatesshowwhatelementsshouldbeincludedinwhatorderwhencitingseveralcommontypesofsourcesinnotes(N)andbibliographies(B).Theyalsoshowpunctuation,capitalizationoftitles,andwhentouseitalicsorquotationmarks.Grayshadingshowsabbreviations(ortheirspelled-outversions)andothertermsastheywouldactuallyappearinacitation.standsinforfootnotenumber.XXstandsinforpagenumbersactuallycited,YYforafullspanofpagenumbersforanarticleorachapter.

Forfurtherexamples,explanations,andvariations,seechapter17.Fortemplatesofshortenednoteforms,seefigure16.2.

Books

1.SingleAuthororEditor

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–XX.1.MalcolmGladwell,TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference(Boston:Little,Brown,2000),64 65.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.Gladwell,Malcolm.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown,2000.

Forabookwithaneditorinsteadofanauthor,adaptthepatternasfollows:

N:##.EditorʼsFirstandLastNames,ed.,TitleofBook…7.JoelGreenberg,ed.,OfPrairie,Woods,andWater

B:EditorʼsLastName,EditorʼsFirstName,ed.TitleofBook…Greenberg,Joel,ed.OfPrairie,Woods,andWater

2.MultipleAuthors

Forabookwithtwoauthors,usethefollowingpattern:

N:##.Author#1ʼsFirstandLastNamesandAuthor#2ʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–XX.2.PeterMoreyandAminaYaqin,FramingMuslims:StereotypingandRepresentationafter9/11(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011),52.

B:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,andAuthor#2ʼsFirstandLastNames.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.

Morey,Peter,andAminaYaqin.FramingMuslims:StereotypingandRepresentationafter9/11.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011.

Forabookwiththreeauthors,adaptthepatternasfollows:

N:##.Author#1ʼsFirstandLastNames,Author#2ʼsFirstandLastNames,andAuthor#3ʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook…5.JoeSoss,RichardC.Fording,andSanfordF.Schram,DiscipliningthePoor

B:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,Author#2ʼsFirstandLastNames,andAuthor#3ʼsFirstandLastNames.TitleofBook…Soss,Joe,RichardC.Fording,andSanfordF.Schram.DiscipliningthePoor

Forabookwithfourormoreauthors,adaptthenotepatternonlyasfollows:

N:##.Author#1ʼsFirstandLastNamesetal.,TitleofBook…15.JayM.Bernsteinetal.,ArtandAestheticsafterAdorno

3.Author(s)PlusEditororTranslator

Forabookwithanauthorplusaneditor,usethefollowingpattern:

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,ed.EditorʼsFirstandLastNames(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–XX.9.JaneAusten,Persuasion:AnAnnotatedEdition,ed.RobertMorrison(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2011),311 12.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditedbyEditorʼsFirstandLastNames.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.

Austen,Jane.Persuasion:AnAnnotatedEdition.EditedbyRobertMorrison.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2011.

Ifabookhasatranslatorinsteadofaneditor,substitutethewordstrans,andTranslatedbyandthetranslatorʼsnamefortheeditordata.

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4.EditionNumber

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,EditionNumbered.(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–XX.11.JohnVanMaanen,TalesoftheField:OnWritingEthnography,2nded.(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011),84.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditionNumbered.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.VanMaanen,John.TalesoftheField:OnWritingEthnography.2nded.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011.

5.SingleChapterinanEditedBook

N:##.ChapterAuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,“TitleofChapter:SubtitleofChapter,”inTitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,ed.EditorʼsFirstandLastNames(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication),XX–XX.15. ngelesRam rez, MuslimWomenintheSpanishPress:ThePersistenceofSubalternImages, inMuslimWomeninWarandCrisis:Representationand

Reality,ed.FaeghehShirazi(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),231.

B:ChapterAuthorʼsLastName,ChapterAuthorʼsFirstName.“TitleofChapter:SubtitleofChapter.”InTitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,editedbyEditorʼsFirstandLastNames,YY–YY.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,DateofPublication.

Ram rez, ngeles.MuslimWomenintheSpanishPress:ThePersistenceofSubalternImages. InMuslimWomeninWarandCrisisRepresentationandReality,editedbyFaeghehShirazi,227 44.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010.

JournalArticles

6.JournalArticleinPrint

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle,”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(DateofPublication):XX–XX.4.AlexandraBogren, GenderandAlcohol:TheSwedishPressDebate, JournalofGenderStudies20,no.2(June2011):156.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle.”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(DateofPublication):YY–YY.Bogren,Alexandra. GenderandAlcohol:TheSwedishPressDebate. JournalofGenderStudies20,no.2(June2011):155 69.

Foranarticlewithmultipleauthors,followtherelevantpatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplate2.

7.JournalArticleOnline

Forajournalarticleconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.ForarticlesthatincludeaDOI,formtheURLbyappendingtheDOItohttp://dx.doi.org/ratherthanusingtheURLinyouraddressbar.TheDOIfortheKiserarticleintheexamplebelowis10.1086/658052.

N:##.AuthorʼsFirstandLastNames,“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle,”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(DateofPublication):XX–XX,accessedDateofAccess,URL.5.LisaJ.Kiser, SilencingtheLambs:Economics,Ethics,andAnimalLifeinMedievalFranciscanHagiography, ModernPhilology108,no.3(February

2011):340,accessedSeptember18,2011,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052.

B:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle.”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(DateofPublication):YY–YY.AccessedDateofAccess.URL.

Kiser,LisaJ. SilencingtheLambs:Economics,Ethics,andAnimalLifeinMedievalFranciscanHagiography. ModernPhilology108,no.3(February2011):323 42.AccessedSeptember18,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052.

See15.4.1formoredetails.

16.1.1OrderofElements

Theorderofelementsinnotesandbibliographyentriesfollowsthesamegeneralpatternforalltypesofsources:author,title,factsofpublication.However,notespresentauthors namesinstandardorder(firstnamefirst),whilebibliographyentriespresentthemininvertedorder(lastnamefirst)foralphabeticallisting.Notescitingspecificpassagesusuallyincludepagenumbersorotherlocatinginformation;bibliographyentriesdonot,thoughtheydoincludeafullspanofpagenumbersforasourcethatispartofalargerwhole,suchasanarticleorachapter.

16.1.2Punctuation

Innotes,separatemostelementswithcommas;inbibliographyentries,separatethemwithperiods.Innotes,enclosefactsofpublicationinparentheses;inbibliographyentries,donot.Thestylesaredifferentbecauseanoteisintendedtobereadliketext,whereaperiodmightsignaltheendofacitation.Bibliographiesaredesignedaslistsinwhicheachsourcehasitsownentry,soperiodscanbeusedwithoutconfusiontoseparatetheelementsofauthor,title,andpublicationdata.

16.1.3Capitalization

Capitalizemosttitlesheadlinestyle,butcapitalizetitlesinforeignlanguagessentencestyle.(See22.3.1forbothstyles.)Capitalizepropernounsintheusualway(seechapter22).

16.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks

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Titlesoflargerentities(books,journals)areprintedinitalics;titlesofsmallerentities(chapters,articles)areprintedinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.Titlesofunpublishedworks(suchasdissertations)areprintedinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks,eveniftheyarebooklength.Seealso22.3.2.

16.1.5Numbers

Intitles,anynumbersarespelledoutorgiveninnumeralsexactlyastheyareintheoriginal.Pagenumbersthatareinromannumeralsintheoriginalarepresentedinlowercaseromannumerals.Allothernumbers(suchaschapternumbersorfigurenumbers)aregiveninarabicnumerals,eveniftheyareinromannumeralsorspelledoutintheoriginal.

16.1.6Abbreviations

Innotes,abbreviatetermssuchaseditorandtranslator(ed.andtrans.).Inbibliographyentries,thesetermsareoftenspelledoutwhentheyintroduceaname(Editedby)butabbreviatedwhentheyconcludeit(ed.).Thepluralisusuallyformedbyaddings(eds.)unlesstheabbreviationendsinans(usetrans.forbothsingularandplural).Termssuchasvolume,edition,andnumber(vol.,ed.,andno.)arealwaysabbreviated.

16.1.7Indentation

Notesareindentedlikeotherparagraphsinthetext:thefirstlineisindentedandallfollowinglinesareflushleft.Bibliographyentrieshaveahangingindentation:thefirstlineisflushleftandallfollowinglinesareindentedthesameamountasthefirstlineofaparagraph.

16.2BibliographiesPapersthatusethenotes-bibliographycitationstyletypicallyincludebothnotesandabibliographythatlistsallsourcescitedinthenotes.Althoughthesameinformationappearsinbothnotesandbibliography,readersneeditinbothplaces,becausetheyusenotesandbibliographiesdifferently.Notesletreadersquicklycheckthesourceforaparticularreferencewithoutdisruptingtheflowoftheirreading.Bibliographiesshowreaderstheextentofyourresearchanditsrelationshiptopriorwork.Bibliographiesalsohelpreadersuseyoursourcesintheirownresearch.Sounlessyouhaveonlyahandfulofsourcesoryourinstructortellsyouotherwise,alwaysincludebothnotesandabibliographyinyourpapers.Ifyoudonotincludeabibliography,makesurethatyournotespresentcompleteinformationforeachsource,atleastthefirsttimeyouciteit.

16.2.1TypesofBibliographies

Inmostcases,yourbibliographyshouldincludeeveryworkyouciteinyourtext.(Forexceptions,see16.2.3.)Youmayalsoincludeworksthatwereimportanttoyourthinkingbutthatyoudidnotspecificallymentioninthetext.LabelthiskindBibliographyorSourcesConsulted.SeefigureA.15intheappendixforasamplepageofabibliography.

Thereareotheroptions:

■Selectedbibliography.Somebibliographiesdonotincludeallworkscitedinnotes,eithertosavespaceortoomitminorreferencesunlikelytointerestreaders.Youmayuseaselectedbibliographyifyouhavegoodreasonsandyourinstructororadvisorapproves.LabelitSelectedBibliographyandaddaheadnotethatexplainsyourprincipleofselection.

■Single-authorbibliography.Somewriterslistworksbyoneperson,usuallyasaseparatelistinadditiontoastandardbibliography,butsometimesastheonlybibliographyinasingle-authorstudywithfewothersources.LabelsuchalistWorksof[Author sName]orsomeappropriatedescriptivetitle(PublishedWorksofWritingsof,andsoon).Youcanarrangeitchronologicallyoralphabeticallybytitle.Ifchronologically,listtitlespublishedinthesameyearalphabetically.

■Annotatedbibliography.Somewritersannotateeachbibliographyentrywithabriefdescriptionofthework scontentsorrelevancetotheirresearch.Inmostcases,ifyouannotateoneentryyoushouldannotatethemall.Butresearcherssometimesannotateonlythemostimportantworksorthosewhoserelevancetotheirresearchmaynotbeevident.Ifyourannotationsarebriefphrases,addtheminbracketsafterthepublicationdata(notethatthereisnoperiodwithinorafterthebracketedentry):

B:Toulmin,Stephen.TheUsesofArgument.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1958.[aseminaltextdescribingargumentinnonsymboliclanguage]

Youmayalsoaddfull-sentenceannotationsonanewlinewithparagraphindentation:

B:Toulmin,Stephen.TheUsesofArgument.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1958.Thisistheseminaltextindescribingthestructureofanargumentinnonsymboliclanguage.

16.2.2ArrangementofEntries

16.2.2.1ALPHABETICALBYAUTHOR.Abibliographyisnormallyasinglelistofallsourcesarrangedalphabeticallybythelastnameoftheauthor,editor,orwhoeverisfirstineachentry.(Foralphabetizingforeignnames,compoundnames,andotherspecialcases,see16.2.2.2.)Mostwordprocessorsprovideanalphabeticalsortingfunction;ifyouuseit,firstmakesureeachentryisfollowedbyahardreturn.Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayspecifythatyoushouldalphabetizetheentriesletterbyletterorwordbyword;see16.58-61ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010),foranexplanationofthesetwosystems.

Ifyourbibliographyincludestwoormoreworkswritten,edited,ortranslatedbythesameindividual,arrangetheentriesalphabeticallybytitle(ignoringarticlessuchasaorthe).Forallentriesafterthefirst,replacetheindividual snamewithalongdash,calleda3-emdash(see21.7.3).Foreditedortranslatedworks,putacommaandtheappropriatedesignation(ed.,trans.,andsoon)

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afterthedash.Listallsuchworksbeforeanythattheindividualcoauthoredorcoedited.Notethatitisbesttomakealltheseadjustmentsmanually afteryouhavesortedyourcompletebibliographyalphabeticallybyname.

B:Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.AmericabehindtheColorLine:DialogueswithAfricanAmericans.NewYork:WarnerBooks,2004._______.BlackinLatinAmerica.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2011._______,ed.TheClassicSlaveNarratives.NewYork:PenguinPutnam,2002._______.TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfrican-AmericanLiteraryCriticism.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988._______.TraditionandtheBlackAtlantic:CriticalTheoryintheAfricanDiaspora.NewYork:BasicCivitas,2010.Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.,andCornelWest.TheAfrican-AmericanCentury:HowBlackAmericansHaveShapedOurCountry.

NewYork:FreePress,2000.

Thesameprinciplesapplytoworksbyasinglegroupofauthorsnamedinthesameorder.

B:Marty,MartinE.,andR.ScottAppleby,eds.AccountingforFundamentalisms.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2004._______.TheGloryandthePower:TheFundamentalistChallengetotheModernWorld.Boston:BeaconPress,1992.Marty,MartinE.,andMicahMarty.WhenTrueSimplicityIsGained:FindingSpiritualClarityinaComplexWorld.GrandRapids,

Ml:WilliamB.Eerdmans,1998.

Ifasourcedoesnothaveanamedauthororeditor,alphabetizeitbasedonthefirstelementofthecitation,generallyatitle.Ignorearticlessuchasaorthe.

B:AccountoftheOperationsoftheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.22vols.DehraDun:SurveyofIndia,1870–1910.“TheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.”CalcuttaReview38(1863):26–62.“StateandProspectsofAsia.”QuarterlyReview63,no.126(March1839):369–402.

16.2.2.2SPECIALTYPESOFNAMES.Someauthors namesconsistofmorethanareadilyidentifiable firstname and lastname. Inmanycasesyoucandeterminethecorrectorderbyconsultingyourlibrary scatalog.Forhistoricalnames,agoodsourceisMerriam-Webster sBiographicalDictionary.Thissectionoutlinessomegeneralprinciplesforalphabetizingsuchnamesinyourbibliography.Inshortenedorparentheticalnotes,usethelastnameexactlyasinverted(shownbelowinboldface).Ifyourpaperinvolvesmanynamesfromaparticularforeignlanguage,followtheconventionsforthatlanguage.

■Compoundnames.Alphabetizecompoundlastnames,includinghyphenatednames,bythefirstpartofthecompound.Ifawomanusesbothherownfamilynameandherhusband sbutdoesnothyphenatethem,generallyalphabetizebythesecondsurname.Whilemanyforeignlanguageshavepredictablepatternsforcompoundnames(seebelow),others suchasFrenchandGermandonot.

Kessler-Harris,AliceHine,DarleneClarkMiesvanderRohe,LudwigTeilharddeChardin,Pierre

■Nameswithparticles.Dependingonthelanguage,particlessuchasde,di,D ,andvanmayormaynotbeconsideredthefirstpartofalastnameforalphabetizing.Consultoneoftheresourcesnotedaboveifyouareunsureaboutaparticularname.Notethatparticlesmaybeeitherlowercasedorcapitalized,andsomearefollowedbyanapostrophe.

deGaulle,CharlesdiLeonardo,MicaelaVanRensselaer,StephenBeauvoir,SimonedeKooning,WillemdeMedici,Lorenzodeʼ

■Namesbeginningwith Mac, Saint, or O . NamesthatbeginwithMac,Saint,orO canhavemanyvariationsinabbreviations(Mc,St.),spelling(Sainte,San),capitalization(Macmillan,McAllister),andhyphenationorapostrophes(O NeillorOdell;Saint-GaudensorSt.Denis).Alphabetizeallsuchnamesbasedonthelettersactuallypresent;donotgroupthembecausetheyaresimilar.

■Spanishnames.ManySpanishlastnamesarecompoundnamesconsistingofanindividual spaternalandmaternalfamilynames,sometimesjoinedbytheconjunctiony.Alphabetizesuchnamesunderthefirstpart.

OrtegayGasset,JoséSánchezMendoza,Juana

■Arabicnames.AlphabetizeArabiclastnamesthatbeginwiththeparticleal-orel-( the )undertheelementfollowingtheparticle.NamesthatbeginwithAbu,Abd,andIbn,likeEnglishnamesbeginningwithMacorSaint,shouldbealphabetizedundertheseterms.

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Hakim,Tawfiqal-Jamal,MuhammadHamidal-AbuZafarNadvi,SyedIbnSaud,Aziz

■ChineseandJapanesenames.IfanauthorwithaChineseorJapanesenamefollowstraditionalusage(familynamefollowedbygivenname),donotinvertthenameorinsertacommabetweenthe first and last names.IftheauthorfollowsWesternizedusage(givennamefollowedbyfamilyname),treatthenameasyouwouldanEnglishname.

Traditionalusage Westernizedusage

ChaoWu-chi Tsou,TangYoshidaShigeru Kurosawa,Noriaki

16.2.2.3OTHERTHANALPHABETICAL.Occasionally,readerswillfindanorderotherthanalphabeticalmoreuseful.Single-authorbibliographiesareoftenmoreusefullyarrangedchronologically,asarespecializedlistingssuchasnewspaperarticles,archivalrecords,andsoon.Youmayalsofinditusefultoinventanorderforaspecificpurpose forexample,alistoftopographicalmapsarrangedbystateorregion.Ifyoudouseanorderotherthanalphabeticalorchronological,explainyourchoiceinaheadnote.

16.2.2.4CATEGORIZEDLISTINGS.Youmayorganizealongerbibliographyintocategoriestohelpreadersseerelatedsourcesasagroup.Somecommonwaysofcategorizinglongerbibliographiesintosectionsincludethese:

■Bythephysicalformofsources.Youcancreateseparatelistsformanuscripts,archivalcollections,recordings,andsoon.■Bytheprimacyofsources.Youcanseparateprimarysourcesfromsecondaryandtertiaryones,asinasingle-authorbibliography.■Bythefieldofsources.Youcangroupsourcesbyfield,eitherbecauseyourreaderswillhavedifferentinterests(asinthebibliographytothisbook)orbecauseyoumixworkfromfieldsnotusuallycombined.Forexample,aworkonthetheoryandpsychologyofcomicliteraturemightcategorizesourcesasfollows:TheoryofComedy,PsychologicalStudies,LiteraryCriticism,ComicWorks.

Ifyoucategorizesources,presentthemineitherseparatebibliographiesorasingleonedividedintosections.Introduceeachseparatebibliographyorsectionwithasubheadingand,ifnecessary,aheadnote.Inasinglebibliography,usethesameprincipleoforderwithineachsection(usuallyalphabetical),anddonotlistasourceinmorethanonesectionunlessitclearlycouldbecategorizedintwoormoreways.Ifyouusedifferentprinciplesoforder,createseparatebibliographies,eachwithitsownexplanatoryheading.

16.2.3SourcesThatMayBeOmitted

Byconvention,youmayomitthefollowingtypesofsourcesfromabibliography:

■newspaperarticles(see17.4)■classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworks(17.5.1)and(insomecases)well-knownEnglish-languageplays(17.8.5.2)■theBibleandothersacredworks(17.5.2)■well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias(17.5.3)■briefpublisheditems,suchasreviewsofpublishedworksorperformances(17.5.4),abstracts(17.5.5),andpamphletsandreports(17.5.6)

■unpublishedinterviewsandpersonalcommunications(17.6.3),blogentriesandcomments(17.7.2),andpostingstosocialnetworks(17.7.3)orelectronicdiscussiongroupsormailinglists(17.7.4)

■individualdocumentsinunpublishedmanuscriptcollections(17.6.4)■somesourcesinthevisualandperformingarts,includingartworks(17.8.1)andliveperformances(17.8.2)■theUSConstitution(17.9.5),legalcases(17.9.7),andsomeotherpublicdocuments(17.9.2.5)

Youmaychoosetoincludeinyourbibliographyaspecificworkfromoneofthesecategoriesthatiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.

Ifyouusemanysuchsourcesfromasinglelargerentity forexample,severaldocumentsfromasinglemanuscriptcollectionyoumaycitethelargerentity,asdiscussedintherelevantsectionsofchapter17.

16.3NotesWritersuseseveraldifferentkindsofnotes,dependingontheirfield,theirreaders,andthenatureoftheirproject.Thissectionexplainsyouroptionsandhowtochooseamongthem.

16.3.1FootnotesversusEndnotes

Yourdepartmentmayspecifywhetheryoushouldusefootnotesorendnotes,especiallyforathesisordissertation.Ifnot,youshouldgenerallychoosefootnotes,whichareeasiertoread.Endnotesforcereaderstofliptothebackofthepaperorofeachchaptertocheckeverycitation.Ifyouincludesubstantivecommentsinendnotes(see16.3.5),readersmayignorethembecausetheycannottellwithoutturningbackwhichnotesaresubstantiveandwhichonlycitesources.

Ontheotherhand,chooseendnoteswhenyourfootnotesaresolongornumerousthattheytakeuptoomuchspaceonthepage,makingyourreportunattractiveanddifficulttoread.Also,endnotesbetteraccommodatetables,quotedpoetry,andanythingelse

99

thatrequiresalotofroomorcomplexformatting.Ifyouuseendnotesandincludeonlyafewsubstantivenotes,youcanreducetheriskthatreaderswillmissthembyseparating

substantivenotesfromsourcenotes.Numbersourcenotesandprintthemasendnotes.Signalsubstantivenoteswithasterisksandothersymbols(see16.3.3)andprintthemasfootnotes.

16.3.2ReferencingNotesinText

Wheneveryourefertoorotherwiseusematerialfromasource,youmustinsertintoyourtextasuperscriptnumberthatdirectsyourreadertoanotethatgivesbibliographicalinformationaboutthatsource.Putthenumberattheendofthesentenceorclausecontainingthequotationorothermaterial(seealso25.2).Normally,thenotenumbershouldfollowanymarkofpunctuation,includingaclosingparenthesis.

MagicwasastapleoftheKinahancharm.1

“This,”wroteGeorgeTempletonStrong,“iswhatourtailorscando.”2

(Inanearlierbookhehadsaidquitetheopposite.)3

If,however,thenotereferstomaterialbeforeadash,putthereferencenumberbeforethedash:

ThebiassurfacedintheShotwellseries4—thoughnotobviously.

Donotincludemorethanonereferencenumberatthesamelocation(suchas5,6).Instead,useonenumberandincludeallcitationsorcommentsinasinglenote(see16.3.5).

Avoidputtinganotenumberinsideorattheendofachaptertitleorsubtitle.Ifyournoteappliestotheentirechapter,omitthenumberandputanunnumberedfootnoteonthefirstpage,beforeanynumberednotes.Youmay,ontheotherhand,attachanotenumbertoasubhead.

16.3.3NumberingNotes

Numbernotesconsecutively,beginningwith1.Ifyourpaperhasseparatechapters,restarteachchapterwithnote1.Donotskipanumberorusenumberssuchas5a.

Ifyouuseendnotesforsourcecitationsbutfootnotesforsubstantivecomments(see16.3.1),donotnumberthefootnotes.Instead,labelthefirstfootnoteonapagewithanasterisk(*).Ifyouhavemorethanonefootnoteonapage,usesuperscriptsymbolsinthesequence* ǂ .

Fornotestotables,see26.2.2.

16.3.4FormattingNotes

Useregularparagraphindentsforbothfootnotesandendnotes.Begineachnotewithitsreferencenumber,formattednotasasuperscriptbutasregulartext.Putaperiodandaspacebetweenthenumberandthetextofthenote.Fornoteslabeledwithsymbols(see16.3.3),aspacebutnotaperiodshouldappearbetweenthesymbolandthetextofthenote.

Ifyourlocalguidelinesallowit,youmayinsteadusesuperscriptsforreferencenumbersandsymbolsinnotes.Youshouldthenbeginthetextofeachnotewithaninterveningspacebutnoperiod.

16.3.4.1FOOTNOTES.Begineveryfootnoteonthepageonwhichyoureferenceit.Putashortrulebetweenthelastlineoftextandthefirstfootnoteoneachpage,includinganynotesthatrunoverfrompreviouspages,evenifyourwordprocessordoesn tdosoautomatically.Ifafootnoterunsovertothenextpage,itisbestifitbreaksinmidsentence,sothatreadersdonotthinkthenoteisfinishedandoverlookthepartonthenextpage.Single-spaceeachfootnote.Ifyouhavemorethanonefootnoteonapage,putablanklinebetweennotes.SeefigureA.10forasamplepageoftextwithfootnotes.

16.3.4.2ENDNOTES.Endnotesshouldbelistedtogetheraftertheendofthetextandanyappendixesbutbeforethebibliography.Single-spaceeachnote,andputablanklinebetweennotes.LabelthelistNotes.Ifyourestartnumberingforeachchapter,addasubheadingbeforethefirstnotetoeachchapter: Chapter1 andsoforth.SeefigureA.14forasamplepageofendnotes.

16.3.5ComplexNotes

16.3.5.1CITATIONS.Ifyouciteseveralsourcestomakeasinglepoint,groupthemintoasinglenotetoavoidclutteringyourtextwithreferencenumbers.Listthecitationsinthesameorderinwhichthereferencesappearinthetext;separatecitationswithsemicolons.

Onlywhenwegathertheworkofseveralscholars—WalterSuttonʼsexplicationsofsomeofWhitmanʼsshorterpoems;PaulFussellʼscarefulstudyofstructurein“Cradle”;S.K.Coffmanʼsclosereadingsof“CrossingBrooklynFerry”and“PassagetoIndia”—dowebegintogetasenseofboththeextentandthespecificityofWhitmanʼsforms.1

N:1.Sutton,“TheAnalysisofFreeVerseForm,IllustratedbyaReadingofWhitman,”JournalofAestheticsandArtCriticism18(December1959):241–54;Fussell,“WhitmanʼsCuriousWarble:ReminiscenceandReconciliation,”inThePresenceofWhitman,ed.R.W.B.Lewis(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1962),28–51;Coffman,“ʻCrossingBrooklynFerryʼ:ANoteontheCatalogueTechniqueinWhitmanʼsPoetry,”ModernPhilology51,no.4(May1954):225–32;Coffman,“FormandMeaninginWhitmanʼsʻPassagetoIndia,ʼ”PMLA70,no.3(June1955):337–49.

100

Itisalsousefultogroupcitationswhenyoureferreaderstoanumberofadditionalsources(calleda stringcite ):

N:2.Foraccountsofthecoherence-makingprocessesofconsciousnessfrom,respectively,psychological,neuropsychological,andphilosophicalpointsofview,seeBernardJ.Baars,ACognitiveTheoryofConsciousness(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988);GeraldEdelman,BrightAir,BrilliantFire:OntheMatteroftheMind(NewYork:BasicBooks,1992);andDanielDennett,ConsciousnessExplained(Boston:Little,Brown,1991).

16.3.5.2CITATIONSANDCOMMENTS.Ifanoteincludesbothacitationandasubstantivecomment,putthecitationfirstwithaperiodafterit,followedbythecommentinaseparatesentence.

TocometoPariswastoexperiencethesimultaneouspleasuresofthebestcontemporaryartandthemostvibrantartcenter.9

N:9.Natt,“ParisArtSchools,”269.GildedAgeAmericanartiststraveledtootherEuropeanartcenters,mostnotablyMunich,butParissurpassedallothersinsizeandimportance.

Whenyouincludeaquotationinanote,putthecitationaftertheterminalpunctuationofthequotation.

PropertyqualificationsdroppedoutofUSpracticeforpetitjuriesgraduallyduringthenineteenthcenturybutremainedinforceforgrandjuriesinsomejurisdictionsuntilthemid-twentiethcentury.33

N:33.“Agrandjuryinquiresintocomplaintsandaccusationsbroughtbeforeitand,basedonevidencepresentedbythestate,issuesbillsofindictment.”KermitHall,TheMagicMirror:LawinAmericanHistory(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1989),172.

Bejudiciousinyouruseofsubstantivecommentsinnotes.Ifapointiscriticaltoyourargument,includeitinthetext.Ifitisperipheral,thinkcarefullyaboutwhetheritisimportantenoughtomentioninanote.

16.4ShortFormsforNotesInsomefields,yourinstructormayexpectyoutogivefullbibliographicaldataineachnote,butinmostyoucangiveacompletecitationthefirsttimeyouciteaworkandashortenedoneinsubsequentnotes.Inafewfields,writersuseashortenedformforallcitations,withcompletedatalistedonlyinthebibliography.

Ifyoudon tknowthepracticecommoninyourfield,consultyourlocalguidelines.

16.4.1ShortenedNotes

Ashortenednoteshouldincludeenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefullcitationinyourbibliographyorinanearliernote.Thetwomainchoicesareauthor-onlynotesandauthor-titlenotes.Inmanyfields,writersusetheauthor-titleformforallshortenednotes;inothers,writersusetheauthor-onlyformformostshortenednotes,buttheauthor-titleformwhentheycitemorethanoneworkbythesameauthor.Ifasourcedoesnothaveanauthor(oreditor),youcanuseatitle-onlynote.Figure16.2providestemplatesforeachtypeofshortenednote.

Figure16.2.Templatesforshortenednotes

Thefollowingtemplatesshowwhatelementsshouldbeincludedinwhatorderinthethreetypesofshortenednotes(see16.4.1forwhentouseeachtype).Theyalsoshowpunctuation,capitalizationoftitles,andtypographyoftheelements.Grayshadingshowstermsastheywouldactuallyappearinacitation.##standsinfornotenumber;XXstandsinforpagenumberscited.

Author-OnlyNotes

1.SingleAuthor

N:##.AuthorʼsLastName,XX–XX.2.Gladwell,85 90.

Foraworkcitedbyeditorortranslatorinsteadofauthor(see17.1.1),usetheeditorortranslatorinplaceoftheauthor.Donotadded.ortrans.,asinafullnote.

N:##.EditorʼsorTranslatorʼsLastName,XX–XX.9.Greenberg,15.

Iftwoormoreauthorshavethesamelastname,distinguishthembyaddingfirstnamesorinitials.

2.TwoorThreeAuthors

N:##.Author#1ʼsLastNameandAuthor#2ʼsLastName,XX–XX.7.MoreyandYaqin,52.

N:##.Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#2ʼsLastName,andAuthor#3ʼsLastName,XX–XX.

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15.Soss,Fording,andSchram,135 36.

3.FourorMoreAuthors

N:##.Author#1ʼsLastNameetal.,XX–XX.10.Bernsteinetal.,114 15.

Author-TitleNotes

4.Books

N:##.AuthorʼsLastName,ShortenedTitle,XX–XX.2.Gladwell,TippingPoint,85 90.

Forbooksbymorethanoneauthor,followthepatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplates2and3.

5.Articles

N:##.AuthorʼsLastName,“ShortenedTitle,”XX–XX.8.Kiser, SilencingtheLambs, 328.

Forarticlesbymorethanoneauthor,followthepatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplates2and3.

Title-OnlyNotes

6.BookswithoutanAuthor

N:##.ShortenedTitle,XX–XX.11.AccountofOperations,252.

7.ArticleswithoutanAuthor

N:##.“ShortenedTitle,”XX–XX.17. GreatTrigonometricalSurvey, 26 27

Anauthor-onlynoteincludestheauthor slastnameandpagenumbers(orotherlocator),separatedbyacommaandfollowedbyaperiod.Iftheworkhasaneditorratherthananauthor,usetheeditor slastnamebutdonotadded.Anauthor-titlenoteaddsashortenedtitlecomposedofuptofourdistinctivewordsfromthefulltitle.Useacommatoseparatetheauthorandtheshortenedtitle,andprintthetitlewithitalicsorquotationmarksasyouwouldinafullnote.

N:1.HarrietMurav,MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-RevolutionRussia(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2011),219.

4.Murav,220.

or

4.Murav,SpeedingTrain,220.12.FrancoiseMeltzer,“TheoriesofDesire:AntigoneAgain,”CriticalInquiry37,no.2(Winter2011):170.17.Meltzer,184.

or

17.Meltzer,“TheoriesofDesire,”184.20.HasanKwameJeffries,“RemakingHistory:BarackObama,PoliticalCartoons,andtheCivilRightsMovement,”inCivil

RightsHistoryfromtheGroundUp:LocalStruggles,aNationalMovement,ed.EmilyeCrosby(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,2011),260.

22.Jeffries,261–62.

or

22.Jeffries,“RemakingHistory,”261–62.

Formultipleauthorsoreditors,listthelastnamesinthesameorderinwhichtheyappearinafullnote.

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N:5.DanielGoldmarkandCharlieKeil,FunnyPictures:AnimationandComedyinStudio-EraHollywood(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011),177–78.

8.GoldmarkandKeil,180.

or

8.GoldmarkandKeil,FunnyPictures,180.

16.4.2Ibid.

Atonetime,writersshortenedcitationsinnotesbyusingLatintermsandabbreviations:idem, thesame ;op.cit.,foroperecitato,intheworkcited ;andloc.cit.,forlococitato, intheplacecited. Thispracticehasfallenoutoffavor,soavoidallLatincitationtermsexceptone ibid.,fromibidemor inthesameplace. Somewritersstilluseibid.toshortenacitationtoaworkcitedintheimmediatelyprecedingnote.

N:30.Buchan,AdvicetoMothers,71.31.Ibid.,95.32.Ibid.

Innotes,ibid.shouldnotbeitalicized;atthestartofanote,itshouldbecapitalized.Sinceibid.isanabbreviation,itmustendwithaperiod;ifthecitationincludesapagenumber,putacommaafteribid.Ifthepagenumberofareferenceisthesameasinthepreviousnote,donotincludeapagenumberafteribid.Donotuseibid.afteranotethatcontainsmorethanonecitation,andavoidusingibid.torefertofootnotesthatdonotappearonthesamepage.

16.4.3ParentheticalNotes

16.4.3.1PARENTHETICALNOTESVERSUSFOOTNOTESORENDNOTES.Youmaywanttouseparentheticalnotesifyouarediscussingaparticularworkatlengthandneedtociteitfrequently.Suchin-textreferencescanmakeyourtexteasiertofollow.Thefirsttimeyoucitethework,providefullbibliographicaldatainafootnoteorendnote;forsubsequentreferences,useparentheticalnotesinsteadofshortenednotes(see16.4.1).Forexamples,see16.4.3.2.

Youmayalsouseparentheticalnotesforcertaintypesofsourcesthatreaderscanidentifywithonlyafewelements,suchasanewspaperarticle(see17.4),alegalcase(17.9.7),anolderliterarywork(17.5.1),abiblicalorothersacredwork(17.5.2),orasourceinthevisualandperformingarts(17.8).Thesesourcescanoftenbeomittedfromyourbibliography(see16.2.3).

Instudiesoflanguageandliterature,parentheticalnoteshavegenerallyreplacedfootnotesorendnotesformostsourcecitations,includingthefirstreferencetoeachwork.

16.4.3.2FORMATTINGPARENTHETICALNOTES.Insertaparentheticalnotewhereyouwouldplaceareferencenumberforanote:attheendofaquotation,sentence,orclause.Thenotecomesbeforeratherthanafteranycomma,period,orotherpunctuationmarkwhenthequotationisrunintothetext.Oneexception:withablockquotation,thenotefollowstheterminalpunctuationmark(see25.2.2.1foranexample).

Thefullestparentheticalnoteincludesthesameinformationastheauthor-titleformofashortenednote,withtheelementsseparatedbycommas.(Notethatboththeelementsandthepunctuationareslightlydifferentfromthoseusedinparentheticalcitationsinauthor-datestyle,describedinchapters18and19;donotconfuseorcombinethetwostyles.)

“Whatonintrospectionseemstohappenimmediatelyandwithouteffortisoftenacomplexsymphonyofprocessesthattaketimetocomplete”(LeDoux,SynapticSelf,116).

Accordingtooneexpert,thenormsoffriendshiparedifferentintheworkplace(Little,“NormsofCollegiality,”330).

Insomefields,writersareexpectedtousethisfullformforallparentheticalnotes;inothers,theyareallowedtoshortenthem,sincesuchnotesinterrupttheflowofatext.Ifyourfieldallowsshortening,youhavethreeoptionsformosttypesofsources:

■Pagenumbersonly.Youmayincludeintheparenthesesonlythepagenumber(s)orotherlocatorifreaderscanreadilyidentifythespecificsourcefromyourtext,eitherbecauseitisamainobjectofyourstudy(asinthefirstexamplebelowreferringtoHarrietBeecherStowe sUncleTom sCabin)orbecauseyoumentiontheauthorortitleinyourtext.Eitherway,youmustprovidefullbibliographicinformationelsewhere.

“PoorJohn!”interposesStoweʼsnarrativevoice,“Itwasrathernatural;andthetearsthatfell,ashespoke,cameasnaturallyasifhehadbeenawhiteman”(169).

ErnstCassirernotesthisinLanguageandMyth(59–60).

■Authorandpagenumber.Youshouldincludetheauthorandpagenumber(s)orotherlocatorifreaderscannotreadilyidentifythesourcefromyourtext,aslongasyouciteonlyoneworkbythatauthor.

Whileoneschoolclaimsthat“materialculturemaybethemostobjectivesourceofinformationwehaveconcerningAmericaʼspast”(Deetz,259),othersdisagree.

■Titleandpagenumber.Youshouldincludeashortenedtitleandpagenumber(s)orotherlocatorifreaderscanreadilyidentifytheauthorfromyourtextbutyoucitemorethanoneworkbythatauthor.

103

AccordingtoFuret,“theSecondWorldWarcompletedwhattheFirsthadbegun—thedominationofthegreatpoliticalreligionsoverEuropeanpublicopinion”(PassingofanIllusion,360).

Ifyouciteaworkoften,youcanabbreviatethetitle.Iftheabbreviationisnotobvious,youmayspecifyitinthenoteforitsfirstcitation.(Ifyouusemorethanfivesuchabbreviationsinyourcitations,listtheminaseparatesectionofyourpaper;seeA.2.1.10.)

N:2.FrancoisFuret,ThePassingofanIllusion:TheIdeaofCommunismintheTwentiethCentury,trans.DeborahFuret(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999),368(citedintextasPI).

AccordingtoFuret,“theSecondWorldWarcompletedwhattheFirsthadbegun—thedominationofthegreatpoliticalreligionsoverEuropeanpublicopinion”(PI,360).

Fornewspaperarticlesandothertypesofsourcesinwhichauthor,title,andpagenumberarenotthekeyidentifyingelements(see16.4.3.1andtherelevantsectionsofchapter17),modifytheparentheticalnotestyleasneeded.

InaNewYorkTimesarticleonthebrawlinBeijing(August19,2011),AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponseswiththosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

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17Notes-BibliographyStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources

17.1Books

17.1.1AuthorʼsName17.1.2Title17.1.3Edition17.1.4Volume17.1.5Series17.1.6FactsofPublication17.1.7PageNumbersandOtherLocators17.1.8ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook17.1.9LettersandOtherCommunicationsinPublishedCollections17.1.10ElectronicBooks

17.2JournalArticles

17.2.1AuthorʼsName17.2.2ArticleTitle17.2.3JournalTitle17.2.4IssueInformation17.2.5PageNumbers17.2.6SpecialIssuesandSupplements

17.3MagazineArticles

17.4NewspaperArticles

17.4.1NameofNewspaper17.4.2CitingNewspapersinNotes17.4.3CitingNewspapersinText

17.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

17.5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks17.5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks17.5.3ReferenceWorks17.5.4Reviews17.5.5Abstracts17.5.6PamphletsandReports17.5.7MicroformEditions17.5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs17.5.9OnlineCollections

17.6UnpublishedSources

17.6.1ThesesandDissertations17.6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings17.6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications17.6.4ManuscriptCollections

17.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups

17.7.1Websites17.7.2BlogEntriesandComments17.7.3SocialNetworkingServices17.7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists

17.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

17.8.1ArtworksandGraphics17.8.2LivePerformances17.8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike17.8.4SoundRecordings

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17.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts

17.9PublicDocuments

17.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem17.9.2CongressionalPublications17.9.3PresidentialPublications17.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies17.9.5USConstitution17.9.6Treaties17.9.7LegalCases17.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments17.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments17.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments17.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies17.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments17.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments

17.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother

Chapter16presentsanoverviewofthebasicpatternforcitationsinthenotes-bibliographystyle,includingbibliographyentries,fullnotes,shortenednotes,andparentheticalnotes.Ifyouarenotfamiliarwiththiscitationstyle,readthatchapterbeforeconsultingthisone.

Thischapterprovidesdetailedinformationontheformofnotesandbibliographyentriesforawiderangeofsources.Itstartswiththemostcommonlycitedsources booksandjournalarticles beforeaddressingawidevarietyofothersources.Thesectionsonbooks(17.1)andjournalarticles(17.2)discussvariationsinsuchelementsasauthors namesandtitlesofworksingreaterdepththansectionsonlesscommonsources.

Examplesofelectronicversionsofmosttypesofsourcesareincludedalongsideothertypesofexamples.Electronicbooksarediscussedat17.1.10.Websites,blogs,andsocial-networkingservicesarediscussedin17.7.

ExamplesofnotesareidentifiedwithanNandbibliographyentrieswithaB.Insomecases,theexamplesshowthesameworkcitedinbothformstoillustratethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthem;inothercases,theyshowdifferentworkstoillustratevariationsinelementsevenwithinaspecifictypeofsource.Forshortenedformsofnotes,see16.4.

Ifyoucannotfindanexampleinthischapter,consultchapter14ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Youmayalsocreateyourownstyle,adaptedfromtheprinciplesandexamplesgivenhere.Mostinstructors,departments,anduniversitiesacceptsuchadaptationsaslongasyouusethemconsistently.

17.1BooksCitationsofbooksmayincludeawiderangeofelements.Manyofthevariationsinelementsdiscussedinthissectionarealsorelevanttoothertypesofsources.

17.1.1Author sName

Givethenameofeachauthor(andeditor,translator,orothercontributor)exactlyasitappearsonthetitlepage,andinthesameorder.Ifanameincludesmorethanoneinitial,usespacesbetweenthem(see24.2.1).Formultipleauthors,seefigure16.1.

Innotes,listauthors namesinstandardorder(firstnamefirst):

N:1.HarrietMurav,MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-revolutionRussia(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2011),219–20.

6.G.J.Barker-Benfield,AbigailandJohnAdams:TheAmericanizationofSensibility(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010),499.

11.DonaldR.KinderandAllisonDale-Riddle,TheEndofRace?Obama,2008,andRacialPoliticsinAmerica(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2012),47.

Inbibliographyentries,putthefirst-listedauthor snameininvertedorder(lastnamefirst),exceptforsomenon-Englishnamesandothercasesexplainedin16.2.2.2.Namesofanyadditionalauthorsshouldfollowbutshouldnotbeinverted.

B:Murav,Harriet.MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-revolutionRussia.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2011.

Barker-Benfield,G.J.AbigailandJohnAdams:TheAmericanizationofSensibility.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010.Kinder,DonaldR.,andAllisonDale-Riddle.TheEndofRace?Obama,2008,andRacialPoliticsinAmerica.NewHaven,CT:

YaleUniversityPress,2012.

17.1.1.1EDITORORTRANSLATORINADDITIONTOANAUTHOR.Ifatitlepagelistsaneditororatranslatorinadditiontoanauthor,treattheauthor snameasdescribedabove.Addtheeditorortranslator snameafterthebook stitle.Ifthereisatranslatoraswellasaneditor,listthenamesinthesameorderasonthetitlepageoftheoriginal.Iftheauthor snameappearsinthetitle,youmayomititfromthenotebutnotfromthebibliographyentry.

106

Innotes,inserttheabbreviationed.(nevereds.,sinceinthiscontextitmeans editedby ratherthan editor )ortrans.beforetheeditor sortranslator sname.

N:6.ElizabethI,CollectedWorks,ed.LeahS.Marcus,JanelMueller,andMaryBethRose(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2000),102–4.

7.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,TheScienceofLogic,ed.andtrans.GeorgediGiovanni(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2010),642–43.

10.TheNoéJitrikReader:SelectedEssaysonLatinAmericanLiterature,ed.DanielBalderston,trans.SusanE.Benner(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2005),189.

Inbibliographyentries,insertthephraseEditedbyorTranslatedbybeforetheeditor sortranslator sname.

B:ElizabethI.CollectedWorks.EditedbyLeahS.Marcus,JanelMueller,andMaryBethRose.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2000.

Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich.TheScienceofLogic.EditedandtranslatedbyGeorgediGiovanni.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2010.

Jitrik,Noé.TheNoéJitrikReader:SelectedEssaysonLatinAmericanLiterature.EditedbyDanielBalderston.TranslatedbySusanE.Benner.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2005.

Whenatitlepageidentifiesaneditorortranslatorwithacomplicateddescription,suchas EditedwithanIntroductionandNotesby or TranslatedwithaForewordby, youcansimplifythisphrasetoeditedbyortranslatedbyandfollowtheaboveexamples.Ingeneral,ifaforewordoranintroductioniswrittenbysomeoneotherthantheauthor,youneednotmentionthatpersonunlessyoucitethatpartspecifically(see17.1.8).

17.1.1.2EDITORORTRANSLATORINPLACEOFANAUTHOR.Whenaneditororatranslatorislistedonabook stitlepageinsteadofanauthor,usethatperson snameintheauthor sslot.Treatitasyouwouldanauthor sname(seeabove),butaddtheabbreviationed.ortrans,followingthename.Iftherearemultipleeditorsortranslators,useeds.ortrans.(singularandplural)andfollowtheprinciplesformultipleauthorsshowninfigure16.1.

N:3.SeamusHeaney,trans.,Beowulf:ANewVerseTranslation(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2000),55.4.Anne-MariaMakhulu,BethA.Buggenhagen,andStephenJackson,eds.,HardWork,HardTimes:GlobalVolatilityand

AfricanSubjectivities(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010),viii–ix.

B:Heaney,Seamus,trans.Beowulf:ANewVerseTranslation.NewYork:W.W.Norton,2000.Makhulu,Anne-Maria,BethA.Buggenhagen,andStephenJackson,eds.HardWork,HardTimes:GlobalVolatilityandAfrican

Subjectivities.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010.

17.1.1.3ORGANIZATIONASAUTHOR.Ifapublicationissuedbyanorganization,association,commission,orcorporationhasnopersonalauthor snameonthetitlepage,listtheorganizationitselfasauthor,evenifitisalsogivenaspublisher.Forpublicdocuments,see17.9.

N:9.AmericanBarAssociation,The2010FederalRulesBook(Chicago:AmericanBarAssociation,2010),221.

B:NationalCommissiononTerroristAttacksupontheUnitedStates.The9/11CommissionReport.NewYork:W.W.Norton,2004.

17.1.1.4PSEUDONYM.Treatawidelyrecognizedpseudonymasifitweretheauthor srealname.Ifthenamelistedastheauthor sisknowntobeapseudonymbuttherealnameisunknown,addpseud.inbracketsafterthepseudonym.

N:16.MarkTwain,ThePrinceandthePauper:ATaleforYoungPeopleofAllAges(NewYork:HarperandBrothers,1899),34.

B:Centinel[pseud.].“Letters.”InTheCompleteAnti-Federalist,editedbyHerbertJ.Storing.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981.

17.1.1.5ANONYMOUSAUTHOR.Iftheauthorshipisknownorguessedatbutomittedfromthebook stitlepage,includethenameinbrackets(withaquestionmarkifthereisuncertainty).Iftheauthororeditorisunknown,avoidtheuseofAnonymousinplaceofaname,andbeginthenoteorbibliographyentrywiththetitle.

N:22.[EbenezerCook?],SotweedRedivivus,orThePlanterʼsLooking-Glass(Annapolis,1730),5–6.31.ATrueandSincereDeclarationofthePurposeandEndsofthePlantationBeguninVirginia,oftheDegreesWhichIt

HathReceived,andMeansbyWhichItHathBeenAdvanced(London,1610),17.

B:[Cook,Ebenezer?].SotweedRedivivus,orThePlanterʼsLooking-Glass.Annapolis,1730.ATrueandSincereDeclarationofthePurposeandEndsofthePlantationBeguninVirginia,oftheDegreesWhichItHath

Received,andMeansbyWhichItHathBeenAdvanced.London,1610.

17.1.2Title

Listcompletebooktitlesandsubtitles.Italicizeboth,andseparatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon.Iftherearetwosubtitles,useacolonbeforethefirstandasemicolonbeforethesecond.

107

N:5.DanielGoldmarkandCharlieKeil,FunnyPictures:AnimationandComedyinStudio-EraHollywood(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011),177–78.

B:Ahmed,Leila.ABorderPassage:FromCairotoAmerica;AWomanʼsJourney.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1999.

Capitalizemosttitlesandsubtitlesheadlinestyle;thatis,capitalizethefirstletterofthefirstandlastwordsofthetitleandsubtitleandallmajorwords.Forforeign-languagetitles,usesentence-stylecapitalization;thatis,capitalizeonlythefirstletterofthefirstwordofthetitleandsubtitleandanypropernounsandproperadjectivesthatwouldbecapitalizedundertheconventionsoftheoriginallanguage(insomeRomancelanguages,properadjectivesandsomepropernounsarenotcapitalized).(See22.3.1foramoredetaileddiscussionofthetwostyles.)

(headlinestyle)HowtoDoIt:GuidestoGoodLivingforRenaissanceItalians

(sentencestyle)Desermoneamatorioapudlatinoselegiarumscriptores

Preservethespelling,hyphenation,andpunctuationoftheoriginaltitle,withtwoexceptions:changewordsinfullcapitals(exceptforinitialismsoracronyms;seechapter24)toupper-andlowercase,andchangeanampersand(&)toand.Spelloutnumbersorgivethemasnumeralsaccordingtotheoriginal(TwelfthCenturyor12thCentury)unlessthereisagoodreasontomakethemconsistentwithothertitlesinthelist.

Fortitlesofchaptersandotherpartsofabook,see17.1.8.

17.1.2.1SPECIALELEMENTSINTITLES.Severalelementsintitlesrequirespecialtypography

■Dates.Useacommatosetoffdatesattheendofatitleorsubtitle,evenifthereisnopunctuationintheoriginalsource.Butifthesourceintroducesthedateswithapreposition(forexample, from1920to1945 )oracolon,donotaddacomma.

N:5.RomainHayes,SubhasChandraBoseinNaziGermany:Politics,Intelligence,andPropaganda,1941–43(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2011),151–52.

B:Sorenson,JohnL.,andCarlL.Johannessen.WorldTradeandBiologicalExchangesbefore1492.Bloomington,IN:iUniverse,2009.

■Titleswithintitles.Whenthetitleofaworkthatwouldnormallybeitalicizedappearswithintheitalicizedtitleofanother,enclosethequotedtitleinquotationmarks.Ifthetitle-within-a-titlewouldnormallybeenclosedinquotationmarks,keepthequotationmarks.

N:22.ElisabethLadenson,DirtforArtʼsSake:BooksonTrialfrom“MadameBovary”to“Lolita”(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2007),17.

B:McHugh,Roland.Annotationsto“FinnegansWake.”2nded.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1991.

However,whentheentiremaintitleofabookconsistsofaquotationoratitlewithinatitle,donotencloseitinquotationmarks.

N:8.SamSwope,IAmaPencil:ATeacher,HisKids,andTheirWorldofStories(NewYork:HenryHolt,2004),108–9.

B:Wilde,Oscar.ThePictureofDorianGray:AnAnnotated,UncensoredEdition.EditedbyNicholasFrankel.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011.

■Italicizedterms.Whenanitalicizedtitleincludestermsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesornamesofships,setthetermsinromantype.

N:7.T.HughPennington,WhenFoodKills:BSE,E.coli,andDisasterScience(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2003),15.

B:Lech,RaymondB.TheTragicFateoftheU.S.S.Indianapolis:TheU.S.NavyʼsWorstDisasteratSea.NewYork:CooperSquarePress,2001.

■Questionmarksandexclamationpoints.Whenatitleorasubtitleendswithaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint,nootherpunctuationnormallyfollows.Oneexception:ifthetitlewouldnormallybefollowedbyacomma,asinashortenednote(see16.4.1),keepthecomma.Seealso21.12.1.

N:26.JafariS.Allen,¡Venceremos?TheEroticsofBlackSelf-MakinginCuba(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2011),210–11.

27.Allen,¡Venceremos?,212.

B:Wolpert,Stanley.IndiaandPakistan:ContinuedConflictorCooperation?Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010.

17.1.2.2OLDERTITLES.Fortitlesofworkspublishedintheeighteenthcenturyorearlier,retaintheoriginalpunctuationandspelling.Alsoretaintheoriginalcapitalization,evenifitdoesnotfollowheadlinestyle.Wordsinallcapitalletters,however,shouldbegiveninupper-andlowercase.Ifthetitleisverylong,youmayshortenit,butprovideenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefulltitleinalibraryorpublisher scatalog.Indicateomissionsinsuchtitlesbythreeellipsisdots.Iftheomissioncomesattheendofatitlein

108

abibliographyentry,useaperiodandthreeellipsisdots.

N:19.JohnRay,ObservationsTopographical,Moral,andPhysiological:MadeinaJourneyThroughpartoftheLow-Countries,Germany,Italy,andFrance:withACatalogueofPlantsnotNativeofEngland…WhereuntoisaddedABriefAccountofFrancisWillughby,Esq.,hisVoyagethroughagreatpartofSpain([London],1673),15.

B:Escalante,Bernardino.ADiscourseoftheNavigationwhichthePortugalesdoemaketotheRealmesandProvincesoftheEastPartesoftheWorlde….TranslatedbyJohnFrampton.London,1579.

17.1.2.3NON-ENGLISHTITLES.Usesentence-stylecapitalizationfornon-Englishtitles,followingthecapitalizationprinciplesforpropernounswithintherelevantlanguage.Ifyouareunfamiliarwiththeseprinciples,consultareliablesource.

N:3.SylvainGouguenheim,AristoteauMont-Saint-Michel:LesracinesgrecquesdelʼEuropechrétienne(Paris:ÉditionsduSeuil,2008),117.

6.LjiljanaPiletićStojanović,ed.Gutfreundičeškikubizam(Belgrade:Muzejsavremeneumetnosti,1971),54–55.

B:Kelek,Necla.DiefremdeBraut:EinBerichtausdemInnerendestürkischenLebensinDeutschland.Munich:GoldmannVerlag,2006.

IfyouaddtheEnglishtranslationofatitle,placeitaftertheoriginal.Encloseitinbrackets,withoutitalicsorquotationmarks,andcapitalizeitsentencestyle.

N:7.HenrykWereszycki,Koniecsojuszutrzechcesarzy[TheendoftheThreeEmperorsʼLeague](Warsaw:PWN,1977),5.

B:YuGuoming.Zhongguochuanmeifazhanqianyantansuo[Newperspectivesonnewsandcommunication].Beijing:Xinhuachubanshe,2011.

Ifyouneedtociteboththeoriginalandatranslation,useoneofthefollowingforms,dependingonwhetheryouwanttofocusreadersontheoriginalorthetranslation.

B:Furet,François.Lepassédʼuneillusion.Paris:ÉditionsRobertLaffont,1995.TranslatedbyDeborahFuretasThePassingofanIllusion(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999).

or

Furet,François.ThePassingofanIllusion.TranslatedbyDeborahFuret.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999.OriginallypublishedasLepassédʼuneillusion(Paris:EditionsRobertLaffont,1995).

17.1.3Edition

Someworksarepublishedinmorethanoneedition.Eacheditiondiffersincontentorformatorboth.Alwayscitetheeditionyouactuallyconsulted(unlessitisafirstedition,whichisusuallynotlabeledassuch).

17.1.3.1.REVISEDEDITIONS.Whenabookisreissuedwithsignificantcontentchanges,itmaybecalleda revised editionora second(orsubsequent)edition.Thisinformationusuallyappearsonthebook stitlepageandisrepeated,alongwiththedateoftheedition,onthecopyrightpage.

Whenyouciteaneditionotherthanthefirst,includethenumberordescriptionoftheeditionafterthetitle.Abbreviatesuchwordingas SecondEdition,RevisedandEnlarged as2nded.;abbreviate RevisedEdition asRev.ed.Includethepublicationdateonlyoftheeditionyouareciting,notofanypreviouseditions(see17.1.6).

N:1.PaulJ.Bolt,DamonV.Coletta,andCollinsG.ShackelfordJr.,eds.,AmericanDefensePolicy,8thed.(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2005),157–58.

B:Foley,DouglasE.LearningCapitalistCulture:DeepintheHeartofTejas.2nded.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2010.

Levitt,StevenD.,andStephenJ.Dubner.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.Rev.ed.NewYork:WilliamMorrow,2006.

17.1.3.2REPRINTEDITIONS.Manybooksarereissuedorpublishedinmorethanoneformat forexample,inapaperbackedition(bytheoriginalpublisheroradifferentpublisher)orinelectronicform(see17.1.10).Alwaysrecordthefactsofpublicationfortheversionyouconsulted.Iftheeditionyouconsultedwaspublishedmorethanayearortwoaftertheoriginaleditionorisamodernprintingofaclassicwork,youmayincludethepublicationdatesofboththeoriginalandtheeditionyouareciting(see17.1.6.3).

N:23.RandallJarrell,PicturesfromanInstitution:AComedy(1954;repr.,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010),79–80.

B:Dickens,Charles.PicturesfromItaly.1846.Reprint,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.

17.1.4Volume

Ifabookispartofamultivolumework,includethisinformationinyourcitations.

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17.1.4.1SPECIFICVOLUME.Tociteaspecificvolumethatcarriesitsowntitle,listthetitleforthemultivolumeworkasawhole,followedbythevolumenumberandtitleofthespecificvolume.Abbreviatevol.andusearabicnumbersforvolumenumbers.

N:10.HamidNaficy,ASocialHistoryofIranianCinema,vol.2,TheIndustrializingYears,1941–1978(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2011),16.

B:Naficy,Hamid.ASocialHistoryofIranianCinema.Vol.2,TheIndustrializingYears,1941–1978.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2011.

Ifthevolumesarenotindividuallytitled,listeachvolumethatyouciteinthebibliography(seealso17.1.4.2).Inanote,putthespecificvolumenumber(withoutvol.)immediatelybeforethepagenumber,separatedbyacolonandnointerveningspace.

N:36.MurielSt.ClareByrne,ed.,TheLisleLetters(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981),4:243.

B:Byrne,MurielSt.Clare,ed.TheLisleLetters.Vols.1and4.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981.

Somemultivolumeworkshavebothageneraleditorandindividualeditorsorauthorsforeachvolume.Whencitingpartsofsuchworks,putinformationaboutindividualeditorsorauthors(see17.1.1)afterthetitlesforwhichtheyareresponsible.Thefirstexamplebelowalsoshowshowtociteavolumepublishedinmorethanonephysicalpart(vol.2,bk.3).

N:40.BarbaraE.Mundy,“MesoamericanCartography,”inTheHistoryofCartography,ed.J.BrianHarleyandDavidWoodward,vol.2,bk.3,CartographyintheTraditionalAfrican,American,Arctic,Australian,andPacificSocieties,ed.DavidWoodwardandG.MalcolmLewis(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1998),233.

B:Donne,John.TheVariorumEditionofthePoetryofJohnDonne.EditedbyGaryA.Stringer.Vol.7,TheHolySonnets,editedbyGaryA.StringerandPaulA.Parrish.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,2005.

17.1.4.2MULTIVOLUMEWORKASAWHOLE.Tociteamultivolumeworkasawhole,givethetitle,thetotalnumberofvolumes,and,ifthevolumeshavebeenpublishedoverseveralyears,thefullspanofpublicationdates.

B:Aristotle.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983.

Tillich,Paul.SystematicTheology.3vols.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1951–63.

Forworksthatincludeindividualvolumetitlesorvolumeeditors(see17.1.4.1),itisusuallybesttocitethevolumesindividually.

17.1.5Series

Ifabookbelongstoaseries,youmaychoosetoincludeinformationabouttheseriestohelpreaderslocateorjudgethecredibilityofthesource.Placetheseriesinformationafterthetitle(andanyvolumeoreditionnumberoreditor sname)andbeforethefactsofpublication.

Puttheseriestitleinromantypewithheadline-stylecapitalization,omittinganyinitialThe.Ifthevolumesintheseriesarenumbered,includethenumberoftheworkcitedfollowingtheseriestitle.Thenameoftheserieseditorisoftenomitted,butyoumayincludeitaftertheseriestitle.Ifyouincludebothaneditorandavolumenumber,thenumberisprecededbyvol.

N:7.BlakeM.Hausman,RidingtheTrailofTears,NativeStoriers:ASeriesofAmericanNarratives(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2011),25.

B:Lunning,Frenchy,ed.Fanthropologies.Mechademia5.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2010.Stein,Gertrude.Selections.EditedbyJoanRetallack.PoetsfortheMillennium,editedbyPierreJorisandJeromeRothenberg,

vol.6.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2008.

17.1.6FactsofPublication

Thefactsofpublicationusuallyincludethreeelements:theplace(city)ofpublication,thepublisher sname,andthedate(year)ofpublication.Innotestheseelementsareenclosedinparentheses;inbibliographyentriestheyarenot.

N:1.MalcolmGladwell,TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference(Boston:Little,Brown,2000),64–65.

B:Gladwell,Malcolm.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown,2000.

Forbookspublishedbeforethetwentiethcentury,youmayomitthepublisher sname.

N:32.CharlesDarwin,TheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex(London,1871),1:2.

B:Darwin,Charles.TheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex.2vols.London,1871.

17.1.6.1PLACEOFPUBLICATION.Theplaceofpublicationisthecitywherethebookpublisher smaineditorialofficesarelocated.Ifyoudonotseeitlistedonthetitlepage,lookforitonthecopyrightpageinstead.Wheretwoormorecitiesaregiven( ChicagoandLondon, forexample),includeonlythefirst.

110

LosAngeles:GettyPublicationsNewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress

Ifthecityofpublicationmightbeunknowntoreadersorconfusedwithanothercityofthesamename,addtheabbreviationofthestate(see24.3.1),province,or(ifnecessary)country.Whenthepublisher snameincludesthestatename,nostateabbreviationisneeded.

Cheshire,CT:GraphicsPressHarmondsworth,UK:PenguinBooksCambridge,MA:MITPressChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress

Usecurrent,commonlyusedEnglishnamesforforeigncities.

Belgrade(notBeograd)Milan(notMilano)

Whentheplaceofpublicationisnotknown,youmayusetheabbreviationn.p.inanote(orN.p.inabibliographyentry)beforethepublisher sname.Iftheplacecanbesurmised,includeitwithaquestionmark,inbrackets.

(n.p.:Windsor,1910)[LakeBluff,IL?]:VlietandEdwards,1920

17.1.6.2PUBLISHERʼSNAME.Givethepublisher snameforeachbookexactlyasitappearsonthetitlepage,evenifyouknowthatthenamehassincechangedorisprinteddifferentlyindifferentbooksinyourbibliography.

HarcourtBraceandWorldHarcourtBraceJovanovichHarcourt,Brace

Youmay,however,omitaninitialTheandsuchabbreviationsasInc.,Ltd.,S.A.,Co.,&Co.,andPublishingCo.(andthespelled-outformsofsuchcorporateabbreviations).

UniversityofTexasPressinsteadofTheUniversityofTexasPress

HoughtonMifflininsteadofHoughtonMifflinCo.

Little,BrowninsteadofLittle,Brown&Co.

Forforeignpublishers,donottranslateorabbreviateanypartofthepublisher sname,butgivethecitynameinitsEnglishform(asnotedin17.1.6.1).Whenthepublisherisunknown,usejusttheplace(ifknown)anddateofpublication.

17.1.6.3DATEOFPUBLICATION.Thepublicationdateforabookconsistsonlyofayear,notamonthorday,andisusuallyidenticaltothecopyrightdate.Itgenerallyappearsonthecopyrightpageandsometimesonthetitlepage.

Revisededitionsandreprintsmayincludemorethanonecopyrightdate.Inthiscase,themostrecentindicatesthepublicationdate forexample,2010inthestring 1992,2003,2010. See17.1.3forcitingpublicationdatesinsuchworks.

Ifyoucannotdeterminethepublicationdateofaprintedwork,usetheabbreviationn.d.inplaceoftheyear.Ifnodateisprovidedbutyoubelieveyouknowit,youmayadditinbrackets,withaquestionmarktoindicateuncertainty.

B:Agnew,John.ABookofVirtues.Edinburgh,n.d.Miller,Samuel.AnotherBookofVirtues.Boston,[1750?].

Ifabookisundercontractwithapublisherandisalreadytitledbutthedateofpublicationisnotyetknown,useforthcominginplaceofthedate.Treatanybooknotyetundercontractasanunpublishedmanuscript(see17.6).

N:91.JaneQ.Author,BookTitle(PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName,forthcoming).

17.1.7PageNumbersandOtherLocators

Pagenumbersandotherinformationusedtoidentifythelocationofacitedpassageorelementgenerallyappearinnotesbutnotinbibliographies.Oneexception:ifyouciteachapterorothersectionofabookinabibliography,givethepagerangeforthatchapterorsection(see17.1.8forexamples).

Forguidelinesonexpressingaspanofnumbers,see23.2.4.

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17.1.7.1PAGE,CHAPTER,ANDDIVISIONNUMBERS.Thelocatorisusuallythelastiteminanote.Beforepagenumbers,thewordpageortheabbreviationp.orpp.isgenerallyomitted.Usearabicnumbersexceptforpagesnumberedwithromannumeralsintheoriginal.

N:14.RichardArumandJosipaRoksa,AcademicallyAdrift:LimitedLearningonCollegeCampuses(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011),145–46.

17JacquelineJones,prefacetotheneweditionofLaborofLove,LaborofSorrow:BlackWomen,Work,andtheFamily,fromSlaverytothePresent,rev.ed.(NewYork:BasicBooks,2010),xiv–xv.

Sometimesyoumaywanttorefertoafullchapter(abbreviatedchap.),part(pt.),book(bk.),orsection(sec.)insteadofaspanofpagenumbers.

N:22.SrikantM.Datar,DavidA.Garvin,andPatrickG.Cullen,RethinkingtheMBA:BusinessEducationataCrossroads(Boston:HarvardBusinessPress,2010),pt.2.

Somebooksprintedbefore1800donotcarrypagenumbersbutaredividedintosignaturesandthenintoleavesorfolios,eachwithafrontside(recto,orr)andabackside(verso,orv).Tocitesuchpages,includetherelevantstringofnumbersandidentifiers,runtogetherwithoutspacesoritalics:forexample,G6v,176r,232r V,or(ifyouarecitingentirefolios)fol.49.

17.1.7.2OTHERTYPESOFLOCATORS.Sometimesyouwillwanttociteaspecificnote,afigureortable,oranumberedline(asinsomeworksofpoetry).

■Notenumbers.Usetheabbreviationn(plural,nn)tocitenotes.Ifthenotecitedistheonlyfootnoteonitspageorisanunnumberedfootnote,addnafterthepagenumber(withnointerveningspaceorpunctuation).Ifthereareotherfootnotesorendnotesonthesamepageasthenotecited,listthepagenumberfollowedbynor(iftwoormoreconsecutivenotesarecited)nnandthenotenumber(s).

N:45.AnthonyGrafton,TheFootnote:ACuriousHistory(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1997),72n.46.DwightBolinger,Language:TheLoadedWeapon(London:Longman,1980),192n23,192n30,199n14,201nn16–17

■Illustrationandtablenumbers.Usetheabbreviationfig.forfigure,butspellouttable,map,plate,andnamesofothertypesofillustrations.Givethepagenumberbeforetheillustrationnumber.

N:50.RichardSobel,PublicOpinioninU.S.ForeignPolicy:TheControversyoverContraAid(Boston:RowmanandLittlefield,1993),87,table5.3.

■Linenumbers.Forpoetryandotherworksbestidentifiedbylinenumber,avoidtheabbreviationsl.(line)andll.(lines);theyaretooeasilyconfusedwiththenumerals1and11.Uselineorlines,orusenumbersalonewhereyouhavemadeitclearthatyouarereferringtolines.

N:44.OgdenNash,“SongforDitherers,”lines1–4.

17.1.8ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook

Inmostcasesyoushouldcitethemaintitleofanybookthatoffersasingle,continuousargumentornarrative,evenifyouactuallyuseonlyasectionofit.Butsometimesyouwillwanttociteanindependentessayorchapterifthatisthepartmostrelevanttoyourresearch.Bydoingso,youhelpreadersseehowthesourcefitsintoyourproject.

B:Demos,John.“RealLivesandOtherFictions:ReconsideringWallaceStegnerʼsAngleofRepose.”InNovelHistory:HistoriansandNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther),editedbyMarkC.Carnes,132–45.NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2001.

insteadof

Carnes,MarkC.,ed.NovelHistory:HistoriansandNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther).NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2001.

17.1.8.1PARTSOFSINGLE-AUTHORBOOKS.Ifyouciteachapterorothertitledpartofasingle-authorbook,includethetitleofthepartfirst,inromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.Afterthedesignationin,givethebooktitle.Inabibliographyentry,includethefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpartfollowingthebooktitle;inanote,givethepagenumber(s)foraspecificreferenceasyouwouldforanyotherquotation.

N:1.SusanGreenhalgh,“StrengtheningChinaʼsParty-StateandPlaceintheWorld,”inCultivatingGlobalCitizens:PopulationintheRiseofChina(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2010),82.

B:Greenhalgh,Susan.“StrengtheningChinaʼsParty-StateandPlaceintheWorld.”InCultivatingGlobalCitizens:PopulationintheRiseofChina,79–114.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2010.

Ifyouciteapartwithagenerictitlesuchasintroduction,preface,orafterword,addthattermbeforethetitleofthebookinromantypewithoutquotationmarks.Ifthepartiswrittenbysomeoneotherthanthemainauthorofthebook,givethepartauthor snamefirstandthebookauthor snameafterthetitle.

112

N:7.AlfredW.Crosby,prefacetotheneweditionofEcologicalImperialism:TheBiologicalExpansionofEurope,900–1900,newed.(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004),xv.

16.CraigCalhoun,forewordtoMulticulturalPolitics:Racism,Ethnicity,andMuslimsinBritain,byTariqModood(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2005),xii.

Iftheauthorofthegenericpartisthesameastheauthorofthebook,citebookasawholeinthebibliography,notjustthepart.

B:Crosby,AlfredW.EcologicalImperialism:TheBiologicalExpansionofEurope,900–1900.Newed.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004.

Calhoun,Craig.ForewordtoMulticulturalPolitics:Racism,Ethnicity,andMuslimsinBritain,byTariqModood,ix-xv.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2005.

17.1.8.2PARTSOFEDITEDCOLLECTIONS.Ifyoucitepartofaneditedcollectionwithcontributionsbymultipleauthors,listthepartauthorandtitle(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks)first.Afterthedesignationin,givethebooktitleandthenameoftheeditor.Inabibliographyentry,includethefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpartfollowingthebooktitle;inanote,givethepagenumber(s)foraspecificreferenceasyouwouldforanyotherquotation.

N:3.CameronBinkley,“SavingRedwoods:ClubwomenandConservation,1900–1925,”inCaliforniaWomenandPolitics:FromtheGoldRushtotheGreatDepression,ed.RobertW.Cherny,MaryAnnIrwin,andAnnMarieWilson(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2011),155.

B:Binkley,Cameron.“SavingRedwoods:ClubwomenandConservation,1900–1925.”InCaliforniaWomenandPolitics:FromtheGoldRushtotheGreatDepression,editedbyRobertW.Cherny,MaryAnnIrwin,andAnnMarieWilson,151–74.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2011.

Ifyoucitetwoormorecontributionstothesameeditedcollection,youmayuseoneofthespace-savingshortenedformsdiscussedin16.4.1.Thefirsttimeyouciteanypartfromthebookinanote,givefullbibliographicalinformationaboutboththepartandthebookasawhole.Thereafter,ifyouciteanotherpartfromthebook,providethefullauthor snameandtitleofthepart,butgivetheinformationaboutthebookinshortenedform.Subsequentnotesforindividualpartsfollowoneoftheshortenednoteforms(author-only,shownhere,orauthor-title).

N:4.RobertBruegmann,“BuiltEnvironmentoftheChicagoRegion,”inChicagoNeighborhoodsandSuburbs:AHistoricalGuide,ed.AnnDurkinKeating(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008),259.

12.JaniceL.Reiff,“ContestedSpaces,”inKeating,55.14.Bruegmann,299–300.15.Reiff,57.

Inyourbibliography,provideafullcitationforthewholebookandavariationontheshortenednoteformforindividualparts.

B:Keating,AnnDurkin,ed.ChicagoNeighborhoodsandSuburbs:AHistoricalGuide.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008.Bruegmann,Robert.“BuiltEnvironmentoftheChicagoRegion.”InKeating,76–314.Reiff,Janice,L.“ContestedSpaces.”InKeating,55–63.

17.1.8.3WORKSINANTHOLOGIES.Citeashortstory,poem,essay,orotherworkpublishedinananthologyinthesamewayyouwouldacontributiontoaneditedcollectionwithmultipleauthors.Givethetitlesofmostworkspublishedinanthologiesinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks.Anexceptionisthetitleofanexcerptfromabook-lengthpoemorprosework,whichshouldbeitalicized(see22.3.2).

N:2.IsabelAllende,“TheSpiritsWereWilling,”inTheOxfordBookofLatinAmericanEssays,ed.IlanStavans(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1997),463–64.

B:Wigglesworth,Michael.ExcerptfromTheDayofDoom.InTheNewAnthologyofAmericanPoetry,vol.1,TraditionsandRevolutions,Beginningsto1900,editedbyStevenGouldAxelrod,CamilleRoman,andThomasTravisano,68–74.NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2003.

Iftheoriginalpublicationdateofaworkisimportantinthecontextofyourpaper,includeitafterthetitleoftheworkandbeforethetitleoftheanthologyinbothyournotesandyourbibliography.

N:2.IsabelAllende,“TheSpiritsWereWilling”(1984),inTheOxfordBook…

B:Wigglesworth,Michael.ExcerptfromTheDayofDoom.1662.InTheNewAnthology…

17.1.9LettersandOtherCommunicationsinPublishedCollections

Tocitealetter,memorandum,orothersuchitemcollectedinabook,givethenamesofthesenderandrecipientfollowedbythedateofthecorrespondence.(Forunpublishedpersonalcommunications,see17.6.3;forunpublishedlettersinmanuscriptcollections,see17.6.4.)Thewordletterisunnecessary,butlabelotherforms,suchasareportormemorandum.Givethetitleandotherdataforthecollectionintheusualformforaneditedbook.Subsequentnotestothesameitemcanbeshortenedtothenamesofthesenderandrecipient(plusadateifnecessary).

113

N:1.HenryJamestoEdithWharton,November8,1905,inLetters,ed.LeonEdel,vol.4,1895–1916(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1984),373.

2.JamestoWharton,375.5.EBWtoHaroldRoss,memorandum,May2,1946,inLettersofE.B.White,ed.DorothyLobranoGuth(NewYork:Harper

andRow,1976),273.

Inthebibliography,citethewholecollection.

B:James,Henry.Letters.EditedbyLeonEdel.Vol.4,7895–7976.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1984.

White,E.B.LettersofE.B.White.EditedbyDorothyLobranoGuth.NewYork:HarperandRow,1976.

17.1.10ElectronicBooks

Electronicbooksarecitedliketheirprintedcounterparts,asdiscussedthroughout17.1.Inaddition,youwillneedtoincludeinformationabouttheformatyouconsulted.Ifyoureadthebookonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.IfarecommendedURLislistedalongwiththebook,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthebookinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.Ifyoudownloadedthebookinadedicatede-bookformat,specifytheformatanddonotincludeanaccessdate.See15.4.1formoredetails.

N:1.GeorgePattison,GodandBeing:AnEnquiry(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2011),103–4,accessedSeptember2,2012,http://dx.doi.Org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199588688.001.0001.

2.JosephP.Quinlan,TheLastEconomicSuperpower.TheRetreatofGlobalization,theEndofAmericanDominance,andWhatWeCanDoaboutIt(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2010),211,accessedNovember1,2011,ProQuestEbrary.

4.ErinHogan,SpiralJetta:ARoadTripthroughtheLandArtoftheAmericanWest(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008),86–87,AdobePDFeBook.

8.MalcolmGladwell,Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess(Boston:Little,Brown,2008),193,Kindle.

B:Pattison,George.GodandBeing:AnEnquiry.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2011.AccessedSeptember2,2012.http://dx.doi.Org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199588688.001.0001.

Quinlan,JosephP.TheLastEconomicSuperpower:TheRetreatofGlobalization,theEndofAmericanDominance,andWhatWeCanDoaboutIt.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2010.AccessedNovember1,2011.ProQuestEbrary.

Hogan,Erin.SpiralJetta:ARoadTripthroughtheLandArtoftheAmericanWest.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008.AdobePDFeBook.

Gladwell,Malcolm.Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess.Boston:Little,Brown,2008.Kindle.

Somee-bookformatshavestablepagenumbersthatarethesameforeveryreader(forexample,PDF-basede-books),butinformatsthatallowindividualreaderstoadjusttypesizeandothersettings,pagenumberswillvaryfromoneperson sversiontoanother s.Includingthenameoftheformatordatabaseyouusedwillhelpyourreadersdeterminewhetherthepagenumbersinyourcitationsarestableornot.Anotheroptionifthepagenumbersarenotstableistocitebychapteroranothernumbereddivision(see17.1.7.1)or,iftheseareunnumbered,bythenameofthechapterorsection(see17.1.1).Thefollowingsourcealsolackstheoriginalfactsofpublication.

N:11.FyodorDostoevsky,CrimeandPunishment,trans.ConstanceGarnett(ProjectGutenberg,2011),pt.6,chap.1,accessedSeptember13,2011,http://gutenberg.org/files/2554/2554-h/2554-h.htm.

17.2JournalArticlesJournalsarescholarlyorprofessionalperiodicalsavailableprimarilyinacademiclibrariesandbysubscription.Theyoftenincludethewordjournalintheirtitle(JournalofModernHistory),butnotalways(Signs).Journalsarenotthesameasmagazines,whichareusuallyintendedforamoregeneralreadership.Thisdistinctionisimportantbecausejournalarticlesandmagazinearticlesareciteddifferently(see17.3).Ifyouareunsurewhetheraperiodicalisajournaloramagazine,seewhetheritsarticlesincludecitations;ifso,treatitasajournal.

Manyjournalarticlesareavailableonline,oftenthroughyourschool slibrarywebsiteorfromacommercialdatabase.Tociteanarticlethatyoureadonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.IfaURLislistedalongwiththearticle,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthearticleinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.

17.2.1Author sName

Giveauthors namesexactlyastheyappearattheheadsoftheirarticles.Namesinthenotesarelistedinstandardorder(firstnamefirst).Inthebibliography,thenameofthefirst-listedauthorisinverted.Forsomespecialcases,see16.2.2.2and17.1.1.

17.2.2ArticleTitle

Listcompletearticletitlesandsubtitles.Useromantype,separatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon,andenclosebothinquotationmarks.Useheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.3).

N:12.SaskiaE.Wieringa,“PortraitofaWomenʼsMarriage:NavigatingbetweenLesbophobiaandIslamophobia,”Signs36,no.4(Summer2011):785–86,accessedFebruary15,2012,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658500.

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B:SaskiaE.Wieringa.“PortraitofaWomenʼsMarriage:NavigatingbetweenLesbophobiaandIslamophobia.”Signs36,no.4(Summer2011):785–93.AccessedFebruary15,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658500.

Termsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesandbooktitles,remainitalicizedwithinanarticletitle;termsnormallyquotedintextareenclosedinsinglequotationmarksbecausethetitleitselfiswithindoublequotationmarks.Donotaddeitheracolonoraperiodafteratitleorsubtitlethatendsinaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Ifthetitlewouldnormallybefollowedbyacomma,asintheshortenednoteexamplebelow(see16.4.1),usebothmarks.Seealso21.12.1.

N:23.LisaA.Twomey,“TabooorTolerable?HemingwayʼsForWhomtheBellTollsinPostwarSpain,”HemingwayReview30,no.2(Spring2011):55.

25.Twomey,“TabooorTolerable?,”56.

B:Lewis,Judith.““TisaMisfortunetoBeaGreatLadieʼ:MaternalMortalityintheBritishAristocracy,1558–1959.”JournalofBritishStudies37,no.1(January1998):26–53.AccessedAugust29,2011.http://www.jstor.org/stable/176034.

Foreign-languagetitlesshouldgenerallybecapitalizedsentencestyle(see22.3.1)accordingtotheconventionsoftheparticularlanguage.IfyouaddanEnglishtranslation,encloseitinbrackets,withoutquotationmarks.

N:22.AntonioCarreño-RodrÍguez,“Modernidadenlaliteraturagauchesca:CarnavalizaciónyparodiaenelFaustodeEstanislaodelCampo,”Hispania92,no.1(March2009):13–14,accessedDecember8,2011,http://www.jstor.org/stable/40648253.

B:Kern,W.“WaarverzameldePigafettazijnMaleisewoorden?”[WheredidPigafettacollecthisMalaysianwords?]TijdschriftvoorIndischetaal-,land-envolkenkunde78(1938):271–73.

17.2.3JournalTitle

Afterthearticletitle,listthejournaltitleinitalics,withheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1).Givethetitleexactlyasitappearsonthetitlepageoronthejournalwebsite;donotuseabbreviations,althoughyoucanomitaninitialThe.IftheofficialtitleisaninitialismsuchasPMLA,donotexpandit.Forforeign-languagejournals,youmayuseeitherheadline-styleorsentence-stylecapitalization,butretainallinitialarticles(DerSpiegel).

17.2.4IssueInformation

Mostjournalcitationsincludevolumenumber,issuenumber,monthorseason,andyear.Readersmaynotneedalloftheseelementstolocateanarticle,butincludingthemallguardsagainstapossibleerrorinoneofthem.

17.2.4.1VOLUMEANDISSUENUMBERS.Thevolumenumberfollowsthejournaltitlewithoutinterveningpunctuationandisnotitalicized.Usearabicnumeralsevenifthejournalitselfusesromannumerals.Ifthereisanissuenumber,itfollowsthevolumenumber,separatedbyacommaandprecededbyno.

N:2.CampbellBrown,“ConsequentializeThis,”Ethics121,no.4(July2011):752,accessedAugust29,2011,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660696.

B:lonescu,Felicia.“RiskyHumanCapitalandAlternativeBankruptcyRegimesforStudentLoans.”JournalofHumanCapital5,no.2(Summer2011):153–206.AccessedOctober13,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/661744.

Whenajournalusesissuenumbersonly,withoutvolumenumbers,acommafollowsthejournaltitle.

B:Beattie,J.M.“ThePatternofCrimeinEngland,1660–1800.”PastandPresent,no.62(February1974):47–95.

17.2.4.2DATEOFPUBLICATION.Thedateofpublicationappearsinparenthesesafterthevolumenumberandissueinformation.Followthepracticeofthejournalregardingdateinformation;itmustincludetheyearandmayincludeaseason,amonth,oranexactday.Capitalizeseasonsinjournalcitations,eventhoughtheyarenotcapitalizedintext.

N:27.SusanGubar,“IntheChemoColony,”CriticalInquiry37,no.4(Summer2011):652,accessedAugust29,2011,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660986.

B:Bartfeld,Judi,andMyoungKim.“ParticipationintheSchoolBreakfastProgram:NewEvidencefromtheECLS-K.”SocialServiceReview84,no.4(December2010):541–62.AccessedOctober31,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/657109.

Ifanarticlehasbeenacceptedforpublicationbuthasnotyetappeared,useforthcominginplaceofthedateandpagenumbers.Treatanyarticlenotyetacceptedforpublicationasanunpublishedmanuscript(see17.6).

N:4.MargaretM.Author,“ArticleTitle,”JournalName98(forthcoming).

B:Author,MargaretM.“ArticleTitle.”JournalName98(forthcoming).

17.2.5PageNumbers

Ifyouciteaparticularpassageinanote,giveonlythespecificpage(s)cited.Forabibliographyentryoranotethatcitestheentire

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article,givethefullspanofpagenumbersforthearticle(see23.2.4).Byconvention,pagenumbersofjournalarticlesfollowcolonsratherthancommas.

N:4.TimHitchcock,“BeggingontheStreetsofEighteenth-CenturyLondon,”JournalofBritishStudies44,no.3(July2005):478,accessedJanuary11,2012,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/429704.

B:Gold,AnnGrodzins.“GrainsofTruth:ShiftingHierarchiesofFoodandGraceinThreeRajasthaniTales.”HistoryofReligions38,no.2(November1998):150–71.AccessedApril8,2012.http://www.jstor.org/stable/3176672.

17.2.6SpecialIssuesandSupplements

Ajournalissuedevotedtoasinglethemeisknownasaspecialissue.Itcarriesanormalvolumeandissuenumber.Ifaspecialissuehasatitleandaneditorofitsown,includebothinthecitations.Thetitleisgiveninromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.

N:67.GertrudKoch,“CarnivoreorChameleon:TheFateofCinemaStudies,”in“TheFateofDisciplines,”ed.JamesChandlerandArnoldI.Davidson,specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer2009):921,accessedAugust30,2011,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/599582.

B:Koch,Gertrud.“CarnivoreorChameleon:TheFateofCinemaStudies.”In“TheFateofDisciplines,”editedbyJamesChandlerandArnoldI.Davidson.Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer2009):918–28.AccessedAugust30,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/599582.

Ifyouneedtocitetheissueasawhole,omitthearticleinformation.

B:Chandler,James,andArnoldI.Davidson,eds.“TheFateofDisciplines.”Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer2009).

Ajournalsupplementmayalsohaveatitleandanauthororeditorofitsown.Unlikeaspecialissue,itisnumberedseparatelyfromtheregularissuesofthejournal,oftenwithSaspartofitspagenumbers.Useacommabetweenthevolumenumberandthesupplementnumber.

N:4.IvarEkeland,JamesJ.Heckman,andLarsNesheim,“IdentificationandEstimationofHedonicModels,”in“PapersinHonorofSherwinRosen,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy112,S1(February2004):S72,accessedDecember23,2011,http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379947.

B:Ekeland,Ivar,JamesJ.Heckman,andLarsNesheim.“IdentificationandEstimationofHedonicModels.”In“PapersinHonorofSherwinRosen,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy112,S1(February2004):S60–S109.AccessedDecember23,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379947.

17.3MagazineArticlesArticlesinmagazinesarecitedmuchlikejournalarticles(see17.2),butdatesandpagenumbersaretreateddifferently.

Citemagazinesbydateonly,eveniftheyarenumberedbyvolumeandissue.Donotenclosethedateinparentheses.Ifyouciteaspecificpassageinanote,includeitspagenumber.Butyoumayomitthearticle sinclusivepagenumbersinabibliographyentry,sincemagazinearticlesoftenspanmanypagesthatincludeextraneousmaterial.Ifyouincludepagenumbers,useacommaratherthanacolontoseparatethemfromthedateofissue.Aswithjournals,omitaninitialThefromthemagazinetitle(see17.2.3).

N:11.JillLepore,“DickensinEden,”NewYorker,August29,2011,52.

B:Lepore,Jill.“DickensinEden.”NewYorker,August29,2011.

Ifyouciteadepartmentorcolumnthatappearsregularly,capitalizeitheadlinestyleanddonotencloseitinquotationmarks.

N:2.BarbaraWallraff,WordCourt,AtlanticMonthly,June2005,128.

MagazinesconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Typicallytherewillbenopagenumberstocite.

N:7.RobinBlack,“PresidentObama:WhyDonʼtYouReadMoreWomen?,”Salon,August24,2011,accessedOctober30,2011,http://www.salon.com/books/writing/index.html?story=/books/feature/2011/08/24/obama_summer_reading.

B:Black,Robin.“PresidentObama:WhyDonʼtYouReadMoreWomen?”Salon,August24,2011.AccessedOctober30,2011.http://www.salon.com/books/writing/index.html?story=/books/feature/2011/08/24/obama_summer_reading.

17.4NewspaperArticles

17.4.1NameofNewspaper

ForEnglish-languagenewspapers,omitaninitialTheinthenameofthenewspaper.Ifthenamedoesnotincludeacity,addittotheofficialtitle,exceptforwell-knownnationalpaperssuchastheWallStreetJournalandtheChristianScienceMonitor.Ifanameissharedbymanycitiesorisobscure,youmayaddthestateorprovinceinparentheses(usuallyabbreviated;see24.3.1).Forforeign

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newspapers,retainaninitialarticleifitisformallypartofthename,andaddcitynamesaftertitlesforclarity,ifnecessary.

ChicagoTribuneSaintPaul(AlbertaorAB)JournalLeMondeTimes(London)

17.4.2CitingNewspapersinNotes

Inmostcases,citearticlesandotherpiecesfromnewspapersonlyinnotes.Includeaspecificarticleinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycitedorboth.

Followthegeneralpatternforcitationofarticlesinmagazines(see17.3).Omitpagenumbers,evenforaprintededition,becauseanewspapermayhaveseveraleditionsinwhichitemsmayappearondifferentpagesormayevenbedropped.Youmayclarifywhicheditionyouconsultedbyaddingfinaledition,Midwestedition,orsomesuchidentifier.ArticlesreadonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL.Forarticlesobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.

N:4.Editorial,MilwaukeeJournalSentinel,March31,2012.5.ChristopherO.Ward,lettertotheeditor,NewYorkTimes,August28,2011.10.MelGussow,obituaryforElizabethTaylor,NewYorkTimes,March24,2011,NewYorkedition.13.Saifal-lslamGaddafi,interviewbySimonDenyer,WashingtonPost,April17,2011,accessedSeptember3,2011,

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/an-interview-with-saif-al-islam-gaddafi-son-of-the-libyan-leader/2011/04/17/AF4RXVwD_story.html.

18.AssociatedPress,“Ex-IMFChiefReturnsHometoFrance,”USAToday,September4,2011,accessedSeptember4,2011,http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2011-09-04/Ex-IMF-chief-returns-home-to-France/50254614/1.

22.RichardSimon,“RedistrictingCouldCostCaliforniaSomeCloutinWashington,”LosAngelesTimes,August28,2011,accessedAugust30,2011,http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-california-congress-20110829,0,1873016.story

29.MarkLepage,“Armageddon,Apocalypse,theRapture:PeopleHaveBeenPredictingtheEndsincetheBeginning,”Gazette(Montreal),May21,2011,accessedDecember20,2012,LexisNexisAcademic.

ArticlesfromSunday magazine supplementsorotherspecialsectionsshouldbetreatedasyouwouldmagazinearticles(see17.3).

17.4.3CitingNewspapersinText

Often,youwillbeabletociteanarticlebyweavingseveralkeyelementsintoyourtext.Ataminimum,includethenameanddateofthepaperandtheauthorofthearticle(ifany).Someofthisinformationcanappearinparentheses,evenifitdoesnotfollowtheformforparentheticalnotesdescribedin16.4.3.

InaNewYorkTimesarticleonthebrawlinBeijing(August19,2011),AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponseswiththosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

or

InanarticlepublishedintheNewYorkTimesonAugust19,2011,AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponsestothebrawlinBeijingwiththosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

17.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSourcesThereareseveraladditionaltypesofpublishedmaterialthathavespecialrequirementsforcitations.

17.5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks

LiteraryworksproducedinclassicalGreeceandRome,medievalEurope,andRenaissanceEnglandareciteddifferentlyfrommodernliteraryworks.Thesesourcesareoftenorganizedintonumberedsections(books,lines,stanzas,andsoforth)thataregenerallycitedinplaceofpagenumbers.Becausesuchworkshavebeenpublishedinsomanyversionsandtranslationsoverthecenturies,thefactsofpublicationformoderneditionsaregenerallylessimportantthaninothertypesofcitations.

Forthisreason,classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworksshouldusuallybecitedonlyinfootnotesor,forfrequentlycitedworks,inparentheticalnotes(see16.4.3),asinthefirstexamplebelow.Includetheauthor sname,thetitle,andthesectionnumber(giveninarabicnumerals).Seebelowregardingdifferencesinpunctuation,abbreviations,andnumbersamongdifferenttypesofworks.

TheeightydaysofinactivityreportedbyThucydides(8.44.4)forthePeloponnesianfleetatRhodes,terminatingbeforetheendofwinter(8.60.2–3),suggests…

N:3.Ovid,Amores1.7.27.8.Beowulf,lines2401–711.Spenser,TheFaerieQueene,bk.2,canto8,st.14.

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifdifferencesintranslationsarerelevant,includesuchworksinyourbibliography.Followtherulesforothertranslatedandeditedbooksin17.1.1.1.

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N:35.Propertius,Elegies,ed.andtrans.G.P.Goold,LoebClassicalLibrary18(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1990),45.

B:Aristotle.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983.

17.5.1.1CLASSICALWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofclassicalworks.Usenopunctuationbetweenthetitleofaworkandalineorsectionnumber.Numericaldivisionsareseparatedbyperiods

withoutspaces.Usearabicnumerals(andlowercaseletters,ifneeded)forsectionnumbers.Putcommasbetweentwoormorecitationsofthesamesourceandsemicolonsbetweencitationsofdifferentsources.

N:5.Aristophanes,Frogs1019–30.6.Cicero,InVerrem2.1.21,2.3.120;Tacitus,Germania10.2–3.10.Aristotle,Metaphysics3.2.996b5–8;Plato,Republic360e–361b.

Youcanabbreviatethenamesofauthors,works,collections,andsoforth.ThemostwidelyacceptedabbreviationsappearintheOxfordClassicalDictionary.Usetheseabbreviationsratherthanibid.insucceedingreferencestothesamework.Inthefirstexample,theauthor(Thucydides)standsinforthetitlesonocommaisneeded.

N:9.Thuc.2.40.40–3.14.Pindar,Isthm.7.43–45.

17.5.1.2MEDIEVALWORKS.TheformforclassicalreferencesworksequallywellformedievalworkswritteninlanguagesotherthanEnglish.

N:27.Augustine,DecivitateDei20.2.31.Abelard,Epistle17toHeloïse(Migne,PL180.375c–378a).

17.5.1.3EARLYENGLISHWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofearlyEnglishliteraryworks.

Citepoemsandplaysbybook,canto,andstanza;stanzaandline;act,scene,andline;orsimilardivisions.

N:1.Chaucer,“WifeofBathʼsPrologue,”CanterburyTales,lines105–14.3.Milton,ParadiseLost,book1,lines83–86.

Youmayshortennumbereddivisionsbyomittingwordssuchasactandline,usingasystemsimilartotheoneforclassicalreferences(see17.5.1.1).Besuretoexplainyoursysteminthefirstnote.

N:3.Milton,ParadiseLost1.83–86(referencesaretobookandlinenumbers).

Ifeditionsdifferinwording,linenumbering,andevenscenedivision commoninworksofShakespeare includetheworkinyourbibliography,witheditionspecified.Ifyoudonothaveabibliography,specifytheeditioninthefirstnote.

B:Shakespeare,William.Hamlet.EditedbyAnnThompsonandNeilTaylor.ArdenShakespeare3.London:ArdenShakespeare,2006.

17.5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

CitetheBibleandsacredworksofotherreligioustraditionsinfootnotes,endnotes,orparentheticalnotes(see16.4.3).Youdonotneedtoincludetheseworksinyourbibliography.

ForcitationsfromtheBible,includetheabbreviatednameofthebook,thechapternumber,andtheversenumber neverapagenumber.Dependingonthecontext,youmayuseeithertraditionalorshorterabbreviationsforthenamesofbooks(see24.6);consultyourinstructorifyouareunsurewhichformisappropriate.Usearabicnumeralsforchapterandversenumbers(withacolonbetweenthem)andfornumberedbooks.

Traditionalabbreviations:

N:4.1Thess.4:11,5:2–5,5:14.

Shorterabbreviations:

N:5.2Sm11:1–17,11:26–27;1Chr10:13–14.

Sincebooksandnumberingdifferamongversionsofthescriptures,identifytheversionyouareusinginyourfirstcitation,witheitherthespelled-outnameoranacceptedabbreviation(see24.6.4).

N:6.2Kings11:8(NewRevisedStandardVersion).7.1Cor.6:1–10(NAB).

Forcitationsfromthesacredworksofotherreligioustraditions,adaptthegeneralpatternforbiblicalcitationsasappropriate(see24.6.5).

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17.5.3ReferenceWorks

Well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias,shouldusuallybecitedonlyinnotes.Yougenerallyneednotincludetheminyourbibliography,althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificworkthatiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Withinthenote,youmayomitthefactsofpublication,butyoumustspecifytheedition(ifnotthefirst,orunlessnoeditionisspecified).ItemsconsultedonlinewillrequireanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Foraworkarrangedbykeytermssuchasadictionaryorencyclopedia,citetheitem(notthevolumeorpagenumber)precededbys.v.(subverbo, undertheword ;p1.s.vv.)

N:1.OxfordEnglishDictionary,3rded.,s.v.“mondegreen,”accessedFebruary1,2012,http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/251801.

2.EncyclopaediaBritannica,s.v.“Sibelius,Jean,”accessedApril13,2011,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/542563/Jean-Sibelius.

Forreferenceworksthataremorespecializedorlesswellknown,includethepublicationdetailsinyournotes,andlisttheworkinyourbibliography.

N:4.MLAStyleManualandGuidetoScholarlyPublishing,3rded.(NewYork:ModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,2008),6.8.2.

B:Aulestia,Gorka.Basque-EnglishDictionary.Reno:UniversityofNevadaPress,1989.

17.5.4Reviews

Reviewsofbooks,performances,andsoforthmayappearinavarietyofperiodicalsandshouldusuallybecitedonlyinanote.Includeaspecificreviewinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.

Includethenameofthereviewer;thewordsreviewof,followedbythenameoftheworkreviewedanditsauthor(orcomposer,director,andsoforth);anyotherpertinentinformation(suchasfilmstudioorlocationofaperformance);and,finally,theperiodicalinwhichthereviewappeared.Ifthereviewwasconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:7.DavidMalitz,reviewofconcertperformancebyBobDylan,MerriweatherPostPavilion,Columbia,MD,WashingtonPost,August17,2011,accessedAugust31,2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/music-review-bob-dylan-at-merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/08/17/glQAeb1DMJ_story.htmI.

15.A.O.Scott,reviewofTheDebt,directedbyJohnMadden,MiramaxFilms,NewYorkTimes,August31,2011.

B:Mokyr,Joel.ReviewofNaturalExperimentsofHistory,editedbyJaredDiamondandJamesA.Robinson.AmericanHistoricalReview116,no.3(June2011):752–55.AccessedDecember9,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr.116.3752.

17.5.5Abstracts

Youcanciteinformationintheabstractofajournalarticle,dissertation,orotherworkinanote.Includethefullcitationoftheworkbeingabstractedandinsertthewordabstractwithinthecitation,followingthetitle.

N:13.CampbellBrown,“ConsequentializeThis,”abstract,Ethics121,no.4(July2011):749.

Inyourbibliography,citethefullarticleorotherworkandnottheabstract.

17.5.6PamphletsandReports

Citeapamphlet,corporatereport,brochure,oranotherfreestandingpublicationasyouwouldabook.Ifyoulackdataforsomeoftheusualelements,suchasauthorandpublisher,giveenoughotherinformationtoidentifythedocument.Suchsourcesshouldusuallybecitedonlyinnotes.Includesuchaniteminyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.SourcesconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:34.HazelV.Clark,Mesopotamia:BetweenTwoRivers(Mesopotamia,OH:EndoftheCommonsGeneralStore,1957).35.TIAA-CREFLifeFunds:2011SemiannualReport(NewYork:TIAA-CREFFinancialServices,2011),85–94,accessed

October5,2011,http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/prospectuses/lifefunds_semi_ar.pdf.

17.5.7MicroformEditions

Worksthatyouhaveconsultedinmicroformeditionsshouldbecitedaccordingtotype(book,newspaperarticle,dissertation,andsoforth).Inaddition,specifytheformofpublication(fiche,microfilm,andsoforth)afterthefactsofpublication.Inanote,includealocatorifpossible.Inthefirstexamplebelow,thepagenumber(identifiedwiththeabbreviationp.forclarity)appearswithintheprintedtextonthefiche;theothernumbersindicatetheficheandframe,andtheletterindicatestherow.

N:5.BeatriceFarwell,FrenchPopularLithographicImagery,vol.12,LithographyinArtandCommerce(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995),text-fiche,p.67,3C12.

B:Tauber,Abraham.“SpellingReformintheUnitedStates.”PhDdiss.,ColumbiaUniversity,1958.Microfilm.

17.5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs

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CiteworkspublishedonCD-orDVD-ROMasyouwouldanalogousprintedworks,mostoftenbooks.

N:11.CompleteNationalGeographic:EveryIssuesince1888of“NationalGeographic”Magazine,DVD-ROM(Washington,DC:NationalGeographic,2010),disc2.

B:OxfordEnglishDictionary.2nded.CD-ROM,version4.0.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.

17.5.9OnlineCollections

ThenameofawebsitesuchasPerseusthatisdevotedentirelytoaspecificsubjectareaortoacollectionofsimilarresourcesmaybeimportantenoughtomentioninyourcitationofaspecificpublication.Inthisway,sucharesourceissimilartoaphysicalmanuscriptcollection(see17.6.4).Inadditiontothepublicationinformation,includethenameofthecollectionandanaccessdateandURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:1.PlinytheElder,TheNaturalHistory,ed.JohnBostockandH.T.Riley(1855),inthePerseusDigitalLibrary,accessedMay15,2011,http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=:text:1999.02.0137.

Inthebibliography,ifyouhavecitedmorethanonesourcefromthecollection,youmayalsocitethecollectionasawhole(inwhichcaseanaccessdateisunnecessary).

B:PerseusDigitalLibrary.EditedbyGregoryR.Crane.http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/.

17.6UnpublishedSourcesSourcesthathaveneverbeenpublishedcanbemoredifficultforreaderstolocatethanpublishedones,becausetheyoftenexistinonlyoneplaceandtypicallylackofficialpublicationinformation.Whencitingsuchsources,itisespeciallyimportanttoincludealloftheinformationlistedbelowtogivereadersasmuchhelpaspossible.

Titlesofunpublishedworksaregiveninromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks,andnotitalicized.Thisformatdifferencedistinguishesthemfromsimilarbutpublishedworks.CapitalizeEnglish-languagetitlesheadlinestyle.

17.6.1ThesesandDissertations

Thesesanddissertationsarecitedmuchlikebooksexceptforthetitle,whichisinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.Aftertheauthorandtitle,listthekindofthesis,theacademicinstitution,andthedate.Likethepublicationdataofabook,theseareenclosedinparenthesesinanotebutnotinabibliography.Abbreviatedissertationasdiss.Thewordunpublishedisunnecessary.Ifyou veconsultedthedocumentonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.IfarecommendedURLislistedalongwiththedocument,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthedocumentinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinsteadoftheURL.See15.4.1formoredetails.

N:1.KarenLeighCulcasi,“CartographicRepresentationsofKurdistaninthePrintMedia”(masterʼsthesis,SyracuseUniversity,2003),15.

3.DanaS.Levin,“LetʼsTalkaboutSex…Education:ExploringYouthPerspectives,ImplicitMessages,andUnexaminedImplicationsofSexEducationinSchools”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofMichigan,2010),101–2,accessedMarch13,2012,http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/75809.

4.AfrahDaaimahRichmond,“UnmaskingtheBostonBrahmin:RaceandLiberalismintheLongStruggleforReformatHarvardandRadcliffe,1945–1990”(PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity,2011),211–12,accessedSeptember25,2011,ProQuestDissertations&Theses.

B:Levin,DanaS.“LetʼsTalkaboutSex…Education:ExploringYouthPerspectives,ImplicitMessages,andUnexaminedImplicationsofSexEducationinSchools.”PhDdiss.,UniversityofMichigan,2010.AccessedMarch13,2012.http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/75809.

17.6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings

Aftertheauthorandtitleofthespeechorpaper,listthesponsorship,location,anddateofthemeetingatwhichitwasgiven.Enclosethisinformationinparenthesesinanotebutnotinabibliography.Thewordunpublishedisunnecessary.Ifyouconsultedatextortranscriptofthelectureorpaperonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtothepresentationonline,adapttheexamplesheretotheadviceat17.8.3.5.

N:2.GregoryR.Crane,“ContextualizingEarlyModernReligioninaDigitalWorld”(lecture,NewberryLibrary,Chicago,September16,2011).

7.IrineudeCarvalhoFilhoandRenatoP.Colistete,“EducationPerformance:WasItAllDetermined100YearsAgo?EvidencefromSãoPaulo,Brazil”(paperpresentedatthe70thannualmeetingoftheEconomicHistoryAssociation,Evanston,IL,September24–26,2010),6–7,accessedJanuary22,2012,http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/24494/1/MPRA_paper_24494.pdf.

B:Pateman,Carole.“ParticipatoryDemocracyRevisited.”Presidentialaddress,annualmeetingoftheAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation,Seattle,September1,2011.

17.6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications

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Unpublishedinterviews(includingthoseyouhaveconductedyourself)shouldusuallybecitedonlyinnotes.Includeaspecificinterviewinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Beginthenotewiththenamesofthepersoninterviewedandtheinterviewer;alsoincludetheplaceanddateoftheinterview(ifknown)andthelocationofanytapesortranscripts(ifavailable).Noticetheformforashortenednote,whichdiffersfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).(Foranexampleofapublishedinterview,see17.4.2.Forbroadcastinterviews,see17.8.3.3.)

N:7.DavidShields,interviewbyauthor,Seattle,February15,2011.14.BenjaminSpock,interviewbyMiltonJ.E.Senn,November20,1974,interview67A,transcript,SennOralHistory

Collection,NationalLibraryofMedicine,Bethesda,MD.17.Macmillan,interview;Spock,interview.

Ifyoucannotrevealthenameofthepersoninterviewed,citeitinaformappropriatetothecontext.Explaintheabsenceofaname( Allinterviewswereconfidential;thenamesofintervieweesarewithheldbymutualagreement )inanoteorapreface.

N:10.Interviewwithahealthcareworker,March23,2010.

Citeconversations,letters,e-mailortextmessages,andthelikeonlyinnotes.Thekeyelementsarethenameoftheotherperson,thetypeofcommunication,andthedateofthecommunication.Inmanycases,youmaybeabletouseaparentheticalnote(see16.4.3)orincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetext.Omite-mailaddresses.Tocitepostingstosocialnetworkingservices,see17.7.3;fordiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,see17.7.4.

N:2.MaxineGreene,e-mailmessagetoauthor,April23,2012.

InatelephoneconversationwiththeauthoronJanuary1,2012,MayanstudiesexpertMelissaRamirezconfidedthat…

17.6.4ManuscriptCollections

Documentsfromphysicalcollectionsofunpublishedmanuscriptsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanpublishedsources.Inyourcitations,includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

17.6.4.1ELEMENTSTOINCLUDEANDTHEIRORDER.Ifpossible,identifytheauthoranddateofeachitem,thetitleortypeofdocument,thenameofthecollection,andthenameofthedepository.Inanote,beginwiththeauthor sname;ifadocumenthasatitlebutnoauthor,orthetitleismoreimportantthantheauthor,listthetitlefirst.

N:5.GeorgeCreeltoColonelHouse,September25,1918,EdwardM.HousePapers,YaleUniversityLibrary,NewHaven,CT.23.JamesOglethorpetotheTrustees,January13,1733,PhillippsCollectionofEgmontManuscripts,14200:13,Universityof

GeorgiaLibrary,Athens(hereaftercitedasEgmontMSS).24.BurtontoMerriam,telegram,January26,1923,box26,folder17,CharlesE.MerriamPapers,UniversityofChicago

Library.31.MinutesoftheCommitteeforImprovingtheConditionofFreeBlacks,PennsylvaniaAbolitionSociety,1790–1803,Papers

ofthePennsylvaniaSocietyfortheAbolitionofSlavery,HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,Philadelphia(hereaftercitedasMinutes,PennsylvaniaSociety).

44.MemorandumbyAlvinJohnson,1937,file36,HoraceKallenPapers,YIVOInstitute,NewYork.45.JosephPurcell,“AMapoftheSouthernIndianDistrictofNorthAmerica”[ca.1772],MS228,AyerCollection,Newberry

Library,Chicago.

Forshortenednotes,adapttheusualpatternofelements(see16.4.1)toaccommodatetheavailableinformationandidentifythedocumentunambiguously.

N:46.R.S.BakertoHouse,November1,1919,HousePapers.47.Minutes,April15,1795,PennsylvaniaSociety.

Ifyouciteonlyonedocumentfromacollectionanditiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycitedwithinyourpaper,youmaychoosetoincludeitinyourbibliography.Begintheentrywiththeauthor sname;ifadocumenthasatitlebutnoauthor,orthetitleismoreimportantthantheauthor,listthetitlefirst.

B:Dinkel,Joseph.DescriptionofLouisAgassizwrittenattherequestofElizabethCaryAgassiz.AgassizPapers.HoughtonLibrary,HarvardUniversity,Cambridge,MA.

Ifyoucitemultipledocumentsfromacollection,listthecollectionasawholeinyourbibliography,underthenameofthecollection,theauthor(s)oftheitemsinthecollection,orthedepository.Forsimilartypesofunpublishedmaterialthathavenotbeenplacedinarchives,replaceinformationaboutthecollectionwithsuchwordingas intheauthor spossession or privatecollection,anddonotmentionthelocation.

B:EgmontManuscripts.PhillippsCollection.UniversityofGeorgiaLibrary,Athens.House,EdwardM.,Papers.YaleUniversityLibrary,NewHaven,CT.PennsylvaniaSocietyfortheAbolitionofSlavery.Papers.HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,Philadelphia.Strother,French,andEdwardLowry.Undatedcorrespondence.HerbertHooverPresidentialLibrary,WestBranch,IA.

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WomenʼsOrganizationforNationalProhibitionReform.Papers.AliceBelinduPontfiles,PierreS.duPontPapers.EleutherianMillsHistoricalLibrary,Wilmington,DE.

17.6.4.2HOWTOFORMATTHEELEMENTS.Herearesomespecialformattingrecommendationsfordocumentsinmanuscriptcollections.

■Specificversusgenerictitles.Usequotationmarksforspecifictitlesofdocumentsbutnotforgenerictermssuchasreportandminutes.Capitalizegenericnamesofthiskindonlyiftheyarepartofaformalheadinginthemanuscript,notiftheyaremerelydescriptive.

■Locatinginformation.Althoughsomemanuscriptsmayincludepagenumbersthatcanbeincludedinnotes,manywillhaveothertypesoflocators,ornoneatall.Oldermanuscriptsareusuallynumberedbysignaturesonlyorbyfolios(fol.,fols.)ratherthanbypage.Somemanuscriptcollectionshaveidentifyingseriesorfilenumbersthatyoucanincludeinacitation.

■Papersandmanuscripts.Intitlesofmanuscriptcollectionsthetermspapersandmanuscriptsaresynonymous.Bothareacceptable,asaretheabbreviationsMSandMSS(plural).

■Letters.Tocitealetterinanote,startwiththenameoftheletterwriter,followedbytoandthenameoftherecipient.Youmayomitfirstnamesiftheidentitiesofthesenderandtherecipientareclearfromthetext.Omitthewordletter,whichisunderstood,butforotherformsofcommunication,specifythetype(telegram,memorandum).Forlettersinpublishedcollections,see17.1.9.

17.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroupsMaterialpostedorsharedonwebsites,blogs,socialnetworks,andthelikemaylackoneormoreofthestandardfactsofpublication(author,title,publisher,ordate).InadditiontoanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3),youmustincludeenoughinformationtopositivelyidentifyand(ifpossible)locateasourceeveniftheURLchangesorbecomesobsolete.

17.7.1Websites

Fororiginalcontentfromonlinesourcesotherthanbooksorperiodicals(see15.4.1.2),includeasmuchofthefollowingasyoucandetermine:author,titleofthepage(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks),titleorownerofthesite(usuallyinromantype;see22.3.2.3),andpublicationorrevisiondate.AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Normally,youcanlimitcitationsofwebsitecontenttothenotes.Includeaspecificiteminyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycitedorboth.

N:8.SusannahBrooks,“LongtimeLibraryDirectorReflectsonaCareerattheCrossroads,”UniversityofWisconsin-MadisonNews,September1,2011,accessedMay14,2012,http://www.news.wisc.edu/19704.

15.“PrivacyPolicy,”GooglePrivacyCenter,lastmodifiedOctober3,2010,accessedMarch3,2011,http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

18.“ToySafety,”McDonaldʼsCanada,accessedNovember30,2011,http://www.mcdonalds.ca/en/community/toysafety.aspx.

23.“WikipediaManualofStyle,”Wikipedia,lastmodifiedSeptember2,2011,accessedSeptember3,2011,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style.

Inabibliography,wherethereisnoauthor,thesourceshouldbelistedunderthetitleofthewebsiteorthenameofitsownerorsponsor.

B:Google.“PrivacyPolicy.”GooglePrivacyCenter.LastmodifiedOctober3,2010.AccessedMarch3,2011.http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

17.7.2BlogEntriesandComments

Blogentriesarecitedmuchlikearticlesinnewspapers(see17.4).Includeasmuchofthefollowingasyoucandetermine:theauthoroftheentry,atitle(inquotationmarks),thenameoftheblog(initalics),andthedatetheentrywasposted.AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Givetheblogger snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym;iftheblogger srealnamecanbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.Ifthetitleoftheblogdoesnotmakethegenreclear,youmayindicate blog inparentheses.Iftheblogispartofalargerpublication,givethenameofthepublicationafterthetitleoftheblog.Citationsofblogentriescanusuallybelimitedtonotes.Includeaspecificentryinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycitedorboth.

N:5.GaryBecker,“IsCapitalisminCrisis?,”TheBecker-PosnerBlog,February12,2012,accessedFebruary16,2012,http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/2012/02/is-capitalism-in-crisis-becker.html.

7.TheSubversiveCopyEditor[CarolFisherSaller],“StillLearning:FunLanguageWords,”TheSubversiveCopyEditorBlog,February16,2011,accessedFebruary28,2011,http://www.subversivecopyeditor.com/blog/2011/02/still-learningfun-language-words.html.

8.DickCavett,“Flying?IncreasinglyfortheBirds,”Opinionator(blog),NewYorkTimes,August19,2011,accessedOctober14,2011,http://www.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/19/flying-increasingly-for-the-birds/

12.JohnMcWhorterandJoshuaKnobe,“BlackMartianLinguists,”Bloggingheads.tv(videoblog),August26,2011,accessedNovember7,2011,http://bloggingheads.tv/diavlogs/38530?in=:00&out=:03.

B:Becker,Gary.“IsCapitalisminCrisis?”TheBecker-PosnerBlog,February12,2012.AccessedFebruary16,2012.http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/2012/02/is-capitalism-in-crisis-becker.html.

Tociteareader scomment,followthebasicpatternforblogentries,butfirstidentifythecommenterandthedateandtimeofthe

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comment.Givethecommenter snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Forcommentstoblogentriesalreadycitedinthenotes,useashortenedform(see16.4.1).

N:9.RomanGil,comment,September4,2011(2:14p.m.ET),on“SecondThoughtsabouttheDebtDebacle,”DanielW.Drezner(blog),ForeignPolicy,September1,2011,accessedDecember2,2011,http://www.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/09/01/second_thoughts_about_the_debt_debacle.

11.Mr.FeelGood,comment,February14,2012(1:37a.m.),onBecker,“IsCapitalisminCrisis?”

17.7.3SocialNetworkingServices

Informationpostedonsocialnetworkingservicesshouldbecitedonlyinthenotes.Listtheidentityoftheposter(ifknownandnotmentionedinthetext),thenameoftheservice,andthedateandtimeofthepost.EndthecitationwithanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:11.SarahPalin,Twitterpost,August25,2011(10:23p.m.),accessedSeptember4,2011,http://twitter.com/sarahpalinusa.12.ObamaforAmerica,posttoBarackObamaʼsFacebookpage,September4,2011(6:53a.m.),accessedSeptember22,

2011,https://www.facebook.com/barackobama.13.CommentonSarahPalinʼsFacebookpage,April1,2011(3:21p.m.),accessedDecember8,2011,

https://www.facebook.com/sarahpalin.

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see17.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavesuchinformationintothetextratherthancitingitinthenotes.Besuretopreserveenoughinformationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

InamessagepostedtoherTwittersiteonAugust25,2011(at10:23p.m.),SarahPalin(@SarahPalinUSA)notedthat…

17.7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists

Tocitematerialfromanelectronicdiscussiongroupormailinglist,includethenameofthecorrespondent,thetitleoftheforumorsubjectlineofthee-mailmessage(inquotationmarks),thenameoftheforumorlist,andthedateandtimeofthemessageorpost.Omite-mailaddresses.Givethecorrespondent snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Ifthematerialisarchivedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.Aswithpersonalcommunications(see17.6.3),suchitemsshouldbecitedonlyinanote.

N:17.DodgerFan,postto“TheAtomicBombingofJapan,”September1,2011(12:57:58p.m.PDT),Historyforum,Amazon.com,accessedSeptember30,2011,http://www.amazon.com/forum/history/.

18.SharonNaylor,“RemovingaThesis,”e-mailtoEduc.&BehaviorScienceALADiscussionList,August23,2011(1:47:54p.m.ET),accessedJanuary31,2012,http://listserv.uncc.edu/archives/ebss-l.html.

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see17.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavesuchinformationintothetextratherthancitingitinthenotes.Besuretopreserveenoughinformationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

SharonNaylor,inhere-mailofAugust23,2011,totheEduc.&BehaviorScienceALADiscussionList(http://listserv.uncc.edu/archives/ebss-l.html),pointedoutthat…

17.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArtsThevisualandperformingartsgenerateavarietyofsources,includingartworks,liveperformances,broadcasts,recordingsinvariousmedia,andtexts.Citingsomeofthesesourcescanbedifficultwhentheylackthetypesofidentifyinginformationcommontopublishedsources.Includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

Someofthesourcescoveredinthissection,wherenoted,canbecitedinnotesonlyorbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificiteminyourbibliographythatiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Ifyourpaperisforacourseinthearts,mediastudies,orasimilarfield,consultyourinstructor.

17.8.1ArtworksandGraphics

17.8.1.1PAINTINGS,SCULPTURES,ANDPHOTOGRAPHS.Citepaintings,sculptures,photographs,drawings,andthelikeonlyinnotes.Includethenameoftheartist,thetitleoftheartwork(initalics)anddateofitscreation(precededbyca.[circa]ifapproximate),andthenameoftheinstitutionthathousesit(ifany),includinglocation.Youmayalsoincludethemedium,ifrelevant.Forimagesconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.

N:7.GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum.11.Michelangelo,David,1501–4,GalleriadellʼAccademia,Florence.24.AnselAdams,NorthDome,BasketDome,MountHoffman,Yosemite,ca.1935,SmithsonianAmericanArtMuseum,

Washington,DC.29.ErichBuchholz,Untitled,1920,gouacheonpaper,MuseumofModernArt,NewYork,accessedDecember4,2011,

http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=38187.

Insteadofusinganote,youcansometimesciteartworksbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.Someoftheelementscanappearinparentheses,eveniftheydonotfollowtheformforparentheticalnotesdescribedin16.4.3.

OʼKeeffefirstdemonstratedthistechniqueinTheCliffChimneys(1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum).

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Ifyouviewedtheartworkinapublishedsourceandyourlocalguidelinesrequireyoutoidentifythissource,givethepublicationinformationinplaceoftheinstitutionalnameandlocation.

N:7.GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,inBarbaraBuhlerLynes,LesleyPoling-Kempes,andFrederickW.Turner,GeorgiaOʼKeeffeandNewMexico:ASenseofPlace(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2004),25.

17.8.1.2GRAPHICARTS.Citegraphicsourcessuchasprintadvertisements,maps,cartoons,andsoforthonlyinnotes,adaptingthebasicpatternsforartworksandgivingasmuchinformationaspossible.Giveanytitleorcaptioninromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks,andidentifythetypeofgraphic,inparentheses,ifitisunclearfromthetitle.Foritemsconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.

N:12.Toyota,“WeSeebeyondCars”(advertisement),ArchitecturalDigest,January2010,57.15.“RepublicofLetters:1700–1750”(interactivemap),MappingtheRepublicofletters,accessedFebruary28,2012,

https://republicofletters.stanford.edu/.18.“DividebyZero”(Internetmeme),YoDawgPics,accessedDecember2,2012,http://yodawgpics.com/yo-dawg-

pictures/divide-by-zero.

17.8.2LivePerformances

Citelivetheatrical,musical,ordanceperformancesonlyinnotes.Includethetitleoftheworkperformed,theauthor,anykeyperformersandanindicationoftheirroles,thevenueanditslocation,andthedate.Italicizethetitlesofplaysandlongmusicalcompositions,butsetthetitlesofshorterworksinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarksexceptformusicalworksreferredtobygenre(see22.3.2.3).Ifthecitationisfocusedonanindividual sperformance,listthatperson snamebeforethetitleofthework.

N:14.Spider-Man:TurnOfftheDark,byGlenBergerandJulieTaymor,musicandlyricsbyBonoandTheEdge,directedbyJulieTaymor,FoxwoodsTheater,NewYork,September10,2011.

16.SimoneDinnerstein,pianist,IntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2,byJohannesBrahms,PortlandCenterforthePerformingArts,Portland,OR,January15,2012.

Insteadofusinganote,youcansometimesciteliveperformancesbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.Someoftheelementscanappearinparentheses,eveniftheydonotfollowtheformforparentheticalnotesdescribedin16.4.3.

SimoneDinnersteinʼsperformanceofBrahmsʼsIntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2(January15,2012,atPortlandCenterforthePerformingArts),wasanythingbutintermediate…

Tociterecordingsandbroadcastsofliveperformances,addinformationaboutthemedium.See17.8.3 5forsimilartypesofexamples.

N:17.ArturRubinstein,pianist,“SpinningSong,”byFelixMendelssohn,AmbassadorCollege,Pasadena,CA,January15,1975,onTheLastRecitalforIsrael,BMGClassics,1992,VHS.

17.8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike

Citationsofmovies,televisionshows,radioprograms,andthelikewillvarydependingonthetypeofsource.Ataminimum,identifythetitleofthework,thedateitwasreleasedorbroadcastorotherwisemadeavailable,andthenameofthestudioorotherentityresponsibleforproducingordistributingorbroadcastingthework.Ifyouwatchedavideoorlistenedtoarecording,includeinformationaboutthemedium.Ifyouconsultedthesourceonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

17.8.3.1MOVIES.Inthenotes,listthetitleofthemovie(initalics)followedbythenameofthedirector,thenameofthecompanythatproducedordistributedthemovie,andyearthemoviewasreleased.Youmayalsoincludeinformationaboutwriters,actors,producers,andsoforthifitisrelevanttoyourdiscussion.Unlessyouwatchedthemovieinatheater,includeinformationaboutthemedium.

N:12.Crumb,directedbyTerryZwigoff(SuperiorPictures,1994),DVD(SonyPictures,2006).14.FastTimesatRidgemontHigh,directedbyAmyHeckerling,screenplaybyCameronCrowe,featuringJenniferJason

LeighandSeanPenn(UniversalPictures,1982),DVD(2002).15.HighArt,directedbyLisaCholodenko(OctoberFilms,1998),accessedSeptember6,2011,http://movies.netflix.com/.18.A.E.Weed,AttheFootoftheFlatiron(AmericanMutoscopeandBiograph,1903),35mmfilm,fromLibraryofCongress,

TheLifeofaCity:EarlyFilmsofNewYork,1898–1906,MPEGvideo,2:19,accessedFebruary4,2011,http://www.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html.

Inthebibliography,youcanlistthemovieeitherunderthenameofthedirector(followedbydir.)orunderthetitle.

B:Crumb.DirectedbyTerryZwigoff.SuperiorPictures,1994.DVD.SonyPictures,2006.

or

Zwigoff,Terry,dir.Crumb.SuperiorPictures,1994.DVD.SonyPictures,2006.

Informationaboutancillarymaterialincludedwiththemovieshouldbewovenintothetext.

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Intheiraudiocommentary,producedtwentyyearsafterthereleaseoftheirfilm,HeckerlingandCroweagreethat…

17.8.3.2TELEVISIONANDRADIOPROGRAMS.Tociteatelevisionorradioprogram,include,ataminimum,thetitleoftheprogram,thenameoftheepisodeorsegment,thedateonwhichitwasfirstairedormadeavailable,andtheentitythatproducedorbroadcastthework.Youmayalsoincludeanepisodenumber,thenameofthedirectororauthoroftheepisodeorsegment,and(ifrelevanttoyourdiscussion)thenamesofkeyperformers.Italicizethetitlesofprograms,butsetthetitlesofepisodesorsegmentsinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks.Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtoarecordinginanythingotherthanitsoriginalbroadcastmedium,includeinformationaboutthemedium.

N:2.“BumpsontheRoadBacktoWork,”TamaraKeith,AllThingsConsidered,airedSeptember5,2011,onNPR.16.MadMen,season1,episode12,“Nixonvs.Kennedy,”directedbyAlanTaylor,airedOctober11,2007,onAMC,DVD

(LionsGateTelevision,2007),disc4.19.30Rock,season5,episode22,“EverythingFunnyAlltheTimeAlways,”directedbyJohnRiggi,featuringTinaFey,Tracy

Morgan,JaneKrakowski,JackMcBrayer,ScottAd-sit,JudahFriedlander,andAlecBaldwin,airedApril28,2011,onNBC,accessedMarch21,2012,http://www.hulu.com/30-rock/.

Insteadofusinganote,youcanoftencitesuchprogramsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,especiallyifsomeoralloftheadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

MadMenuseshistoryandflashbackin“Nixonvs.Kennedy”(AMC,October11,2007),withacombinationofarchivaltelevisionfootageand…

Inthebibliography,radioandtelevisionprogramsarenormallycitedbythetitleoftheprogramorseries.

B:MadMen.Season1,episode12,“Nixonvs.Kennedy.”DirectedbyAlanTaylor.AiredOctober11,2007,onAMC.DVD.LionsGateTelevision,2007,disc4.

17.8.3.3INTERVIEWS.Tociteinterviewsontelevision,radio,andthelike,treatthepersoninterviewedastheauthor,andidentifytheinterviewerinthecontextofthecitation.Alsoincludetheprogramorpublicationanddateoftheinterview(orpublicationorairdate).Interviewsarenormallycitedonlyinthenotes.Listtheinterviewinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourpaperorfrequentlycited.Forunpublishedinterviews,see17.6.3.

N:10.CondoleezzaRice,interviewbyJimLehrer,PBSNewsHour,July28,2005,accessedJuly7,2012,http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics/jan-june05/rice_3-4.html.

12.LauraPoitras,interviewbyLorneManly,“The9/11Decade:ACulturalView”(video),NewYorkTimes,September2,2011,accessedMarch11,2012,http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/09/02/us/sept-11-reckoning/artists.html.

17.8.3.4ADVERTISEMENTS.Citeadvertisementsfromtelevision,radio,andthelikeonlyinnotesorbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.

N:18.Doritos,“HealingChips,”advertisementairedonFoxSports,February6,2011,30seconds.

Aswithtelevisionshows(17.8.3.2),youcanoftenciteadvertisementsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtextratherthanusinganote,especiallyifsomeoralloftheadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

TheDoritosad“HealingChips,”whichairedduringSuperBowlXLV(FoxSports,February6,2011)…

17.8.3.5VIDEOSANDPODCASTS.Tociteavideoorapodcast,include,ataminimum,thenameanddescriptionoftheitemplusanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Theexamplesaboveformovies,television,andradio(17.8.3.1 4)maybeusedastemplatesforincludinganyadditionalinformation.Givethecreator snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym;ifthecreator srealnamecanbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.

N:13.Adele,“SomeonelikeYou”(musicvideo),directedbyJakeNava,postedOctober1,2011,accessedFebruary28,2012,http://www.mtv.com/videos/adele/693356/someone-like-you.jhtml.

18.FredDonner,“HowIslamBegan”(videooflecture,AlumniWeekend2011,UniversityofChicago,June3,2011),accessedJanuary5,2012,http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RFK5u5lkhA.

40.MichaelShear,host,“TheSpatoverPresidentObamaʼsUpcomingJobsSpeech,”TheCaucus(MP3podcast),NewYorkTimes,September1,2011,accessedSeptember6,2011,http://www.nytimes.com/pages/podcasts/.

4.Luminosity,“WomensWork_SPN”(video),March5,2009,accessedApril22,2011,http://www.viddler.com/v/lf6d7f1f.

Citationsofvideosandpodcastscannormallybelimitedtothenotesor,likecitationsofnewspaperarticles,wovenintothetext(see17.4.3).Ifasourceiscriticaltoyourpaperorfrequentlycited,however,youmayincludeitinyourbibliography.

B.Adele.“SomeonelikeYou”(musicvideo).DirectedbyJakeNava.PostedOctober1,2011.AccessedFebruary28,2012.http://www.mtv.com/videos/adele/693356/someone-like-you.jhtml.

17.8.4SoundRecordings

Tocitearecording,includeasmuchinformationasyoucantodistinguishitfromsimilarrecordings,includingthedateoftherecording,thenameoftherecordingcompany,theidentifyingnumberoftherecording,thecopyrightdate(ifdifferentfromtheyear

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oftherecording),andthemedium.Titlesofalbumsshouldbeinitalics;individualselectionsshouldbeinquotationmarksexceptformusicalworksreferredtobygenre(see22.3.2.3).AbbreviatecompactdiscasCD.RecordingsconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

N:11.BillieHoliday,“IʼmaFooltoWantYou,”byJoelHerron,FrankSinatra,andJackWolf,recordedFebruary20,1958,withRayEllis,onLadyinSatin,ColumbiaCL1157,33⅓rpm.

14.LudwigvanBeethoven,PianoSonatano.29(“Hammerklavier”),RudolfSerkin,recordedDecember8–10,1969,andDecember14–15,1970,SonyClassics,2005,MP3.

19.RichardStrauss,DonQuixote,withEmanuelFeuermann(violoncello)andthePhiladelphiaOrchestra,conductedbyEugeneOrmandy,recordedFebruary24,1940,BiddulphLAB042,1991,CD.

22.PinkFloyd,“AtomHeartMother,”recordedApril29,1970,FillmoreWest,SanFrancisco,streamingaudio,accessedJuly7,2011,http://www.wolfgangsvault.com/pink-floyd/concerts/fillmore-west-april-29-1970.html.

Inthebibliographyyoucanlisttherecordingunderthenameofthecomposerortheperformer,dependingonwhichismorerelevanttoyourdiscussion.

B:Rubinstein,Artur.TheChopinCollection.Recorded1946,1958–67.RCAVictor/BMG60822–2-RG,1991.11CDs.Shostakovich,Dmitri.Symphonyno.5/Symphonyno.9.ConductedbyLeonardBernstein.RecordedwiththeNewYork

Philharmonic,October20,1959(no.5),andOctober19,1965(no.9).SonySMK61841,1999.CD.

Treatrecordingsofdrama,proseorpoetryreadings,lectures,andthelikeasyouwouldmusicalrecordings.

N:6.DylanThomas,UnderMilkWood,performedbyDylanThomasetal.,recordedMay14,1953,onDylanThomas:TheCaedmonCollection,Caedmon,2002,11CDs,discs9and10.

B:Schlosser,Eric.FastFoodNation:TheDarkSideoftheAmericanMeal.ReadbyRickAdam-son.NewYork:RandomHouse,RHCD493,2004.8CDs.

17.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts

17.8.5.1ARTEXHIBITIONCATALOGS.Citeanartexhibitioncatalogasyouwouldabook.Inthebibliographyentryonly,includeinformationabouttheexhibitionfollowingthepublicationdata.

N:6.SusanDackerman,ed.,PrintsandthePursuitofKnowledgeinEarlyModernEurope(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2011),43.

B:Dackerman,Susan,ed.PrintsandthePursuitofKnowledgeinEarlyModernEurope.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2011.PublishedinconjunctionwiththeexhibitionsshownattheHarvardArtMuseums,Cambridge,MA,andtheBlockMuseumofArt,NorthwesternUniversity,Evanston,IL.

17.8.5.2PLAYS.Insomecasesyoucancitewell-knownEnglish-languageplaysinnotesonly.(Seealso17.5.1.)Omitpublicationdata,andcitepassagesbyactandscene(orotherdivision)insteadofbypagenumber.

N:22.EugeneOʼNeill,LongDayʼsJourneyintoNight,act2,scene1.

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifyouarecitingatranslationoranobscurework,citeeveryplayasyouwouldabook,andincludeeachinyourbibliography.Citepassageseitherbydivisionorbypage,accordingtoyourlocalguidelines.

N:25.EnidBagnold,TheChalkGarden(NewYork:RandomHouse,1956),8–9.

B:Anouilh,Jean.Becket,orTheHonorofGod.TranslatedbyLucienneHill.NewYork:River-headBooks,1996.

17.8.5.3MUSICALSCORES.Citeapublishedmusicalscoreasyouwouldabook.

N:1.GiuseppeVerdi,GiovannadʼArco,drammaliricoinfouracts,librettobyTemistocleSolera,ed.AlbertoRizzuti,2vols.,WorksofGiuseppeVerdi,ser.1,Operas(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress;Milan:G.Ricordi,2008).

B:Mozart,WolfgangAmadeus.SonatasandFantasiesforthePiano.PreparedfromtheautographsandearliestprintedsourcesbyNathanBroder.Rev.ed.BrynMawr,PA:TheodorePresser,1960.

Citeanunpublishedscoreasyouwouldunpublishedmaterialinamanuscriptcollection.

N:2.RalphShapey,“PartitaforViolinandThirteenPlayers,”score,1966,SpecialCollections,JosephRegensteinLibrary,UniversityofChicago.

17.9PublicDocumentsPublicdocumentsincludeawidearrayofsourcesproducedbygovernmentsatalllevelsthroughouttheworld.ThissectionpresentsbasicprinciplesforsomecommontypesofpublicdocumentsavailableinEnglish;ifyouneedtociteothertypes,adapttheclosestmodel.

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Suchdocumentsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanmosttypesofpublishedsources.Inyourcitations,includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

ThebulkofthissectionisconcernedwithdocumentspublishedbyUSgovernmentalbodiesandagencies.FordocumentspublishedbythegovernmentsofCanadaandtheUnitedKingdomandbyinternationalbodies,see17.9.9 11.Forunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,see17.9.12.

17.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem

Inyourcitations,includeasmanyofthefollowingelementsasyoucan:

■nameofthegovernment(country,state,city,county,orotherdivision)andgovernmentbody(legislativebody,executivedepartment,courtbureau,board,commission,orcommittee)thatissuedthedocument

■title,ifany,ofthedocumentorcollection■nameofindividualauthor,editor,orcompiler,ifgiven■reportnumberorotheridentifyinginformation(suchasplaceofpublicationandpublisher,forcertainfreestandingpublicationsorforitemsinsecondarysources)

■dateofpublication■pagenumbersorotherlocators,ifrelevant■anaccessdateandeitheraURLorthenameofthedatabase,forsourcesconsultedonline(see15.4.1and,forexamples,17.9.13)

Ingeneral,listtherelevantelementsintheordergivenabove.Certainelementsmaybeleftoutofthenotesbutshouldbeincludedinthebibliography.Othertypesofexceptionsareexplainedinthefollowingsectionsof17.9.

N:1.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HomelandSecurityActof2002,107thCong.,2dsess.,2002,HRRep.107-609,pt.1,11–12.

B:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107thCong.,2dsess.,2002.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.

Notethat,byconvention,ordinalsinpublicdocumentsendindinsteadofnd(2dinsteadof2nd).

17.9.2CongressionalPublications

Forcongressionalpublications,bibliographyentriesusuallybeginwiththedesignationUSCongress,followedbySenateorHouseofRepresentatives(orHouse).(YoumayalsosimplifythistoUSSenateorUSHouse.)Innotes,USisusuallyomitted.Othercommonelementsincludecommitteeandsubcommittee,ifany;titleofdocument;numberoftheCongressandsession(abbreviatedCong.andsess.respectivelyinthisposition);dateofpublication;andnumberanddescriptionofthedocument(forexample,H.Doc.487),ifavailable.

17.9.2.1DEBATES.Since1873,congressionaldebateshavebeenpublishedbythegovernmentintheCongressionalRecord(innotes,oftenabbreviatedasCong.Rec.).Wheneverpossible,citethepermanentvolumes,whichoftenreflectchangesfromthedailyeditionsoftheRecord.(ForcitationsofthedailyHouseorSenateedition,retaintheHorSinpagenumbers.)

N:16.Cong.Rec.,110thCong.,1stsess.,2008,vol.153,pt.8:11629–30.

B:USCongress.CongressionalRecord.110thCong.,1stsess.,2008.Vol.153,pt.8.

Occasionallyyoumayneedtoidentifyaspeakerinadebate,thesubject,andadateinanote.

N:4.SenatorKennedyofMassachusetts,speakingfortheJointResolutiononNuclearWeaponsFreezeandReductions,onMarch10,1982,totheCommitteeonForeignRelations,SJRes.163,97thCong.,1stsess.,Cong.Rec.128,pt.3:3832–34.

Before1874,congressionaldebateswerepublishedinAnnalsoftheCongressoftheUnitedStates(alsoknownbyothernamesandcoveringtheyears1789 1824),RegisterofDebates(1824 37),andCongressionalGlobe(1833 73).CitetheseworkssimilarlytotheCongressionalRecord.

17.9.2.2REPORTSANDDOCUMENTS.WhenyoucitereportsanddocumentsoftheSenate(abbreviatedS.)andtheHouse(H.orHR),includeboththeCongressandsessionnumbersand,ifpossible,theseriesnumber.Noticetheformforashortenednote,whichdiffersfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:9.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HomelandSecurityActof2002,107thCong.,2dsess.,2002,HRRep.107-609,pt.1,11–12.

14.DeclarationsofaStateofWarwithJapan,Germany,andItaly,77thCong.,1stsess.,1941,S.Doc.148,serial10575,2–5.

15.SelectCommittee,HomelandSecurityAct,11.22.ReorganizationoftheFederalJudiciary,75thCong.,1stsess.,1937,S.Rep.711.

B:USCongress.House.ExpansionofNationalEmergencywithRespecttoProtectingtheStabilizationEffortsinIraq.112thCong.,1stsess.,2011.H.Doc.112–25.

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17.9.2.3BILLSANDRESOLUTIONS.Congressionalbills(proposedlaws)andresolutionsarepublishedinpamphletform.Incitations,billsandresolutionsoriginatingintheHouseofRepresentativesareabbreviatedHRorH.Res.,andthoseoriginatingintheSenateS.orS.Res.IncludepublicationdetailsintheCongressionalRecord(ifavailable).Ifabillhasbeenenacted,citeitasastatute(see17.9.2.5).

N:16.NoTaxpayerFundingforAbortionAct,H.Res.237,112thCong.,1stsess.,CongressionalRecord,vol.157,dailyed.(May4,2011):H3014.

B:USCongress.House.NoTaxpayerFundingforAbortionAct.H.Res.237.112thCong.,1stsess.CongressionalRecord157,dailyed.(May4,2011):H3014–37.

17.9.2.4HEARINGS.Recordsoftestimonygivenbeforecongressionalcommitteesareusuallypublishedwithtitles,whichshouldbeincludedincitations(initalics).Therelevantcommitteeisnormallylistedaspartofthetitle.Noticetheformforashortenednote,whichdiffersfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:13.HearingbeforetheSelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HR5005,HomelandSecurityActof2002,day3,107thCong.,2dsess.,July17,2002,119–20.

14.HR5005,Hearing,203.

B:USCongress.Senate.FamineinAfrica:HearingbeforetheCommitteeonForeignRelations.99thCong.,1stsess.,January17,1985.

17.9.2.5STATUTES.Statutes,whicharebillsorresolutionsthathavebeenpassedintolaw,arefirstpublishedseparatelyandthencollectedintheannualboundvolumesoftheUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge,whichbeganpublicationin1874.LatertheyareincorporatedintotheUnitedStatesCode.CiteUSStatutes,theUSCode,orboth.SectionnumbersintheCodeareprecededbyasectionsymbol( ;use andetseq.toindicatemorethanonesection).

Citestatutesinnotesonly;youdonotneedtoincludetheminyourbibliography.Noticetheformforashortenednote,whichdiffersfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:18.AtomicEnergyActof1946,PublicLaw585,79thCong.,2dsess.(August1,1946),12,19.19.FairCreditReportingActof1970,USCode15(2000),§§1681etseq.25.HomelandSecurityActof2002,PublicLaw107-296,USStatutesatLarge116(2002):2163–64,codifiedatUSCode6

(2002),§§101etseq.27.HomelandSecurityAct,2165.

Before1874,lawswerepublishedintheseventeen-volumeStatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1789 1873.Citationsofthiscollectionincludethevolumenumberanditspublicationdate.

17.9.3PresidentialPublications

Presidentialproclamations,executiveorders,vetoes,addresses,andthelikearepublishedintheWeeklyCompilationofPresidentialDocumentsandinPublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.ProclamationsandexecutiveordersarealsocarriedinthedailyFederalRegisterandthenpublishedintitle3oftheCodeofFederalRegulations.OncetheyhavebeenpublishedintheCode,usethatasyoursource.Putindividualtitlesinquotationmarks.

N:2.BarackObama,Proclamation8621,“NationalSlaveryandHumanTraffickingPreventionMonth,2011,”FederalRegister75,no.250(December30,2010):82215.

21.WilliamJ.Clinton,ExecutiveOrder13067,“BlockingSudaneseGovernmentPropertyandProhibitingTransactionswithSudan,”CodeofFederalRegulations,title3(1997comp.):230.

B:USPresident.Proclamation8621.“NationalSlaveryandHumanTraffickingPreventionMonth,2011.”FederalRegister75,no.250(December30,2010):82215–16.

ThepublicpapersofUSpresidentsarecollectedintwomultivolumeworks:CompilationoftheMessagesandPapersofthePresidents,1789 1897,and,startingwiththeHooveradministration,PublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.(Papersnotcoveredbyeitheroftheseworksarepublishedelsewhere.)Tociteitemsinthesecollections,followtherecommendationsformultivolumebooks(see17.1.4).

17.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies

Executivedepartments,bureaus,andagenciesissuereports,bulletins,circulars,andothermaterials.Italicizethetitle,andincludethenameofanyidentifiedauthor(s)afterthetitle.

N:30.USDepartmentoftheTreasury,ReportoftheSecretaryoftheTreasuryTransmittingaReportfromtheRegisteroftheTreasuryoftheCommerceandNavigationoftheUnitedStatesfortheYearEndingthe30thofJune,1850,31stCong.,2dsess.,HouseExecutiveDocument8(Washington,DC,1850–51).

B:USDepartmentoftheInterior.MineralsManagementService.EnvironmentalDivision.Oil-SpillRiskAnalysis:GulfofMexicoOuterContinentalShelf(OCS)LeaseSales,CentralPlanningAreaandWesternPlanningArea,2007–2012,andGulfwideOCSProgram,2007–2046,byZhen-GangJi,WalterR.Johnson,andCharlesF.Marshall.EditedbyEileenM.Lear.MMS

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2007-040,June2007.

17.9.5USConstitution

TheUSConstitutionshouldbecitedonlyinnotes;youneednotincludeitinyourbibliography.Includethearticleoramendment,section,and,ifrelevant,clause.Usearabicnumeralsand,ifyouprefer,abbreviationsfortermssuchasamendmentandsection.

N:32.USConstitution,art.2,sec.1,cl.3.33.USConstitution,amend.14,sec.2.

Inmanycases,youcanuseaparentheticalnote(see16.4.3)orevenincludetheidentifyinginformationinyourtext.Spelloutthepartdesignationsintext.Capitalizethenamesofspecificamendmentswhenusedinplaceofnumbers.

TheUSConstitution,inarticle1,section9,forbidssuspensionofthewrit“unlesswheninCasesofRebellionorInvasionthepublicSafetymayrequireit.”

TheFirstAmendmentprotectstherightoffreespeech.

17.9.6Treaties

Thetextsoftreatiessignedbefore1950arepublishedinUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge;theunofficialcitationistotheTreatySeries(TS)ortheExecutiveAgreementSeries(EAS).Thosesignedin1950orlaterappearinUnitedStatesTreatiesandOtherInternationalAgreements(UST,1950 )orTreatiesandOtherInternationalActsSeries(TIAS,1945 ).TreatiesinvolvingmorethantwonationsmaybefoundintheUnitedNationsTreatySeries(UNTS,1946 )or,from1920to1946,intheLeagueofNationsTreatySeries(LNTS).

Italicizetitlesofthepublicationsmentionedaboveandtheirabbreviatedforms.Unlesstheyarenamedinthetitleofthetreaty,listthepartiessubjecttotheagreement,separatedbyhyphens.Anexactdateindicatesthedateofsigningandisthereforepreferabletoayearalone,whichmaydifferfromtheyearthetreatywaspublished.Noticetheformforashortenednote,whichdiffersfromtheusualpattern(see16.4.1).

N:4.TreatyBanningNuclearWeaponTestsintheAtmosphere,inOuterSpace,andUnderWater,US-UK-USSR,August5,1963,UST14,pt.2,1313.

15.ConventionconcerningMilitaryService,Denmark-Italy,July15,1954,TIAS250,no.3516,45.39.NuclearTestBanTreaty,1317–18.

B:UnitedStates.NavalArmamentLimitationTreatywiththeBritishEmpire,France,Italy,andJapan.February6,1922.USStatutesatLarge43,pt.2.

17.9.7LegalCases

Citationsoflegalcasesgenerallytakethesameformforcourtsatalllevels.Innotes,givethefullcasename(includingtheabbreviationv.)initalics.Includethevolumenumber(arabic),nameofthereporter(abbreviated;seebelow),ordinalseriesnumber(ifapplicable),openingpagenumberofthedecision,abbreviatednameofthecourtanddate(togetherinparentheses),andotherrelevantinformation,suchasthenameofthestateorlocalcourt(ifnotidentifiedbytheseriestitle).Actualpagescitedfollowtheopeningpagenumber,separatedbyacomma.

Citestatutesinnotesonly;youdonotneedtoincludetheminyourbibliography.

N:18.UnitedStatesv.Christmas,222F.3d141,145(4thCir.2000).21.ProfitSharingPlanv.MBankDallas,N.A.,683F.Supp.592(NDTex.1988).

Ashortenednotemayconsistofthecasenameand,ifneeded,apagenumber.

N:35.Christmas,146.

Theoneelementthatdependsonthelevelofthecourtisthenameofthereporter.Themostcommononesareasfollows.

■USSupremeCourt.ForSupremeCourtdecisions,citeUnitedStatesSupremeCourtReports(abbreviatedUS)or,ifnotyetpublishedthere,SupremeCourtReporter(abbreviatedS.Ct.).

N:21.AT&TCorp.v.IowaUtilitiesBd.,525US366(1999).39.Brendlinv.California,127S.Ct.2400(2007).

■Lowerfederalcourts.Forlowerfederal-courtdecisions,citeFederalReporter(F.)orFederalSupplement(F.Supp.).

N:3.UnitedStatesv.Dennis,183F.201(2dCir.1950).15.Eatonv.IBMCorp.,925F.Supp.487(SDTex.1996).

■Stateandlocalcourts.Forstateandlocalcourtdecisions,citeofficialstatereporterswheneverpossible.Ifyouuseacommercialreporter,citeitasinthesecondexamplebelow.Ifthereporterdoesnotidentifythecourt sname,includeitbeforethedate,withintheparentheses.

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N:6.Williamsv.Davis,27Cal.2d746(1946).8.Bivensv.Mobley,724So.2d458,465(Miss.Ct.App.1998).

17.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments

Citestateandlocalgovernmentdocumentsasyouwouldfederaldocuments.Useromantype(noquotationmarks)forstatelawsandmunicipalordinances;useitalicsforcodes(compilations)andthetitlesoffreestandingpublications.

N:39.IllinoisInstituteforEnvironmentalQuality(IIEQ),ReviewandSynopsisofPublicParticipationregardingSulfurDioxideandParticulateEmissions,bySidneyM.Marder,IIEQDocumentno.77/21(Chicago,1977),44–45.

42.MethamphetamineControlandCommunityProtectionAct,IllinoisCompiledStatutes,ch.720,no.646,sec.10(2005).44.PageʼsOhioRevisedCodeAnnotated,title35,sec.3599.01(2011).47.NewMexicoConstitution,art.4,sec.7.

B:IllinoisInstituteforEnvironmentalQuality(IIEQ).ReviewandSynopsisofPublicParticipationregardingSulfurDioxideandParticulateEmissions,bySidneyM.Marder.IIEQDocument77/21.Chicago,1977.

17.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments

CiteCanadiangovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththewordCanada(inparentheses)unlessitisobviousfromthecontext.

CanadianstatutesarefirstpublishedintheannualStatutesofCanada,afterwhichtheyappearintheRevisedStatutesofCanada,aconsolidationpublishedeveryfifteenortwentyyears.Whereverpossible,usethelattersourceandidentifythestatutebytitle,reporter,yearofcompilation,chapter,andsection.

N:4.CanadaWildlifeAct,RevisedStatutesofCanada1985,chap.W-9,sec.1.5.AssistedHumanReproductionAct,StatutesofCanada2004,chap.2,sec.2.

CanadianSupremeCourtcasessince1876arepublishedinSupremeCourtReports(SCR);casesafter1974shouldincludethevolumenumberofthereporter.FederalcourtcasesarepublishedinFederalCourtsReports(FC,1971 )orExchequerCourtReports(Ex.CR,1875 1971).CasesnotfoundinanyofthesesourcesmaybefoundinDominionLawReports(DLR).Includethenameofthecase(initalics),followedbythedate(inparentheses),thevolumenumber(ifany),theabbreviatednameofthereporter,andtheopeningpageofthedecision.

N:10.Robertsonv.ThomsonCorp.,(2006)2SCR363(Canada).11.Boldyv.RoyalBankofCanada,(2008)FC99.

17.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments

CiteBritishgovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththephraseUnitedKingdom(inparentheses)unlessitisobviousfromthecontext.

ActsofParliamentshouldusuallybecitedonlyinanote.Includeaspecificactinyourbibliographyonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Identifyactsbytitle,date,andchapternumber(arabicnumeralfornationalnumber,lowercaseromanforlocal).Actsfrombefore1963arecitedbyregnalyearandmonarch sname(abbreviated)andordinal(arabicnumeral).

N:8.ActofSettlement,1701,12&13Will.3,chap.2.15.ConsolidatedFundAct,1963,chap.1(UnitedKingdom).16.ManchesterCorporationAct,1967,chap.xl.

MostBritishlegalcasescanbefoundintheapplicablereportintheLawReports,amongthesetheAppealCases(AC),Queen s(King s)Bench(QB,KB),Chancery(Ch.),Family(Fam.),andProbate(P.)reports.Untilrecently,thecourtsofhighestappealintheUnitedKingdom(exceptforcriminalcasesinScotland)hadbeentheHouseofLords(HL)andtheJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncil(PC).In2005,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedKingdom(UKSC)wasestablished.

Includethenameofthecase,initalics(casesinvolvingtheCrownrefertoRexorRegina);thedate,inparentheses;thevolumenumber(ifany)andabbreviatednameofthereporter;andtheopeningpageofthedecision.Ifthecourtisnotapparentfromthenameofthereporter,orifthejurisdictionisnotclearfromcontext,includeeitherorboth,asnecessary,inparentheses.

N:10.Reginav.DudleyandStephens,(1884)14QBD273(DC).11.Regal(Hastings)Ltd.v.GulliverandOrs,(1967)2AC134(HL)(Eng.).12.NMLCapitalLimited(Appellant)v.RepublicofArgentina(Respondent),(2011)UKSC31.

17.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies

DocumentspublishedbyinternationalbodiessuchastheUnitedNationscanbecitedmuchlikebooks.Identifytheauthorizingbody(andanyauthororeditor),thetopicortitleofthedocument,thepublisherorplaceofpublication(orboth),andthedate,followedbyapagereferenceinthenotes.Alsoincludeanyseriesorotheridentifyingpublicationinformation.

N:1.LeagueofArabStatesandUnitedNations,TheThirdArabReportontheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals2010andtheImpactoftheGlobalEconomicCrises(Beirut:EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia,2010),82.

B:UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.ReportoftheGoverningCouncil/GlobalMinisterialEnvironmentForumontheWorkofIts

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EleventhSpecialSession.OfficialRecords,65thsess.,supplementno.25,A/65/25.NewYork:UN,2010.

17.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments

Ifyouciteunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,followthepatternsgivenforunpublishedmanuscriptsin17.6.4.MostunpublisheddocumentsoftheUSgovernmentarehousedintheNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration(NARA)in

Washington,DC,orinoneofitsbranches.Citethemall,includingfilms,photographs,andsoundrecordingsaswellaswrittenmaterials,byrecordgroup(RG)number.

ThecomparableinstitutionforunpublishedCanadiangovernmentdocumentsistheLibraryandArchivesCanada(LAC)inOttawa,Ontario.TheUnitedKingdomhasanumberofdepositoriesofunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,mostnotablytheNationalArchives(NA)andtheBritishLibrary(BL),bothinLondon.

17.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments

Tociteonlinepublicdocuments,followtherelevantexamplespresentedelsewherein17.9.Inaddition,includethedateyouaccessedthematerialandaURL.Foritemsobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.Notethatdatabasesforlegalcasesmaymarkpage(screen)divisionswithanasterisk.Theseshouldberetainedinspecificreferences(seealso17.9.7).

N:1.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity,HomelandSecurityActof2002,107thCong.,2dsess.,2002,HRRep.107-609,pt.1,11–12,accessedSeptember8,2011,http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-107hrpt609/pdf/CRPT-107hrpt609-pt1.pdf.

12.UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil,Resolution2002,July29,2011,accessedOctober10,2011,http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_resolutions11.htm.

17.McNameev.DepartmentoftheTreasury,488F.3d100,*3(2dCir.2007),accessedSeptember25,2011,LexisNexisAcademic.

B:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107thCong.,2dsess.,2002.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.AccessedSeptember8,2011.http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-107hrpt609/pdf/CRPT-107hrpt609-pt1.pdf.

17.10OneSourceQuotedinAnotherResponsibleresearchersavoidrepeatingquotationsthattheyhavenotactuallyseenintheoriginal.Ifonesourceincludesausefulquotationfromanothersource,readersexpectyoutoobtaintheoriginaltoverifynotonlythatthequotationisaccuratebutalsothatitfairlyrepresentswhattheoriginalmeant.

Iftheoriginalsourceisunavailable,however,citeitas quotedin thesecondarysourceinyournote.Forthebibliographyentry,adaptthe quotedin formatasneeded.

N:8.LouisZukofsky,“SincerityandObjectification,”Poetry37(February1931):269,quotedinBonnieCostello,MarianneMoore:ImaginaryPossessions(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981),78.

B:Zukofsky,Louis.“SincerityandObjectification.”Poetry37(February1931):269.QuotedinBonnieCostello,MarianneMoore:ImaginaryPossessions.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981.

Thesamesituationmayarisewithaquotationyoufindinasecondarysourcedrawnfromaprimarysource(see3.1.1).Oftenyouwillnotbeabletoconsulttheprimarysource,especiallyifitisinanunpublishedmanuscriptcollection.Inthiscase,followtheprinciplesoutlinedabove.

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18Author-DateStyle:TheBasicForm

18.1BasicPatterns

18.1.1OrderofElements18.1.2Punctuation18.1.3Capitalization18.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks18.1.5Numbers18.1.6Abbreviations18.1.7Indentation

18.2ReferenceLists

18.2.1ArrangementofEntries18.2.2SourcesThatMayBeOmitted

18.3ParentheticalCitations

18.3.1PlacementinText18.3.2SpecialElementsandFormatIssues18.3.3FootnotesandParentheticalCitations

Acitationstyleusedwidelyinmostsocialsciencesandinthenaturalandphysicalsciencesistheauthor-datestyle,socalledbecausetheauthor snameandthedateofpublicationarethecriticalelementsforidentifyingsources.Thischapterpresentsanoverviewofthebasicpatternforcitationsinauthor-datestyle,includingbothreferencelistentriesandparentheticalcitations.ExamplesofparentheticalcitationsareidentifiedwithaP;examplesofreferencelistentriesareidentifiedwithanR.

Inauthor-datestyle,yousignalthatyouhaveusedasourcebyplacingaparentheticalcitation(includingauthor,date,andrelevantpagenumbers)nexttoyourreferencetothatsource:

Accordingtoonescholar,“TherailroadshadmadeChicagothemostimportantmeetingplacebetweenEastandWest”(Cronon1991,92–93).

Attheendofthepaper,youlistallsourcesinareferencelist.Thatlistnormallyincludeseverysourceyoucitedinaparentheticalcitationandsometimesothersyouconsultedbutdidnotcite.Sinceparentheticalcitationsdonotincludecompletebibliographicalinformationforasource,youmustincludethatinformationinyourreferencelist.Allreferencelistentrieshavethesamegeneralform:

R:Cronon,William.1991.NatureʼsMetropolis:ChicagoandtheGreatWest.NewYork:W.W.Norton.

Readersexpectyoutofollowtherulesforcorrectcitationsexactly.Theserulescovernotonlywhatdatayoumustincludeandtheirorderbutalsopunctuation,capitalization,italicizing,andsoon.Togetyourcitationsright,youmustpaycloseattentiontomanyminutedetailsthatfewresearcherscaneasilyremember.Chapter19providesareadyreferenceguidetothosedetails.

18.1BasicPatternsAlthoughsourcesandtheircitationscomeinalmostendlessvariety,youarelikelytouseonlyafewkinds.Whileyoumayneedtolookupdetailstocitesomeunusualsources,youcaneasilylearnthebasicpatternsforthefewkindsyouwillusemostoften.Youcanthencreatetemplatesthatwillhelpyourecordbibliographicaldataquicklyandreliablyasyouread.

Therestofthissectiondescribesthebasicpatterns,andfigure18.1providestemplatesforseveralcommontypesofsources.Chapter19includesexamplesofawiderangeofsources,includingexceptionstothepatternsdiscussedhere.

18.1.1OrderofElements

Theorderofelementsinreferencelistentriesfollowsthesamegeneralpatternforalltypesofsources:author,date(year)ofpublication,title,otherfactsofpublication.Parentheticalcitationsincludeonlythefirsttwooftheseelements.Iftheycitespecificpassages,theyalsoincludepagenumbersorotherlocatinginformation;referencelistentriesdonot,thoughtheydoincludeafullspanofpagenumbersforasourcethatispartofalargerwhole,suchasanarticleorachapter.

18.1.2Punctuation

Inreferencelistentries,separatemostelementswithperiods;inparentheticalcitations,donotuseapunctuationmarkbetweentheauthorandthedate,butseparatethedatefromapagenumberwithacomma.

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18.1.3Capitalization

Capitalizemosttitlesheadlinestyle,butcapitalizetitlesinforeignlanguagessentencestyle.(See22.3.1forbothstyles.)Capitalizepropernounsintheusualway(seechapter22).Insomefields,youmayberequiredtousesentencestyleformosttitlesexceptfortitlesofjournals,magazines,andnewspapers;checkyourlocalguidelines.

Figure18.1.Templatesforreferencelistentriesandparentheticalcitations

Thefollowingtemplatesshowwhatelementsshouldbeincludedinwhatorderwhencitingseveralcommontypesofsourcesinreferencelists(R)andparentheticalcitations(P).Theyalsoshowpunctuation,capitalizationoftitles,andwhentouseitalicsorquotationmarks.Grayshadingshowsabbreviations(ortheirspelled-outversions)andothertermsastheywouldactuallyappearinacitation.XXstandsinforpagenumbersactuallycited,YYforafullspanofpagenumbersforanarticleorachapter.

Books

1.SingleAuthororEditor

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.Gladwell,Malcolm.2000.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)(Gladwell2000,64 65)

Forabookwithaneditorinsteadofanauthor,adaptthepatternasfollows:

R:EditorʼsLastName,EditorʼsFirstName,ed.YearofPublication…Greenberg,Joel,ed.2008

P:(EditorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)(Greenberg2008,75 80)

2.MultipleAuthors

Forabookwithtwoauthors,usethefollowingpattern:

R:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,andAuthor#2ʼsFirstandLastNames.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.PlaceofPublicationPublisherʼsName.

Morey,Peter,andAminaYaqin.2011.FramingMuslims:StereotypingandRepresentationafter9/11.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

P:(Author#1ʼsLastNameandAuthor#2ʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)(MoreyandYaqin2011,52)

Forabookwiththreeauthors,adaptthepatternasfollows:

R:Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#1ʼsFirstName,Author#2ʼsFirstandLastNamesandAuthor#3ʼsFirstandLastNames.YearofPublication…Soss,Joe,RichardC.Fording,andSanfordF.Schram.2011

P:(Author#1ʼsLastName,Author#2ʼsLastName,andAuthor#3ʼsLastNameYeaofPublication,XX–XX)(Soss,Fording,andSchram2011,135 36)

Forabookwithfourormoreauthors,adapttheparentheticalcitationpatternonlyasfollows:

P:(Author#1ʼsLastNameetal.YearofPublication,XX–XX)(Bernsteinetal.2010,114 15)

3.Author(s)PlusEditororTranslator

Forabookwithanauthorplusaneditor,usethefollowingpattern:

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditedbyEditorʼsFirstandLastNames.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.

Austen,Jane.2011.Persuasion:AnAnnotatedEdition.EditedbyRobertMorrison.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)(Austen2011,311 12)

Ifabookhasatranslatorinsteadofaneditor,substitutethephraseTranslatedbyandthetranslatorʼsnamefortheeditordatainthereferencelistentry.

4.EditionNumber

133

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.TitleofBook:SubtitleofBook.EditionNumbered.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.VanMaanen,John.2011.TalesoftheField:OnWritingEthnography.2nded.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)(VanMaanen2011,84)

5.SingleChapterinanEditedBook

R:ChapterAuthorʼsLastName,ChapterAuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.“TitleofChapter:SubtitleofChapter.”InTitleofBook:SubtitleofBook,editedbyEditorʼsFirstandLastNames,YY–YY.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.

Ramirez,Angeles.2010. MuslimWomenintheSpanishPress:ThePersistenceofSubalternImages. InMuslimWomeninWarandCrisis:RepresentationandReality,editedbyFaeghehShirazi,227 14.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress.

P:(ChapterAuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)(Ramirez2010,231)

JournalArticles

6.JournalArticleinPrint

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle.”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(AdditionalDateInformation):YY–YY.

Bogren,Alexandra.2011. GenderandAlcohol:TheSwedishPressDebate. JournalofGenderStudies20,no.2(June):155 69.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,XX–XX)(Bogren2011,156)

Foranarticlewithmultipleauthors,followtherelevantpatternforauthorsʼnamesintemplate2.

7.JournalArticleOnline

Forajournalarticleconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.ForarticlesthatincludeaDOI,formtheURLbyappendingtheDOItohttp://dx.doi.org/ratherthanusingtheURLinyouraddressbar.TheDOIfortheKiserarticleintheexamplebelowis10.1086/658052.

R:AuthorʼsLastName,AuthorʼsFirstName.YearofPublication.“TitleofArticle:SubtitleofArticle.”TitleofJournalVolumeNumber,IssueNumber(AdditionalDateInformation):YY–YY.AccessedDateofAccess.URL.

Kiser,LisaJ.2011. SilencingtheLambs:Economics,Ethics,andAnimalLifeinMedievalFranciscanHagiography. ModernPhilology108,no.3(February):323 42.AccessedSeptember18,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658052.

P:(AuthorʼsLastNameYearofPublication,xx)(Kiser2011,340)

See15.4.1formoredetails.

18.1.4ItalicsandQuotationMarks

Titlesoflargerentities(books,journals)areprintedinitalics;titlesofsmallerentities(chapters,articles)areprintedinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.Titlesofunpublishedworks(suchasdissertations)areprintedinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks,eveniftheyarebooklength.Seealso22.3.2.

18.1.5Numbers

Intitles,anynumbersarespelledoutorgiveninnumeralsexactlyastheyareintheoriginal.Pagenumbersthatareinromannumeralsintheoriginalarepresentedinlowercaseromannumerals.Allothernumbers(suchaschapternumbersorfigurenumbers)aregiveninarabicnumerals,eveniftheyareinromannumeralsorspelledoutintheoriginal.

18.1.6Abbreviations

Abbreviatetermssuchaseditorandtranslator(ed.andtrans.)whentheycomeafteraname,butspellthemoutwhentheyintroduceit(Editedby).Thepluralisusuallyformedbyaddings(eds.)unlesstheabbreviationendsinans(usetrans.forbothsingularandplural).Termssuchasvolume,edition,andnumber(vol.,ed.,andno.)arealwaysabbreviated.

18.1.7Indentation

Referencelistentrieshaveahangingindentation:thefirstlineisflushleftandallfollowinglinesareindentedthesameamountasthefirstlineofaparagraph.Parentheticalcitationsareplacedwithinthetextandarenotindented.

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18.2ReferenceListsInpapersthatuseauthor-datestyle,thereferencelistpresentsfullbibliographicalinformationforallthesourcescitedinparentheticalcitations(otherthanafewspecialtypesofsources;see18.2.2).Youmayalsoincludeworksthatwereimportanttoyourthinkingbutthatyoudidnotspecificallymentioninthetext.Inadditiontoprovidingbibliographicalinformation,referencelistsshowreaderstheextentofyourresearchanditsrelationshiptopriorwork,andtheyhelpreadersuseyoursourcesintheirownresearch.Ifyouusetheauthor-datecitationstyle,youmustincludeareferencelistinyourpaper.

LabelthelistReferences.SeefigureA.16intheappendixforasamplepageofareferencelist.

18.2.1ArrangementofEntries

18.2.1.1ALPHABETICALANDCHRONOLOGICALBYAUTHOR.Areferencelistisnormallyasinglelistofallsourcesarrangedalphabeticallybythelastnameoftheauthor,editor,orwhoeverisfirstineachentry.(Foralphabetizingforeignnames,compoundnames,andotherspecialcases,see18.2.1.2.)Mostwordprocessorsprovideanalphabeticalsortingfunction;ifyouuseit,firstmakesureeachentryisfollowedbyahardreturn.Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayspecifythatyoushouldalphabetizetheentriesletterbyletterorwordbyword;see16.58 61ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010),foranexplanationofthesetwosystems.

Ifyourreferencelistincludestwoormoreworkswritten,edited,ortranslatedbythesameindividual,arrangetheentrieschronologicallybypublicationdate.Forallentriesafterthefirst,replacetheindividual snamewithalongdash,calleda3-emdash(see21.7.3).Foreditedortranslatedworks,putacommaandtheappropriatedesignation(ed.,trans.,andsoon)afterthedash.Listallsuchworksbeforeanythattheindividualcoauthoredorcoedited.Notethatitisbesttomakealltheseadjustmentsmanuallyafteryouhavesortedyourcompletereferencelistalphabeticallybyname.

R:Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.1988.TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfrican-AmericanLiteraryCriticism.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

_______,ed.2002.TheClassicSlaveNarratives.NewYork:PenguinPutnam._______.2004.AmericabehindtheColorLine:DialogueswithAfricanAmericans.NewYork:WarnerBooks._______.2010.TraditionandtheBlackAtlantic:CriticalTheoryintheAfricanDiaspora.NewYork:BasicCivitas._______.2011.BlackinLatinAmerica.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress.Gates,HenryLouis,Jr.,andCornelWest.2000.TheAfrican-AmericanCentury:HowBlackAmericansHaveShapedOur

Country.NewYork:FreePress.

Thesameprinciplesapplytoworksbyasinglegroupofauthorsnamedinthesameorder.

R:Marty,MartinE.,andR.ScottAppleby.1992.TheGloryandthePower:TheFundamentalistChallengetotheModernWorld.Boston:BeaconPress.

_______,eds.2004.AccountingforFundamentalisms.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Marty,MartinE.,andMicahMarty.1998.WhenTrueSimplicityIsGained:FindingSpiritualClarityinaComplexWorld.Grand

Rapids,Ml:WilliamB.Eerdmans.

Ifyourreferencelistincludesmorethanoneworkpublishedinthesameyearbyanauthororgroupofauthorsnamedinthesameorder,arrangetheentriesalphabeticallybytitle(ignoringarticlessuchasaorthe).Addthelettersa,b,c,andsoforthtotheyear,setinromantypewithoutaninterveningspace.Yourparentheticalcitationstotheseworksshouldincludetheletters(see18.3.2).

R:Fogel,RobertWilliam.2004a.TheEscapefromHungerandPrematureDeath,1700–2100:Europe,America,andtheThirdWorld.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.

_______.2004b.“TechnophysioEvolutionandtheMeasurementofEconomicGrowth.”JournalofEvolutionaryEconomics14,no.2:217–21.

Ifabookorjournalarticledoesnothaveanauthororeditor(orothernamedcompiler,suchasatranslator),putthetitlefirstinyourreferencelistentryandalphabetizebasedonit,ignoringarticlessuchasaorthe.

R:AccountoftheOperationsoftheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.1870–1910.22vols.DehraDun:SurveyofIndia.“TheGreatTrigonometricalSurveyofIndia.”1863.CalcuttaReview38:26-62.“StateandProspectsofAsia.”1839.QuarterlyReview63,no.126(March):369–402.

Formagazineandnewspaperarticleswithoutauthors,usethetitleofthemagazineornewspaperinplaceoftheauthor(see19.3and19.4).Forothertypesofsources,seetherelevantsectioninchapter19forguidance;ifnotstatedotherwise,useatitleinthisposition.

18.2.1.2SPECIALTYPESOFNAMES.Someauthors namesconsistofmorethanareadilyidentifiable firstname and lastname. Inmanycasesyoucandeterminethecorrectorderbyconsultingyourlibrary scatalog.Forhistoricalnames,agoodsourceisMerriam-Webster sBiographicalDictionary.Thissectionoutlinessomegeneralprinciplesforalphabetizingsuchnamesinyourreferencelist.Inshortenedorparentheticalnotes,usethelastnameexactlyasinverted(shownbelowinboldface).Ifyourpaperinvolvesmanynamesfromaparticularforeignlanguage,followtheconventionsforthatlanguage.

■Compoundnames.Alphabetizecompoundlastnames,includinghyphenatednames,bythefirstpartofthecompound.Ifawomanusesbothherownfamilynameandherhusband sbutdoesnothyphenatethem,generallyalphabetizebythesecondsurname.

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Whilemanyforeignlanguageshavepredictablepatternsforcompoundnames(seebelow),others suchasFrenchandGermandonot.

Kessler-Harris,AliceHine,DarleneClarkMiesvanderRohe,LudwigTeilharddeChardin,Pierre

■Nameswithparticles.Dependingonthelanguage,particlessuchasde,di,D, andvanmayormaynotbeconsideredthefirstpartofalastnameforalphabetizing.Consultoneoftheresourcesnotedaboveifyouareunsureaboutaparticularname.Notethatparticlesmaybeeitherlowercasedorcapitalized,andsomearefollowedbyanapostrophe.

deGaulle,CharlesdiLeonardo,MicaelaVanRensselaer,StephenBeauvoir,SimonedeKooning,WillemdeMedici,Lorenzodeʼ

■Namesbeginningwith Mac, Saint, or O . NamesthatbeginwithMac,Saint,orO canhavemanyvariationsinabbreviations(Mc,St.),spelling(Sainte,San),capitalization(Macmillan,McAllister),andhyphenationorapostrophes(O NeillorOdell;Saint-GaudensorSt.Denis).Alphabetizeallsuchnamesbasedonthelettersactuallypresent;donotgroupthembecausetheyaresimilar.

■Spanishnames.ManySpanishlastnamesarecompoundnamesconsistingofanindividual spaternalandmaternalfamilynames,sometimesjoinedbytheconjunctiony.Alphabetizesuchnamesunderthefirstpart.

OrtegayGasset,JoséSanchezMendoza,Juana

■Arabicnames.AlphabetizeArabiclastnamesthatbeginwiththeparticleal-orel-( the )undertheelementfollowingtheparticle.NamesthatbeginwithAbu,Abd,andIbn,likeEnglishnamesbeginningwithMacorSaint,shouldbealphabetizedundertheseterms.

Hakim,Tawfiqal-Jamal,MuhammadHamidal-AbuZafarNadvi,SyedIbnSaud,Aziz

■ChineseandJapanesenames.IfanauthorwithaChineseorJapanesenamefollowstraditionalusage(familynamefollowedbygivenname),donotinvertthenameorinsertacommabetweenthe first and last names.IftheauthorfollowsWesternizedusage(givennamefollowedbyfamilyname),treatthenameasyouwouldanEnglishname.

Traditionalusage Westernizedusage

ChaoWu-chi Tsou,TangYoshidaShigeru Kurosawa,Noriaki

18.2.1.3CATEGORIZEDLISTINGS.Becausereadersfollowingaparentheticalcitationwillhaveonlyanauthorandadatetohelpthemidentifytherelevantreferencelistentry,organizethelistasdescribedaboveexceptinrarecases.Underthefollowingcircumstances,youmayconsiderdividingthelistintoseparatecategories:

■Ifyouhavemorethanthreeorfourentriesforaspecialtypeofsource,suchasmanuscripts,archivalcollections,recordings,andsoon,listthemseparatelyfromtherestofyourentries.

■Ifitiscriticaltodistinguishprimarysourcesfromsecondaryandtertiaryones,listtheentriesinseparatesections.

Ifyoucategorizesources,introduceeachseparatesectionwithasubheadingand,ifnecessary,aheadnote.Ordertheentrieswithineachsectionaccordingtotheprinciplesgivenabove,anddonotlistasourceinmorethanonesectionunlessitclearlycouldbecategorizedintwoormoreways.

18.2.2SourcesThatMayBeOmitted

Byconvention,youmayomitthefollowingtypesofsourcesfromareferencelist:

■classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworks(19.5.1)and(insomecases)well-knownEnglish-languageplays(19.8.5.2)■theBibleandothersacredworks(19.5.2)■well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias(19.5.3)

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■anonymousunpublishedinterviewsandpersonalcommunications(19.6.3),individualblogentriesandcomments(19.7.2),andpostingstosocialnetworks(19.7.3)orelectronicdiscussiongroupsormailinglists(19.7.4)

■somesourcesinthevisualandperformingarts,includingartworks(19.8.1)andliveperformances(19.8.2)■theUSConstitution(19.9.5)andsomeotherpublicdocuments(19.9)

Youmaychoosetoincludeinyourreferencelistaspecificworkfromoneofthesecategoriesthatiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.

18.3ParentheticalCitationsParentheticalcitationsincludeenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefullcitationinyourreferencelist usuallytheauthor sname,thedateofpublication,and(ifyouarecitingaspecificpassage),apagenumberorotherlocatinginformation.Thenameanddatemustmatchthoseintherelevantreferencelistentryexactly.(Notethatboththeelementsandthepunctuationinparentheticalcitationsareslightlydifferentfromthoseusedinbibliography-styleparentheticalnotes,whicharedescribedin16.4.3;donotconfuseorcombinethetwostyles.)

18.3.1PlacementinText

Wheneveryourefertoorotherwiseusematerialfromasource,youmustinsertintoyourtextaparentheticalcitationwithbasicidentifyinginformationaboutthatsource.Normally,theparentheticalcitationshouldbeplacedattheendofthesentenceorclausecontainingthequotationorothermaterial.Butiftheauthor snameismentionedinthetext,puttherestofthecitation(inparentheses)immediatelyaftertheauthor sname.Theclosingparenthesisprecedesacomma,period,orotherpunctuationmarkwhenthequotationisrunintothetext.Seealso25.2.

“Whatonintrospectionseemstohappenimmediatelyandwithouteffortisoftenacomplexsymphonyofprocessesthattaketimetocomplete”(LeDoux2003,116).

Whileoneschoolclaimsthat“materialculturemaybethemostobjectivesourceofinformationwehaveconcerningAmericaʼspast”(Deetz1996,259),othersdisagree.

Thecolorbluebecamemoreprominentintheeighteenthcentury(Pastoureau2001,124).

AccordingtoGould(2007,428),thesong“spreadsadeadpanLiverpudlianironyoverthemostclichédsentimentinallofpopularmusic.”

Withablockquotation,however,theparentheticalcitationfollowstheterminalpunctuationmark.

Heconcludeswiththefollowingobservation:

ThenewsocietythatIsoughttodepictandthatIwishtojudgeisonlybeingborn.Timehasnotyetfixeditsform;thegreatrevolutionthatcreateditstillendures,andinwhatishappeninginourdayitisalmostimpossibletodiscernwhatwillpassawaywiththerevolutionitselfandwhatwillremainafterit.(Tocqueville2000,673)

SeefigureA.11forasamplepageoftextwithparentheticalcitations.

18.3.2SpecialElementsandFormatIssues

Thebasicpatternforparentheticalcitationsisdescribedin18.1,andtemplatesforseveralcommontypesofsourcesappearinfigure18.1.Thissectioncoversspecialelementsthatmayneedtobeincludedandspecialformatissuesthatmayariseinparentheticalcitationsofalltypes.

Inthefollowingsituations,treatthenameofaneditor,translator,orothercompilerofaworkasyouwouldanauthor sname,unlessotherwisespecified.

18.3.2.1AUTHORSWITHSAMELASTNAME.Ifyouciteworksbymorethanoneauthorwiththesamelastname,addtheauthor sfirstinitialtoeachparentheticalcitation,evenifthedatesaredifferent.Iftheinitialsarethesame,spelloutthefirstnames.

(J.Smith2011,140)(T.Smith2008,25–26)(HowardBloom2005,15)(HaroldBloom2010,270)

18.3.2.2WORKSWITHSAMEAUTHORANDDATE.Ifyoucitemorethanoneworkpublishedinthesameyearbyanauthororgroupofauthorsnamedinthesameorder,arrangetheentriesalphabeticallybytitleinyourreferencelistandaddthelettersa,b,c,andsoforthtotheyear(see18.2.1.1).Usethesamedesignationsinyourparentheticalcitations(letterssetinromantype,withoutaninterveningspaceafterthedate).

(Davis2009a,74)(Davis2009b,59–60)

18.3.2.3NOAUTHOR.Ifyouciteabookorjournalarticlewithoutanauthor,usethetitleinplaceoftheauthorinyourreferencelist(see

137

18.2.1).Inparentheticalcitations,useashortenedtitlecomposedofuptofourdistinctivewordsfromthefulltitle,andprintthetitleinitalicsorromanasinthereferencelist.

(AccountofOperations1870–1910)(“GreatTrigonometricalSurvey”1863,26)

Formagazineandnewspaperarticleswithoutauthors,usethetitleofthemagazineornewspaperinplaceoftheauthorinbothlocations(see19.3and19.4).Forothertypesofsources,seetherelevantsectioninchapter19forguidance;ifnotstatedotherwise,useashortenedtitleinthisposition.

18.3.2.4NODATE.Ifyouciteapublishedworkwithoutadate,usethedesignationn.d.( nodate )inplaceofthedateinbothyourreferencelistandparentheticalcitations.Useromantypeandlowercaseletters.

(Smithn.d.,5)

Forothertypesofsources,seetherelevantsectioninchapter19forguidance.

18.3.2.5MORETHANONEWORKCITED.Ifyouciteseveralsourcestomakeasinglepoint,groupthemintoasingleparentheticalcitation.Listthemalphabetically,chronologically,orinorderofimportance(dependingonthecontext),andseparatethemwithsemicolons.

Severaltheoristsdisagreedstronglywiththisposition(ArmstrongandMalacinski2003;PickettandWhite2009;Beigl2010).

18.3.3FootnotesandParentheticalCitations

Ifyouwishtomakesubstantivecommentsonthetext,usefootnotesinsteadofparentheticalcitations.See16.3.2 16.3.4fornoteplacement,numbering,andformat.Tociteasourcewithinafootnote,usethenormalparentheticalcitationform.

N:10.AsMichaelPollan(2007,374)observed,“Wedonʼtknowthemostbasicthingsaboutmushrooms.”

138

19Author-DateStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources

19.1Books

19.1.1AuthorʼsName19.1.2DateofPublication19.1.3Title19.1.4Edition19.1.5Volume19.1.6Series19.1.7FactsofPublication19.1.8PageNumbersandOtherLocators19.1.9ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook19.1.10ElectronicBooks

19.2JournalArticles

19.2.1AuthorʼsName19.2.2DateofPublication19.2.3ArticleTitle19.2.4JournalTitle19.2.5IssueInformation19.2.6PageNumbers19.2.7SpecialIssuesandSupplements

19.3MagazineArticles

19.4NewspaperArticles

19.4.1NameofNewspaper19.4.2CitingNewspapersinReferenceListsandParentheses19.4.3CitingNewspapersinText

19.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources

19.5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks19.5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks19.5.3ReferenceWorks19.5.4Reviews19.5.5Abstracts19.5.6PamphletsandReports19.5.7MicroformEditions19.5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs19.5.9OnlineCollections

19.6UnpublishedSources

19.6.1ThesesandDissertations19.6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings19.6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications19.6.4ManuscriptCollections

19.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups19.7.1Websites19.7.2BlogEntriesandComments19.7.3SocialNetworkingServices19.7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists

19.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts

19.8.1ArtworksandGraphics19.8.2LivePerformances19.8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike19.8.4SoundRecordings

139

19.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts

19.9PublicDocuments

19.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem19.9.2CongressionalPublications19.9.3PresidentialPublications19.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies19.9.5USConstitution19.9.6Treaties19.9.7LegalCases19.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments19.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments19.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments19.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies19.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments19.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments

19.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother

Chapter18presentsanoverviewofthebasicpatternforcitationsintheauthor-datestyle,includingbothreferencelistentriesandparentheticalcitations.Ifyouarenotfamiliarwiththiscitationstyle,readthatchapterbeforeconsultingthisone.

Thischapterprovidesdetailedinformationontheformofreferencelistentries(and,toalesserextent,parentheticalcitations)forawiderangeofsources.Itstartswiththemostcommonlycitedsources booksandjournalarticles beforeaddressingawidevarietyofothersources.Thesectionsonbooks(19.1)andjournalarticles(19.2)discussvariationsinsuchelementsasauthorsnamesandtitlesofworksingreaterdepththansectionsonlesscommonsources.

Examplesofelectronicversionsofmosttypesofsourcesareincludedalongsideothertypesofexamples.Electronicbooksarediscussedat19.1.10.Websites,blogs,andsocial-networkingservicesarediscussedin19.7.

Mostsectionsincludeguidelinesandexamplesforreferencelistentries(identifiedwithanR).Sincemostparentheticalcitationsfollowthebasicpatterndescribedinchapter18,theyarediscussedhere(P)onlyforclarificationorifunusualelementsmightcauseconfusioninpreparingaparentheticalcitation(forexample,whenaworkhasnoauthor).

Ifyoucannotfindanexampleinthischapter,consultchapter15ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Youmayalsocreateyourownstyle,adaptedfromtheprinciplesandexamplesgivenhere.Mostinstructors,departments,anduniversitiesacceptsuchadaptations,aslongasyouusethemconsistently.

19.1BooksCitationsofbooksmayincludeawiderangeofelements.Manyofthevariationsinelementsdiscussedinthissectionarealsorelevanttoothertypesofsources.

19.1.1Author sName

Inyourreferencelist,givethenameofeachauthor(andeditor,translator,orothercontributor)exactlyasitappearsonthetitlepage,andinthesameorder.Ifanameincludesmorethanoneinitial,usespacesbetweenthem(see24.2.1).Putthefirst-listedauthor snameininvertedorder(lastnamefirst),exceptforsomenon-Englishnamesandothercasesexplainedin18.2.1.2.Namesofanyadditionalauthorsshouldfollowbutshouldnotbeinverted.

R:Murav,Harriet.2011.MusicfromaSpeedingTrain:JewishLiteratureinPost-revolutionRussia.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.

Barker-Benfield,G.J.2010.AbigailandJohnAdams:TheAmericanizationofSensibility.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Kinder,DonaldR.,andAllisonDale-Riddle.2012.TheEndofRace?Obama,2008,andRacialPoliticsinAmerica.NewHaven,

CT:YaleUniversityPress.

Inparentheticalcitations,useonlytheauthor slastname,exactlyasgiveninthereferencelist.Forworkswiththreeormoreauthors,seefigure18.1.

P:(Murav2011,219–20)(Barker-Benfield2010,499)(KinderandDale-Riddle2010,47)

19.1.1.1EDITORORTRANSLATORINADDITIONTOANAUTHOR.Ifatitlepagelistsaneditororatranslatorinadditiontoanauthor,treattheauthor snameasdescribedabove.Addtheeditorortranslator snameafterthebook stitle.Ifthereisatranslatoraswellasaneditor,listthenamesinthesameorderasonthetitlepageoftheoriginal.

Inreferencelistentries,insertthephraseEditedbyorTranslatedbybeforetheeditor sortranslator sname.

R:ElizabethI.2000.CollectedWorks.EditedbyLeahS.Marcus,JanelMueller,andMaryBethRose.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

140

Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich.2010.TheScienceofLogic.EditedandtranslatedbyGeorgediGiovanni.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Jitrik,Noé.2005.TheNoéJitrikReader.SelectedEssaysonLatinAmericanLiterature.EditedbyDanielBalderston.TranslatedbySusanE.Benner.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.

Whenatitlepageidentifiesaneditorortranslatorwithacomplicateddescription,suchas EditedwithanIntroductionandNotesby or TranslatedwithaForewordby, youcansimplifythisphrasetoeditedbyortranslatedbyandfollowtheaboveexamples.Ingeneral,ifaforewordoranintroductioniswrittenbysomeoneotherthantheauthor,youneednotmentionthatpersonunlessyoucitethatpartspecifically(see19.1.9).

Inparentheticalcitations,donotincludethenameofaneditorortranslatoriftheworkappearsinyourreferencelistundertheauthor sname.

P:(ElizabethI2000,102–4)(Hegel2010,642–43)(Jitrik,189)

19.1.1.2EDITORORTRANSLATORINPLACEOFANAUTHOR.Whenaneditororatranslatorislistedonabook stitlepageinsteadofanauthor,usethatperson snameintheauthor sslot.Treatitasyouwouldanauthor sname(seeabove),butinthereferencelist,addtheabbreviationed.ortrans.followingthename.Iftherearemultipleeditorsortranslators,useeds.ortrans.(singularandplural)andfollowtheprinciplesformultipleauthorsshowninfigure18.1.

R:Heaney,Seamus,trans.2000.Beowulf:ANewVerseTranslation.NewYork:W.W.Norton.Makhulu,Anne-Maria,BethA.Buggenhagen,andStephenJackson,eds.2010.HardWork,HardTimes:GlobalVolatilityand

AfricanSubjectivities.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

P:(Heaney2000,55)(Makhulu,Buggenhagen,andJackson2010,viii–ix)

19.1.1.3ORGANIZATIONASAUTHOR.Ifapublicationissuedbyanorganization,association,commission,orcorporationhasnopersonalauthor snameonthetitlepage,listtheorganizationitselfasauthor,evenifitisalsogivenaspublisher.Forpublicdocuments,see19.9.

R:AmericanBarAssociation.2010.The2010FederalRulesBook.Chicago:AmericanBarAssociation.

P:(AmericanBarAssociation2010,221)

19.1.1.4PSEUDONYM.Treatawidelyrecognizedpseudonymasifitweretheauthor srealname.Ifthenamelistedastheauthor sisknowntobeapseudonymbuttherealnameisunknown,addpseud.inbracketsafterthepseudonyminareferencelistentry,thoughnotinaparentheticalcitation.

R:Twain,Mark.1899.ThePrinceandthePauper:ATaleforYoungPeopleofAllAges.NewYork:HarperandBrothers.Centinel[pseud.].1981.“Letters.”InTheCompleteAnti-Federalist,editedbyHerbertJ.Storing.Chicago:UniversityofChicago

Press.

P:(Twain1899,34)(Centinel1981,2)

19.1.1.5ANONYMOUSAUTHOR.Iftheauthorshipisknownorguessedatbutomittedfromthebook stitlepage,includethenameinbrackets(withaquestionmarkifthereisuncertainty).Iftheauthororeditorisunknown,avoidtheuseofAnonymousinplaceofanameandbeginthereferencelistentrywiththetitle.Inparentheticalcitations,useashortenedtitle(see18.3.2).

R:[Cook,Ebenezer?].1730.SofweedRedivivus,orThePlanterʼsLooking-Glass.Annapolis.ATrueandSincereDeclarationofthePurposeandEndsofthePlantationBeguninVirginia,oftheDegreesWhichItHath

Received,andMeansbyWhichItHathBeenAdvanced.1610.London.

P:([EbenezerCook?]1730,5–6)(TrueandSincereDeclaration1610,17)

19.1.2DateofPublication

Thepublicationdateforabookconsistsonlyofayear,notamonthorday,andisusuallyidenticaltothecopyrightdate.Itgenerallyappearsonthecopyrightpageandsometimesonthetitlepage.

Inareferencelistentry,setoffthedateasitsownelementwithperiods.Inaparentheticalcitation,putitaftertheauthor snamewithoutinterveningpunctuation.

R:Franzén,Johan.2011.RedStaroverIraq:IraqiCommunismbeforeSaddam.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.

P:(Franzén2011,186)

Revisededitionsandreprintsmayincludemorethanonecopyrightdate.Inthiscase,themostrecentindicatesthepublication

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date forexample,2010inthestring 1992,2003,2010. See19.1.4forcitingpublicationdatesinsuchworks.Ifyoucannotdeterminethepublicationdateofaprintedwork,usetheabbreviationn.d.inplaceoftheyear.Ifnodateis

providedbutyoubelieveyouknowit,youmayadditinbrackets,withaquestionmarktoindicateuncertainty.

R:Agnew,John.n.d.ABookofVirtues.Edinburgh.Miller,Samuel.[1750?].AnotherBookofVirtues.Boston.

P:(Agnewn.d.,5)(Miller[1750?],5)

Ifabookisundercontractwithapublisherandisalreadytitledbutthedateofpublicationisnotyetknown,useforthcominginplaceofthedate.Toavoidconfusion,includeacommaaftertheauthor snameinaparentheticalcitationofthistype.Treatanybooknotyetundercontractasanunpublishedmanuscript(see19.6).

R:Author,JaneQ.Forthcoming.BookTitle.PlaceofPublication:PublisherʼsName.P:(Author,forthcoming,16)

19.1.3Title

Listcompletebooktitlesandsubtitlesinreferencelistentries.Italicizeboth,andseparatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon.Iftherearetwosubtitles,useacolonbeforethefirstandasemicolonbeforethesecond.

R:Goldmark,Daniel,andCharlieKeil.2011.FunnyPictures:AnimationandComedyinStudio-EraHollywood.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Ahmed,Leila.1999.ABorderPassage:FromCairotoAmerica;AWomanʼsJourney.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1999.

Capitalizealltitlesandsubtitlesheadlinestyle;thatis,capitalizethefirstletterofthefirstandlastwordsofthetitleandsubtitleandallmajorwords.Forforeign-languagetitles,usesentence-stylecapitalization;thatis,capitalizeonlythefirstletterofthefirstwordofthetitleandsubtitleandanypropernounsandproperadjectivesthatwouldbecapitalizedundertheconventionsoftheoriginallanguage(insomeRomancelanguages,properadjectivesandsomepropernounsarenotcapitalized).(See22.3.1foramoredetaileddiscussionofthetwostyles.)

(headlinestyle)HowtoDoIt:GuidestoGoodLivingforRenaissanceItalians

(sentencestyle)Desermoneamatorioapudlatinoselegiarumscriptores

Preservethespelling,hyphenation,andpunctuationoftheoriginaltitle,withtwoexceptions:changewordsinfullcapitals(exceptforinitialismsoracronyms;seechapter24)toupper-andlowercase,andchangeanampersand(&)toand.Spelloutnumbersorgivethemasnumeralsaccordingtotheoriginal(twelfthcenturyor12thcentury)unlessthereisagoodreasontomakethemconsistentwithothertitlesinthelist.

Fortitlesofchaptersandotherpartsofabook,see19.1.9.

19.1.3.1SPECIALELEMENTSINTITLES.Severalelementsintitlesrequirespecialtypography.

■Dates.Useacommatosetoffdatesattheendofatitleorsubtitle,evenifthereisnopunctuationintheoriginalsource.Butifthesourceintroducesthedateswithapreposition(forexample, from1920to1945 )oracolon,donotaddacomma.

R:Hayes,Romain.2011.SubhasChandraBoseinNaziGermany:Politics,Intelligence,andPropaganda,1941–43.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.

Sorenson,JohnL.,andCarlL.Johannessen.2009.WorldTradeandBiologicalExchangesbefore1492.Bloomington,IN:iUniverse.

■Titleswithintitles.Whenthetitleofaworkthatwouldnormallybeitalicizedappearswithintheitalicizedtitleofanother,enclosethequotedtitleinquotationmarks.Ifthetitle-within-a-titlewouldnormallybeenclosedinquotationmarks,keepthequotationmarks.

R:Ladenson,Elisabeth.2007.DirtforArtʼsSake:BooksonTrialfrom“MadameBovary”to“Lolita.”Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress.

McHugh,Roland.1991.Annotationsto“FinnegansWake.”2nded.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.

However,whentheentiremaintitleofabookconsistsofaquotationoratitlewithinatitle,donotencloseitinquotationmarks.

R:Swope,Sam.2004.IAmaPencil:ATeacher,HisKids,andTheirWorldofStories.NewYork:HenryHolt.Wilde,Oscar.2011.ThePictureofDorianGray:AnAnnotated,UncensoredEdition.EditedbyNicholasFrankel.Cambridge,

MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

■Italicizedterms.Whenanitalicizedtitleincludestermsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesornamesofships,setthetermsinromantype.

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R:Pennington,T.Hugh.2003.WhenFoodKills:BSE,E.coli,andDisasterScience.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Lech,RaymondB.2001.TheTragicFateoftheU.S.S.Indianapolis:TheU.S.NavyʼsWorstDisasteratSea.NewYork:Cooper

SquarePress.

■Questionmarksandexclamationpoints.Whenatitleorasubtitleendswithaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint,nootherpunctuationnormallyfollows(butsee21.12.1).

R:Allen,JafariS.2011.iVenceremos?TheEroticsofBlackSelf-MakinginCuba.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.Wolpert,Stanley.2010.IndiaandPakistan:ContinuedConflictorCooperation?Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

19.1.3.2OLDERTITLES.Fortitlesofworkspublishedintheeighteenthcenturyorearlier,retaintheoriginalpunctuationandspelling.Alsoretaintheoriginalcapitalization,evenifitdoesnotfollowheadlinestyle.Wordsinallcapitalletters,however,shouldbegiveninupper-andlowercase.Ifthetitleisverylong,youmayshortenit,butprovideenoughinformationforreaderstofindthefulltitleinalibraryorpublisher scatalog.Indicateomissionsinsuchtitlesbythreeellipsisdots.Iftheomissioncomesattheendofatitle,useaperiodandthreeellipsisdots.

R:Ray,John.1673.ObservationsTopographical,Moral,andPhysiological:MadeinaJourneyThroughpartoftheLow-Countries,Germany,Italy,andFrance:withACatalogueofPlantsnotNativeofEngland…WhereuntoisaddedABriefAccountofFrancisWillughby,Esq.,hisVoyagethroughagreatpartofSpain.[London].

Escalante,Bernardino.1579.ADiscourseoftheNavigationwhichthePortugalesdoemaketotheRealmesandProvincesoftheEastPartesoftheWorlde.…TranslatedbyJohnFrampton.London.

19.1.3.3NON-ENGLISHTITLES.Usesentence-stylecapitalizationfornon-Englishtitles,followingthecapitalizationprinciplesforpropernounswithintherelevantlanguage.Ifyouareunfamiliarwiththeseprinciples,consultareliablesource.

R:Gouguenheim,Sylvain.2008.AristoteauMont-Saint-Michel:LesracinesgrecquesdeIʼEuropechrétienne.Paris:ÉditionsduSeuil.

PiletićStojanović,Ljiljana,ed.1971.Gutfreundi eškikubizam.Belgrade:Muzejsavremeneumetnosti.Kelek,Necla.2006.DiefremdeBraut:EinBerichtausdemInnerendestürkischenLebensinDeutschland.Munich:Goldmann

Verlag.

IfyouaddtheEnglishtranslationofatitle,placeitaftertheoriginal.Encloseitinbrackets,withoutitalicsorquotationmarks,andcapitalizeitsentencestyle.

R:Wereszycki,Henryk.1977.Koniecsojuszutrzechcesarzy[TheendoftheThreeEmperorsʼLeague].Warsaw:PWN.YuGuoming.2011.Zhongguochuanmeifazhanqianyantansuo[Newperspectivesonnewsandcommunication].Beijing:Xin

huachubanshe.

Ifyouneedtociteboththeoriginalandatranslation,useoneofthefollowingforms,dependingonwhetheryouwanttofocusreadersontheoriginalorthetranslation.

R:Furet,Francois.1995.Lepassédʼuneillusion.Paris:ÉditionsRobertLaffont.TranslatedbyDeborahFuretasThePassingofanIllusion(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999).

or

Furet,François.1999.ThePassingofanIllusion.TranslatedbyDeborahFuret.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.OriginallypublishedasLepassédʼuneillusion(Paris:EditionsRobertLaffont,1995).

19.1.4Edition

Someworksarepublishedinmorethanoneedition.Eacheditiondiffersincontentorformatorboth.Alwayscitetheeditionyouactuallyconsulted(unlessitisafirstedition,whichisusuallynotlabeledassuch).

19.1.4.1REVISEDEDITIONS.Whenabookisreissuedwithsignificantcontentchanges,itmaybecalleda revised editionora second(orsubsequent)edition.Thisinformationusuallyappearsonthebook stitlepageandisrepeated,alongwiththedateoftheedition,onthecopyrightpage.

Whenyouciteaneditionotherthanthefirst,includethenumberordescriptionoftheeditionafterthetitle.Abbreviatesuchwordingas SecondEdition,RevisedandEnlarged as2nded.;abbreviate RevisedEdition asRev.ed.Includethepublicationdateonlyoftheeditionyouareciting,notofanypreviouseditions(see19.1.2).

R:Foley,DouglasE.2010.LearningCapitalistCulture:DeepintheHeartofTejas.2nded.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.

Levitt,StevenD.,andStephenJ.Dubner.2006.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.Rev.ed.NewYork:WilliamMorrow.

19.1.4.2REPRINTEDITIONS.Manybooksarereissuedorpublishedinmorethanoneformat forexample,inapaperbackedition(bytheoriginalpublisheroradifferentpublisher)orinelectronicform(see19.1.10).Alwaysrecordthefactsofpublicationfortheversionyouconsulted.Iftheeditionyouconsultedwaspublishedmorethanayearortwoaftertheoriginaledition,youmayinclude

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thedateoftheoriginal(see19.1.2)inparenthesesinthereferencelistentry.

R:Jarrell,Randall.2010.PicturesfromanInstitution:AComedy.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.(Orig.pub.1954.)

P:(Jarrell2010,79–80)

Ifthereprintisamodernprintingofaclassicwork,youshouldstillcitethereprintedition,butiftheoriginalpublicationdateisimportantinthecontextofyourpaper,includeitinbracketsbeforethereprintdateinbothyourreferencelistandyourparentheticalcitations.

R:Dickens,Charles.2011.PicturesfromItaly.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.(Orig.pub.1846.)

P:(Dickens2011,10)

or

R:Dickens,Charles.[1846]2011.PicturesfromItaly.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

P:(Dickens[1846]2011,10)

19.1.5Volume

Ifabookispartofamultivolumework,includethisinformationinyourcitations.

19.1.5.1SPECIFICVOLUME.Tociteaspecificvolumethatcarriesitsowntitle,listthetitleforthemultivolumeworkasawhole,followedbythevolumenumberandtitleofthespecificvolume.Abbreviatevol.andusearabicnumbersforvolumenumbers.

R:Naficy,Hamid.2011.ASocialHistoryofIranianCinema.Vol.2,TheIndustrializingYears,1941–1978.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.

Ifthevolumesarenotindividuallytitled,listeachvolumethatyouciteinthereferencelist(seealso19.1.5.2).Inaparentheticalcitation,putthespecificvolumenumberimmediatelybeforethepagenumber,separatedbyacolonandnointerveningspace.

R:Byrne,MurielSt.Clare,ed.1981.TheLisleLetters.Vols.1and4.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(Byrne1981,4:243)

Somemultivolumeworkshavebothageneraleditorandindividualeditorsorauthorsforeachvolume.Whencitingpartsofsuchworks,putinformationaboutindividualeditorsorauthors(see19.1.1)afterthetitlesforwhichtheyareresponsible.Thisexamplealsoshowshowtociteavolumepublishedinmorethanonephysicalpart(vol.2,bk.3).Inaparentheticalcitation,listonlytheauthorofthepartcited.

R:Mundy,BarbaraE.1998.“MesoamericanCartography.”InTheHistoryofCartography,editedbyJ.BrianHarleyandDavidWoodward,vol.2,bk.3,CartographyintheTraditionalAfrican,American,Arctic,Australian,andPacificSocieties,editedbyDavidWoodwardandG.MalcolmLewis,183–256.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(Mundy1998,233)

19.1.5.2MULTIVOLUMEWORKASAWHOLE.Tociteamultivolumeworkasawhole,givethetitleandthetotalnumberofvolumes.Ifthevolumeshavebeenpublishedoverseveralyears,listthefullspanofpublicationdatesinbothyourreferencelistandyourparentheticalcitations.

R:Aristotle.1983.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

Tillich,Paul.1951–63.SystematicTheology.3vols.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

P:(Tillich1951–63,2:41)

Forworksthatincludeindividualvolumetitlesorvolumeeditors(see19.1.5.1),itisusuallybesttociteeachvolumeinthereferencelistindividually.

19.1.6Series

Ifabookbelongstoaseries,youmaychoosetoincludeinformationabouttheseriestohelpreaderslocateorjudgethecredibilityofthesource.Placetheseriesinformationafterthetitle(andanyvolumeoreditionnumberoreditor sname)andbeforethefactsofpublication.

Puttheseriestitleinromantypewithheadline-stylecapitalization,omittinganyinitialThe.Ifthevolumesintheseriesarenumbered,includethenumberoftheworkcitedfollowingtheseriestitle.Thenameoftheserieseditorisoftenomitted,butyoumayincludeitaftertheseriestitle.Ifyouincludebothaneditorandavolumenumber,thenumberisprecededbyvol.

R:Hausman,BlakeM.2011.RidingtheTrailofTears.NativeStoriers:ASeriesofAmericanNarratives.Lincoln:Universityof

144

NebraskaPress.Lunning,Frenchy,ed.2010.Fanthropologies.Mechademia5.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.Stein,Gertrude.2008.Selections.EditedbyJoanRetallack.PoetsfortheMillennium,editedbyPierreJorisandJerome

Rothenberg,vol.6.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

19.1.7FactsofPublication

Thefactsofpublicationusuallyincludetwoelements:theplace(city)ofpublicationandthepublisher sname.(Athirdfactofpublication,thedate,appearsasaseparateelementfollowingtheauthor snameinthiscitationstyle;see19.1.2.)

R:Gladwell,Malcolm.2000.TheTippingPoint:HowLittleThingsCanMakeaBigDifference.Boston:Little,Brown.

Forbookspublishedbeforethetwentiethcentury,orforwhichtheinformationdoesnotappearwithinthework,youmayomitthepublisher sname.

R:Darwin,Charles.1871.TheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex.2vols.London.

19.1.7.1PLACEOFPUBLICATION.Theplaceofpublicationisthecitywherethebookpublisher smaineditorialofficesarelocated.Ifyoudonotseeitlistedonthetitlepage,lookforitonthecopyrightpageinstead.Wheretwoormorecitiesaregiven( ChicagoandLondon, forexample),includeonlythefirst.

LosAngeles:GettyPublicationsNewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress

Ifthecityofpublicationmightbeunknowntoreadersorconfusedwithanothercityofthesamename,addtheabbreviationofthestate(see24.3.1),province,or(ifnecessary)country.Whenthepublisher snameincludesthestatename,nostateabbreviationisneeded.

Cheshire,CT:GraphicsPressHarmondsworth,UK:PenguinBooksCambridge,MA:MITPressChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress

Usecurrent,commonlyusedEnglishnamesforforeigncities.

Belgrade(notBeograd)Milan(notMilano)

Whentheplaceofpublicationisnotknown,youmayusetheabbreviationN.p.beforethepublisher sname.Iftheplacecanbesurmised,includeitwithaquestionmark,inbrackets.

N.p.:Windsor.[LakeBluff,IL?]:VlietandEdwards.

19.1.7.2PUBLISHERʼSNAME.Givethepublisher snameforeachbookexactlyasitappearsonthetitlepage,evenifyouknowthatthenamehassincechangedorisprinteddifferentlyindifferentbooksinyourreferencelist.

HarcourtBraceandWorldHarcourtBraceJovanovichHarcourt,Brace

Youmay,however,omitaninitialTheandsuchabbreviationsasInc.,Ltd,S.A.,Co.,&Co.,andPublishingCo.(andthespelled-outformsofsuchcorporateabbreviations).

UniversityofTexasPressinsteadofTheUniversityofTexasPress

HoughtonMifflininsteadofHoughtonMifflinCo.

Little,BrowninsteadofLittle,Brown&Co.

Forforeignpublishers,donottranslateorabbreviateanypartofthepublisher sname,butgivethecitynameinitsEnglishform(asnotedin19.1.7.1).Whenthepublisherisunknown,usejusttheplace(ifknown).

19.1.8PageNumbersandOtherLocators

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Pagenumbersandotherinformationusedtoidentifythelocationofacitedpassageorelementgenerallyappearinparentheticalcitationsbutnotinreferencelists.Oneexception:ifyouciteachapterorothersectionofabookinareferencelist,givethepagerangeforthatchapterorsection(see19.1.9forexamples).

Forguidelinesforexpressingaspanofnumbers,see23.2.4.

19.1.8.1PAGE,CHAPTER,ANDDIVISIONNUMBERS.Thelocatorisusuallythelastiteminaparentheticalcitation.Beforepagenumbers,thewordpageortheabbreviationp.orpp.isgenerallyomitted.Usearabicnumbersexceptforpagesnumberedwithromannumeralsintheoriginal.

P:(ArumandRoksa2011,145–46)(Jones2010,xiv–xv)

Sometimesyoumaywanttorefertoafullchapter(abbreviatedchap.),part(pt.),book(bk.),orsection(sec.)insteadofaspanofpagenumbers.

P:(Datar,Garvin,andCullen2010,pt.2)

Somebooksprintedbefore1800donotcarrypagenumbersbutaredividedintosignaturesandthenintoleavesorfolios,eachwithafrontside(recto,orr)andabackside(verso,orv).Tocitesuchpages,includetherelevantstringofnumbersandidentifiers,runtogetherwithoutspacesoritalics:forexample,G6v,176r,232r v,or(ifyouarecitingentirefolios)fol.49.

19.1.8.2OTHERTYPESOFLOCATORS.Sometimesyouwillwanttociteaspecificnote,afigureortable,oranumberedline(asinsomeworksofpoetry).

■Notenumbers.Usetheabbreviationn(pluralnn)tocitenotes.Ifthenotecitedistheonlyfootnoteonitspageorisanunnumberedfootnote,addnafterthepagenumber(withnointerveningspaceorpunctuation).Ifthereareotherfootnotesorendnotesonthesamepageasthenotecited,listthepagenumberfollowedbynor(iftwoormoreconsecutivenotesarecited)nnandthenotenumber(s).

P:(Grafton1997,72n)(Bolinger1980,192n23,192n30,199n14,201nn16–17)

■Illustrationandtablenumbers.Usetheabbreviationfig.forfigure,butspellouttable,map,plate,andnamesofothertypesofillustrations.Givethepagenumberbeforetheillustrationnumber.

P:(Sobel1993,87,table5.3)

■Linenumbers.Forpoetryandotherworksbestidentifiedbylinenumber,avoidtheabbreviationsl.(line)andll.(lines);theyaretooeasilyconfusedwiththenumeralsIandII.Uselineorlines,orusenumbersalonewhereyouhavemadeitclearthatyouarereferringtolines.

P:(Nash1945,lines1–4)

19.1.9ChaptersandOtherPartsofaBook

Inmostcases,youshouldcitethemaintitleofanybookthatoffersasingle,continuousargumentornarrative,evenifyouactuallyuseonlyasectionofit.Butsometimesyouwillwanttociteanindependentessayorchapterifthatisthepartmostrelevanttoyourresearch.Bydoingso,youhelpreadersseehowthesourcefitsintoyourproject.

R:Demos,John.2001.“RealLivesandOtherFictions:ReconsideringWallaceStegnerʼsAngleofRepose.”InNovelHistory:HistoriansandNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther),editedbyMarkC.Carnes,132–45.NewYork:SimonandSchuster.

P:(Demos2001,137)

insteadof

R:Carnes,MarkC.,ed.2001.NovelHistory:HistoriansandNovelistsConfrontAmericaʼsPast(andEachOther).NewYork:SimonandSchuster.

P:(Carnes2001,137)

19.1.9.1PARTSOFSINGLE-AUTHORBOOKS.Ifyouciteachapterorothertitledpartofasingle-authorbook,thereferencelistshouldincludethetitleofthepartfirst,inromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.AfterthedesignationIn,givethebooktitle,followedbythefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpart.

R:Greenhalgh,Susan.2010.“StrengtheningChinaʼsParty-StateandPlaceintheWorld.”InCultivatingGlobalCitizens:PopulationintheRiseofChina,79–114.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Somebooksattributedtoasingleauthorincludeaseparatelyauthoredpartwithagenerictitlesuchasprefaceorafterword.To

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citesuchapart,addthattermbeforethetitleofthebookinromantypewithoutquotationmarks,andcapitalizethefirstwordonly.Parentheticalcitationsmentiononlythepartauthor sname.

R:Calhoun,Craig.2005.ForewordtoMulticulturalPolitics:Racism,Ethnicity,andMuslimsinBritain,byTariqModood,ix–xv.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.

P:(Calhoun2005,xii)

Iftheauthorofthegenericpartisthesameastheauthorofthebook,however,citethebookasawholeinthereferencelist,notjustthepart.

19.1.9.2PARTSOFEDITEDCOLLECTIONS.Inareferencelist,ifyoucitepartofaneditedcollectionwithcontributionsbymultipleauthors,firstlistthepartauthor,thedate,andtheparttitle(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks).AfterthedesignationIn,givethebooktitle,thenameoftheeditor,andthefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpart.Parentheticalcitationsmentiononlythepartauthor sname.

R:Binkley,Cameron.2011.“SavingRedwoods:ClubwomenandConservation,1900–1925.”InCaliforniaWomenandPolitics:FromtheGoldRushtotheGreatDepression,editedbyRobertW.Cherny,MaryAnnIrwin,andAnnMarieWilson,151–74.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress.

P:(Binkley2011,155)

Ifyoucitetwoormorecontributionstothesameeditedcollection,youmayuseaspace-savingshortenedform.Inyourreferencelist,provideafullcitationforthewholebookandshortenedcitationsforeachindividualpart.Forthelatter,providethefullauthor sname,thepublicationdate,andthefulltitleofthepart;afterthedesignationIn,addtheshortenednameofthebook seditor,thepublicationdate,andthefullspanofpagenumbersforthatpart.

R:Keating,AnnDurkin,ed.2008.ChicagoNeighborhoodsandSuburbs:AHistoricalGuide.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Bruegmann,Robert.2008.“BuiltEnvironmentoftheChicagoRegion.”InKeating2008,76–314.Reiff,Janice,L.2008.“ContestedSpaces.”InKeating2008,55–63.

Ifyouusethisform,yourparentheticalcitationsshouldrefertothepartsonly,nottothebookasawhole.

P:(Bruegmann2008,299–300)not(Keating2008,299–300)

(Reiff2008,57)not(Keating2008,57)

19.1.9.3WORKSINANTHOLOGIES.Citeashortstory,poem,essay,orotherworkpublishedinananthologyinthesamewayyouwouldacontributiontoaneditedcollectionwithmultipleauthors.Givethetitlesofmostworkspublishedinanthologiesinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks.Anexceptionisthetitleofanexcerptfromabook-lengthpoemorprosework,whichshouldbeitalicized(see22.3.2).

R:Allende,Isabel.1997.“TheSpiritsWereWilling.”InTheOxfordBookofLatinAmericanEssays,editedbyIIanStavans,461–67.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Wigglesworth,Michael.2003.ExcerptfromTheDayofDoom.InTheNewAnthologyofAmericanPoetry,vol.1,TraditionsandRevolutions,Beginningsto1900,editedbyStevenGouldAxelrod,CamilleRoman,andThomasTravisano,68–74.NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress.

P:(Allende1997,463–64)(Wigglesworth2003,68)

Iftheoriginalpublicationdateofaworkisimportantinthecontextofyourpaper,includeitinbracketsbeforetheanthology spublicationdateinbothyourreferencelistandyourparentheticalcitations.

R:Wigglesworth,Michael.[1662]2003.Excerptfrom…

P:(Wigglesworth[1662]2003,68)

19.1.10ElectronicBooks

Electronicbooksarecitedliketheirprintedcounterparts,asdiscussedthroughout19.1.Inaddition,youwillneedtoincludeinformationabouttheformatyouconsulted.Ifyoureadthebookonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.IfarecommendedURLislistedalongwiththebook,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthebookinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.Ifyoudownloadedthebookinadedicatede-bookformat,specifytheformatanddonotincludeanaccessdate.See15.4.1formoredetails.

147

R:Pattison,George.2011.GodandBeing:AnEnquiry.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.AccessedSeptember2,2012.http://dx.doi.Org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199588688.001.0001.

Quinlan,JosephP.2010.TheLastEconomicSuperpower:TheRetreatofGlobalization,theEndofAmericanDominance,andWhatWeCanDoaboutIt.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.AccessedNovember1,2011.ProQuestEbrary.

Hogan,Erin.2008.SpiralJetta:ARoadTripthroughtheLandArtoftheAmericanWest.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.AdobePDFeBook.

Gladwell,Malcolm.2008.Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess.Boston:Little,Brown.Kindle.

P:(Pattison2011,103–4)(Gladwell2008,193)

Somee-bookformatshavestablepagenumbersthatarethesameforeveryreader(forexample,PDF-basede-books),butinformatsthatallowindividualreaderstoadjusttypesizeandothersettings,pagenumberswillvaryfromoneperson sversiontoanother s.Includingthenameoftheformatordatabaseyouusedwillhelpyourreadersdeterminewhetherthepagenumbersinyourcitationsarestableornot.Anotheroptionifthepagenumbersarenotstableistocitebychapteroranothernumbereddivision(see19.1.8.1)or,iftheseareunnumbered,bythenameofthechapterorsection(see19.1.9).Thefollowingsourcealsolackstheoriginalfactsofpublication.

R:Dostoevsky,Fyodor.2011.CrimeandPunishment.TranslatedbyConstanceGarnett.ProjectGutenberg.AccessedSeptember13,2011.http://gutenberg.org/files/2554/2554-h/2554-h.htm.

P:(Dostoevsky2011,pt.6,chap.1)

19.2JournalArticlesJournalsarescholarlyorprofessionalperiodicalsavailableprimarilyinacademiclibrariesandbysubscription.Theyoftenincludethewordjournalintheirtitle(JournalofModernHistory),butnotalways(Signs).Journalsarenotthesameasmagazines,whichareusuallyintendedforamoregeneralreadership.Thisdistinctionisimportantbecausejournalarticlesandmagazinearticlesareciteddifferently(see19.3).Ifyouareunsurewhetheraperiodicalisajournaloramagazine,seewhetheritsarticlesincludecitations;ifso,treatitasajournal.

Manyjournalarticlesareavailableonline,oftenthroughyourschool slibrarywebsiteorfromacommercialdatabase.Tociteanarticlethatyoureadonline,includebothanaccessdateandaURL.IfaURLislistedalongwiththearticle,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthearticleinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.

19.2.1Author sName

Giveauthors namesexactlyastheyappearattheheadsoftheirarticles.Uselastnamesinparentheticalcitations.Inthereferencelist,thenameofthefirst-listedauthorisinverted.Forsomespecialcases,see18.2.1.2and19.1.1.

19.2.2DateofPublication

Themaindateofpublicationforajournalarticleconsistsonlyofayear.Inareferencelistentry,setitoffasitsownelementwithperiodsfollowingtheauthor sname.Inaparentheticalcitation,putitaftertheauthor snamewithoutinterveningpunctuation.

R:Gubar,Susan.2011.“IntheChemoColony.”CriticalInquiry37,no.4(Summer):652–71.AccessedAugust29,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660986.

Bartfeld,Judi,andMyoungKim.2010.“ParticipationintheSchoolBreakfastProgram:NewEvidencefromtheECLS-K.”SocialServiceReview84,no.4(December):541–62.AccessedOctober31,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/657109.

P:(Gubar2011,652)(BartfeldandKim2010,550–51)

Noticethatadditionaldateinformationappearsinparentheseslaterinareferencelistentry,afterthevolumenumberandissueinformation(see19.2.5).

Ifanarticlehasbeenacceptedforpublicationbuthasnotyetappeared,useforthcominginplaceofthedate(andpagenumbers).Toavoidconfusion,includeacommaaftertheauthor snameinaparentheticalcitationofthistype.Treatanyarticlenotyetacceptedforpublicationasanunpublishedmanuscript(see19.6).

R:Author,MargaretM.Forthcoming.“ArticleTitle.”JournalName98.P:(Author,forthcoming)

19.2.3ArticleTitle

Listcompletearticletitlesandsubtitles.Useromantype,separatethetitlefromthesubtitlewithacolon,andenclosebothinquotationmarks.Useheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1).

R:SaskiaE.Wieringa.2011.“PortraitofaWomenʼsMarriage:NavigatingbetweenLesbophobiaandIslamophobia.”Signs36,no.4(Summer):785–93.AccessedFebruary15,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/658500.

Termsnormallyitalicizedintext,suchasspeciesnamesandbooktitles,remainitalicizedwithinanarticletitle;termsnormally

148

quotedintextareenclosedinsinglequotationmarksbecausethetitleitselfiswithindoublequotationmarks.Donotaddeitheracolonoraperiodafteratitleorsubtitlethatendsinaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Butsee21.12.1.

R:Twomey,LisaA.2011.“TabooorTolerable?HemingwayʼsForWhomtheBellTollsinPostwarSpain.”HemingwayReview30,no.2(Spring):54–72.

Lewis,Judith.1998.““TisaMisfortunetoBeaGreatLadieʼ:MaternalMortalityintheBritishAristocracy,1558–1959.”JournalofBritishStudies37,no1(January):26–40.AccessedAugust29,2011.http://www.jstor.org/stable/176034.

Foreign-languagetitlesshouldgenerallybecapitalizedsentencestyle(see22.3.1)accordingtotheconventionsoftheparticularlanguage.IfyouaddanEnglishtranslation,encloseitinbrackets,withoutquotationmarks.

R:Carreño-Rodríguez,Antonio.2009.“Modernidadenlaliteraturagauchesca:CarnavalizaciónyparodiaenelFaustodeEstanislaodelCampo.”Hispania92,no.1(March):12–24.AccessedDecember8,2011.http://www.jstor.org/stable/40648253.

Kern,W.1938.“WaarverzameldePigafettazijnMaleisewoorden?”[WheredidPigafettacollecthisMalaysianwords?]TijdschriftvoorIndischetaal-,land-envolken-kunde78:271–73.

19.2.4JournalTitle

Afterthearticletitle,listthejournaltitleinitalics,withheadline-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1).Givethetitleexactlyasitappearsonthetitlepageoronthejournalwebsite;donotuseabbreviations,althoughyoucanomitaninitialThe.IftheofficialtitleisaninitialismsuchasPMLA,donotexpandit.Forforeign-languagejournals,youmayuseeitherheadline-styleorsentence-stylecapitalization,butretainallinitialarticles(DerSpiegel).

19.2.5IssueInformation

Inadditiontoadateofpublication,mostreferencelistentriesincludevolumenumber,issuenumber,andmonthorseason.Readersmaynotneedalloftheseelementstolocateanarticle,butincludingthemallguardsagainstapossibleerrorinoneofthem.

Thevolumenumberfollowsthejournaltitlewithoutinterveningpunctuationandisnotitalicized.Usearabicnumeralsevenifthejournalitselfusesromannumerals.Ifthereisanissuenumber,itfollowsthevolumenumber,separatedbyacommaandprecededbyno.

Includeadditionaldateinformationbeyondtheyearofpublication(see19.2.2)inparenthesesafterthevolumeandissuenumber.Followthepracticeofthejournalregardingsuchinformation;itmayincludeaseason,amonth,oranexactday.Capitalizeseasonsinjournalcitations,eventhoughtheyarenotcapitalizedintext.

R:Brown,Campbell.2011.“ConsequentializeThis.”Ethics121,no.4(July):749–71.AccessedAugust29,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660696.

lonescu,Felicia.2011.“RiskyHumanCapitalandAlternativeBankruptcyRegimesforStudentLoans.”JournalofHumanCapitals5,no.2(Summer):153–206.AccessedOctober13,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/661744.

Whenajournalusesissuenumbersonly,withoutvolumenumbers,acommafollowsthejournaltitle.

R:Beattie,J.M.1974.“ThePatternofCrimeinEngland,1660–1800.”PastandPresent,no.62(February):47–95.

19.2.6PageNumbers

Forareferencelistentry,givethefullspanofpagenumbersforthearticle(see23.2.4).Byconvention,pagenumbersofjournalarticlesinreferencelistsfollowcolonsratherthancommas.

R:Hitchcock,Tim.2005.“BeggingontheStreetsofEighteenth-CenturyLondon.”JournalofBritishStudies44,no.3(July):478–98.AccessedJanuary11,2012.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/429704.

Gold,AnnGrodzins.1998.“GrainsofTruth:ShiftingHierarchiesofFoodandGraceinThreeRajasthaniTales.”HistoryofReligions38,no.2(November):150–71.AccessedApril8,2012.http://www.jstor.org/stable/3176672.

Ifyouciteaparticularpassageinaparentheticalcitation,giveonlythespecificpage(s)cited,precededbyacomma(notacolon).

P:(Hitchcock2005,478)(Gold1998,152–53)

19.2.7SpecialIssuesandSupplements

Ajournalissuedevotedtoasinglethemeisknownasaspecialissue.Itcarriesanormalvolumeandissuenumber.Ifaspecialissuehasatitleandaneditorofitsown,includebothinareferencelistentry.Thetitleisgiveninromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.Inaparentheticalcitation,giveonlytheauthorofthepartcited.

R:Koch,Gertrud.2009.“CarnivoreorChameleon:TheFateofCinemaStudies.”In“TheFateofDisciplines,”editedbyJamesChandlerandArnoldI.Davidson.Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer):918–28.AccessedAugust30,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/599582.

P:(Koch2009,920)

Ifyouneedtocitetheissueasawhole,omitthearticleinformation.

149

R:Chandler,James,andArnoldI.Davidson,eds.2009.“TheFateofDisciplines.”Specialissue,CriticalInquiry35,no.4(Summer).

Ajournalsupplementmayalsohaveatitleandanauthororeditorofitsown.Unlikeaspecialissue,itisnumberedseparatelyfromtheregularissuesofthejournal,oftenwithSaspartofitspagenumbers.Useacommabetweenthevolumenumberandthesupplementnumber.

R:Ekeland,Ivar,JamesJ.Heckman,andLarsNesheim.2004.“IdentificationandEstimationofHedonicModels.”In“PapersinHonorofSherwinRosen,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy112,S1(February):S60–S109.AccessedDecember23,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/379947.

19.3MagazineArticlesArticlesinmagazinesarecitedmuchlikejournalarticles(see19.2),butdatesandpagenumbersaretreateddifferently.

Citemagazinesbydateonly,eveniftheyarenumberedbyvolumeandissue.Inreferencelistentries,puttheyearintheusualpositionandanyadditionaldateinformation(suchasmonthorexactday)afterthemagazinetitle(butnotinparentheses).Ifyouciteaspecificpassageinaparentheticalcitation,includeitspagenumber.Butyoumayomitthearticle sinclusivepagenumbersinareferencelistentry,sincemagazinearticlesoftenspanmanypagesthatincludeextraneousmaterial.(Ifyoudoincludepagenumbers,useacommaratherthanacolontoseparatethemfromthedateofissue.)Aswithjournals,omitaninitialThefromthemagazinetitle(see19.2.4).

R:Lepore,Jill.2011.“DickensinEden.”NewYorker,August29.

P:(Lepore2011,52)

Ifyouciteadepartmentorcolumnthatappearsregularly,capitalizeitheadlinestyleanddonotencloseitinquotationmarks.

R:Walraff,Barbara.2005.WordCourt.AtlanticMonthly,June.

P:(Walraff2005,128)

MagazinesconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURLinthereferencelistentry(seealso15.4.1.3).Typicallytherewillbenopagenumberstocite.

R:Black,Robin.2011.“PresidentObama:WhyDonʼtYouReadMoreWomen?”Salon,August24.AccessedOctober30,2011.http://www.salon.com/books/writing/index.htmI?story=/books/feature/2011/08/24/obama_summer_reading.

P:(Black2011)

19.4NewspaperArticles

19.4.1NameofNewspaper

ForEnglish-languagenewspapers,omitaninitialTheinthenameofthenewspaper.Ifthenamedoesnotincludeacity,addittotheofficialtitle,exceptforwell-knownnationalpaperssuchastheWallStreetJournalandtheChristianScienceMonitor.Ifanameissharedbymanycitiesorisobscure,youmayaddthestateorprovinceinparentheses(usuallyabbreviated;see24.3.1).Forforeignnewspapers,retainaninitialarticleifitisformallypartofthename,andaddcitynamesaftertitlesforclarity,ifnecessary.

ChicagoTribuneSaintPaul(AlbertaorAB)JournalLeMondeTimes(London)

19.4.2CitingNewspapersinReferenceListsandParentheses

Inyourreferencelist,citearticlesandotherpiecesfromnewspapersgenerallyasyouwouldarticlesinmagazines(see19.3).Foranunsignedarticle,usethenameofthenewspaperinplaceoftheauthor.Becauseanewspapermayhaveseveraleditionswithslightlydifferentcontents,youmayclarifywhicheditionyouconsultedbyaddingfinaledition,Midwestedition,orsomesuchidentifier.ArticlesreadonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL.Forarticlesobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.

R:MilwaukeeJournalSentinel.2012.Editorial.March31.Ward,ChristopherO.2011.Lettertotheeditor.NewYorkTimes,August28.Gussow,Mel.2011.ObituaryforElizabethTaylor.NewYorkTimes,March24.NewYorkedition.Gaddafi,Saifal-lslam.2011.InterviewbySimonDenyer.WashingtonPost,April17.AccessedSeptember3,2011.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/an-interview-with-saif-al-islam-gaddafi-son-of-the-libyan-leader/2011/04/17/AF4RXVwD_story.html.

AssociatedPress.2011.“Ex-IMFChiefReturnsHometoFrance.”USAToday,September4.AccessedSeptember4,2011.http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2011-09-04/Ex-IMF-chief-returns-home-to-France/50254614/1.

Simon,Richard.2011.“RedistrictingCouldCostCaliforniaSomeCloutinWashington.”LosAngelesTimes,August28.

150

AccessedAugust30,2011.http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-california-congress-20110829,0,1873016.storyLepage,Mark.2011.“Armageddon,Apocalypse,theRapture:PeopleHaveBeenPredictingtheEndsincetheBeginning.”

Gazette(Montreal),May21.AccessedDecember20,2012.LexisNexisAcademic.

Omitpagenumbersinparentheticalcitationsbecausetheitemmayappearondifferentpagesormayevenbedroppedindifferenteditionsofthenewspaper.

P:(MilwaukeeJournalSentinel2012)(Ward2011)(Gaddafi2011)(AssociatedPress2004)

ArticlesfromSunday magazine supplementsorotherspecialsectionsshouldbetreatedasyouwouldmagazinearticles(see19.3).

19.4.3CitingNewspapersinText

Insteadofusingastandardparentheticalcitation,youcanincludesomeoftheelementsofthecitationinyourtext.Youshouldstillgiveafullcitationtothearticleinyourreferencelist.

InaNewYorkTimesarticleonthebrawlinBeijing(August19,2011),AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponseswiththosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

or

InanarticlepublishedintheNewYorkTimesonAugust19,2011,AndrewJacobscomparestheofficialresponsestothebrawlinBeijingwiththosepostedtosocialmedianetworks.

19.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSourcesThereareseveraladditionaltypesofpublishedmaterialthathavespecialrequirementsforcitations.

19.5.1Classical,Medieval,andEarlyEnglishLiteraryWorks

LiteraryworksproducedinclassicalGreeceandRome,medievalEurope,andRenaissanceEnglandareciteddifferentlyfrommodernliteraryworks.Thesesourcesareoftenorganizedintonumberedsections(books,lines,stanzas,andsoforth)thataregenerallycitedinplaceofpagenumbers.Becausesuchworkshavebeenpublishedinsomanyversionsandtranslationsoverthecenturies,thedateandotherfactsofpublicationformoderneditionsaregenerallylessimportantthaninothertypesofcitations.

Forthisreason,classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworksshouldusuallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.Iftheauthor snameandthetitlearenotalreadymentionedinthesurroundingtext,includethemalongwiththesectionnumberuponfirstreference.Ifsubsequentcitationsclearlyrefertothesamework,listonlythesectionnumber.Seebelowregardingdifferencesinpunctuation,abbreviations,andnumbersamongdifferenttypesofworks.

TheeightydaysofinactivityforthePeloponnesianfleetatRhodes(Thucydides,TheHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar8.44.4),terminatingbeforetheendofwinter(8.60.2–3),suggests…

or

TheeightydaysofinactivityreportedbyThucydidesforthePeloponnesianfleetatRhodes(TheHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar8.44.4),terminatingbeforetheendofwinter(8.60.2–3),suggests…

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifdifferencesintranslationsarerelevant,includesuchworksinyourreferencelist.Followtherulesforothertranslatedandeditedbooksin19.1.1.1.

R:Propertius.1990.Elegies.EditedandtranslatedbyG.P.Goold.LoebClassicalLibrary18.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Aristotle.1983.CompleteWorksofAristotle:TheRevisedOxfordTranslation.EditedbyJ.Barnes.2vols.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

19.5.1.1CLASSICALWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofclassicalworks.Usenopunctuationbetweenthetitleofaworkandalineorsectionnumber.Numericaldivisionsareseparatedbyperiods

withoutspaces.Usearabicnumerals(andlowercaseletters,ifneeded)forsectionnumbers.Putcommasbetweentwoormorecitationsofthesamesourceandsemicolonsbetweencitationsofdifferentsources.

P:(Aristophanes,Frogs1019–30)(Cicero,InVerrem2.1.21,2.3.120;Tacitus,Germania10.2–3)(Aristotle,Mefaphysics3.2.996b5–8;Plato,Republic36oe-361b)

Youcanabbreviatethenamesofauthors,works,collections,andsoforth.ThemostwidelyacceptedabbreviationsappearintheOxfordClassicalDictionary.Usetheseabbreviationsratherthanibid.insucceedingreferencestothesamework.Inthefirstexample,theauthor(Thucydides)standsinforthetitlesonocommaisneeded.

151

P:(Thuc.2.40.2–3)(Pindar,Isthm.7.43–45)

19.5.1.2MEDIEVALWORKS.TheformforclassicalreferencesworksequallywellformedievalworkswritteninlanguagesotherthanEnglish.

P:(Augustine,DecivitateDei20.2)(Abelard,Epistle17toHeloïse,inMigne,PL180.375c–378a)

19.5.1.3EARLYENGLISHWORKS.Inadditiontothegeneralprincipleslistedabove,thefollowingrulesapplytocitationsofearlyEnglishliteraryworks.

Citepoemsandplaysbybook,canto,andstanza;stanzaandline;act,scene,andline;orsimilardivisions.Separatetheelementswithcommasforclarity.

P:(Chaucer,“WifeofBathʼsPrologue,”CanterburyTales,lines105–14)(Milton,ParadiseLost,book1,lines83–86)

Youmayshortennumbereddivisionsbyomittingwordssuchasactandline,usingasystemsimilartotheoneforclassicalreferences(seeabove).Besuretoexplainyoursysteminafootnote( Referencesaretobookandlinenumbers ).

P:(Milton,ParadiseLost1.83–86)

Ifeditionsdifferinwording,linenumbering,andevenscenedivision commoninworksofShakespeare includetheworkinyourreferencelist,witheditionspecified.

R:Shakespeare,William.2006.Hamlet.EditedbyAnnThompsonandNeilTaylor.ArdenShakespeare3.London:ArdenShakespeare.

19.5.2TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

CitetheBibleandsacredworksofotherreligioustraditionsinparentheticalcitations.Youdonotneedtoincludetheminyourreferencelist.

ForcitationsfromtheBible,includetheabbreviatednameofthebook,thechapternumber,andtheversenumber neverapagenumber.Dependingonthecontext,youmayuseeithertraditionalorshorterabbreviationsforthenamesofbooks(see24.6);consultyourinstructorifyouareunsurewhichformisappropriate.Usearabicnumeralsforchapterandversenumbers(withacolonbetweenthem)andfornumberedbooks.

Traditionalabbreviations:

P:(1Thess.4:11,5:2–5,5:14)

Shorterabbreviations:

P:(2Sm11:1–17,11:26–27;1Chr10:13–14)

Sincebooksandnumberingdifferamongversionsofthescriptures,identifytheversionyouareusinginbracketsinyourfirstcitation,eitherwiththespelled-outnameoranacceptedabbreviation(see24.6.4).

P:(2Kings11:8[NewRevisedStandardVersion])(1Cor.6:1–10[NAB])

Forcitationsfromthesacredworksofotherreligioustraditions,adaptthegeneralpatternforbiblicalcitationsasappropriate(see24.6.5).

19.5.3ReferenceWorks

Well-knownreferenceworks,suchasmajordictionariesandencyclopedias,shouldusuallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.Yougenerallyneednotincludetheminyourreferencelist,althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificworkthatiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Omitthedate,butspecifytheedition(ifnotthefirst,orunlessnoeditionisspecified).ArticlesconsultedonlinewillrequireanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Foraworkarrangedbykeytermssuchasadictionaryorencyclopedia,citetheitem(notthevolumeorpagenumber)precededbys.v.(subverbo, undertheword ;pl.s.vv.)

P:(OxfordEnglishDictionary,3rded.,s.v.“mondegreen”[accessedFebruary1,2012,http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/251801])(EncyclopaediaBritannica,s.v.“Sibelius,Jean”[accessedApril13,2011,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/542563/Jean-Sibelius])

Treatreferenceworksthataremorespecializedorlesswellknownasyouwouldabook(see19.1).

R:MLAStyleManualandGuidetoScholarlyPublishing.2008.3rded.NewYork:ModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica.Aulestia,Gorka.1989.Basque-EnglishDictionary.Reno:UniversityofNevadaPress.

P:(MLAStyleManual2008,6.8.2)

152

(Aulestia1989,509)

19.5.4Reviews

Reviewsofbooks,performances,andsoforthmayappearinavarietyofperiodicals.Inyourreferencelist,includethenameofthereviewer;thewordsreviewof,followedbythenameoftheworkreviewedanditsauthor(orcomposer,director,andsoforth);anyotherpertinentinformation(suchasfilmstudioorlocationofaperformance);and,finally,theperiodicalinwhichthereviewappeared.Ifthereviewwasconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandURL(see15.4.1.3).

R:Malitz,David.2011.ReviewofconcertperformancebyBobDylan.MerriweatherPostPavilion,Columbia,MD.WashingtonPost,August17.AccessedAugust31,2011.http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/music-review-bob-dylan-at-merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/08/17/glQAebiDMJ_story.html.

Scott,A.O.2011.ReviewofTheDebt,directedbyJohnMadden.MiramaxFilms.NewYorkTimes,August31.Mokyr,Joel.2011.ReviewofNaturalExperimentsofHistory,editedbyJaredDiamondandJamesA.Robinson.American

HistoricalReview116,no.3(June2011):752–55.AccessedDecember9,2011.http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr.116.3.752.

19.5.5Abstracts

Youcanciteinformationintheabstractofajournalarticle,dissertation,orotherworkinaparentheticalcitation.Inthereferencelist,includethefullcitationoftheworkbeingabstracted.Intheparentheticalcitation,insertthewordabstract,setoffbycommas,aftertheyearofpublicationandbeforeanypagenumber.

R:Brown,Campbell.2011.“ConsequentializeThis.”Ethics121,no.4(July2011):749–71.

P:(Brown2011,abstract,749)

19.5.6PamphletsandReports

Citeapamphlet,corporatereport,brochure,oranotherfreestandingpublicationasyouwouldabook.Ifyoulackdataforsomeoftheusualelements,suchasauthorandpublisher,giveenoughotherinformationtoidentifythedocument.SourcesconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

R:Clark,HazelV.1957.Mesopotamia:BetweenTwoRivers.Mesopotamia,OH:EndoftheCommonsGeneralStore.TIAA-CREF.2011.TIAA-CREFLifeFunds:2011SemiannualReport.NewYork:TIAA-CREFFinancialServices.Accessed

October5,2011.http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/prospectuses/lifefunds_semi_ar.pdf.

19.5.7MicroformEditions

Inyourreferencelist,citeworksthatyouhaveconsultedinmicroformeditionsaccordingtotype(book,newspaperarticle,dissertation,andsoforth).Inaddition,specifytheformofpublication(fiche,microfilm,andsoforth)afterthefactsofpublication.

R:Farwell,Beatrice.1995.FrenchPopularLithographicImagery.Vol.12,LithographyinArtandCommerce.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Text-fiche.

Tauber,Abraham.1958.“SpellingReformintheUnitedStates.”PhDdiss.,ColumbiaUniversity.Microfilm.

Inaparentheticalcitation,includealocatorifpossible.Inthefollowingexample,thepagenumber(identifiedwiththeabbreviationp.forclarity)appearswithintheprintedtextonthefiche;theothernumbersindicatetheficheandframe,andtheletterindicatestherow.

P:(Farwell1995,p.67,3C12)

19.5.8CD-ROMsorDVD-ROMs

CiteworksissuedonCD-orDVD-ROMasyouwouldanalogousprintedworks,mostoftenbooks.

R:CompleteNationalGeographic:EveryIssuesince1888of“NationalGeographic”Magazine.2010.7DVD-ROMs.Washington,DC:NationalGeographic.

OxfordEnglishDictionary.2009.2nded.CD-ROM,version4.0.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

19.5.9OnlineCollections

ThenameofawebsitesuchasPerseusthatisdevotedentirelytoaspecificsubjectareaortoacollectionofsimilarresourcesmaybeimportantenoughtomentioninyourcitationtoaspecificpublication.Inthisway,sucharesourceissimilartoaphysicalmanuscriptcollection(see19.6.4).Inadditiontothepublicationinformation,includethenameofthecollectionandanaccessdateandURL(see15.4.1.3).

R:PlinytheElder.1855.TheNaturalHistory.EditedbyJohnBostockandH.T.Riley.InthePerseusDigitalLibrary.AccessedMay15,2011.http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=:text:1999.02.0137.

P:(PlinytheElder1855)

Ifyouhavecitedmorethanonesourcefromthecollection,youmayalsocitethecollectionasawhole(inwhichcaseanaccessdateisunnecessary).

153

R:PerseusDigitalLibrary.EditedbyGregoryR.Crane.http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/

19.6UnpublishedSourcesSourcesthathaveneverbeenpublishedcanbemoredifficultforreaderstolocatethanpublishedones,becausetheyoftenexistinonlyoneplaceandtypicallylackofficialpublicationinformation.Whencitingsuchsourcesinyourreferencelist,itisespeciallyimportanttoincludealloftheinformationlistedbelowtogivereadersasmuchhelpaspossible.

Titlesofunpublishedworksaregiveninromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks,andnotitalicized.Thisformatdifferencedistinguishesthemfromsimilarbutpublishedworks.CapitalizeEnglish-languagetitlesheadlinestyle.

19.6.1ThesesandDissertations

Thesesanddissertationsarecitedmuchlikebooksexceptforthetitle,whichisinromantypeandenclosedinquotationmarks.Aftertheauthor,date,andtitle,listthekindofthesisandtheacademicinstitution.Abbreviatedissertationasdiss.Thewordunpublishedisunnecessary.Ifyou veconsultedthedocumentonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.IfarecommendedURLislistedalongwiththedocument,usethatinsteadoftheoneinyourbrowser saddressbar.Ifyouconsultedthedocumentinalibraryorcommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinsteadoftheURL.See15.4.1formoredetails.

R:Culcasi,KarenLeigh.2003.“CartographicRepresentationsofKurdistaninthePrintMedia.”Masterʼsthesis,SyracuseUniversity.

Levin,DanaS.2010.“LetʼsTalkaboutSex…Education:ExploringYouthPerspectives,ImplicitMessages,andUnexaminedImplicationsofSexEducationinSchools.”PhDdiss.,UniversityofMichigan.AccessedMarch13,2012.http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/75809.

Richmond,AfrahDaaimah.2011.“UnmaskingtheBostonBrahmin:RaceandLiberalismintheLongStruggleforReformatHarvardandRadcliffe,1945–1990.”PhDdiss.,NewYorkUniversity.AccessedSeptember25,2011.ProQuestDissertations&Theses.

19.6.2LecturesandPapersPresentedatMeetings

Aftertheauthor,date,andtitleofthespeechorpaper,listthesponsorship,location,and(ifavailable)specificdayofthemeetingatwhichitwasgiven.Thewordunpublishedisunnecessary.Ifyouconsultedatextortranscriptofthelectureorpaperonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtothepresentationonline,adapttheexamplesheretotheadviceat19.8.3.5.

R:Crane,GregoryR.2011.“ContextualizingEarlyModernReligioninaDigitalWorld.”Lecture,NewberryLibrary,Chicago,September16.

CarvalhoFilho,Irineude,andRenatoP.Colistete.2010.“EducationPerformance:WasItAllDetermined100YearsAgo?EvidencefromSãoPaulo,Brazil.”Paperpresentedatthe70thannualmeetingoftheEconomicHistoryAssociation,Evanston,IL,September24–26.AccessedJanuary22,2012.http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/24494/1/MPRA_paper_24494.pdf.

Pateman,Carole.2011.“ParticipatoryDemocracyRevisited.”Presidentialaddress,annualmeetingoftheAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation,Seattle,September1.

19.6.3InterviewsandPersonalCommunications

Tociteanunpublishedinterview(includingoneyouhaveconductedyourself),beginareferencelistentrywiththenameofthepersoninterviewed,followedbythedateandthenameoftheinterviewer.Alsoincludetheplaceandspecificdayoftheinterview(ifknown)andthelocationofanytapesortranscripts(ifavailable).(Foranexampleofapublishedinterview,see19.4.2.Forbroadcastinterviews,see19.8.3.3.)

R:Shields,David.2011.Interviewbyauthor.Seattle.February15.Spock,Benjamin.1974.InterviewbyMiltonJ.E.Senn.November20.Interview67A,transcript,SennOralHistoryCollection,

NationalLibraryofMedicine,Bethesda,MD.

Inparentheticalcitations,usethenameofthepersoninterviewed,notthatoftheinterviewer.

P:(Shields2011)(Spock1974)

Ifyoucannotrevealthenameofthepersoninterviewed,useonlyaparentheticalcitationorweavetheinformationintothetext;youdonotneedtoincludetheinterviewinyourreferencelist.Explaintheabsenceofaname( Allinterviewswereconfidential;thenamesofintervieweesarewithheldbymutualagreement )inafootnoteorapreface.

P:(interviewwithahealthcareworker,March23,2010)

Citeconversations,letters,e-mailortextmessages,andthelikeonlyinparentheticalcitations.Thekeyelements,whichshouldbeseparatedwithcommas,arethenameoftheotherperson,thedate,andthetypeofcommunication.Inmanycasesyoumaybeabletoincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetext.Omite-mailaddresses.Tocitepostingstosocialnetworkingservices,see19.7.3;fordiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,see19.7.4.

P:(MaxineGreene,April23,2012,e-mailmessagetoauthor)

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InatelephoneconversationwiththeauthoronJanuary1,2012,MayanstudiesexpertMelissaRamirezconfidedthat…

19.6.4ManuscriptCollections

Documentsfromphysicalcollectionsofunpublishedmanuscriptsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanpublishedsources.Inyourcitations,includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

19.6.4.1ELEMENTSTOINCLUDEANDTHEIRORDER.Ifyoucitemultipledocumentsfromacollection,listthecollectionasawholeinyourreferencelist,underthenameofthecollection,theauthor(s)oftheitemsinthecollection,orthedepository.Forsimilartypesofunpublishedmaterialthathavenotbeenplacedinarchives,replaceinformationaboutthecollectionwithsuchwordingas intheauthor spossession or privatecollection, anddonotmentionthelocation.Donotincludeadate,sincemostcollectionscontainitemsfromvariousdates.

R:EgmontManuscripts.PhillippsCollection.UniversityofGeorgiaLibrary,Athens.House,EdwardM.,Papers.YaleUniversityLibrary,NewHaven,CT.PennsylvaniaSocietyfortheAbolitionofSlavery.Papers.HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,Philadelphia.Strother,French,andEdwardLowry.Undatedcorrespondence.HerbertHooverPresidentialLibrary,WestBranch,IA.WomenʼsOrganizationforNationalProhibitionReform.Papers.AliceBelinduPontfiles,PierreS.duPontPapers.Eleutherian

MillsHistoricalLibrary,Wilmington,DE.

Tociteanindividualdocumentfromsuchacollectioninyourtext,identifytheauthoranddate,thetitleortypeofdocument,andthenameofthecollectionorthedepositoryusedinthereferencelistentry.Separatetheelementswithcommas.Inmanycasesyoumaybeabletoincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetext.

P:(JamesOglethorpetothetrustees,January13,1733,EgmontManuscripts)InhisletterofJanuary13,1733,tothetrustees(EgmontManuscripts),JamesOglethorpedeclared…

Ifyouciteonlyonedocumentfromacollection,listitindividuallyinyourreferencelist,andfollowtheusualpatternforparentheticalcitations.

R:Dinkel,Joseph.1869.DescriptionofLouisAgassizwrittenattherequestofElizabethCaryAgassiz.AgassizPapers.HoughtonLibrary,HarvardUniversity,Cambridge,MA.

P:(Dinkel1869)

19.6.4.2HOWTOFORMATTHEELEMENTS.Herearesomespecialformattingrecommendationsfordocumentsinmanuscriptcollections.

■Specificversusgenerictitles.Usequotationmarksforspecifictitlesofdocumentsbutnotforgenerictermssuchasreportandminutes.Capitalizegenericnamesofthiskindonlyiftheyarepartofaformalheadinginthemanuscript,notiftheyaremerelydescriptive.

■Locatinginformation.Althoughsomemanuscriptsmayincludepagenumbersthatcanbeincludedinparentheticalcitations,manywillhaveothertypesoflocators,ornoneatall.Oldermanuscriptsareusuallynumberedbysignaturesonlyorbyfolios(fol.,fols.)ratherthanbypage.Somemanuscriptcollectionshaveidentifyingseriesorfilenumbersthatyoucanincludeinacitation.

■Papersandmanuscripts.Intitlesofmanuscriptcollectionsthetermspapersandmanuscriptsaresynonymous.Bothareacceptable,asaretheabbreviationsMSandMSS(plural).

■Letters.Tocitealetterinaparentheticalcitation,startwiththenameoftheletterwriter,followedbytoandthenameoftherecipient.Omitthewordletter,whichisunderstood,butforotherformsofcommunication,specifythetype(telegram,memorandum).

19.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroupsMaterialpostedorsharedonwebsites,blogs,socialnetworks,andthelikemaylackoneormoreofthestandardfactsofpublication(author,date,title,orpublisher).InadditiontoanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3),youmustincludeenoughinformationtopositivelyidentifyand(ifpossible)locateasourceeveniftheURLchangesorbecomesobsolete.

19.7.1Websites

Fororiginalcontentfromonlinesourcesotherthanbooksorperiodicals(see15.4.1.2),includeinyourreferencelistasmuchofthefollowingasyoucandetermine:author,publicationorrevisiondate,titleofthepage(inromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks),andtitleorownerofthesite(usuallyinromantype;see22.3.2.3).AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ifthereisnoauthor,thesourceshouldbelistedunderthetitleofthewebsiteorthenameofitsownerorsponsor.Ifthereisnodate,usetheaccessdate.

R:Brooks,Susannah.2011.“LongtimeLibraryDirectorReflectsonaCareerattheCrossroads.”UniversityofWisconsin-MadisonNews,September1.AccessedMay14,2012.http://www.news.wisc.edu/19704.

Google.2010.“PrivacyPolicy.”GooglePrivacyCenter.LastmodifiedOctober3.AccessedMarch3,2011.http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

McDonaldʼsCorporation.2011.“ToySafety.”McDonaldʼsCanada.AccessedNovember30,2011.http://www.mcdonalds.ca/en/community/toysafety.aspx.

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Wikipedia.2011.“WikipediaManualofStyle.”LastmodifiedSeptember2.AccessedSeptember3,2011.http://en.wikipedia.0rg/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_0f_Style.

P:(Brooks2011)(McDonaldʼsCorporation2011)

19.7.2BlogEntriesandComments

Blogentriesarecitedmuchlikearticlesinnewspapers(see19.4).Inyourreferencelist,includeasmuchofthefollowingasyoucandetermine:theauthoroftheentry,thedate,atitle(inquotationmarks),thenameoftheblog(initalics),andthespecificdaytheentrywasposted.AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Givetheblogger snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym;iftheblogger srealnamecanbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.Ifthetitleoftheblogdoesnotmakethegenreclear,youmayindicate blog inparentheses.Iftheblogispartofalargerpublication,givethenameofthepublicationafterthetitleoftheblog.

R:Becker,Gary.2012.“IsCapitalisminCrisis?”TheBecker-PosnerBlog,February12.AccessedFebruary16,2012.http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/2012/02/is-capitalism-incrisis-becker.html.

SubversiveCopyEditor,The[CarolFisherSailer].2011.“StillLearning:FunLanguageWords.”TheSubversiveCopyEditorBlog,February16.AccessedFebruary28,2011.http://www.subversivecopyeditor.com/blog/2011/02/still-learningfun-language-words.html.

Cavett,Dick.2011.“Flying?IncreasinglyfortheBirds.”Opinionator(blog).NewYorkTimes,August19.AccessedOctober14,2011.http://www.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/19/flying-increasingly-for-the-birds/

McWhorter,John,andJoshuaKnobe.2011.“BlackMartianLinguists.”Bloggingheads.tv(videoblog),August26.AccessedNovember7,2011.http://bloggingheads.tv/diavlogs/38530?in=:00&out=:03.

P:(Cavett2011)(McWhorterandKnobe2011)

Citeindividualreaders commentsonlyinparentheticalcitations.Identifythecommenterandthedateandtimeofthecomment,followedbytherelevantinformationfromthereferencelist(usuallyanauthor-datecitationfortheblogentry).Givethecommenter snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Youmaybeabletoincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetext,aslongasyouhavemadeitclearwhatthecommentrefersto.

P:(Mr.FeelGood,February14,2012[1:37a.m.],commentonBecker2012)AccordingtoacommentbyMr.FeelGoodonFebruary14,2012(1:37a.m.),…

19.7.3SocialNetworkingServices

Informationpostedonsocialnetworkingservicesshouldbecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.Listtheidentityoftheposter(ifnotmentionedinthetext),thenameoftheservice,andthedateandtimeofthepost.AlsoincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

P:(SarahPalin,Twitterpost,August25,2011[10:23p.m.],accessedSeptember4,2011,http://twitter.com/sarahpalinusa)(ObamaforAmerica,September4,2011[6:53a.m.],accessedSeptember22,2011,https://www.facebook.com/barackobama)

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see19.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavesuchinformationintothetext.Besuretopreserveenoughinformationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

InamessagepostedtoherTwittersiteonAugust25,2011(at10:23p.m.),SarahPalin(@SarahPalinUSA)notedthat…

Ifyouciteseveralmessagesfromaparticularservice,youmayincludethesiteasawholeinyourreferencelist.Forthedate,usethedateyoulastaccessedthesite.

R:Obama,Barack.2011.Facebookpage.RunbyObamaforAmerica.AccessedSeptember22,2011.https://www.facebook.com/barackobama.

19.7.4ElectronicDiscussionGroupsandMailingLists

Materialpostedorsenttoanelectronicdiscussiongroupormailinglistshouldnormallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations.Listthenameofthecorrespondent,thetitleofthegrouporsubjectlineofthee-mailmessage(inquotationmarks),thenameoftheforumorlist,andthedateandtimeofthemessageorpost.Omite-mailaddresses.Givethecorrespondent snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym.Ifthematerialisarchivedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

P:(DodgerFan,postto“TheAtomicBombingofJapan,”September1,2011[12:57:58p.m.PDT],Historyforum,Amazon.com,accessedSeptember30,2011,http://www.amazon.com/forum/history/)

Aswithnewspaperarticles(see19.4.3),youmaychoosetoweavemuchofthisinformationintothetext.Besuretopreserveenoughinformationtoallowreaderstoidentifythesource.

SharonNaylor,inhere-mailofAugust23,2011,totheEduc.&BehaviorScienceALADiscussionList(http://listserv.uncc.edu/archives/ebss-l.html),pointedoutthat…

156

Ifyouciteseveralitemsfromaparticulargrouporlist,youmaychoosetoincludetheforumasawholeinyourreferencelist.Forthedate,usethedateyoulastaccessedthesite.

R:Amazon.com.2011.“TheAtomicBombingofJapan.”Historyforum.AccessedSeptember1,2011.http://www.amazon.com/forum/history.

19.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArtsThevisualandperformingartsgenerateavarietyofsources,includingartworks,liveperformances,broadcasts,recordingsinvariousmedia,andtexts.Citingsomeofthesesourcescanbedifficultwhentheylackthetypesofidentifyinginformationcommontopublishedsources.Includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

Someofthesourcescoveredinthissection,wherenoted,canbecitedinparentheticalcitationsonlyorbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,althoughyoumaychoosetoincludeaspecificiteminyourreferencelistthatiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Ifyourpaperisforacourseinthearts,mediastudies,orasimilarfield,consultyourinstructor.

19.8.1ArtworksandGraphics

19.8.1.1PAINTINGS,SCULPTURES,ANDPHOTOGRAPHS.Citepaintings,sculptures,photographs,drawings,andthelikeonlyinparentheticalcitations.Includethenameoftheartist,thetitleoftheartwork(initalics)anddateofitscreation(precededbyca.[circa]ifapproximate),andthenameoftheinstitutionthathousesit(ifany),includinglocation.Separatetheelementswithcommas.Youmayalsoincludethemedium,ifrelevant.

P:(GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum)(Michelangelo,David,1501–4,GalleriadellAccademia,Florence)(AnselAdams,NorthDome,BasketDome,MountHoffman,Yosemite,ca.1935,SmithsonianAmericanArtMuseum,

Washington,DC)(ErichBuchholz,Untitled,1920,gouacheonpaper,MuseumofModernArt,NewYork)

Insteadofusingaparentheticalcitation,youcansometimesciteartworksbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.

OʼKeeffefirstdemonstratedthistechniqueinTheCliffChimneys(1938,MilwaukeeArtMuseum).

Ifyouviewedtheartworkinapublishedsourceoronlineandyourlocalguidelinesrequireyoutoidentifythissource,includethesourceinyourreferencelist.Forimagesconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.Inyourparentheticalcitation,ifthesourceisdifferentfromtheartist,givetheusualauthor-datecitationinplaceoftheinstitutionalnameandlocation.

R:Buchholz,Erich.1920.Untitled.Gouacheonpaper.MuseumofModernArt,NewYork.AccessedDecember4,2011.http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=38187.

Lynes,BarbaraBuhler,LesleyPoling-Kempes,andFrederickW.Turner.2004.GeorgiaOʼKeeffeandNewMexico:ASenseofPlace.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

P:(Buchholz1920)(GeorgiaOʼKeeffe,TheCliffChimneys,1938,inLynes,Poling-Kempes,andTurner2004,25)

19.8.1.2GRAPHICARTS.Citegraphicsourcessuchasprintadvertisements,maps,cartoons,andsoforthonlyinparentheticalcitations,adaptingthebasicpatternsforartworksandgivingasmuchinformationaspossible.Giveanytitleorcaptioninromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks,andidentifythetypeofgraphicifitisunclearfromthetitle.Foritemsconsultedonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL.

P:(Toyota,“WeSeebeyondCars,”advertisement,ArchitecturalDigest,January2010,57)(“RepublicofLetters:1700–1750,”interactivemap,MappingtheRepublicofLetters,accessedFebruary28,2012,

https://republicofletters.stanford.edu/)(“DividebyZero,”Internetmeme,YoDawgPics,accessedDecember2,2012,http://yodawgpics.com/yo-dawg-pictures/divide-

by-zero)

Anyinformationincludedinthetextneednotberepeatedintheparentheticalcitation.

Onesuchmemeisknownas“DividebyZero”(YoDawgPics,accessedDecember2,2012,http://yodawgpics.com/yo-dawg-pictures/divide-by-zero).

19.8.2LivePerformances

Citelivetheatrical,musical,ordanceperformancesonlyinparentheticalcitations.Includethetitleoftheworkperformed,theauthor,anykeyperformersandanindicationoftheirroles,thevenueanditslocation,andthedate.Italicizethetitlesofplaysandlongmusicalcompositions,butsetthetitlesofshorterworksinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarksexceptformusicalworksreferredtobygenre(see22.3.2.3.).Ifthecitationisfocusedonanindividual sperformance,listthatperson snamebeforethetitleofthework.Separatetheelementswithcommas.

P:(Spider-Man:TurnOfftheDark,byGlenBergerandJulieTaymor,musicandlyricsbyBonoandTheEdge,directedbyJulie

157

Taymor,FoxwoodsTheater,NewYork,September10,2011)(SimoneDinnerstein,pianist,IntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2,byJohannesBrahms,PortlandCenterforthePerformingArts,

Portland,OR,January15,2012.)

Insteadofusingaparentheticalcitation,youcansometimesciteliveperformancesbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext.

SimoneDinnersteinʼsperformanceofBrahmsʼsIntermezzoinA,op.118,no.2(January15,2012,atPortlandCenterforthePerformingArts),wasanythingbutintermediate…

Ifyouviewedorlistenedtoaliveperformanceinarecordedmedium,citetherecordinginyourreferencelist.See19.8.3 5forsimilartypesofexamples.

R:Rubinstein,Artur,pianist.1975.“SpinningSong,”byFelixMendelssohn.AmbassadorCollege,Pasadena,CA,January15.OnTheLastRecitalforIsrael.BMGClassics,1992.VHS.

19.8.3Movies,Television,Radio,andtheLike

Citationsofmovies,televisionshows,radioprograms,andthelikewillvarydependingonthetypeofsource.Ataminimum,identifythetitleofthework,thedateitwasreleasedorbroadcastorotherwisemadeavailable,andthenameofthestudioorotherentityresponsibleforproducingordistributingorbroadcastingthework.Ifyouwatchedavideoorlistenedtoarecording,includeinformationaboutthemedium.Ifyouconsultedthesourceonline,includeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).

19.8.3.1MOVIES.Inthereferencelist,citeamovieunderthenameofthedirector(followedbydir.).Afterthedate,givethetitleofthemovie(initalics),followedbythenameofthecompanythatproducedordistributedit.Youmayalsoincludeinformationaboutwriters,actors,producers,andsoforthifitisrelevanttoyourdiscussion.Unlessyouwatchedthemovieinatheater,includeinformationaboutthemedium.

R:Zwigoff,Terry,dir.1994.Crumb.SuperiorPictures.DVD,SonyPictures,2006.Heckerling,Amy,dir.1982.FastTimesatRidgemontHigh.ScreenplaybyCameronCrowe.FeaturingJenniferJasonLeighand

SeanPenn.UniversalPictures.DVD,2002.Cholodenko,Lisa,dir.1998.HighArt.OctoberFilms.AccessedSeptember6,2011.http://movies.netflix.com/.Weed,A.E.1903.AttheFootoftheFlatiron.AmericanMutoscopeandBiograph.35mmfilm.LibraryofCongress,TheLifeofa

City:EarlyFilmsofNewYork,1898–1906.MPEGvideo,2:19.AccessedFebruary4,2011.http://www.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html.

P:(Cholodenko1998)

Informationaboutancillarymaterialincludedwiththemovieshouldbewovenintothetext,withtheparentheticalreferencereferringtothemovieasawhole.

Intheiraudiocommentary,producedtwentyyearsafterthereleaseoftheirfilm,HeckerlingandCroweagreethat…(Heckerling1982).

19.8.3.2TELEVISIONANDRADIOPROGRAMS.Tociteatelevisionorradioprogram,include,ataminimum,thetitleoftheprogram,thenameoftheepisodeorsegment,thedateonwhichitwasfirstairedormadeavailable,andtheentitythatproducedorbroadcastthework.Youmayalsoincludeanepisodenumber,thenameofthedirectororauthoroftheepisodeorsegment,and(ifrelevanttoyourdiscussion)thenamesofkeyperformers.Italicizethetitlesofprograms,butsetthetitlesofepisodesorsegmentsinromantype,enclosedinquotationmarks.Ifyouwatchedorlistenedtoarecordinginanythingotherthanitsoriginalbroadcastmedium,includeinformationaboutthemedium.

R:AllThingsConsidered.2011.“BumpsontheRoadBacktoWork,”byTamaraKeith.AiredSeptember5onNPR.MadMen.2007.“Nixonvs.Kennedy,”directedbyAlanTaylor.Season1,episode12.AiredOctober11onAMC.DVD,Lions

GateTelevision.30Rock.2011.“EverythingFunnyAlltheTimeAlways,”directedbyJohnRiggi.FeaturingTinaFey,TracyMorgan,Jane

Krakowski,JackMcBrayer,ScottAdsit,JudahFried-lander,andAlecBaldwin.Season5,episode22.AiredApril28onNBC.AccessedMarch21,2012.http://www.hulu.com/30-rock/.

P:(30Rock2011)

Insteadofusingaparentheticalcitation,youcanoftencitesuchprogramsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,especiallyifsomeoralloftheadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

MadMenuseshistoryandflashbackin“Nixonvs.Kennedy”(AMC,October11,2007),withacombinationofarchivaltelevisionfootageand…

19.8.3.3INTERVIEWS.Tociteinterviewsontelevision,radio,andthelike,treatthepersoninterviewedastheauthor,andidentifytheinterviewerinthecontextofthecitation.Alsoincludetheprogramorpublicationanddateoftheinterview(orpublicationorairdate).Forunpublishedinterviews,see19.6.3.

R:Rice,Condoleezza.2005.InterviewbyJimLehrer.PBSNewsHour,July28.AccessedJuly7,2012.

158

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics/jan-june05/rice_3–4.html.Poitras,Laura.2011.InterviewbyLorneManly.“The9/11Decade:ACulturalView”(video).NewYorkTimes,September2.

AccessedMarch11,2012.http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/09/02/us/sept-11-reckoning/artists.html.

P:(Rice2005)

19.8.3.4ADVERTISEMENTS.Citeadvertisementsfromtelevision,radio,andthelikeonlyinparentheticalcitationsorbyweavingtheelementsintoyourtext,orboth.

P:(Doritos,“HealingChips,”advertisementairedonFoxSports,February6,2011,30seconds,accessedSeptember7,2011,http://www.foxsports.com/m/video/36896580/doritos-healing-chips.htm)

Aswithtelevisionshows(19.8.3.2),youcanoftenciteadvertisementsbyweavingthekeyelementsintoyourtext,especiallyifsomeoralloftheadditionalelementsarenotavailableorrelevanttothecitation.

TheDoritosad“HealingChips,”whichairedduringSuperBowlXLV(FoxSports,February6,2011)…

19.8.3.5VIDEOSANDPODCASTS.Tociteavideoorapodcast,include,ataminimum,thenameanddescriptionoftheitemplusanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Theexamplesaboveformovies,television,andradio(19.8.3.1 4)maybeusedastemplatesforincludinganyadditionalinformation.Givethecreator snameexactlyaslisted,evenifitisclearlyapseudonym;ifthecreator srealnamecanbeeasilydetermined,includeitinbrackets.

R:Adele.“SomeonelikeYou”(musicvideo).DirectedbyJakeNava.PostedOctober1,2011.AccessedFebruary28,2012.http://www.mtv.com/videos/adele/693356/someone-like-you.jhtml.

Donner,Fred.“HowIslamBegan”(video).Lecture,AlumniWeekend2011,UniversityofChicago,June3,2011.AccessedJanuary5,2012.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RFK5u5lkhA.

Shear,Michael,host.“TheSpatoverPresidentObamaʼsUpcomingJobsSpeech.”TheCaucus(MP3podcast).NewYorkTimes,September1,2011.AccessedSeptember6,2011.http://www.nytimes.com/pages/podcasts/.

Luminosity.“WomensWork_SPN”(video).March5,2009.AccessedApril22,2011.http://www.viddler.com/v/lf6d7f1f.

Ifrelevant,youmayincludethetimeatwhichthecitedmaterialappearsinthefileinyourparentheticalcitation.

P:(Adele2011,2:37)

19.8.4SoundRecordings

Tocitearecording,includeasmuchinformationasyoucantodistinguishitfromsimilarrecordings,includingthedateoftherecording,thenameoftherecordingcompany,theidentifyingnumberoftherecording,thecopyrightdate(ifdifferentfromtheyearoftherecording),andthemedium.Listtherecordingunderthenameofthecomposerortheperformer,dependingonwhichismorerelevanttoyourdiscussion.Titlesofalbumsshouldbeinitalics;individualselectionsshouldbeinquotationmarksexceptformusicalworksreferredtobygenre(see22.3.2.3).AbbreviatecompactdiscasCD.RecordingsconsultedonlineshouldincludeanaccessdateandaURL(see15.4.1.3).Ingeneral,citebyyearofrecording,butyoumayrepeatdatestoavoidanyconfusion.

R:Holiday,Billie.1958.“IʼmaFooltoWantYou,”byJoelHerron,FrankSinatra,andJackWolf.RecordedFebruary20withRayEllis.OnLadyinSatin.ColumbiaCL1157.33⅓rpm.

Beethoven,Ludwigvan.1969and1970.PianoSonatano.29(“Hammerklavier”).RudolfSerkin,piano.RecordedDecember8–10,1969,andDecember14–15,1970.SonyClassics,2005.MP3.

Strauss,Richard.1940.DonQuixote.WithEmanuelFeuermann(violoncello)andthePhiladelphiaOrchestra,conductedbyEugeneOrmandy.RecordedFebruary24.BiddulphLAB042,1991.CD.

PinkFloyd.1970.“AtomHeartMother.”RecordedApril29atFillmoreWest,SanFrancisco.Streamingaudio.AccessedJuly7,2011.http://www.wolfgangsvault.com/pink-floyd/concerts/fillmore-west-april-29-1970.htmI.

Rubinstein,Artur.1946and1958–67.TheChopinCollection.RCAVictor/BMG60822–2-RG,1991.11CDs.Shostakovich,Dmitri.1959and1965.Symphonyno.5/Symphonyno.9.ConductedbyLeonardBernstein.Recordedwiththe

NewYorkPhilharmonic,October20,1959(no.5),andOctober19,1965(no.9).SonySMK61841,1999.CD.

P:(Holiday1958)(Shostakovich1959and1965)

Treatrecordingsofdrama,proseorpoetryreadings,lectures,andthelikeasyouwouldmusicalrecordings.

R:Thomas,Dylan.1953.UnderMilkWood.PerformedbyDylanThomasetal.RecordedMay14.OnDylanThomas:TheCaedmonCollection,discs9and10.Caedmon,2002.11CDs.

Schlosser,Eric.2004.FastFoodNation:TheDarkSideoftheAmericanMeal.ReadbyRickAdamson.NewYork:RandomHouse,RHCD493.8CDs.

19.8.5TextsintheVisualandPerformingArts

19.8.5.1ARTEXHIBITIONCATALOGS.Citeanartexhibitioncatalogasyouwouldabook.Inyourreferencelist,includeinformationabouttheexhibitionfollowingthepublicationdata.

159

R:Dackerman,Susan,ed.2011.PrintsandthePursuitofKnowledgeinEarlyModernEurope.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress.PublishedinconjunctionwiththeexhibitionsshownattheHarvardArtMuseums,Cambridge,MA,andtheBlockMuseumofArt,NorthwesternUniversity,Evanston,IL.

19.8.5.2PLAYS.Insomecasesyoucancitewell-knownEnglish-languageplaysinparentheticalcitationsonly.(Seealso19.5.1.)Separatetheelementswithcommas.Omitpublicationdata,andcitepassagesbyactandscene(orotherdivision)insteadofbypagenumber.

P:(EugeneOʼNeill,LongDayʼsJourneyintoNight,act2,scene1)

Ifyourpaperisinliterarystudiesoranotherfieldconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,orifyouarecitingatranslationoranobscurework,citeeveryplayasyouwouldabook,andincludeeachinyourreferencelist.Citepassageseitherbydivisionorbypage,accordingtoyourlocalguidelines.

R:Bagnold,Enid.1956.TheChalkGarden.NewYork:RandomHouse.Anouilh,Jean.1996.Becket,orTheHonorofGod.Trans.LucienneHill.NewYork:River-headBooks.

P:(Bagnold1956,8–9)(Anouilh1996,act1,scene1)

19.8.5.3MUSICALSCORES.Citeapublishedmusicalscoreasyouwouldabook.

R:Verdi,Giuseppe.2008.GiovannadʼArco,drammaliricoinfouracts.LibrettobyTemistocleSolera.EditedbyAlbertoRizzuti.2vols.WorksofGiuseppeVerdi,ser.1,Operas.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress;Milan:G.Ricordi.

Mozart,WolfgangAmadeus.1960.SonatasandFantasiesforthePiano.PreparedfromtheautographsandearliestprintedsourcesbyNathanBroder.Rev.ed.BrynMawr,PA:TheodorePresser.

Citeanunpublishedscoreasyouwouldunpublishedmaterialinamanuscriptcollection.

R:Shapey,Ralph.1966.“PartitaforViolinandThirteenPlayers.”Score.SpecialCollections,JosephRegensteinLibrary.UniversityofChicago.

19.9PublicDocumentsPublicdocumentsincludeawidearrayofsourcesproducedbygovernmentsatalllevelsthroughouttheworld.ThissectionpresentsbasicprinciplesforsomecommontypesofpublicdocumentsavailableinEnglish;ifyouneedtociteothertypes,adapttheclosestmodel.

Suchdocumentsinvolvemorecomplicatedandvariedelementsthanmosttypesofpublishedsources.Inyourcitations,includeasmuchidentifyinginformationasyoucan,formattheelementsconsistently,andadaptthegeneralpatternsoutlinedhereasneeded.

ThebulkofthissectionisconcernedwithdocumentspublishedbyUSgovernmentalbodiesandagencies.FordocumentspublishedbythegovernmentsofCanadaandtheUnitedKingdomandbyinternationalbodies,see19.9.9 11.Forunpublishedgovernmentdocumentsgenerally,see19.9.12.

19.9.1ElementstoInclude,TheirOrder,andHowtoFormatThem

Inyourreferencelist,includeasmanyofthefollowingelementsasyoucan:

■nameofthegovernment(country,state,city,county,orotherdivision)andgovernmentbody(legislativebody,executivedepartment,courtbureau,board,commission,orcommittee)thatissuedthedocument

■dateofpublication■title,ifany,ofthedocumentorcollection■nameofindividualauthor,editor,orcompiler,ifgiven■reportnumberorotheridentifyinginformation(suchasplaceofpublicationandpublisher,forcertainfreestandingpublicationsorforitemsinsecondarysources)

■pagenumbersorotherlocators,ifrelevant■anaccessdateandeitheraURLorthenameofthedatabase,forsourcesconsultedonline(see15.4.1and,forexamples,19.9.13)

Ingeneral,listtherelevantelementsintheordergivenabove.Exceptionsforcertaintypesofdocumentsareexplainedinthefollowingsectionsof19.9.

R:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.2002.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107thCong.,2dsess.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.

Forparentheticalcitations,treattheinformationlistedbeforethedateinyourreferencelistastheauthor.Ifthisinformationislengthy,youmayshortenit,aslongasyoudosologicallyandconsistentlyinyourcitations.Inmanycasesyoumaybeabletoincludesomeorallofthisinformationinthetextinsteadofaparentheticalcitation.

P:(USHouse2002,81–82)

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…astheSelectCommitteedecreedinitsreportaccompanyingtheHomelandSecurityActof2002(81–82).

Notethat,byconvention,ordinalsinpublicdocumentsendindinsteadofnd(2dinsteadof2d).

19.9.2CongressionalPublications

Forcongressionalpublications,referencelistentriesusuallybeginwiththedesignationUSCongress,followedbySenateorHouseofRepresentatives(orHouse).(YoumayalsosimplifythistoUSSenateorUSHouse.)Othercommonelementsincludecommitteeandsubcommittee,ifany;dateofpublication;titleofdocument;numberoftheCongressandsession(abbreviatedCong.andsess.respectivelyinthisposition);andnumberanddescriptionofthedocument(forexample,H.Doc.487),ifavailable.

19.9.2.1DEBATES.Since1873,congressionaldebateshavebeenpublishedbythegovernmentintheCongressionalRecord.Wheneverpossible,citethepermanentvolumes,whichoftenreflectchangesfromthedailyeditionsoftheRecord.BeginparentheticalcitationswiththeabbreviationCong.Rec,andidentifythevolumeandpartnumbersaswellasthepagenumbers.(ForcitationsofthedailyHouseorSenateedition,retaintheHorSinpagenumbers.)

R:USCongress.CongressionalRecord.2008.110thCong.,1stsess.Vol.153,pt.8.

P:(Cong.Rec.2008,153,pt.8:11629–30)

Ifyouneedtoidentifyaspeakerandthesubjectinadebate,dosointext,andincludeaparentheticalcitationforthepublicationonly.

SenatorKennedyofMassachusettsspokefortheJointResolutiononNuclearWeaponsFreezeandReductions(Cong.Rec.1982,128,pt.3:3832–34).

Before1874,congressionaldebateswerepublishedinAnnalsoftheCongressoftheUnitedStates(alsoknownbyothernamesandcoveringtheyears1789 1824),RegisterofDebates(1824 37),andCongressionalGlobe(1833 73).CitetheseworkssimilarlytotheCongressionalRecord.

19.9.2.2REPORTSANDDOCUMENTS.WhenyoucitereportsanddocumentsoftheSenate(abbreviatedS.)andtheHouse(H.orHR),includeboththeCongressandsessionnumbersand,ifpossible,theseriesnumber.

R:USCongress.House.2011.ExpansionofNationalEmergencywithRespecttoProtectingtheStabilizationEffortsinIraq.112thCong.,1stsess.H.Doc.112–25.

P:(USHouse2011,1–2)

19.9.2.3BILLSANDRESOLUTIONS.Congressionalbills(proposedlaws)andresolutionsarepublishedinpamphletform.Incitations,billsandresolutionsoriginatingintheHouseofRepresentativesareabbreviatedHRorH.Res.andthoseoriginatingintheSenate,S.orS.Res.IncludepublicationdetailsintheCongressionalRecord(ifavailable).Ifabillhasbeenenacted,citeitasastatute(see19.9.2.5).

R:USCongress.House.2011.NoTaxpayerFundingforAbortionAct.H.Res.237.112thCong.,1stsess.CongressionalRecord157,dailyed.(May4):H3014–37.

P:(USHouse2011,H3014)

19.9.2.4HEARINGS.Recordsoftestimonygivenbeforecongressionalcommitteesareusuallypublishedwithformaltitles,whichshouldbeincludedinreferencelistentries(initalics).Therelevantcommitteeisnormallylistedaspartofthetitle.

R:USCongress.House.2002.HearingbeforetheSelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.HR5005,HomelandSecurityActof2002,day3.107thCong.,2dsess.,July17.

P:(USHouse2002,119–20)

19.9.2.5STATUTES.Statutes,whicharebillsorresolutionsthathavebeenpassedintolaw,arefirstpublishedseparatelyandthencollectedintheannualboundvolumesoftheUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge,whichbeganpublicationin1874.LatertheyareincorporatedintotheUnitedStatesCode.CiteUSStatutes,theUSCode,orboth.SectionnumbersintheCodeareprecededbyasectionsymbol( ;use andetseq.toindicatemorethanonesection).

Inaparentheticalcitation,indicatetheyeartheactwaspassed;inyourreferencelist,alsoincludethepublicationdateofthestatutorycompilation,whichmaydifferfromtheyearofpassage.

R:AtomicEnergyActof1946.PublicLaw585.79thCong.,2dsess.August1.FairCreditReportingActof1970.USCode15(2000),§§1681etseq.HomelandSecurityActof2002.PublicLaw107-296.USStatutesatLarge116(2002):2135–321.CodifiedatUSCode6

(2002),§§101etseq.

P:(AtomicEnergyActof1946,12,19)(FairCreditReportingActof1970)(HomelandSecurityActof2002,2163–64)

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Before1874,lawswerepublishedintheseventeen-volumeStatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1789 1873.Citationsofthiscollectionincludethevolumenumberanditspublicationdate.

19.9.3PresidentialPublications

Presidentialproclamations,executiveorders,vetoes,addresses,andthelikearepublishedintheWeeklyCompilationofPresidentialDocumentsandinPublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.ProclamationsandexecutiveordersarealsocarriedinthedailyFederalRegisterandthenpublishedintitle3oftheCodeofFederalRegulations.OncetheyhavebeenpublishedintheCode,usethatasyoursource.Putindividualtitlesinquotationmarks.

R:USPresident.2010.Proclamation8621.“NationalSlaveryandHumanTraffickingPreventionMonth,2011.”FederalRegister75,no.250(December30):82215–16.

USPresident.1997.ExecutiveOrder13067.“BlockingSudaneseGovernmentPropertyandProhibitingTransactionswithSudan.”CodeofFederalRegulations,title3(1997comp.):230–31.

P:(USPresident2010)(USPresident1997)

ThepublicpapersofUSpresidentsarecollectedintwomultivolumeworks:CompilationoftheMessagesandPapersofthePresidents,1789 1897,and,startingwiththeHooveradministration,PublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates.(Papersnotcoveredbyeitheroftheseworksarepublishedelsewhere.)Tociteitemsinthesecollections,followtherecommendationsformultivolumebooks(see19.1.5).

19.9.4PublicationsofGovernmentDepartmentsandAgencies

Executivedepartments,bureaus,andagenciesissuereports,bulletins,circulars,andothermaterials.Italicizethetitle,andincludethenameofanyidentifiedauthor(s)afterthetitle.

R:USDepartmentoftheTreasury.1850–51.ReportoftheSecretaryoftheTreasuryTransmittingaReportfromtheRegisteroftheTreasuryoftheCommerceandNavigationoftheUnitedStatesfortheYearEndingthe30thofJune,1850.31stCong.,2dsess.HouseExecutiveDocument8.Washington,DC.

USDepartmentoftheInterior.MineralsManagementService.EnvironmentalDivision.2007.Oil-SpillRiskAnalysis:GulfofMexicoOuterContinentalShelf(OCS)LeaseSales,CentralPlanningAreaandWesternPlanningArea,2007–2012,andGulfwideOCSProgram,2007–2046,byZhen-GangJi,WalterR.Johnson,andCharlesF.Marshall.EditedbyEileenM.Lear.MMS2007-040,June.

P:(USDepartmentoftheTreasury1850–51,15–16)(USDepartmentoftheInterior2007,23)

19.9.5USConstitution

TheUSConstitutionshouldbecitedonlyinparentheticalcitations;youneednotincludeitinyourreferencelist.Includethearticleoramendment,section,and,ifrelevant,clause.Usearabicnumeralsand,ifyouprefer,abbreviationsfortermssuchasamendmentandsection.

P:(USConstitution,art.2,sec.1,cl.3)(USConstitution,amend.14,sec.2)

Inmanycases,youcanincludetheidentifyinginformationinyourtext,butspelloutthepartdesignations.Capitalizethenamesofspecificamendmentswhenusedinplaceofnumbers.

TheUSConstitution,inarticle1,section9,forbidssuspensionofthewrit“unlesswheninCasesofRebellionorInvasionthepublicSafetymayrequireit.”TheFirstAmendmentprotectstherightoffreespeech.

19.9.6Treaties

Thetextsoftreatiessignedbefore1950arepublishedinUnitedStatesStatutesatLarge;theunofficialcitationistotheTreatySeries(TS)ortheExecutiveAgreementSeries(EAS).Thosesignedin1950orlaterappearinUnitedStatesTreatiesandOtherInternationalAgreements(UST,1950 )orTreatiesandOtherInternationalActsSeries(TIAS,1945 ).TreatiesinvolvingmorethantwonationsmaybefoundintheUnitedNationsTreatySeries(UNTS,1946 )or,from1920to1946,intheLeagueofNationsTreatySeries(LNTS).

Italicizetitlesofthepublicationsmentionedaboveandtheirabbreviatedforms.Unlesstheyarenamedinthetitleofthetreaty,listthepartiessubjecttotheagreement,separatedbyhyphens.Anexactdateindicatesthedateofsigningandmaybeincludedinadditiontotheyearthetreatywaspublished.

R:USDepartmentofState.1963.TreatyBanningNuclearWeaponTestsintheAtmosphere,inOuterSpace,andUnderWater.US-UK-USSR.August5.UST14,pt.2.

UnitedStates.1922.NavalArmamentLimitationTreatywiththeBritishEmpire,France,Italy,andJapan.February6.USStatutesatLarge43,pt.2.

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P:(USDepartmentofState1963,1313)(UnitedStates1922)

19.9.7LegalCases

Citationsoflegalcasesgenerallytakethesameformforcourtsatalllevels.Inyourreferencelist,italicizethefullcasename(includingtheabbreviationv.).Includethevolumenumber(arabic),nameofthereporter(abbreviated;seebelow),ordinalseriesnumber(ifapplicable),openingpagenumberofthedecision,abbreviatednameofthecourtanddate(togetherinparentheses),andotherrelevantinformation,suchasthenameofthestateorlocalcourt(ifnotidentifiedbythereportertitle).

R:UnitedStatesv.Christmas.222F.3d141(4thCir.2000).ProfitSharingPlanv.MbankDallas,N.A.683F.Supp.592(N.D.Tex.1988).

Theoneelementthatdependsonthelevelofthecourtisthenameofthereporter.Themostcommononesareasfollows.

■USSupremeCourt.ForSupremeCourtdecisions,citeUnitedStatesSupremeCourtReports(abbreviatedUS)or,ifnotyetpublishedthere,SupremeCourtReporter(abbreviatedS.Ct.).

R:AT&TCorp.v.IowaUtilitiesBd.525US366(1999).Brendlinv.California.127S.Ct.2400(2007).

■Lowerfederalcourts.Forlowerfederal-courtdecisions,citeFederalReporter(F.)orFederalSupplement(F.Supp.).

R:UnitedStatesv.Dennis.183F.201(2dCir.1950).Eatonv.IBMCorp.925F.Supp.487(S.D.Tex.1996).

■Stateandlocalcourts.Forstateandlocalcourtdecisions,citeofficialstatereporterswheneverpossible.Ifyouuseacommercialreporter,citeitasinthesecondexamplebelow.Ifthereporterdoesnotidentifythecourt sname,includeitbeforethedate,withinparentheses.

R:Williamsv.Davis.27Cal.2d746(1946).Bivensv.Mobley.724So.2d458(Miss.Ct.App.1998).

Tocitealegalcaseinyourtext,givethenameofthecaseandthedate(ifcitingspecificlanguage,providethepagenumberaswell).Inmanyinstancesyoumaybeabletoincludeeitherorbothelementsinthetext.

P:(UnitedStatesv.Christmas2000)…thisprinciplewasbestexemplifiedbyUnitedStatesv.Christmas(2000).

19.9.8StateandLocalGovernmentDocuments

Citestateandlocalgovernmentdocumentsasyouwouldfederaldocuments.Useromantype(noquotationmarks)forstatelawsandmunicipalordinances;useitalicsforcodes(compilations)andthetitlesoffreestandingpublications.Stateconstitutionsarecitedonlyinparentheticalcitationsorinthetext(seealso19.9.5).

R:IllinoisInstituteforEnvironmentalQuality(IIEQ).1977.ReviewandSynopsisofPublicParticipationregardingSulfurDioxideandParticulateEmissions.BySidneyM.Marder.IIEQDocument77/21.Chicago.

MethamphetamineControlandCommunityProtectionAct.2005.IllinoisCompiledStatutes,ch.720,no.646(2005).PageʼsOhioRevisedCodeAnnotated.2011.Title35,Elections.

P:(IIEQ1977,44–45)(MethamphetamineControlandCommunityProtectionAct2005,sec.10)(PageʼsOhioRevisedCodeAnnotated2011,sec.3599.01)(NewMexicoConstitution,art.4,sec.7.)

19.9.9CanadianGovernmentDocuments

CiteCanadiangovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththewordCanada(inparentheses)unlessitisobviousfromthecontext.

CanadianstatutesarefirstpublishedintheannualStatutesofCanada,afterwhichtheyappearintheRevisedStatutesofCanada,aconsolidationpublishedeveryfifteenortwentyyears.Whereverpossible,usethelattersourceandidentifythestatutebytitle,reporter,yearofcompilation,chapter,andsection.

R:CanadaWildlifeAct.RevisedStatutesofCanada1985,chap.W-9,sec.1.AssistedHumanReproductionAct.StatutesofCanada2004,chap.2,sec.2.

P:(CanadaWildlifeAct1985)

CanadianSupremeCourtcasessince1876arepublishedinSupremeCourtReports(SCR);casesafter1974shouldincludethevolumenumberofthereporter.FederalcourtcasesarepublishedinFederalCourtsReports(FC,1971 )orExchequerCourtReports(Ex.CR,1875 1971).CasesnotfoundinanyofthesesourcesmaybefoundinDominionLawReports(DLR).Includethenameofthe

163

case(initalics),followedbythedate(inparentheses),thevolumenumber(ifany),theabbreviatednameofthereporter,andtheopeningpageofthedecision.

R:Robertsonv.ThomsonCorp.(2006)2SCR363(Canada).Boldyv.RoyalBankofCanada.(2008)FC99.

19.9.10BritishGovernmentDocuments

CiteBritishgovernmentdocumentssimilarlytoUSpublicdocuments.EndcitationswiththephraseUnitedKingdom(inparenthesesorbrackets)unlessitisobviousfromthecontext.

ActsofParliamentshouldusuallybecitedonlyinparentheticalcitationsorinthetext.Includeaspecificactinyourreferencelistonlyifitiscriticaltoyourargumentorfrequentlycited.Identifyactsbytitle,date,andchapternumber(arabicnumeralfornationalnumber,lowercaseromanforlocal).Actsfrombefore1963arecitedbyregnalyearandmonarch sname(abbreviated)andordinal(arabicnumeral).

P:(ActofSettlement1701,12&13Will.3,c.2)(ConsolidatedFundAct1963,chap.1[UnitedKingdom])(ManchesterCorporationAct1967,chap.xl)

MostBritishlegalcasescanbefoundintheapplicablereportintheLawReports,amongthesetheAppealCases(AC),Queen s(King s)Bench(QB,KB),Chancery(Ch.),Family(Fam.),andProbate(P.)reports.Untilrecently,thecourtsofhighestappealintheUnitedKingdom(exceptforcriminalcasesinScotland)hadbeentheHouseofLords(HL)andtheJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncil(PC).In2005,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedKingdom(UKSC)wasestablished.

Includethenameofthecase,initalics(casesinvolvingtheCrownrefertoRexorRegina);thedate,inparentheses;thevolumenumber(ifany)andabbreviatednameofthereporter;andtheopeningpageofthedecision.Ifthecourtisnotapparentfromthenameofthereporter,orifthejurisdictionisnotclearfromcontext,includeeitherorboth,asnecessary,inparentheses.

R:Reginav.DudleyandStephens.(1884)14QBD273(DC).Regal(Hastings)Ltd.v.GulliverandOrs.(1967)2AC134(HL)(Eng.).NMLCapitalLimited(Appellant)v.RepublicofArgentina(Respondent).(2011)UKSC31.

19.9.11PublicationsofInternationalBodies

DocumentspublishedbyinternationalbodiessuchastheUnitedNationscanbecitedmuchlikebooks.Identifytheauthorizingbody(andanyauthororeditor),thedate,thetopicortitleofthedocument,andthepublisherorplaceofpublication(orboth).Alsoincludeanyseriesorotheridentifyingpublicationinformation.

R:LeagueofArabStatesandUnitedNations.2010.TheThirdArabReportontheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals2010andtheImpactoftheGlobalEconomicCrises.Beirut:EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia.

UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.2010.ReportoftheGoverningCouncil/GlobalMinisterialEnvironmentForumontheWorkofItsEleventhSpecialSession.OfficialRecords,65thsess.,supplementno.25,A/65/25.NewYork:UN.

P:(LeagueofArabStatesandUnitedNations2010,82)(UNGeneralAssembly2010)

19.9.12UnpublishedGovernmentDocuments

Ifyouciteunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,followthepatternsgivenforunpublishedmanuscriptsin19.6.4.MostunpublisheddocumentsoftheUSgovernmentarehousedintheNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration(NARA)in

Washington,DC,orinoneofitsbranches.Citethemall,includingfilms,photographs,andsoundrecordingsaswellaswrittenmaterials,byrecordgroup(RG)number.

ThecomparableinstitutionforunpublishedCanadiangovernmentdocumentsistheLibraryandArchivesCanada(LAC)inOttawa,Ontario.TheUnitedKingdomhasanumberofdepositoriesofunpublishedgovernmentdocuments,mostnotablytheNationalArchives(NA)andtheBritishLibrary(BL),bothinLondon.

19.9.13OnlinePublicDocuments

Tociteonlinepublicdocuments,followtherelevantexamplespresentedelsewherein19.9.Inaddition,includethedateyouaccessedthematerialandaURL.Foritemsobtainedthroughacommercialdatabase,youmaygivethenameofthedatabaseinstead.See15.4.1formoredetails.Notethatdatabasesforlegalcasesmaymarkpage(screen)divisionswithanasterisk.Theseshouldberetainedinspecificreferences(seealso19.9.7).

R:USCongress.HouseofRepresentatives.SelectCommitteeonHomelandSecurity.2002.HomelandSecurityActof2002.107thCong.,2dsess.HRRep.107-609,pt.1.AccessedSeptember8,2011.http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-107hrpt609/pdf/CRPT-107hrpt609-pt1.pdf.

UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.2011.Resolution2002.July29.AccessedOctober10,2011.http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_resolutions11.htm.

McNameev.DepartmentoftheTreasury.488F.3d100,*3(2dCir.2007).AccessedSeptember25,2011.LexisNexisAcademic.

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19.10OneSourceQuotedinAnotherResponsibleresearchersavoidrepeatingquotationsthattheyhavenotactuallyseenintheoriginal.Ifonesourceincludesausefulquotationfromanothersource,readersexpectyoutoobtaintheoriginaltoverifynotonlythatthequotationisaccuratebutalsothatitfairlyrepresentswhattheoriginalmeant.

Iftheoriginalsourceisunavailable,however,citeitas quotedin thesecondarysourceinyourreferencelist.Inaparentheticalcitation,giveonlythenameoftheoriginalauthor.

R:Zukofsky,Louis.1931.“SincerityandObjectification.”Poetry37(February):269.QuotedinBonnieCostello,MarianneMoore:ImaginaryPossessions(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981).

P:(Zukofsky1931,269)

Thesamesituationmayarisewithaquotationyoufindinasecondarysourcedrawnfromaprimarysource(see3.1.1).Often,youwillnotbeabletoconsulttheprimarysource,especiallyifitisinanunpublishedmanuscriptcollection.Inthiscase,followtheprinciplesoutlinedabove.

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PartIII

Style

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20Spelling

20.1Plurals

20.1.1GeneralRule20.1.2SpecialCases

20.2Possessives

20.2.1GeneralRule20.2.2SpecialCases

20.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixes

20.3.1CompoundsUsedasAdjectives20.3.2CompoundsUsedasBothNounsandAdjectives20.3.3WordsFormedwithPrefixes

20.4LineBreaks

20.4.1BreakswithinWords20.4.2BreaksoverSpacesandPunctuation

ModelyourspellingonAmericanusageandbeconsistent,exceptinquotations,whereyoushouldusuallyfollowtheoriginalspellingexactly(seechapter25).Whenindoubt,consultadictionary.Beaware,however,thatdictionariesoftendifferonhowtospellthesamewordandthatsomearemoreaccurateandup-to-datethanothers.

ThemostreliableauthorityforspellingisWebster sThirdNewInternationalDictionaryoritsabridgment,theeleventheditionofMerriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionary.BothareavailableonlineandinbookandCD-ROMformats.Forthenamesofpeopleandplaces,consultWebster sortheseparatepublicationsMerriam-Webster sBiographicalDictionaryandMerriam-Webster sGeographicalDictionary.

WhereWebster soffersachoicebetweenspellings,usethefollowingprinciplestoselectone:wherevariantsareseparatedbyor,chooseeitheroneanduseitconsistently;wherevariantsareseparatedbyalso,usethefirst.IfthepreferredspellinginWebster sdiffersfromtheconventionaloneinyourdiscipline,followthespellingofthediscipline.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.

Thespell-checkingfeatureinmostwordprocessorscancatchcertainspellingerrorsbutnotothers.Itwillnormallyfailtorecognize,forexample,thatyoutypedandwhenyoumeantan,orquiteinsteadofquiet.Itwillprobablynothelpwithpropernounsorforeignterms,anditmayleadyoutomakeglobalspellingchangesthatinsomecasesareinaccurate.Aspell-checkerisnotasubstituteforagooddictionaryandcarefulproofreading.

Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforspellingsnotfoundinmostdictionaries.Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforspelling(includinguseofparticulardictionaries).Thoserequirementsareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesofspelling.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.

20.1Plurals

20.1.1GeneralRule

Formostcommonnouns,formthepluralbyaddingss(oresforwordsendinginch,j,s,sh,x,orz).Mostdictionariesgivepluralformsonlyforwordsthatdonotfollowthegeneralrule.

Thegeneralruleappliestothenamesofpersonsandtootherpropernouns,includingNativeAmericantribes.Ifsuchanounendsiny,donotchangetheytoie,asrequiredforcommonnouns.(Donotconfusepluralformswithpossessives,whicharedescribedin20.2.)

theCostellostheFrys(nottheFries)theRodriguezesthetwoGermanystheHopisofArizona(nottheHopi)

20.1.2SpecialCases

20.1.2.1COMPOUNDWORDS.Forcompoundwordsconsistingoftwonouns,makethelastnounplural(usuallybyaddingsores).

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bookkeepersdistrictattorneysactor-singers

Whenaprepositionalphraseoradjectivefollows,makethemainnounplural.

sisters-in-lawattorneysgeneralmen-of-war

20.1.2.2LETTERSANDNUMERALS.Inmostcases,formthepluralsofcapitallettersandnumeralsbyaddingsalone(not s).

threeAs,oneB,andtwoCsthe1950s767s

Withlowercaseletters,however,whereanswithoutanapostrophecanseemtocreateadifferentword(is)oranabbreviation(ms),addanapostrophe.Theapostropheandsareromaneveniftheletterisitalic(see22.2.2).

xʼsandyʼs

20.1.2.3ABBREVIATIONS.Formpluralsofabbreviationswithoutinternalperiodsbyaddingsalone.Ifthesingularformoftheabbreviationendsinaperiod,putthesbeforetheperiod.(See24.1.3onthepunctuationofabbreviations.Foracademicdegrees,see24.2.3.)

URLsDVDsPhDsvols.eds.

Afewabbreviationshaveirregularplurals(seealso24.7).

pp.(pluralofp.,page)nn.(pluralofn.,note)

Ifyouarewritinginthesciencesandusingabbreviationsforunitsofmeasure(see24.5),usethesameabbreviationforboththesingularandtheplural.

6kg37m2

20.1.2.4TERMSINITALICSANDQUOTATIONMARKS.Formthepluralofaterminitalicsbyaddingsalone(not s)inromantype.Formthepluralofaterminquotationmarksbyaddings;betteryet,rephrasethesentence.

twoChicagoTribunes

…includedmany“Tobecontinueds”

or,better,

…included“Tobecontinued”manytimes

20.2Possessives

20.2.1GeneralRule

Formthepossessiveofmostsingularcommonandpropernouns,includingthosethatendins,x,orz,byaddinganapostropheands.Thisrulealsoappliestolettersandnumeralsusedassingularnouns,andtoabbreviations.Italsoappliestopropernamesendingins(whetherornotthesispronounced),asinthelastthreeexamples.(Donotconfusepossessiveswithpluralforms,whicharedescribedin20.1.)Forspecialcases,see20.2.2.

anargumentʼseffectsthehorseʼsmouth2009ʼseconomicoutlookthephalanxʼsadvancethewaltzʼstempoJFKʼsspeech

168

RussʼssuggestionDescartesʼsDiscourseonMethodAristophanesʼsplays

Inanimatenouns exceptforreferencestotime rarelytakethepossessiveform.

adayʼslengthbutnotthehouseʼsdoor

Formthepossessiveofmostpluralcommonandpropernounsbyaddingonlyanapostrophe.Forspecialcases,see20.2.2.

politiciansʼvotesnotpoliticiansʼsvotes

theRodriguezesʼhousenottheRodriguezesʼshouse

Forirregularpluralsthatdonotendins,addsaftertheapostrophe.

themiceʼsnestchildrenʼsliterature

20.2.2SpecialCases

20.2.2.1SINGULARNOUNSENDINGINS.Formthepossessiveofthefollowingtypesofnounswithonlyanapostrophe:

■nounsthatnameagrouporcollectiveentitybutaretreatedasgrammaticallysingular

politicsʼtruemeaningtheUnitedStatesʼrole

■nounsinafewtraditionalFor sakeexpressionsthatendinansoranssound

forgoodnessʼsakeforrighteousnessʼsake

but

forappearanceʼssake

Toavoidanawkwardresult,rephrasingissometimesthebetteroption.(ForuseoftheabbreviationUSinacaselikethefirstonebelow,see24.3.1.)

theroleoftheUnitedStatesinsteadoftheUnitedStatesʼrole

forthesakeofappearanceinsteadofforappearanceʼssake

20.2.2.2COMPOUNDWORDS.Formthepossessivesofsingularcompoundwordsbyaddinganapostropheandstothelastword,evenifthemainnounisfirst.

hissister-in-lawʼsbusinesstheattorneygeneralʼsdecision

Formthepossessivesofpluralcompoundsintheusualway(byaddinganapostrophealone),unlessthenounisfollowedbyaprepositionalphraseoradjective(see20.1.2).Inthatcase,rephrase.

districtattorneysʼdecisions

but

decisionsoftheattorneysgeneral

not

169

attorneysʼgeneraldecisions

andnot

attorneysgeneralʼsdecisions

20.2.2.3MULTIPLENOUNS.Ifapossessiveindicatesthattwoormoreentitieseachpossesssomethingseparately,makeallthenounspossessive.

NewYorkʼsandChicagoʼsteamshistoriansʼandeconomistsʼmethods

Ifapossessiveindicatesthattwoormoreentitiespossesssomethingjointly,makeonlythelastnounpossessive.

MinneapolisandSt.Paulʼsteamshistoriansandeconomistsʼdata

20.2.2.4TERMSINITALICSANDQUOTATIONMARKS.Ifaterminitalicsispossessive,boththeapostropheandthesshouldbeinromantype.Donotaddapossessivetoaterminquotationmarks;rephrasethesentence.

theAtlanticMonthlyʼseditoradmirersof“OdeonaGrecianUrn”

Ifthetermendsinapluralform,addonlyanapostrophe(inromantype).Ifitalreadyendsinapossessiveform,leaveitaloneorrephrase.

theNewYorkTimesʼonlinerevenueHarperʼseditors(ortheeditorsofHarperʼs)

20.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixesCompoundscomeinthreeforms:hyphenated,open(withaspace,notahyphen,betweenelements),orclosed(spelledasoneword).Choosingtherightonecanbedifficult.Thebestauthorityisyourdictionary.Ifyoucannotfindacompoundthere,followtheprinciplesinthefollowingparagraphstodecidewhetherornottohyphenate.Ifyoucannotfindtheformineitherplace,leavethecompoundopen.

Thepatternsoutlinedbelowarenothard-and-fastrules.Youwillhavetodecidemanyindividualcasesonthebasisofcontext,personaltaste,orcommonusageinyourdiscipline.Althoughmuchofthesuggestedhyphenationislogicalandaidsreadability,someisonlytraditional.

20.3.1CompoundsUsedasAdjectives

Somecompoundsareusedonlyasadjectives.Inmostcases,hyphenatesuchacompoundwhenitprecedesthenounitmodifies;otherwiseleaveitopen.

Beforenoun

open-endedquestionfull-lengthtreatmentduty-freegoodsthought-provokingcommentaryover-the-counterdrugafrequentlyreferred-tobookspelled-outnumbers

Afternoun

mostofthequestionswereopenendedtreatmentisfulllengthgoodsbroughtindutyfreecommentarywasthoughtprovokingdrugsoldoverthecounterthisbookisfrequentlyreferredtonumbersthatarespelledout

Thereareafewexceptions:

■Ifacompoundthatwouldnormallybehyphenatedisprecededandmodifiedbyanadverb(suchasvery),omitthehyphen,becausethegroupingofthewordswillbecleartothereader.

Beforenounwithmodifier

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awell-knownauthoranill-advisedstep

Beforenounwithadverbmodifier

averywellknownauthorasomewhatilladvisedstep

■Hyphenatecompoundsthatbeginwithallorendwithfree.

Beforenoun

all-encompassingtreatmenttoll-freecall

Afternoun

treatmentwasall-encompassingthecallwastoll-free

■Hyphenatecompoundsthatendwiththetermsborne,like,andwide(bothbeforeandafterthenoun)unlessthetermislistedasclosedinWebster s.

Hyphenated

food-bornebell-likeChicago-wide

Closed(perWebsterʼs)

airbornechildlikeworldwide

■Comparativeconstructionsbeginningwithsuchtermsasmore/most,less/least,andbetter/bestshouldbehyphenatedonlywhentheremaybeconfusionaboutwhetherthecomparativetermismodifyingtheadjectivethatfollowswithinthecompoundorthenounafterthecompound.

Modifyingadjective

collegesproducemore-skilledworkers

Modifyingnoun

wehiredmoreskilledworkersfortheholidays

■Constructionsthatconsistofanadverbendingin-lyfollowedbyanadjectivearenotcompoundsandshouldnotbehyphenatedinanycontext.

Beforenoun

highlydevelopedspecieswidelydisseminatedliterature

Afternoun

thespecieswashighlydevelopedliteraturehasbeenwidelydisseminated

20.3.2CompoundsUsedasBothNounsandAdjectives

Somecompoundsareprimarilynounsbutcanalsofunctionasadjectiveswhentheyprecedeandmodifyanothernoun.(Unliketheexamplesin20.3.1,thesecompoundsarerarelyusedasadjectivesafteranoun,andthenonlywithalinkingverbsuchaswasorare,asinthethirdexamplebelow.)Inmostcases,hyphenatesuchacompoundwhenitprecedesanounthatitmodifies;otherwiseleaveitopen.

Adjectivebeforenoun

thedecision-makingprocessacontinuing-educationcourse

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amiddle-classneighborhood

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

decisionmakingbecameherspecialtyaprogramofcontinuingeducationherneighborhoodwasmiddleclass

Thereareafewexceptions:

■Foracompoundthatbeginswithe(shortforelectronic),ex,orself,useahypheninallcontexts.Oneexception:ifselfisprecededbyun,thecompoundshouldbeclosed(asinunselfconscious).

ex-husbandself-destructivee-mail

■Foracompoundthatendswithelect,useahypheninallcontextswhenthenameoftheofficeisonlyoneword,butleaveitopenwhenthenameistwoormorewords.

president-electdistrictattorneyelect

■Foracompoundformedbytwocoordinatednounsthatcouldbejoinedbyand,useahypheninallcontexts.

actor-singercity-statemother-daughterrelationshipparent-teacherconference

■Foracompoundcomposedofdirectionalwords,useaclosedcompoundwhenthetermdescribesasingledirection.Useahyphenifthecompoundconsistsofcoordinatednounsthatcouldbejoinedwithandorby.

northeastsouthwestastreetrunningnorth-southeast-southeastwinds

■Compoundsthatidentifyfamilyrelationshipsvaryinwhethertheyarecloseduporhyphenated.Whenindoubt,consultyourdictionary.(Forthepluralandpossessiveformsofin-lawcompounds,see20.1.2and20.2.2,respectively.)

grandfatherstepdaughterstep-grandmothergreat-grandmotherson-in-law

■Somefamiliarphrasesarealwayshyphenated.

stick-in-the-mudjack-of-all-trades

20.3.2.1COMPOUNDSINCLUDINGPROPERNOUNS.Leaveopenmostcompoundsthatincludepropernouns,includingnamesofethnicgroups.

Adjectivebeforenoun

AfricanAmericancultureFrenchCanadianexplorerMiddleEasterngeographyStateDepartmentemployeesKoreanWarveterans

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

anAfricanAmericanhaswrittentheexplorerwasFrenchCanadianthegeographyoftheMiddleEast

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employedbytheStateDepartmentveteransoftheKoreanWar

If,however,thefirsttermisshortened,useahyphen.

Afro-AmericancultureanAfro-Americanhaswritten

Ifcoordinatedtermscouldbejoinedbyand,hyphenatethem.

Israel-EgyptpeacetreatySpanish-Englishdictionary

20.3.2.2COMPOUNDSINCLUDINGNUMBERS.Ifacompoundincludesanumber,hyphenateitifitprecedesanounthatitmodifies;otherwiseleaveitopen.(Fortheuseofnumeralsversusspelled-outnumbers,seechapter23.)

Adjectivebeforenoun

fifty-yearprojecttwenty-one-year-oldstudenttwentieth-centuryliteraturethird-floorapartment214-daystandoff

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

theprojecttookfiftyyearsthestudentwastwenty-oneyearsoldstudiedtheliteratureofthetwentiethcenturyshelivedonthethirdfloorstandoffthatlasted214days

Thereareafewexceptions:

■Alwaysleaveopenacompoundincludingthewordpercent,andgivethenumberinarabicnumerals(see23.1.3).

a15percentincreaseincreasedby15percent

■Alwaysuseahyphentospellafractionwithwords.(See23.1.3foruseofnumeralsversusspelled-outnumbersinfractions.)

atwo-thirdsmajorityamajorityoftwo-thirds

■Forafractionbeginningwithhalforquarter,useahyphenwhenitprecedesanounthatitmodifies;otherwiseleaveitopen.

Adjectivebeforenoun

ahalf-hoursessionaquarter-milerun

Noun,oradjectiveafternoun

afterahalfhourhadpassedranaquartermile

■Foracompoundindicatingaspanofnumbers,useahypheninbothterms,butomitthesecondpartofthecompoundinthefirstterm.

five-toten-minuteintervalseight-toten-year-olds

20.3.3WordsFormedwithPrefixes

Wordsformedwithprefixesarenormallyclosed,whethertheyarenouns(postmodernism),verbs(misrepresent),adjectives(antebellum),oradverbs(prematurely).Useahyphen,however,inthesecases:

■whentheprefixiscombinedwithacapitalizedword

sub-Saharanbut

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subdivision

pro-Asianbutpronuclear

■whentheprefixiscombinedwithanumeral

pre-1950butpredisposed

mid-8osbutmidlife

■toseparatetwoi s,twoa s,orothercombinationsoflettersorsyllablesthatmightcausemisreading

anti-intellectualbutantidepressant

intra-arterialbutintramural

■whentheprefixprecedesacompoundwordthatishyphenatedoropen

non-coffee-drinkingbutnonbelief

post-highschoolbutpostgame

■toseparaterepeatedtermsinadoubleprefix

sub-subentry

■whenaprefixstandsalone

pre-andpostwarmacro-andmicroeconomics

Thesepatternsapplytowordsformedwiththefollowingprefixes,amongothers.

anteantibibiococountercyberextrahyperinfrainterintramacromegametanicromidminimultineononpost

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preproprotopseudoresemisociosubsupersupratransultraun

Thepatternsalsoapplytoprepositionssuchasoverandunderthatcanbeattachedtowordsinthesamepositionasprefixes.

overachieverunderhandedover-andunderused

20.4LineBreaks

20.4.1BreakswithinWords

Formostpapers,theonlywordsthatshouldbehyphenatedattheendsoflinesarethoseyouhavedeliberatelyhyphenated,suchascompounds(see20.3).Setyourwordprocessortoaligntextflushleft(witha ragged rightmargin),anddonotuseitsautomatedhyphenationfeature.

If,however,youarerequiredtousefulljustification(whereboththeleftandrightmarginsarealigned),youmayhavetohyphenatelinestoavoidlargegapsbetweenwords.Setyourwordprocessortolimittothreethenumberofconsecutivelinesendingwithhyphens(toavoida hyphenblock alongthemargin),butdonotrelyentirelyonyourwordprocessor sautomatedhyphenationfeature.Itwillbegenerallyreliable,butitmayintroduceerrors.Soreviewwordbreaks,especiallyasyourpapernearscompletion.Whenindoubt,consultyourdictionary,whichindicatesacceptablebreakswithcentereddotsorsimilardevicesinthemainwordentry.(Useyourwordprocessortocreateexceptionsforwordsthatyoudonotwanthyphenated.Tomanuallyaddanend-of-linehyphen,insertanoptionalhyphenfromyourwordprocessor smenuforspecialformattingcharacters.)

Onespecialtypeofproblemconcernswordswiththesamespellingbutdifferentpronunciations.Suchwordsmayhavedifferentsyllablebreaks,suchasrec-ordandre-cord.Yourwordprocessormaybreaksuchwordsidenticallyregardlessofcontext.

20.4.2BreaksoverSpacesandPunctuation

Yourwordprocessormayalsoallowcertaintypesofunacceptablelinebreakstooccuroverspacesorpunctuation.Alwaysreviewyourpaperforsuchbreaks.

■Initials.Ifinitialsareusedinplaceofbothaperson sfirstandmiddlenames,includeaspacebetweenthembutdonotdividethemoveraline(youcan,however,breakthenamebeforethelastname).Becauselineswillreflowasyouwriteyourpaper,itisbesttoreplacesuchspaceswithnonbreakingspaces,availableinmostwordprocessors.Seealso24.2.1.

M.F.K.FisherM.F.K./FisherbutnotM./F.K.Fisher

■Numbersanddates.Neverputalinebreakwithinnumbersexpressedasnumerals(25,000)oranytermsconsistingofnumeralsplussymbols,abbreviations,orunitsofmeasure(10%; 64s.6d.;6:40p.m.;AD1895;245ml).Usenonbreakingspacesasneeded.Seechapter23formoreonnumbersanddatesystems.

■Punctuation.Neverbeginalinewithaclosingquotationmark,parenthesis,orbracket(andifthishappens,itmaybeasignofanextra,unneededspacebeforethemark).Neverendalinewithanopeningquotationmark,parenthesis,orbracket(alsoasignofapossibleerrantspace,afterthemark)orwith(a)or(I),asatthebeginningofalist.Usenonbreakingspacesasneeded.Seechapter21formoreonpunctuationand23.4.2forlists.Avoidbreakinganellipsis(see25.3.2)overaline;useyourwordprocessor sellipsischaractertopreventthisproblem.

■URLsande-mailaddresses.AvoidbreakingURLsande-mailaddressesoverlines.Ifyouhavetobreakone,insertthebreakafteracolonoradoubleslash;beforeorafteranequalssignorampersand;orbeforeasingleslash,aperiod,oranyotherpunctuationorsymbol.HyphensarefrequentlyincludedaspartofaURLore-mailaddress,sotoavoidconfusion,neveraddahyphentoindicatethebreak.

http://www.press.uchicago.edu

http://www

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.press.uchicago.edu

http://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/subject.html

IfyourwordprocessorautomaticallyformatsURLsande-mailaddressesashyperlinks,youcangenerallyignoretheguidelinesabove aslongaseachfullURLoraddressisclearlyidentifiedasahyperlink(throughunderliningorasecondcolor)andnoextrahyphenshavebeenaddedtoindicatethelinebreaks.

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21Punctuation

21.1Periods

21.2Commas

21.2.1IndependentClauses21.2.2Series21.2.3NonrestrictiveClausesandPhrases21.2.4OtherUses

21.3Semicolons

21.4Colons

21.5QuestionMarks

21.6ExclamationPoints

21.7HyphensandDashes

21.7.1Hyphens21.7.2Dashes21.7.3MultipleDashes

21.8ParenthesesandBrackets

21.8.1Parentheses21.8.2Brackets

21.9Slashes

21.10QuotationMarks

21.11Apostrophes

21.12MultiplePunctuationMarks

21.12.1OmissionofPunctuationMarks21.12.2OrderofPunctuationMarks

Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpunctuationinthetextofyourpaper.Somerulesareclear-cut,butothersarenot,soyouoftenhavetodependonsoundjudgmentandagoodear.

Specialelementssuchasabbreviations,quotations,andsourcecitationshavetheirownguidelinesforpunctuation,whicharetreatedinrelevantchaptersinthisbook.

Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpunctuation,whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesforpunctuation.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.

21.1PeriodsAperiodendsasentencethatisadeclarativestatement,animperativestatement,oranindirectquestion.Aperiodcanalsoendasentencefragment,ifthecontextmakesitsrhetoricalfunctionclear,butthisusageisrareinacademicwriting.Inallthesecases,theperiodisaterminalperiodand,betweensentences,shouldbefollowedbyasinglespace.

Considertheadvantagesofthismethod.

Thequestionwaswhetherthesedifferencescouldbereconciled.

Putaperiodattheendofitemsinaverticallistonlyiftheitemsarecompletesentences(see23.4.2).Otherwise,omitterminalperiods,evenforthelastitem,anddonotcapitalizethefirstwords.

Thereportcoversthreeareas:

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1.thesecuritiesmarkets2.thesecuritiesindustry3.thesecuritiesindustryintheeconomy

Individualperiodscanalsobeusedinothercontexts,includingabbreviations(seeespecially24.1.3)andcitations(16.1.2and18.1.2),andalsoinURLs(20.4.2,17.1.7,and19.1.8),wheretheyareoftencalleddots.Stringsofperiods,ordots,canbeusedinquotations(see25.3.2),wheretheyarecalledellipses,andintables(26.2.6)andfrontmatterpages(A.2.1),wheretheyarecalledleaders.

Donotuseperiodsafterchapterandparttitlesandmostsubheadings(seeA.2.2)oraftertabletitles(26.2.2).Forperiodsinfigurecaptions,see26.3.2.

21.2CommasCommasseparateitemswithinasentence,includingclauses,phrases,andindividualwords.Theyareespeciallyimportantwhenareadermightmistakewhereaclauseorphraseendsandanotherbegins:

Beforeleavingthemembersofthecommitteemetintheassemblyroom.

Beforeleaving,themembersofthecommitteemetintheassemblyroom.

Foruseofcommasinnumbers,see23.2.2.Foruseofcommasincitations,see16.1.2and18.1.2.

21.2.1IndependentClauses

Inasentencecontainingtwoormoreindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunction(and,but,or,nor,for,so,yet),putacommabeforetheconjunction.Thisisnotahard-and-fastrule;nocommaisneededbetweentwoshortindependentclauseswithnointernalpunctuation.

StudentsaroundtheworldwanttolearnEnglish,andmanyyoungAmericansareeagertoteachthem.

Thesenatorarrivedatnoonandthepresidentleftatone.

Inasentencecontainingthreeormoreshortandsimpleindependentclauseswithnointernalpunctuation,separatetheclauseswithcommasandaddacoordinatingconjunctionbeforethelastone.(Alwaysincludeacommabeforethecoordinatingconjunction.)Iftheclausesarelongerandmorecomplex,separatethemwithsemicolons(see21.3) or,better,rewritethesentence.

Thecommitteedesignedthequestionnaire,thefieldworkerscollectedresponses,andthestatisticiananalyzedtheresults.

Thecommitteedesignedthequestionnaire,whichwasshort;thefieldworkers,whodidnotparticipate,collectedresponses;andthestatisticiananalyzedtheresults,thoughnotuntilseveraldayslater.

Ordinarily,donotinsertacommabeforeaconjunctionjoiningtwosubjectsortwopredicates.

Theagenciesthatdesignthesurveysandtheanalystswhoevaluatetheresultsshouldworktogether.

Theydonotcondonesuchpracticesbutattempttorefutethemtheoretically.

Whenasentencewithtwoindependentcoordinateclausesopenswithaphraseordependentclausethatmodifiesboth,putacommaaftertheintroductoryelementbutnotbetweenthetwoindependentclauses.

Withintenyears,interestratessurgedandthehousingmarketdeclined.

21.2.2Series

Inaseriesconsistingofthreeormorewords,phrases,orclauseswithnointernalpunctuationoftheirown,separatetheelementswithcommas.Alwaysuseacommabeforetheconjunctionthatintroducesthelastitem.

Thegovernorwrotehissenators,thepresident,andthevicepresident.

AttendingtheconferencewereFernandez,Sullivan,andKendrick.

Thepublicapproved,thecommitteeagreed,butthemeasurefailed.

Donotusecommaswhenalltheelementsinaseriesarejoinedbyconjunctions.

Thepaletteconsistedofblueandgreenandorange.

Ifaseriesofthreeormorewords,phrases,orclausesendswithanexpressionindicatingcontinuation(andsoforth,andsoon,andthelike,oretc.),punctuatethatfinalexpressionasthoughitwerethefinalitemintheseries.Youmay,however,addacommaafterthecontinuationexpressiontopreventconfusionafteralongseries.

Theydiscussedmovies,books,plays,andthelikeuntillateinthenight.

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Usingsuchtechniques,managementcanimprovenotonlyproductivitybutalsohours,workingconditions,training,benefits,andsoon,withoutreducingwages.

Usesemicolonstoseparatetheitemsinaseriesifoneormoreincludescommas,oriftheitemsarelongandcomplex(see21.3).Ifsuchaseriescomesbeforethemainverbofasentence,however,rephrasethesentence.

ThethreecitiesthatwecompareareHartford,Connecticut;Kalamazoo,Michigan;andPasadena,California.

butnot

Hartford,Connecticut;Kalamazoo,Michigan;andPasadena,California,arethethreecitiesthatwecompare.

21.2.3NonrestrictiveClausesandPhrases

Usepairedcommastosetoffanonrestrictiveclause.Aclauseisnonrestrictiveifitisnotnecessarytouniquelyidentifythenounitmodifies.

Thesefivebooks,whichareonreserveinthelibrary,arerequiredreading.

Here,thenounphraseThesefivebooksuniquelyidentifiesthebooksthatthewriterhasinmind;thenonrestrictiveclauseisnotnecessarytoidentifythebooksfurther.Ontheotherhand,inthefollowingsentence,thedependentclause(thatarerequiredreading)isrestrictive,becauseitidentifiesaspecificsubsetofbooksthatareonreserveatthelibrary.Commasarethereforenotusedaroundtheclause.

Thebooksthatarerequiredreadingareonreserveinthelibrary.

Althoughwhichisoftenusedwithrestrictiveclauses,Americanwritersgenerallypreservethedistinctionbetweenrestrictivethat(nocomma)andnonrestrictivewhich(comma).

Theprinciplesdescribedaboveapplyalsotorestrictiveandnonrestrictivephrases.

Thepresident,wearingareddress,attendedtheconference.

Thewomanwearingareddressisthepresident.

21.2.4OtherUses

Commasareusedinavarietyofothersituations.(Forcommasindates,see23.3.1.)

■Introductorywordsandphrases.Whenyoubeginasentencewithanintroductoryelementofmorethanafewwords,followitwithacomma.Acommaisnotnecessaryafterashortprepositionalphraseunlessthesentencecouldbemisreadwithoutone.

Iftheinsurrectionistosucceed,thearmyandpolicemuststandsidebyside.

Havingaccomplishedhermission,shereturnedtoheadquarters.

ToAnthony,Blakeremainedanenigma.

Afterthisweekthecommissionwillbeabletowriteitsreport.

■Twoormoreadjectivesprecedinganoun.Separatetwoormoreadjectivesprecedinganounwithcommaswhentheycould,withoutaffectingmeaning,bejoinedbyand.Donotuseacommaifoneormoreoftheadjectivesisessentialto(i.e.,formsaunitwith)thenoun.(Test:ifyoucannotchangetheorderoftheadjectives,donotusecommas.)

Itwasalarge,well-placed,beautifulhouse.

Theystrolledoutintothewarm,luminousnight.

Sherefusedtobeidentifiedwithatraditionalpoliticallabel.

■Clarifyingcomments.Wordsandphrasessuchasnamely,thatis,andforexample,whichusuallyintroduceaclarifyingcomment,shouldbefollowedbyacommabutprecededbysomethingstronger(suchasasemicolonoraperiod).Whenyouuseorinthesenseof inotherwords, putacommabeforeit.(Theseandsimilarexpressionsmayalsobesetoffbydashesorparentheses;see21.7.2and21.8.1.)

Manypeopleresentaccidentsoffate;thatis,theylookonillnessorbereavementasundeserved.

Thecompassstand,orbinnacle,mustbevisibletothehelmsman.

■Appositives.Awordorphraseissaidtobeinappositiontoanounwhenitfollowsthenounandprovidesanexplanatoryequivalentforit.Non-restrictiveappositivesaresetoffbycommas;restrictiveappositivesarenot(see21.2.3).

Chua,aHarvardCollegegraduate,taughtatDukeforseveralyears.

179

Kierkegaard,theDanishphilosopher,asked,“Whatisanxiety?”

but

TheDanishphilosopherKierkegaardasked,“Whatisanxiety?”

■Place-names.Usecommastosetoffmultipleindividualelementsinnamesofplaces.(Forcommasinaddresses,see23.1.7.)

Cincinnati,Ohio,isontheOhioRiver.

ThenextlegofthetripwastoFlorence,Italy.

■Interjectionsandconjunctiveaduerbs.Setoffinterjections,conjunctiveadverbs,andtheliketosuggestabreakintheflowofthoughtortherhythmofthesentence.Butomitcommaswhensuchelementsdonotbreakthecontinuityofthesentence.

Nevertheless,itisamatterofgreatimportance.

Itis,perhaps,thebestthatcouldbeexpected.

Perhapsitisthereforeclearthatnodepositsweremade.

■Contrastedelements.Putcommasaroundaninterjectedphrasebeginningwithnot,notonly,orsimilarexpressions.Butwhensuchaphraseconsistsoftwocomponents(not but,notonly butalso,andthelike),commasareusuallyunnecessary.Useacommabetweenclausesofthemore themoretypeunlesstheyareveryshort.

Theidea,notitsexpression,issignificant.

Shewasdelightedwith,butalsodisturbedby,hernewfreedom.

Hewasnotonlytheteamʼspresidentbutalsoachartermember.

Themoreitstaysthesame,thelessitchanges.

Themorethemerrier.

■Parentheticalelements.Usepairedcommaswhenyousetoffaparentheticalelementbetweenasubjectandaverboraverbanditsobject.Ifyoufindyourselfsettingoffmorethanonesuchinterruptingelementinasentence,considerrewritingthesentence.

TheQuinnReportwas,tosaytheleast,abombshell.

Wolinski,afterreceivinginstructions,leftforAlgiers.

■Repeatedwords.Useacommatoseparateidenticalwords.Anexceptionisnormallymadeforthewordthat.

Theymarchedin,intwos.

Whateveris,isright.

but

Sheimpliedthatthatdidnotmatter.

21.3SemicolonsAsemicolonisstrongerthanacommaandmarksagreaterbreakinthecontinuityofasentence.Useasemicoloninacompoundsentencetoseparateindependentclausesthatarenotconnectedbyacoordinatingconjunction(and,but,or,nor,yet,for,so).

Onehundredcommunitiesareinvariousstagesofcompletion;moreareonthedrawingboard.

Youcanalsouseasemicolonwithacoordinatingconjunctioniftheclausesarelongandhavecommasorotherpunctuationwithinthem.Butiftheresultseemsunwieldy,considerreplacingthesemicolonwithaperiod.

AlthoughproductivitypercapitaintheUnitedStatesismuchhigherthanitisinChina,Chinahasanincreasinglywelleducatedyounglaborforce;butthecrucialpointisthatknowledge—whichistransferablebetweenpeoples—hasbecomethemostimportantworldeconomicresource.

Useasemicolonbeforethewordsthen,however,thus,hence,indeed,accordingly,besides,andthereforewhenthosewordsareusedtransitionallybetweentwoindependentclauses.

Somethinkfreedomalwayscomeswithdemocracy;however,manyvotersinmanycountrieshavevotedforgovernmentsthattheyknowwillrestricttheirrights.

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Whenitemsinaserieshaveinternalpunctuation,separatethemwithsemicolons(seealso21.2.2).

Greenindicatesvegetationthatremainedstable;red,vegetationthatdisappeared;yellow,newvegetation.

Semicolonsarealsosometimesusedintitles(see17.1.2and19.1.3)andtoseparatecitationstomorethanonesource(see16.3.5.1and18.3.2.5).

21.4ColonsAcolonintroducesaclause,phrase,orseriesofelementsthatexpands,clarifies,orexemplifiesthemeaningofwhatprecedesit.Betweenindependentclauses,itfunctionsmuchlikeasemicolon,thoughmorestronglyemphasizingbalanceorconsequence.

Peopleexpectthreethingsofgovernment:peace,prosperity,andrespectforcivilrights.

Chinesecultureisunrivaledinitsdepthandantiquity:itisunmatchedinitsrichartisticandphilosophicalrecords.

Useacolontointroduceillustrativematerialoralist.Acolonshouldfollowonlyacompleteindependentclause;oftenanintroductoryelementsuchasthefollowingorasfollowsshouldprecedethecolon.(Seealso23.4.2.)

Thequalificationsareasfollows:adoctorateineconomicsandanabilitytocommunicatestatisticaldatatoalayaudience.

butnot

Thequalificationsare:adoctorateineconomics…

Notethatthefirstwordfollowingacolonwithinasentenceisgenerallynotcapitalizedunlessitisapropernounorunlessthecolonintroducesmorethanonesentence.Forcapitalizationinquotationsintroducedbyacolon,seechapter25.

Colonsarealsousedintitles(see17.1.2and19.1.3),innotationsoftime(23.1.5),inURLs(17.1.7and19.1.8),andinvariouswaysincitations.

21.5QuestionMarksPutaquestionmarkattheendofacompletesentencephrasedasaquestion.

Whowouldleadthenationinitshourofneed?

Putaquestionmarkafteraclausephrasedasaquestionandincludedaspartofasentence.Donotusequotationmarksunlessthequestionisaquotationandtherestofthesentenceisnot.

Wouldtheunionagree?wasthecriticalquestion.

Iftheincludedquestionisattheendofthesentence,donotaddaperiodafterthequestionmark.Youarenotrequiredtocapitalizethefirstwordoftheincludedquestion,butaninitialcapitalhelpsreadersidentifythequestion,especiallyifitincludesinternalpunctuation.Ifthesentencebecomesawkward,youmayinsteadrephrasethequestionasadeclarativestatement.

Severallegislatorsraisedthequestion,Canthefundbeusedinanemergency,ormustitremaindedicatedtoitsoriginalpurpose?

Severallegislatorsraisedthequestionofusingthefundinanemergency,whichwasnotitsoriginalpurpose.

Aquestionmarkmayalsoindicatedoubtoruncertainty,asinadate.

ThepainterNiccolòdellʼAbbate(1512?–71)assistedinthedecorationsatFontainebleau.

21.6ExclamationPointsExclamationpointsarerarelyappropriateforacademicwriting,exceptwhentheyarepartofquotedmaterialorpartofthetitleofawork(themusicalOklahoma!).Seealso21.12.2.1.

21.7HyphensandDashes

21.7.1Hyphens

Hyphensareusedinavarietyofcontexts,includingcompoundwords(see20.3)andinclusivenumbers(23.2.4).

21.7.2Dashes

Adashisanelongatedhyphenusedtosetofftextinawaysimilartobutmoreprominentthancommas(see21.2)orparentheses(21.8.1).Alsocalledanemdash(becauseinmostfontsitisapproximatelythewidthofthecapitalletterM),thischaracterisavailableinmostwordprocessors.1Itcanberepresentedwithtwoconsecutivehyphens,butmostwordprocessorscanbesettoconvertdoublehyphenstoemdashesautomatically.Donotleavespaceoneithersideofthedash.

Whenyouusedashestosetoffaparentheticalelement,pairthemasyouwouldcommasorparentheses.Butavoidusingmore

181

thanonepairinanyonesentence;instead,useparenthesesforthesecondlayerofparentheticalinformation.

Theinfluenceofthreeimpressionists—Monet(1840–1926),Sisley(1839–99),andDegas(1834–1917)—isobviousinherwork.

Youcanalsouseasingledashtosetoffanamplifyingorexplanatoryelement.

Itwasarevivalofamostpotentimage—therevolutionaryidea.

Useadashorapairofdashesenclosingaphrasetoindicateastrongbreakinthoughtthatalsodisruptsthesentencestructure.

Rutherford—howcouldhehavemisinterpretedtheevidence?

SomecharactersinTomJonesare“flat”—ifyoudonotobjecttothisborrowingofE.M.Forsterʼssomewhatdiscreditedterm—becausetheyarecaricaturesoftheirnames.

Adashmayalsointroduceasummarizingsubjectafteralistofseveralelements.

Thestatueofthediscusthrower,thecharioteeratDelphi,thepoetryofPindar—allrepresentthegreatideal.

21.7.3MultipleDashes

Whenyouquotefromamutilatedorillegibletext,indicateamissingwordormissingletterswitha2-emdash(formedwithtwoconsecutiveemdashes,orfourhyphens).Foramissingword,leaveaspaceoneithersideofthedash;formissingletters,leavenospacebetweenthedashandtheexistingpartoftheword.

Thevesselleftthe____ofJuly.

H____h?[Hirsch?]

Thesametechniquecanbeusedwhenyouwanttoobscureaparticularword.

Itwasad____shame.

A3-emdash(formedwiththreeconsecutiveemdashes,orsixhyphens)isusedinbibliographiesandreferenceliststorepresenttherepeatednameofanauthororeditor(see16.2.2and18.2.1).

21.8ParenthesesandBrackets

21.8.1Parentheses

Parenthesesusuallysetoffexplanatoryorinterruptingelementsofasentence,muchlikepairedcommas(see21.2)anddashes(21.7.2).Ingeneral,usecommasformaterialcloselyrelatedtothemainclause,dashesandparenthesesformateriallesscloselyconnected.Theabbreviationse.g.andi.e.,whichmayintroduceaclarifyingcomment(see24.7),areusedonlyinparenthesesorinnotes.

Theconferencehas(withsomemalice)dividedintofourgroups.

Eachpaintingdepictsapublicoccasion;ineach—abanquet,aparade,acoronation(thoughthepersoncrownedisobscured)—crowdsofpeoplearepicturedasswarmingants.

Therearetaxincentivesfor“cleancars”(e.g.,gasoline-electrichybridsandvehiclespoweredbycompressednaturalgasandliquefiedpropane).

Parenthesescanalsobeusedwithcitations(seechapters16and18)andtosetoffthenumbersorlettersinalistoranoutline(see23.4.2).

21.8.2Brackets

Bracketsaremostoftenusedinquotations,toindicatechangesmadetoaquotedpassage(see25.3forexamples).Theycanalsobeusedtoencloseasecondlayerofparentheticalmaterialwithinparentheses.

Heagreeswiththeideathatchildhoodhasahistory(firstadvancedbyPhilippeAriès[1914-84]inhisbookCenturiesofChildhood[1962]).

21.9SlashesTheforwardslash(/)isusedinafewcontexts,suchasfractions(see23.1.3)andquotationsofpoetry(see25.2.1.2).SingleanddoubleslashesappearinURLsandotherelectronicidentifiers(see20.4.2).Thebackwardslash(orbackslash,\)hasvariousmeaningsindifferentcomputerlanguagesandoperatingsystems.

21.10QuotationMarks

182

Fortheuseofquotationmarksinquotedmaterial,see25.2.1.2.Foruseintitlesandotherspecialsituations,see22.3.2.Foruseincitations,see16.1.4and18.1.4.

Somefields linguistics,philosophy,andtheology,forexample usesinglequotationmarkstosetoffwordsandconcepts.Theclosingquotationmarkshouldprecedeacommaorperiodinthiscase(compare21.12.2).

kami hair,beard

Thevariablesofquantification,ʻsomethingʼ,ʻnothingʼ,…

Inmostotherfields,followtheguidelinesin22.2.2forusingquotationmarksanditalicswithdefinitionsofterms.

21.11ApostrophesFortheuseofapostrophesinpluralandpossessiveforms,see20.1and20.2.Apostrophesarealsousedinformingcontractions(don t).Ifyourwordprocessorisenabledtousedirectionalor smart quotationmarks,makesurenottoconfuseanapostropheforaleftsinglequotationmark( twas,not twas.)

21.12MultiplePunctuationMarksTheguidelinesgiventhroughoutthischaptersometimescallfortheuseoftwopunctuationmarkstogether forexample,aperiodandaclosingparenthesis.Theguidelinesbelowshowwhentoomitoneofthemarksandtheorderofthemarkswhenbothareused.

21.12.1OmissionofPunctuationMarks

Exceptforellipses,neverusetwoperiodstogether,evenwhenaperiodinanabbreviationendsasentence.Keeptheabbreviationperiodwhenasentenceendswithaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.

Theexchangeoccurredat5:30p.m.

CouldanyonematchtheproductivityofRogersInc.?

Ifasituationcallsforbothacommaandastrongerpunctuationmark,suchasaquestionmarkoradash,omitthecomma.

“Whatweretheythinking?”hewonderedtohimself.

Whilethesenatorcouldnʼtendorsetheproposal—andhecertainlyhaddoubtsaboutit—hedidnʼtcondemnit.

Anexceptioncanbemadefortitlesofworksthatendinaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Becausesuchpunctuationisnotstrictlyrelatedtotherestofthesentence,retaincommaswhereneeded.

“AreYouaDoctor?,”thefifthstoryinWillYouPleaseBeQuiet,Please?,treatsmodernlove.

FilmssuchasAirplane!,ThisIsSpinalTap,andAustinPowersofferparodiesofwell-establishedgenres.

21.12.2OrderofPunctuationMarks

Adjacentmarksofpunctuationmostoftenoccurwithquotationmarks,parentheses,orbrackets.Americanusagefollowsafewreliableguidelinesfororderingmultiplemarks.

21.12.2.1WITHQUOTATIONMARKS.Afinalcommaorperiodnearlyalwaysprecedesaclosingquotationmark,whetheritispartofthequotedmatterornot.

Insupportoftheeffort“tobringjusticetoourpeople,”shejoinedthestrike.

Shemadetheargumentinanarticletitled“OnʼManagingPublicDebt.ʼ”

Therearetwoexceptions.Whensinglequotationmarksareusedtosetoffspecialtermsincertainfields,suchaslinguistics,philosophy,andtheology(see21.10),putaperiodorcommaaftertheclosingquotationmark.

Somecontemporarytheologians,whofavoredʻreligionlessChristianityʼ,wereproclaimingtheʻdeathofGodʼ.

Andifacomputerfilenameorcommandmustbeputinquotationmarks,aperiodorcommathatisnotpartofthenameorthecommandshouldcomeaftertheclosingmark.

ClickonSaveAs;nameyourfile“appendixA,v.10”.

Questionmarksandexclamationpointsprecedeaclosingquotationmarkiftheyarepartofthequotedmatter.Theyfollowthequotationmarkiftheyapplytotheentiresentenceinwhichthequotationappears.

Herpoemistitled“WhatDidtheCrowKnow?”

DoweacceptJeffersonʼsconceptof“anaturalaristocracy”?

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Semicolonsandcolonsalwaysfollowquotationmarks.Ifthequotationendswithasemicolonoracolon,changeittoaperiodoracomma(ordeleteit)tofitthestructureofthemainsentence(see25.3.1).

Heclaimedthat“everychoicereflectsanattitudetowardEveryman”;hisspeechthenenlargedonthepointinatellingway.

TheEmergencyCenteris“almostitsowncity”:ithasitsownservicesandgovernance.

21.12.2.2WITHPARENTHESESANDBRACKETS.Whenyouencloseacompletesentenceinparentheses,puttheterminalperiod(orotherterminalpunctuationmark)forthatsentencebeforethelastparenthesis.However,puttheperiodoutsidewhenmaterialinparentheses,evenagrammaticallycompletesentence,isincludedwithinanothersentence.Thesameprinciplesapplytomaterialinbrackets.

WehavenotedsimilarmotifsinJapan.(TheycanalsobefoundinKoreanfolktales.)

Useperiodsinallthesesituations(yourreaderswillexpectthem).

Mythshavebeenacceptedasallegoricallytrue(bytheStoics)andaspriestlylies(byEnlightenmentthinkers).

(Thedirectorpromisedcompletion“ontimeandunderbudget”[italicsmine].)

Forterminalpunctuationwithcitationsgivenparenthetically,see25.2.

1.Thereisasecondtypeofdash,calledanendash(becauseitisapproximatelythewidthofthecapitalletterN),thatisusedinpublishedworkstomean through, usuallyinconnectionwithnumbersordates(e.g.,1998 2008).Itcanalsobeusedinothercontexts,asdiscussedin6.78-81ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Ifyourlocalguidelinesrequireit,thischaracterisavailableinmostwordprocessors;otherwiseuseahypheninthesecontexts.Notethatthisbookusesendasheswheretheyareappropriate,asintheprecedingreferencetoCMOS.

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22Names,SpecialTerms,andTitlesofWorks

22.1Names

22.1.1People,Places,andOrganizations22.1.2HistoricalEvents,CulturalTerms,andDesignationsofTime22.1.3OtherTypesofNames

22.2SpecialTerms

22.2.1Foreign-LanguageTerms22.2.2WordsDefinedasTerms

22.3TitlesofWorks

22.3.1Capitalization22.3.2ItalicsorQuotationMarks22.3.3Punctuation

Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpresentingnames,specialterms,andtitlesofworks,includingadviceonwhentousecapitallettersandwhentousequotationmarksoritalictype(asopposedtoregularromantype)tosetoffwords,phrases,ortitles.

Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpresentingnames,specialterms,andtitles.Thoserequirementsareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesforpresentingsuchitems.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.

22.1NamesPropernouns,ornames,arealwayscapitalized,butitissometimesdifficulttodistinguishanamefromagenericterm.Thissectioncoversthemostcommoncases.Formoredetailedinformation,seechapter8ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).

Intext,namesarenormallypresentedinromantype,butthereareafewexceptionsnotedin22.1.3.

22.1.1People,Places,andOrganizations

Ingeneral,capitalizethefirstletterineachelementofthenamesofspecificpeople,places,andorganizations.However,personalnamesthatcontainparticles(suchasdeandvan)orcompoundlastnamesmayvaryincapitalization.Whenindoubt,consultWebster sBiographicalDictionaryoranotherreliableauthority.Prepositions(of)andconjunctions(and)thatarepartsofnamesareusuallylowercase,asisthewhenitprecedesaname.Forpossessiveformsofnames,see20.2.Forabbreviationswithnames,see24.2.Fornameswithnumbers,see23.1.6.

EleanorRooseveltW.E.B.DuBoisLudwigvanBeethovenVictoriaSackville-WestChiangKai-shekSierraLeoneCentralAmericaNewYorkCitytheAtlanticOceantheRepublicofLithuaniatheUnitedStatesCongresstheStateDepartmenttheEuropeanUniontheUniversityofNorthCarolinatheHondaMotorCompanySkidmore,Owings&MerrilltheUniversityofChicagoPresstheNationalConferenceofCommunityandJusticetheRomanCatholicChurchtheAlliedExpeditionaryForce

Aprofessionaltitlethatimmediatelyprecedesapersonalnameistreatedaspartofthenameandshouldbecapitalized.Ifyouuse

185

thetitlealoneorafterthepersonalname,itbecomesagenerictermandshouldbelowercased.Thesameprincipleappliestoothergenerictermsthatarepartofplaceororganizationnames.

PresidentHarryTrumanannouncedthepresidentannounced

ProfessorsHarrisandWilsonwrotetheprofessorswrote

nexttotheIndianOceannexttotheocean

studentsatAlbionCollegestudentsatthecollege

Namesofethnicandnationalgroupsarealsocapitalized.Termsdenotingsocioeconomiclevel,however,arenot.(Forhyphenationofcompoundsofbothtypes,see20.3.2.Forpluralsoftribalnames,suchasHopi,see20.1.1.)

ArabAmericansLatinos

themiddleclasswhite-collarworkers

Capitalizeadjectivesderivedfromnames,unlesstheyhavelosttheirliteralassociationswithparticularpersonsorplacesandhavebecomepartofeverydaylanguage.

MachiavellianschemeRomanandArabicart

frenchfriesromanandarabicnumerals

22.1.2HistoricalEvents,CulturalTerms,andDesignationsofTime

Thenamesofmanyhistoricalperiodsandeventsaretraditionallycapitalized;moregenerictermsusuallyarenot,unlesstheyincludenames.Followtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.

theBronzeAgetheDepressiontheIndustrialRevolutionProhibitiontheSevenYearsʼWar

ancientRomethenineteenthcenturytheShangdynastythecolonialperiodthebabyboom

Nounsandadjectivesdesignatingculturalstyles,movements,andschoolsaregenerallycapitalizedonlywhenderivedfromnamesorwhentheyneedtobedistinguishedfromgenericterms(asinStoicism).Again,followtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.

classicalimpressionismmodernismdeconstruction

AristotelianreasoningDadaismHudsonRiverschoolRomanesquearchitecture

Namesofdaysoftheweek,months,andholidaysarecapitalized,butnamesofseasonsarenot.Formoreondatesystems,see23.3.

TuesdaySeptemberIndependenceDayspring

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22.1.3OtherTypesofNames

Othertypesofnamesalsofollowspecificpatternsforcapitalization,andsomerequireitalics.

■Academiccoursesandsubjects.Capitalizethenamesofspecificcoursesbutnotofgeneralsubjectsorfieldsofstudy,exceptforthenamesoflanguages.

Archaeology101TopicsinVictorianLiterature

arthistoryEnglishliterature

■Acts,treaties,andgovernmentprograms.Capitalizetheformaloracceptedtitlesofacts,treaties,governmentprograms,andsimilardocumentsorentities,butlowercaseinformalorgenerictitles.

theUnitedStates(orUS)ConstitutiontheTreatyofVersaillesHeadStart

thedueprocessclausethetreaty

■Brandnames.Capitalizethebrandnamesofproducts,butdonotusethesymbol or aftersuchaname.Unlessyouarediscussingaspecificproduct,however,useagenericterminsteadofabrandname.

Coca-ColaXeroxiPhone

colaphotocopysmartphone

■Electronictechnology.Capitalizenamesofcomputerhardwareandsoftware,networks,browsers,systems,andlanguages.Genericterms(suchasweb),however,maybelowercasedwhenusedaloneorincombination.

AppleOSXLionGoogleChrometheInternet;thenettheWorldWideWeb;theweb;website

■Legalcases.Capitalizeanditalicizethenamesoflegalcases;italicizethev.(versus).Youmayshortenthecasenameafterafullreferencetoit(usuallytothenameoftheplaintifforthenongovernmentalparty).Forcitationsoflegalcases,see17.9.7and19.9.7.

FirstreferenceMirandav.ArizonaUnitedStatesv.Carlisle

SubsequentreferencesMirandaCarlisle

■Ships,aircraft,andothervessels.Capitalizeanditalicizethenamesofships,aircraft,andthelike.IfthenamesareprecededbyanabbreviationsuchasUSS(UnitedStatesship)orHMS(Her[orHis]Majesty sship),donotitalicizetheseabbreviationsorusethewordshipinadditiontothename.

USSConstitutionHMSSaranacSpiritofSt.LouisthespaceshuttleAtlantis

■Plantsandanimals.Inpapersinthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,donotcapitalizethenamesofplantsandanimalsunlesstheyincludeotherpropernouns,suchasgeographicalnames.BinomialLatinspeciesnamesshouldbeitalicized,withthegenusnamecapitalizedandthespeciesname(orspecificepithet)lowercase.Thenamesofphyla,orders,andsuchshouldbeinromantype.Forpapersinthesciences,followtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.

rhesusmonkey

187

RockyMountainsheepRosacarolinianaChordata

22.2SpecialTermsSomespecialtermsrequireuseofitalics,quotationmarks,andcapitalization.

22.2.1Foreign-LanguageTerms

ItalicizeisolatedwordsandphrasesinforeignlanguageslikelytobeunfamiliartoreadersofEnglish,andcapitalizethemasintheirlanguage.(Ifyouareunfamiliarwiththecapitalizationprinciplesofalanguage,consultareliableauthoritysuchaschapter11ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition[2010].)Fortitlesofworksinforeignlanguages,see22.3.1.

ThisleadstotheideaofÜbermenschandtothetheoryoftheactegratuitandsurrealism.

DonotitalicizeforeigntermsfamiliarenoughtoappearinMerriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionary.

defactovis-à-vispashaeros

Donotitalicizeforeignnamesorpersonaltitlesthataccompanythem.

PadrePio

theAcadémieFrançaise

thePuertodelSol

Ifyoudefineaforeignterm,putthedefinitioninparenthesesorquotationmarks,eitherfollowingtheterminthetextorinanote.

Theusualphrasewasenatuainu-iai,“Iwantedtoeat.”

AccordingtoSartreanontology,manisalwaysdetrop(inexcess).

Forlongerquotationsfromaforeignlanguage,useromantype.Italicizethequotationasawholeoranywordswithinitonlyiftheyareitalicizedintheoriginal.Enclosethequotationinquotationmarkswithinthetextoruseablockquotationfollowingtheprinciplesin25.2.

Theconfusionoflepragmatismeistracedtothesupposedfailuretodistinguish“lespropriétésdelavaleurengénéral”fromtheincidental.

22.2.2WordsDefinedasTerms

Toemphasizekeytermsthatyoudefine,italicizethemontheirfirstuse;thereafteruseromantype.Youcanusequotationmarks(calledscarequotes)toalertreadersthatyouareusingaterminanonstandardorironicway.Whenoverused,bothtechniquesbecomelesseffective.

Thetwochieftacticsofthisgroup,obstructionismandmisinformation,requirecarefulanalysis.

Government“efficiency”resultedinahugedeficit.

Italicizeatermwhenyourefertoitasaterm.

Thetermcriticalmassismoreoftenusedmetaphoricallythanliterally.

Howdidshedefinethewordexistential?

but

Acriticalmassofstudentstookexistentialphilosophy.

Italicizelettersreferredtoasletters,andpresenttheminlowercase.Lettersusedtodenotegradesandtoidentifyexemplarsshouldberomanandcapitalized.Forpluralformsoflettersusedintheseways,see20.1.2.

Manyoftheplace-namestherebeginwiththelettershandk.

Inhersenioryear,shereceivedanAandsixBs.

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Imagineagroupofinterconnectedpersons:AknowsB,BknowsC,andCknowsD.

22.3TitlesofWorksWhenyouciteawork,presentitstitleexactlyasitappearsintheoriginalworkor,iftheoriginalisunavailable,inareliableauthority.

Alwayspreservetheoriginalspelling(includinghyphenation)insuchtitles,evenifitdoesnotconformtocurrentAmericanusageasdescribedinchapter20.See17.1.2forsomepermissiblechangestothepunctuationoftitles,suchastheuseofacolonbetweenatitleandasubtitle,andtheadditionofacommabeforedates.

Academicconventionprescribesthattitlesfollowspecificpatternsofcapitalizationandtheuseofitalicsorquotationmarks(orneither),regardlessofhowtheyappearintheoriginal.

22.3.1Capitalization

Titleshavetwopatternsofcapitalization:headlinestyleandsentencestyle.Presentmosttitlesinheadlinestyle.Forforeign-languagetitles,usesentencestyle.

Bothcitationstylesdescribedinthismanualnowprescribeheadline-stylecapitalizationforEnglish-languagetitles(achangefrompreviouseditions).See16.1.3and18.1.3.

Alsouseheadline-stylecapitalizationforthetitleofyourpaperandthetitlesofanypartsorchapterswithinitunlessyourdisciplinepreferssentencestyle(seeA.1.5).

22.3.1.1HEADLINE-STYLECAPITALIZATION.Headline-stylecapitalizationisintendedtodistinguishtitlesclearlyfromsurroundingtext.Inthisstyle,capitalizethefirstletterofthefirstandlastwordsofthetitleandsubtitleandallotherwords,exceptasfollows:

■Donotcapitalizearticles(a,an,the),coordinatingconjunctions(and,but,or,nor,for),orthewordtoorasexceptasthefirstorlastwordinthetitleorsubtitle.

■Donotcapitalizeprepositions(of,in,at,above,under,andsoforth)unlesstheyareusedasadverbs(upinLookUp)oradjectives(oninTheOnButton).

■Capitalizethesecondpart(orsubsequentparts)ofahyphenatedcompoundunlessitisanarticle,preposition,orcoordinatingconjunction(and,but,or,nor,for),oramodifiersuchassharporflatfollowingamusicalkey;orunlessthefirstpartisaprefix(anti,pre,andsoforth).(Remembertofollowtheoriginalhyphenationofatitleevenifitdiffersfromtheprinciplesdiscussedin20.3.)

■Lowercasethesecondpartofaspeciesname,suchasfulvescensinAcipenserfulvescens,evenifitisthelastwordinatitleorsubtitle(seealso22.1.3).

■Donotcapitalizepartsofpropernounsthatarenormallyinlowercase,asdescribedin22.1.1(vaninLudwigvanBeethoven).

TheEconomicEffectsoftheCivilWarintheMid-AtlanticStates

ToHaveandtoHold:ATwenty-First-CenturyViewofMarriage

AllThatIsTrue:TheLifeofVincentvanGogh,1853–90

FourReadingsoftheGospelaccordingtoMatthew

Self-GovernmentandtheRe-establishmentofaNewWorldOrder

GlobalWarming:WhatWeAreDoingaboutItToday

StillLifewithOranges

FromHomoerectustoHomosapiens:ABlack-and-WhiteHistory

E-flatConcerto

Althoughmanyshortwordsarelowercaseinthisstyle,lengthdoesnotdeterminecapitalization.Youmustcapitalizeshortverbs(is,are),adjectives(new),personalpronouns(it,we),andrelativepronouns(that),becausetheyarenotamongtheexceptionslistedabove.Uselowercaseforlongprepositions(according),sinceprepositionsareamongtheexceptions.

Twokindsoftitlesshouldnotbepresentedinheadlinestyleevenifyouuseitforallothertitles:

■FortitlesinlanguagesotherthanEnglish,usesentence-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1.2).■Fortitlesofworkspublishedintheeighteenthcentury(1700s)orearlier,retaintheoriginalcapitalization(andspelling),exceptthatwordsspelledoutinallcapitallettersshouldbegivenwithaninitialcapitalonly.

ATreatiseofmorallphilosophyContaynygethesayingsofthewyse

22.3.1.2SENTENCE-STYLECAPITALIZATION.Sentence-stylecapitalizationisasimpler,thoughlessdistinct,wayofpresentingtitlesthanheadlinestyle.Inthisstyle,capitalizeonlythefirstletterofthefirstwordofthetitleandsubtitleandanypropernounsandproperadjectivesthereafter.

Seeingandsellinglate-nineteenth-centuryJapan

189

Naturalcrisis:Symbolandimaginationinthemid-Americanfarmcrisis

Religiousfeminism:AchallengefromtheNationalOrganizationforWomen

Starrynight

Unlessyourdisciplinesaysotherwise,reservesentencestylefortitlesofworksinforeignlanguages.Notethatforeignlanguageshavedifferentconventionsforcapitalization.Forexample,Germannounsaregenerallycapitalized,

whereasGermanadjectives,eventhosederivedfrompropernouns,arenot.Ifyouareuncertainabouttheconventionsofaparticularlanguage,consultareliableauthority.

SpeculumRomanaemagnificentiae

HistoriadelaOrdendeSanGerónimo

ReallexikonzurdeutschenKunstgeschichte

Phénoménologieetreligion:StructuresdeIʼinstitutionchrétienne

22.3.2ItalicsorQuotationMarks

Mosttitlesofworksaresetofffromthesurroundingtextbyitalicsorquotationmarks,dependingonthetypeofwork.Theguidelineslistedhereapplynotonlytotitlesusedintextbutalsotomosttitlesinsourcecitations(seechapters15 19).

Theexamplesbelowarepresentedwithheadline-stylecapitalization,buttheguidelinesalsoapplytotitleswithsentence-stylecapitalization(see22.3.1.2).

22.3.2.1ITALICS.Italicizethetitlesofmostlongerworks,includingthetypeslistedhere.Aninitialtheshouldberomanandlowercasebeforetitlesofperiodicals,orwhenitisnotconsideredpartofthetitle.Forpartsoftheseworksandshorterworksofthesametype,see22.3.2.2.

■books(CultureandAnarchy,TheChicagoManualofStyle)■plays(AWinter sTale)andverylongpoems,especiallythoseofbooklength(Dante sInferno)■journals(Signs),magazines(Time),newspapers(theNewYorkTimes),andblogs(DotEarth)■longmusicalcompositions(TheMarriageofFigaro)ortitlesofalbums(PlasticBeachbyGorillaz)■paintings(theMonaLisa),sculptures(Michelangelo sDavid),andotherworksofart,includingphotographs(AnselAdam sNorthDome)

■movies(CitizenKane)andtelevision(SesameStreet)andradioprograms(AllThingsConsidered)

22.3.2.2QUOTATIONMARKS.Encloseinquotationmarks,butdonotitalicize,thetitleofashorterwork,whetherornotitispartofalongerwork(suchasthoselistedin22.3.2.1).

■chapters( TheLaterYears )orothertitledpartsofbooks■shortstories( TheDead ),shortpoems( TheHousekeeper ),andessays( OfBooks )■articlesorotherfeaturesinjournals( TheFunctionofFashioninEighteenth-CenturyAmerica ),magazines( WhoShouldLeadtheSupremeCourt? ),newspapers( ElectionComesDowntotheWire ),andwebsitesorblogs( AnIceExpertMusesonGreenhouseHeat )

■individualepisodesoftelevisionprograms( TheOpposite )■shortmusicalcompositions( TheStar-SpangledBanner )andrecordings( AllYouNeedIsLove )

Alsousequotationmarksandromantypefortitlesofwholeworksthathavenotbeenformallypublished,includingthefollowing:

■thesesanddissertations( AStudyofKant sEarlyWorks )■lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings( VoiceandInequality:TheTransformationofAmericanCivicDemocracy )■titleddocumentsinmanuscriptcollections( AMapoftheSouthernIndianDistrictofNorthAmerica )

22.3.2.3NEITHER.Capitalizebutdonotuseitalicsorquotationmarkswiththesespecialtypesoftitles:

■bookseries(StudiesinLegalHistory)■manuscriptcollections(EgmontManuscripts)■scriptures(theBible)andotherreveredworks(theUpanishads),aswellasversionsoftheBible(theKingJamesVersion)anditsbooks(Genesis;see24.6foracompletelist)

■musicalworksreferredtobytheirgenre(Symphonyno.41,CantataBWV80),thoughthepopulartitlesforsuchworksshouldbeitalicized(theJupiterSymphony)orplacedinquotationmarks( EinfesteBurgistunserGott )dependingontheirlength,asnotedabove

■websites(GoogleMaps,Facebook,Apple.com,theInternetMovieDatabase,IMDb),thoughexceptionsmaybemadeforsitesthatareanalogoustoatypeofworklistedin22.3.2.1(Wikipedia,theHuffingtonPost)

Treatgenerictermsforpartsofbooksorotherworksasyouwouldanyotherword.Donotcapitalizethemoruseitalicsorquotationmarksunlessyouwoulddothesameforanordinaryword(suchasatthebeginningofasentence).Ifapartincludesa

190

number,giveitinarabicnumerals,regardlessofitsappearanceintheoriginalwork(see23.1.8).

inLionelTrillingʼsprefaceasdiscussedinchapters4and5acomprehensivebibliographykilledoffinact3,scene2

22.3.3Punctuation

Preserveanypunctuationthatispartofatitlewhenusingthetitleinasentence(see17.1.2).Ifthetitleisusedasarestrictiveclauseorinanotherpositioninthesentencethatwouldnormallybefollowedbyacomma(see21.2),addthecomma.

Love,Loss,andWhatIWorewaslateradaptedforanoff-Broadwayplay.

but

Herfavoritebook,Love,Loss,andWhatIWore,isanautobiographyrecountedlargelythroughdrawings.

Punctuationwithinatitleshouldnotaffectanypunctuationcalledforbythesurroundingsentence.Oneexception:omitaterminalperiodafteratitleendinginaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint.Seealso21.12.2.

“AreYouaDoctor?”isthefifthstoryinWillYouPleaseBeQuiet,Please?

191

23Numbers

23.1WordsorNumerals?

23.1.1GeneralRule23.1.2SpecialCases23.1.3PercentagesandDecimalFractions23.1.4Money23.1.5Time23.1.6NameswithNumbers23.1.7AddressesandThoroughfares23.1.8PartsofPublishedWorks23.1.9EquationsandFormulas

23.2PluralsandPunctuation

23.2.1Plurals23.2.2CommaswithinNumbers23.2.3OtherPunctuationwithinNumbers23.2.4InclusiveNumbers

23.3DateSystems

23.3.1Month,Day,andYear23.3.2Decades,Centuries,andEras

23.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheText

23.4.1NumbersinTables,Figures,andCitations23.4.2Enumerations

Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpresentingnumbers.Theseguidelinesareappropriateformosthumanitiesandsocialsciencedisciplines,butdisciplinesthatrelyheavilyonnumericaldatamayhavemorespecificguidelines.Ifyouarewritingapaperinthenaturalorphysicalsciences,mathematics,oranyotherverytechnicalfield,followtheconventionsofthediscipline.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.Foradviceonnumberingthepagesandpartsofyourpaper,seetheappendix.

Ifyouarewritingathesisoradissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpresentingnumbers,whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesforpresentingnumbers.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.

23.1WordsorNumerals?Themostcommonquestioninpresentingnumbersiswhethertospellthemoutinwords(twenty-two)orgivetheminnumerals(22).Whenthenumberisfollowedbyaunitofmeasure,youmustalsodecidewhethertogivethatunitinwords(percent)orasasymbol(%)oranabbreviation.

Theguidelinespresentedin23.1 23.3pertaintonumbersusedinthetextofyourpaper.Fornumbersusedintables,figures,andcitations,see23.4.

Unlessotherwisespecified,numeralsheremeansarabicnumerals(1,2,3,etc.).Forromannumerals(i,ii,iii,etc.),seetable23.1.

23.1.1GeneralRule

Beforeyoudraftyourpaper,youshoulddecideonageneralruleforpresentingnumbersandfollowitconsistently.Whichruleyouchoosedependsonhowoftenyouusenumericaldataandtheconventionsofyourdiscipline.Forsituationsinwhichyoumightmodifythisrule,see23.1.2-23.1.8.

Inthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,ifyouusenumericaldataonlyoccasionally,spelloutnumbersfromonethroughonehundred.Ifthenumberhastwowords,useahyphen(fifty-five).Alsospelloutroundnumbersfollowedbyhundred,thousand,hundredthousand,million,andsoon(butsee23.1.2.3).Forallothernumbers,usearabicnumerals.Followthispatternfornumbersthatarepartofphysicalquantities(distances,lengths,temperatures,andsoon),anddonotuseabbreviationsfortheunitsinsuchquantities(see24.5).

Table23.1.Romannumerals

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Aftersevenyearsofwarcamesixty-fouryearsofpeace.

Thepopulationofthethreestateswasapproximatelytwelvemillion.

Hecataloguedmorethan527worksofart.

Withinfifteenminutesthetemperaturedroppedtwentydegrees.

Ifyourtopicreliesheavilyonnumericaldata,followadifferentrule:spelloutonlysingle-digitnumbersandusenumeralsforallothers.

Thisstudyof14electoraldistrictsoversevenyearsincluded142participants.

Hehitthewallat65milesperhour,leavingskidmarksforninefeet.

Inthesciences,yourgeneralrulemaybetousenumeralsforallnumbers,exceptwhentheybeginasentence(see23.1.2.1).Youmayalsouseabbreviationsforquantities(see24.5).

Themeanweightprovedtobe7g,whichwasfarlessthanpredicted.

Withanyoftheserules,usethesameprinciplesforordinalnumbers(first,second,etc.)thatyouuseforstandardones.Addst,nd,rd,orthasappropriate.

Onthe122ndand123rddaysofhistrip,hereceivedhiseighteenthandnineteenthlettersfromhome.

23.1.2SpecialCases

Inafewcommonsituations,thegeneralrulediscussedin23.1.1requiresmodification.

23.1.2.1NUMBERSBEGINNINGASENTENCE.Neverbeginasentencewithanumeral.Eitherspelloutthenumberorrecastthesentence,especiallywhenthereareothernumeralsofasimilartypeinthesentence.

Twohundredfiftysoldiersintheunitescapedinjury;175sustainedminorinjuries.

or,better,

Ofthesoldiersintheunit,250escapedinjuryand175sustainedminorinjuries.

Whenspellingoutnumbersoveronehundred,omitthewordandwithintheterm(nottwohundredandfifty).

23.1.2.2RELATEDNUMBERS.Ignorethegeneralrulewhenyouhaveaseriesofrelatednumbersinthesamesentencethatareaboveandbelowthethreshold,especiallywhenthosenumbersarebeingcompared.Intheseexamples,allareexpressedinnumerals.

193

Ofthegroupsurveyed,78studentshadstudiedFrenchand142hadstudiedSpanishforthreeyearsormore.

Weanalyzed62cases;ofthese,59hadoccurredinadultsand3inchildren.

Ifyouarediscussingtwosetsofitemsincloseproximity,ignorethegeneralruleand,forclarity,spelloutallnumbersinonesetandusenumeralsforallnumbersintheother.

Withintheprogram,9childrenshowedsomeimprovementaftersixmonthsand37showedsignificantimprovementaftereighteenmonths.

23.1.2.3ROUNDNUMBERS.Spelloutaroundnumber(awholenumberfollowedbyhundred,thousand,hundredthousand,million,andsoon)inisolation(see23.1.1),butgiveseveralroundnumbersclosetogetherinnumerals.Youmayalsoexpresslargeroundnumbersinacombinationofnumeralsandwords.(Seealso23.1.4.)

Approximatelyfifteenhundredscholarsattendedtheconference.

but

Theysold1,500copiesinthefirstyearand8,000inthesecond.

Thesechangeswillaffectabout7.8millionpeopleinNewYorkalone.

23.1.3PercentagesandDecimalFractions

Usenumeralstoexpresspercentagesanddecimalfractions,exceptatthebeginningofasentence(see23.1.2.1).Spelloutthewordpercent,exceptwhenyouusemanypercentagefiguresandinthesciences,wherethesymbol%isusuallypreferred(withnointerveningspaceafterthenumber).Noticethatthenounpercentageshouldnotbeusedwithanumber.

Scoresforstudentswhoskippedsummerschoolimprovedonly9percent.Thepercentageofstudentswhofailedwasabout2.4timestheusualrate.

Withinthissystem,thesubjectscored3.8,or95%.

butnot

Theaveragerose9percentagepoints.

Whenyouusefractionalandwholenumbersforthesametypeofiteminthesamesentenceorparagraph,givebothasnumerals.

Theaveragenumberofchildrenborntocollegegraduatesdroppedfrom2.4to2.

Putazeroinfrontofadecimalfractionoflessthan1.ooifthequantityexpressediscapableofexceeding1.00.Whendecimalquantitiesmustbe1.00orless,asinprobabilities,correlationcoefficients,andthelike,omitthezerobeforethedecimalpoint.

ameanof0.73alossof0.08p<.05a.406battingaverage

Forfractionsstandingalone,followthegeneralrule(see23.1.1)forspellingouttheparts.Ifyouspelltheparts,includeahyphenbetweenthem.Expressinnumeralsaunitcomposedofawholenumberandafraction.Ifyouuseasymbolforthefraction,thereisnointerveningspacebetweenthenumberandthefraction.

Tradeandcommodityservicesaccountedfornine-tenthsofallinternationalreceiptsandpayments.

OneyearduringtheDustBowlera,thetownreceivedonly15/16ofaninchofrain.

Themaincarvingimplementusedinthissocietymeasured2½feet.

23.1.4Money

23.1.4.1USCURRENCY.IfyoureferonlyoccasionallytoUScurrency,followthegeneralrule(see23.1.1),andspelloutthewordsdollarsandcents.Otherwiseusenumeralsalongwiththesymbol$.Omitthedecimalpointandfollowingzerosforwhole-dollaramounts,unlessyourefertofractionalamountsaswell.

Rarelydotheyspendmorethanfivedollarsaweekonrecreation.

Thereportshowed$135collectedinfines.

Pricesrangedfrom$0.95upto$10.00.

194

Expresslargeroundnumbersinacombinationofnumeralsandwords.

Thedeficitthatyearwas$420billion.

23.1.4.2OTHERCURRENCIES.ForcurrenciesotherthanthatoftheUnitedStates,followthepatternfortheUSdollar.Mostcurrenciesputunitsymbolsbeforenumerals.EventhoughEuropeannationsrepresentdecimalpointswithcommasinsteadofperiods,youmayuseperiods,exceptindirectquotationsfromsources.Incontextswherethesymbol$mayrefertonon-UScurrencies,thesecurrenciesshouldbeclearlyidentified.

Whenshereturned,shehadbarelyfiftyeurostohername.

Thehouseholdrecordsshowthatitcostonly£36.50.

Itscurrentestimatedworthis¥377million.

IfyousubtractCan$15.69fromUS$25.00,…

MostEuropeannationsnowusetheunifiedcurrencycalledtheeuro( ),butifyouarewritingabouttopicsfromtheperiodbefore2002,youmayencountersuchcurrenciesastheFrenchfranc(F),Germandeutschemark(DM),andItalianlira(Lit).Britishcurrencyisstillexpressedinpounds( )andpence(p.),thoughbeforedecimalizationin1971,itwasexpressedinpounds,shillings,andpence(forexample, 1217s.6d.).NotethatbillionintraditionalBritishusageaswellasinsomeotherforeignlanguagesmeansamillionmillion,notathousandmillion;toavoidconfusion,besuretoaccuratelyrepresentsuchdistinctions.

Inmoretechnicalcontexts,itmaybebesttousethethree-lettercodesforcurrentandhistoricalcurrenciesdefinedbytheInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationinstandardISO4217,whichisavailableontheorganization swebsite.Useaspacebetweenthecodeandtheamount.

IfyousubtractEUR15.69fromUSD25.00,…

23.1.5Time

Forreferencestotimesofdayinevenincrementsofanhour,halfhour,orquarterhour,spelloutthetimes,withahyphenbetweenparts.Ifnecessary,specifyinthemorningorintheevening.Youmayuseo clock,althoughitisnowrareinresearchwriting.

TheparticipantsplannedtomeeteveryThursdayaroundten-thirtyinthemorning.

Whenemphasizingexacttimes,usenumeralsand,ifnecessary,a.m.orp.m.(lowercaseandroman;seealso24.4.1).Alwaysincludezerosafterthecolonforevenhours.

Althoughscheduledtoendat11:00a.m.,thecouncilmeetingranuntil1:37p.m.

Ineithersituation,usethewordsnoonandmidnight(ratherthannumerals)toexpressthesespecifictimesofday.Foruseofwordsornumeralsindates,see23.3.

23.1.6NameswithNumbers

Sometypesofpersonal,governmental,andorganizationalnamesincludenumbersgivenineitherwordsornumerals.(Seealso22.1.)

■Leaders.Emperors,sovereigns,orpopeswiththesamefirstnamearedifferentiatedbycapitalizedromannumerals(seetable23.1).

CharlesVNapoleonIIIElizabethIIBenedictXVI

■Familymembers.Malefamilymemberswithidenticalfullnamesareoftendifferentiatedwithromanorarabicnumerals(seealso24.2.1).Notethattherearenocommasbetweenthenameandthenumeral,unlessthenameisinverted,asinalist.

MichaelF.Johnson2ndAdlaiE.StevensonIII

but

Stevenson,AdlaiE.,III

■Governmentsandpoliticaldivisions.Certaindynasties,governments,governingbodies,politicalandjudicialdivisions,andmilitaryunitsarecommonlydesignatedbyanordinalnumberbeforethenoun.Spelloutandcapitalizenumbersthroughonehundred(withahyphenbetweenthepartsofthenumber,ifrelevant);usenumeralsforthoseoveronehundred.

NineteenthDynasty

195

FourteenthCongressionalDistrictFifthRepublicForty-SeventhWardEighty-FirstCongressTenthCircuit109thCongress101stAirborneDivision

■Churchesandreligiousorganizations.Spelloutandcapitalizenumbersbeforethenamesofchurchesorreligiousorganizationsinordinalform(withahyphenbetweenthepartsofthenumber,ifrelevant).

Twenty-FirstChurchofChrist,Scientist

■Secularorganizations.Expresslocalbranchesoffraternallodgesandunionsinnumeralsfollowingthename.

AmericanLegion,DepartmentofIllinois,CrispusAttucksPostNo.1268

UnitedAutoWorkersLocal890

23.1.7AddressesandThoroughfares

Followthegeneralrule(see23.1.1)forthenamesoflocalnumberedstreets.State,federal,andinterstatehighwaysarealwaysdesignatedwithnumerals,asarestreetorbuildingaddressesandtelephoneandfaxnumbers.Notethatintexttheelementsofafulladdressareseparatedbycommas,exceptbeforeazipcode.See24.3.2forabbreviationsinaddresses.

TheNationalParkServicemaintainsasamuseumthehousewhereLincolndied(51610thStreetNW,Washington,DC20004;202–426-6924).

LudwigMiesvanderRohedesignedtheapartmentsat860–880NorthLakeShoreDrive.

Interstate95servesasacriticaltransportationlinefromBostontoMiami.

23.1.8PartsofPublishedWorks

Withtheexceptionofroman-numeralpagenumbers(asinthefrontmatterofabook;see16.1.5,18.1.5),numbersinpartsofpublishedworksaregiveninarabicnumerals,regardlessofthegeneralrule(see23.1.1)ortheirappearanceintheworkitself.Seealso22.3.2.3,23.2.2.

chapter14part2act1,scene3page1024

23.1.9EquationsandFormulas

Numbersinequationsandformulasarealwaysgivenasnumerals,regardlessofthegeneralrule(see23.1.1).Fordetailedguidanceonpresentingmathematicalexpressions,seechapter12ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).

23.2PluralsandPunctuation

23.2.1Plurals

Formthepluralsofspelled-outnumberslikethepluralsofothernouns(see20.1).

Halfthemensurveyedwereintheirthirtiesorforties.

Formthepluralsofnumbersexpressedinnumeralsbyaddingsalone(not s).

Thepatternchangedinthelate1990sasmoretaxpayerssubmitted1040sonline.

Tofly767s,thepilotsrequiredspecialtraining.

23.2.2CommaswithinNumbers

Inmostnumbersoffourormoredigits,setoffthousands,hundredsofthousands,millions,andsoonwithcommas.Inthesciences,commasareoftenomittedfromfour-digitnumbers.

1,50012,275,5001,475,525,000

Donotuseacommawithinafour-digityear;douseoneforayearwithfiveormoredigits(seealso23.3).

196

200710,000BC

Donotuseacommainpagenumbers,streetaddresses,telephoneorfaxnumbers,zipcodes,decimalfractionsoflessthanone,ornumbersincludedinorganizationnames.

page10120.1911centimeters15000ElmStreetCommitteeof1000

23.2.3OtherPunctuationwithinNumbers

Numberssometimesincludeotherinternalpunctuation.Forperiods(decimals),see23.1.3and23.1.4;forcolons,see23.1.5;forhyphens,see23.1.1and23.1.3;fordashes,see23.2.4.

23.2.4InclusiveNumbers

Toexpressarangeofnumbers,suchaspagesoryears,givethefirstandlast(orinclusive)numbersofthesequence.Ifthenumbersarespelledout,expresstherangewiththewordsfromandto;iftheyareexpressedinnumerals,useeitherthesewordsoraconnectinghyphenwithnospaceoneitherside.Insomesettings,suchascitations,alwaysusehyphens(seechapters16 19).Donotcombinewordsandhyphensinexpressinginclusivenumbers.

from45to50butnotfrom45–50

45–50butnotforty-five-fifty

Forinclusivenumbersofonehundredorgreater,youmayeitherusefullnumbersoneithersideofahyphen(245 280or19291994)orabbreviatethesecondnumber.Table23.2showsonesystemofabbreviation.

Thissystemworkswellforpagenumbers,whichneverincludecommas(see23.2.2).Fornumbersthatincludecommas,usethesystemshownintable23.2,butrepeatalldigitsifthechangeextendstothethousandsplaceorbeyond.Neverabbreviateromannumerals(seetable23.1).

6,000–6,01812,473–79128,333–129,114xxv–xxviii

Foryears,givealldigitsforaspanthatincludesmorethanonecentury.Alsogivefulldatesinasysteminwhichdatesarecountedbackwardfromaspecificpoint(mostnotablyBC, beforeChrist, andBCE, beforethecommonera ).Otherwise,usethesystemshownintable23.2.see23.3formoreondatesystems.

theyears1933–36thewinterof1999–200015,000–14,000BCE115BC–AD10

Table23.2.Abbreviationsystemforinclusivenumbers

23.3DateSystems

23.3.1Month,Day,andYear

Spelloutthenamesofmonthswhentheyoccurintext,whetheraloneorindates.Expressdaysandyearsinnumerals,andavoid

197

usingthematthebeginningofasentence,wheretheywouldhavetobespelledout(see23.1.2.1).Donotabbreviatereferencestotheyear( thegreatfloodof 05 ).Forabbreviationsacceptableintables,figures,andcitations,see24.4.2.

EverySeptember,werecalltheeventsof2001.

butnot

Twothousandonewasamemorableyear.

Forfullreferencestodates,givethemonth,theday(followedbyacomma),andtheyear,inaccordancewithUSpractices.Ifyouomittheday,omitthecomma.Alsoomitthecommafordatesgivenwithseasonsinsteadofmonths;donotcapitalizethenamesofseasons(see22.1.2).IfmaterialyouarequotingusesBritish-styledates(15March2007),donotalterthem.

PresidentJohnF.KennedywasassassinatedonNovember22,1963.

ByMarch1865,thewarwasnearlyover.

Theresearchwasconductedoverseveralweeksinspring2006.

Notethatwithincompletedates,daysaregenerallynotgivenasordinals thatis,thenumeralsarenotfollowedbyst,nd,rd,orth.Usetheseendingsonlywithspelled-outnumberswhenyouspecifythedaywithoutthemonthoryear.

Thedatechosenfortheraidwasthetwenty-ninth.

butnot

TheeventsoccurredonJune11th,1968.

23.3.2Decades,Centuries,andEras

Ingeneral,refertodecadesusingnumerals,includingthecentury(see23.2.1forplurals).Ifthecenturyisclear,donotabbreviatenumerals( the 90s );instead,spelloutthenameofthedecade.Thefirsttwodecadesofanycenturydonotlendthemselvestoeitherstyleandshouldbedescribedfullyforclarity.

The1920sbroughtunheraldedfinancialprosperity.

Duringthefifties,theColdWardominatedtheheadlines.

Manyofthesediscoverieswereannouncedduringthefirstdecadeofthetwenty-firstcentury.

Refertocenturiesusingeithernumeralsorlowercase,spelled-outnames(see23.2.1forplurals).Ifthecenturyisspelledoutandusedasanadjectiveprecedinganounthatitmodifies,asinthesecondexample,useahyphen;otherwise,donot(see20.3.2).

TheOttomanEmpirereacheditsapexinthe1600s.

Sheteachesnineteenth-centurynovelsbutwouldratherteachpoetryfromthetwentiethcentury.

ThemostcommondesignationsforerasusetheabbreviationsBC( beforeChrist )andAD(annoDomini, intheyearoftheLord ).Somedisciplinesusedifferentdesignations,suchasBCEandCE(see24.4.3).ADprecedestheyearnumber;theotherdesignationsfollowit.Forinclusivenumberswitheras,see23.2.4.

SolomonʼsTemplewasdestroyedbytheBabyloniansin586BCandagainbytheRomansinAD70.

23.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheTextTheprecedingsectionsprovideguidelinesforpresentingnumbersinthetextofyourpaper.Numbersusedintables,figures,sourcecitations,andlistsaresubjecttosomeoftheirownrules.Foradditionaladvice,seetheappendix.

23.4.1NumbersinTables,Figures,andCitations

Ingeneral,usearabicnumeralstopresentnumericaldataintablesandfigures.Foradiscussionofnumbersintables,includingtabletitles,see26.2;fornumbersinfigures,includingfigurecaptions,see26.3.

Withfewexceptions,arabicnumeralsarealsousedtocitevolumenumbers,editionnumbers,andpagenumbersandotherlocators.Foradiscussionofnumbersinbibliography-stylecitations,see16.1.5andchapter17;fornumbersinauthor-datecitations,see18.1.5andchapter19.

23.4.2Enumerations

Youmayusenumerals(andletters)toenumeratepointsdiscussedinthetext,inappendixes,orinmaterialsrelatedtodraftingyourpaper.

23.4.2.1LISTS.Yourtextmaycontainlistsofitemsthatyouchoosetoenumerateforemphasis.Whensuchalistisrelativelyshort,

198

incorporateitintoasinglesentence.Besurethatalltheitemsaregrammaticallyparallel(allnounphrases,alladjectives,orthelike).Eachitemshouldbeprecededbyanarabicnumeralinparentheses.Iftherearemorethantwoitems,eachshouldbefollowedbyacomma(or,iftheitemiscomplexinstructure,asemicolon;see21.3).Ifthelistisanappositive,useacolontointroduceit;otherwise,donotusepunctuationinthisposition(see21.4).

Wilsonʼssecretarygavethreereasonsforhisresignation:(1)advancingage,(2)graduallyfailingeyesight,and(3)oppositiontothewar.

Thecommitteestronglyendorsedthepoliciesof(1)completeexecutivepower,exceptasconstitutionallylimited;(2)stronglegislativeprerogatives;and(3)limitedjudicialauthority,especiallywhenitinterferedwiththecommitteeʼsownrole.

Ifyouarealreadyusingarabicnumeralsinparenthesesforotherpurposes,substitutelowercaselettersforthenumbers.

Haskinʼslatesttheoryhasmorethanonedrawback:(a)itisnotbasedoncurrentevidenceand(b)ithasaweaktheoreticalgrounding.

Iftheitemsinthelistarelongeroryouwishtogivethemgreateremphasis,arrangetheminaverticallist.Introducethelistwithacompletesentencefollowedbyacolon.Again,besurethatalltheitemsaregrammaticallyparallel,andbegineachonewithabulletoranarabicnumeralfollowedbyaperiod,withoutparentheses.Iftheitemsarecompletesentences,capitalizethefirstletterineachitemanduseterminalperiods;otherwiseuselowercaselettersandnoperiods(see21.1).Alignthenumeralsontheperiodsandanylinesthatrunoverwiththefirstwordinthefirstline.

Myresearchthereforesuggeststhefollowingconclusions:

1.ThepaintingcouldnothavebeenagenuinePicasso,regardlessoftheclaimsofearlierscholars.2.Itisimpossibletoidentifythetrueartistwithoutfurthertechnicalanalysis.

23.4.2.2OUTLINES.Insomesituations,youmayincludeanoutlineorasimilarenumerationinanappendixtoyourpaper,orinadraftstageofthepaper(see6.2.1).Usethefollowingsystemofnotation,consistingoflettersandromanandarabicnumerals,andindenteachlevelbyonefurthertab(usuallyahalfinch).Youshouldhaveatleasttwoitemstolistateachlevel;ifyoudonot,reconsiderthestructureoftheoutline.Iftheitemsarephrases,capitalizethemsentencestyle(see22.3.1)anddonotuseterminalpunctuation.Iftheyarecompletesentences,capitalizeandpunctuatethemasyouwouldanyothersentence(see6.2.1foranexample).

I.WarsofthenineteenthcenturyA.UnitedStates1.CivilWar,1861–65a)Cause(1)Slavery(a)Compromisei)MissouriCompromiseii)Compromiseof1850…b)Result

................................II.WarsofthetwentiethcenturyA.UnitedStates1.FirstWorldWar…

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24Abbreviations

24.1GeneralPrinciples

24.1.1TypesofAbbreviations24.1.2WhentoUseAbbreviations24.1.3HowtoFormatAbbreviations

24.2NamesandTitles

24.2.1PersonalNames24.2.2ProfessionalTitles24.2.3AcademicDegrees24.2.4Agencies,Companies,andOtherOrganizations

24.3GeographicalTerms

24.3.1Place-Names24.3.2Addresses

24.4TimeandDates

24.4.1Time24.4.2DaysandMonths24.4.3Eras

24.5UnitsofMeasure

24.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks

24.6.1JewishBible/OldTestament24.6.2Apocrypha24.6.3NewTestament24.6.4VersionsoftheBible24.6.5OtherSacredWorks

24.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContexts

Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforusingabbreviations.Abbreviationsinformalwritingwereoncelimitedtoafewspecialcircumstances,buttheyarenowwidelyusedinwritingofallkinds.Evenso,theirusemustreflecttheconventionsofspecificdisciplines.Theguidelinespresentedhereareappropriateformosthumanitiesandsocialsciencedisciplines.Ifyouarewritingapaperinthenaturalorphysicalsciences,mathematics,oranyothertechnicalfield,followtheconventionsofthediscipline.

Insomedisciplinesyoumayneedtouseabbreviationsnotcoveredhere.Merriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionarygivesmanyabbreviationsfrommanyfields.Anotherresourceischapter10ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.

Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforusingabbreviations,whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesforusingabbreviations.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.

24.1GeneralPrinciples

24.1.1TypesofAbbreviations

Termscanbeshortened,orabbreviated,inseveralways.Whenatermisshortenedtoonlythefirstlettersofeachwordandpronouncedasasingleword(NATO,AIDS),itiscalledanacronym;ifthelettersarepronouncedasaseriesofletters(EU,PBS),itiscalledaninitialism.Othertermsareshortenedthroughcontraction:justthefirstandlastlettersofthetermareretained(Mr.,Dr.,atty.),orthelastlettersaredropped(ed.,Tues.).Thischaptertreatsalloftheseformsunderthegeneraltermabbreviations,withdistinctionsbetweentypesnotedasrelevant.

24.1.2WhentoUseAbbreviations

Inmostpapers,useabbreviationsonlysparinglyintextbecausetheycanmakeyourwritingseemeithertooinformalortoo

200

technical.Thischaptercoverstypesofabbreviationsthatarepreferredoverspelled-outtermsandothersthatareconsideredacceptableinacademicwritingifusedconsistently.

Ifyourlocalguidelinesallowit,youmayuseabbreviationsfornames,titles,andothertermsusedfrequentlyinyourpaper.Givethefulltermonfirstreference,followedbytheabbreviationinparentheses.Forsubsequentreferences,usetheabbreviationconsistently.Ifyouusemorethanafewsuchabbreviations,consideraddingalistofabbreviationstothefrontmatterofthepapertoaidreaderswhomightmissyourfirstreferencetoanabbreviation(seeA.2.1).

Abbreviationsaremorecommon,andareoftenrequired,outsidethetextofthepaper.Thischapterdiscussessomeabbreviationsthatmaybeusedintables,figures,andcitations.Foradditionaldiscussionofabbreviationsintablesandfigures,seechapter26;forabbreviationsinbibliography-stylecitations,see16.1.6andchapter17;forabbreviationsinauthor-datecitations,see18.1.6andchapter19.

24.1.3HowtoFormatAbbreviations

Althoughabbreviationsfollowthegeneralprinciplesdiscussedhere,therearemanyexceptions.

■Capitalization.Abbreviationsaregiveninallcapitalletters,alllowercaseletters,oracombination.

BCCEOUS

p.a.m.kg

Gov.Dist.Atty.PhD

■Punctuation.Ingeneral,abbreviationsgiveninallcapitallettersdonotincludeperiods,whilethosegiveninlowercaseoracombinationofcapitalandlowercaselettershaveaperiodaftereachabbreviatedelement.However,asyoucanseefromtheexamplesabove,thereareexceptions:metricunitsofmeasure(see24.5)areinlowercasewithoutperiods;andnoperiodsareusedforacademicdegrees,whetherornottheyincludelowercaseletters(see24.2.3).Otherexceptionsarenotedthroughoutthischapter.

■Spacing.Ingeneral,donotleaveaspacebetweenlettersinacronyms(NATO)andinitialisms(PBS),butdoleaveaspacebetweenelementsinabbreviationsformedthroughshortening(Dist.Atty.),unlessthefirstelementisasingleletter(S.Sgt.).Ifanabbreviationcontainsanampersand(&),donotleavespacesaroundit(TexasA&M).Forspacesinpersonalnames,see24.2.1.

■Italics.Abbreviationsarenotnormallyitalicizedunlesstheystandforanitalicizedterm(OED,forOxfordEnglishDictionary).■Indefinitearticles.Whenanabbreviationfollowsanindefinitearticle,choosebetweenaandandependingonhowtheabbreviationisreadaloud.Acronyms(NATO,AIDS)arepronouncedaswords;initialisms(EU)arereadasaseriesofletters.

membernationofNATOaNATOmember

personwithAlDSanAlDSpatient

membernationoftheEUanEUmember

theFFAanFFAchapter

24.2NamesandTitles

24.2.1PersonalNames

Ingeneral,donotabbreviateaperson sfirst(Benj.Franklin)orlastname.Onceyouhaveusedafullnameintext,usejusttheperson slastnameinsubsequentreferences.However,ifyouarereferringtomorethanonepersonwiththatlastname,usefirstnamesasnecessarytoavoidconfusion(AliceJames,WilliamJames).Ifyourefertothesenamesveryfrequentlyinyourpaper,youmayinsteaduseabbreviationsthatyoudevise(AJ,WJ),butbesuretousetheseabbreviationsasspecifiedin24.1.2.

Someindividualsareknownprimarilybyinitialsinplaceofafirstand/ormiddlename.Suchinitialsshouldbefollowedbyaperiodandaspace.Ifyouabbreviateanentirename,however,omitperiodsandspaces.

G.K.ChestertonbutJFK

M.F.K.Fisher

201

butFDR

SocialtitlessuchasMs.andMr.shouldalwaysbeabbreviatedandcapitalized,followedbyaperiod.Inmostpapers,however,youneednotusesuchtitlesunlessthereisapossibilityofconfusion,suchasreferringtoeitherahusbandorawife.

WriteabbreviationssuchasSr.,Jr.,III(or3rd),andIV(or4th)withoutcommasbeforethem.Normallytheseabbreviationsareusedonlyafterafullname,althoughroyalandreligiousfiguresmaybeknownonlybyafirstname.Infrequentreferencestoafatherandason,shortenedversionsmaybeused(HolmesSr.),butonlyafterthefullnamehasbeenpresented.Donotspelloutthetermwhenitispartofaname(forexample,notJohnSmithJunior).

OliverWendellHolmesJr.WilliamJ.KaufmannIIIMaryII

24.2.2ProfessionalTitles

Someindividualshavecivil,military,orreligioustitlessuchasthefollowingalongwiththeirpersonalnames.Manyofthesetitlesareconventionallyabbreviatedratherthanspelledoutintextwhentheyprecedeandarecapitalizedaspartofapersonalname.

Adm. AdmiralAld. Alderman,AlderwomanAtty.Gen. AttorneyGeneralCapt. CaptainCol. ColonelDist.Atty. DistrictAttorneyDr. DoctorFr. FatherGen. GeneralGov. GovernorHon. HonorableLt. LieutenantLt.Col. LieutenantColonelMaj. MajorPres. PresidentRep. RepresentativeRev. ReverendSen. SenatorSgt. SergeantS.Sgt. StaffSergeantSr. SisterSt. Saint

Onfirstreferencetoanindividualwithsuchatitle,usetheabbreviationwiththeperson sfullname.(Ifyouprefer,youmayspelloutthetitles,butdosoconsistently.)Forsubsequentreferences,youmayusuallygivejusttheperson slastname,butifyouneedtorepeatthetitle(todistinguishtwopeoplewithsimilarnames,orasadisciplinarysignofrespect),givethespelled-outtitlewiththelastname.NeveruseHonorableorHon.exceptwithafullname.IfyouspelloutHonorableorReverendbeforeafullname,thetitleshouldbeprecededbythe.

Sen.RichardJ.DurbinSenatorDurbin

Adm.MichaelMullenAdmiralMullen

Rev.JaneSchaeferReverendSchaefer

Hon.PatriciaBirkholzBirkholz

or

theHonorablePatriciaBirkholz

Ifyouuseoneofthesetitlesaloneorafterapersonalname,itbecomesagenerictermandshouldbelowercasedandspelledout.

thesenatorfromIllinois

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Mullenservedasanadmiral

AnexceptiontothegeneralpatternisDr.UseeithertheabbreviationDr.beforethenameortheofficialabbreviationforthedegree(see24.2.3),setoffwithcommas,afterthename.Donotusebothtogether.

Dr.LaurenShapirodiscoveredthecauseoftheoutbreak.

LaurenShapiro,MD,discovered…

Dr.Shapirodiscovered…

Thedoctordiscovered…

Inadditiontoacademicdegrees(24.2.3),hereareafewprofessionaltitlesthatmaybeabbreviatedfollowingapersonalname.Suchtitlesshouldbesetoffwithcommas,asintheexamplesabove.

JPjusticeofthepeace

LPNlicensedpracticalnurse

MPmemberofParliament

SJSocietyofJesus

24.2.3AcademicDegrees

Youmayuseabbreviationsintextandelsewhereforthecommonacademicdegrees.Someofthemorecommondegreesarenotedinthefollowinglist.Mostareinitialisms(see24.1.1),whicharewrittenincapitalletters,withoutperiodsorspaces.Otherscontainbothinitialsandshortenedtermsandthereforebothcapitalandlowercaseletters,alsowithoutperiodsorspaces.Traditionallyalltheseformsappearedwithperiods(M.A.,Ph.D.,LL.B.),astylestillpreferredbysomeinstitutions.

AB artiumbaccalaureus(bachelorofarts)AM artiummagister(masterofarts)BA bachelorofartsBD bachelorofdivinityBFA bacheloroffineartsBM bachelorofmusicBS bachelorofscienceDB divinitatisbaccalaureus(bachelorofdivinity)DD divinitatisdoctor(doctorofdivinity)DMin doctorofministryDO osteopathicphysician(doctorofosteopathy)EdD doctorofeducationJD jurisdoctor(doctoroflaw)LHD litterarumhumaniorumdoctor(doctorofhumanities)LittD litterarumdoctor(doctorofletters)LLB legumbaccalaureus(bacheloroflaws)LLD legumdoctor(doctoroflaws)MA masterofartsMBA masterofbusinessadministrationMD medicinaedoctor(doctorofmedicine)MFA masteroffineartsMS masterofsciencePhB philosophiaebaccalaureus(bachelorofphilosophy)PhD philosophiaedoctor(doctorofphilosophy)SB scientiaebaccalaureus(bachelorofscience)SM scientiaemagister(masterofscience)STB sacraetheologiaebaccalaureus(bachelorofsacredtheology)

24.2.4Agencies,Companies,andOtherOrganizations

Youmayuseabbreviationsintextandelsewhereforthenamesofgovernmentagencies,broadcastingcompanies,associations,fraternalandserviceorganizations,unions,andothergroupsthatarecommonlyknownbyacronymsorinitialisms(see24.1.1).Spell

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outthefullnameonfirstreference,followedbytheabbreviationinparentheses(see24.1.2).Suchabbreviationsareinfullcapitalswithnoperiods.Hereisarepresentativelistofsuchabbreviations;othernameswithinthesecategories(forexample,ABA,CBS,andNEH)shouldbetreatedsimilarly.

AAASAFL-CIOAMAAT&TCDCCNNEUFTCHMONAACPNAFTANFLNIMHNSFOPECTVAUNUNESCOWHOYMCA

Ifacompanyisnotcommonlyknownbyanabbreviation,spelloutandcapitalizeitsnameinthetext.Thenamesofsomecompaniescontainabbreviationsandampersands.Ifindoubtaboutthecorrectform,lookupthecompanynameatitscorporatewebsiteor,forhistoricalforms,inanauthoritativereference.YoumayomitsuchtermsasInc.orLtd.fromthename,anddonotcapitalizethewordtheatthebeginningofthename.Subsequentreferencescandroptermssuchas&Co.orCorporation.

Merck&Co.RANDCorporationtheUniversityofChicagoPress

Intables,figures,andcitations,youmayuseanyofthefollowingabbreviationsincompanynames.

Assoc.Bros.Co.Corp.Inc.LP(limitedpartnership)Mfg.PLC(publiclimitedcompany)RR(railroad)Ry.(railway)

24.3GeographicalTerms

24.3.1Place-Names

Intext,alwaysspelloutandcapitalizethenamesofcountries,states,counties,provinces,territories,bodiesofwater,mountains,andthelike(see22.1.1).

AlwaysspelloutUnitedStateswhenusingitasanoun.Whenusingitasanadjective,youmayeitherabbreviateittoUSorspellitout(foramoreformaltone).

ShewasineligibleforthepresidencybecauseshewasnotbornintheUnitedStates.

HisUScitizenshipwasrevokedlaterthatyear.

Intables,figures,citations,andmailingaddresses,abbreviatethenamesofUSstatesusingthetwo-letterpostalcodescreatedbytheUSPostalService.

AK AlaskaAL AlabamaAR ArkansasAZ ArizonaCA California

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CO ColoradoCT ConnecticutDC DistrictofColumbiaDE DelawareFL FloridaGA GeorgiaHI HawaiiIA IowaID IdahoIL IllinoisIN IndianaKS KansasKY KentuckyLA LouisianaMA MassachusettsMD MarylandME MaineMl MichiganMN MinnesotaMO MissouriMS MississippiMT MontanaNC NorthCarolinaND NorthDakotaNE NebraskaNH NewHampshireNJ NewJerseyNM NewMexicoNV NevadaNY NewYorkOH OhioOK OklahomaOR OregonPA PennsylvaniaRl RhodeIslandSC SouthCarolinaSD SouthDakotaTN TennesseeTX TexasUT UtahVA VirginiaVT VermontWA WashingtonWl WisconsinWV WestVirginiaWY Wyoming

YoumayalsoabbreviatethenamesofCanadianprovincesandterritorieswherestatenameswouldbeabbreviated.

AB AlbertaBC BritishColumbiaMB ManitobaNB NewBrunswickNL NewfoundlandandLabradorNS NovaScotiaNT NorthwestTerritoriesNU NunavutON OntarioPE PrinceEdwardIslandQC QuebecSK SaskatchewanYT Yukon

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24.3.2Addresses

Intext,spelloutandcapitalizetermsthatarepartofaddresses,includingthoselistedbelowandsimilarones(othersynonymsforstreet,forexample).Intables,figures,citations,andmailingaddresses,usetheabbreviations.Notethatalltheabbreviationsuseperiodsexceptforthetwo-letterinitialisms(suchasNE).See23.1.7foranexampleofanaddressintext.

Ave. AvenueBlvd. BoulevardCt. CourtDr. DriveExpy. ExpresswayPkwy. ParkwayRd. RoadSq. SquarePI. PlaceSt. StreetN. NorthS. SouthE. EastW. WestNE NortheastNW NorthwestSE SoutheastSW Southwest

24.4TimeandDates

24.4.1Time

Youmayusetheabbreviationsa.m.(antemeridiem,orbeforenoon)andp.m.(postmeridiem,orafternoon)intextandelsewheretodesignatespecifictimes.Theabbreviationsshouldbelowercaseandinromantype.Donotcombinethemwithinthemorning,intheevening,oro clock;seealso23.1.5.

24.4.2DaysandMonths

Intext,spelloutandcapitalizethenamesofdaysoftheweekandmonthsoftheyear;seealso23.3.1.Intables,figures,andcitations,youmayabbreviatethemifyoudosoconsistently.(Notethatsomemonthsinthissystemarenotabbreviated.)

Sun.Mon.Tues.Wed.Thur.Fri.Sat.

Jan.Feb.Mar.Apr.MayJuneJulyAug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.

24.4.3Eras

Therearevarioussystemsfordesignatingeras,allofwhichuseabbreviationswithnumericaldates.BCandADarethemostcommondesignations,thoughBCEandCEmaybeusedinstead.Torefertotheverydistantpast,adesignationsuchasBPorMYAmaybecomenecessary.ADprecedestheyearnumber;theotherdesignationsfollowit(seealso23.2.4and23.3.2).

BC beforeChristAD annoDomini(intheyearoftheLord)

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BCE beforethecommoneraCE commoneraBP beforethepresentMYA(ormya) millionyearsago

24.5UnitsofMeasureInthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,spelloutthenamesofunitsofmeasuresuchasdimensions,distances,volumes,weights,anddegrees.Spelloutthenumbersorusenumeralsaccordingtothegeneralruleyouarefollowing(see23.1.1).

fivemiles150kilograms14.5meters

Inthesciences,usestandardabbreviationsforunitsofmeasurewhentheamountisgiveninnumerals.(Youmayuseabbreviationsinotherdisciplines,dependingonyourlocalguidelines.)Leaveaspacebetweenthenumeralandtheunit,exceptwhereconventiondictatesotherwise(36 ;512K),andnotethatabbreviationsarethesameinsingularandplural.Spelloutunitsofmeasurewhentheyarenotprecededbyanumberorwhenthenumberisspelledout(asatthebeginningofasentence;see23.1.2.1).

Weinjected10µLofvirusneartheimplants.

Resultsaregiveninmicroliters.

Twelvemicrolitersofviruswasconsideredasafeamount.

Foralistofabbreviationsincludingcommonunitsofmeasure,see10.52ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).

24.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorksWhenyoureferintexttowholechaptersorbooksoftheBibleortheApocrypha,spelloutthenamesofthebooks,butdonotitalicizethem.

Jeremiah42–44recordstheflightoftheJewstoEgypt.

TheRevelationofSt.JohntheDivine,knownas“Revelation,”closestheNewTestament.

Whenyoucitebiblicalpassagesbyverse(see17.5.2and19.5.2),abbreviatethenamesofthebooks,usingarabicnumeralsiftheyarenumbered(1Kings).Alsousearabicnumeralsforchapterandversenumbers,withacolonbetweenthem.Sincedifferentversionsofthescripturesusedifferentnamesandnumbersforbooks,identifytheversionyouareciting.Dependingonthecontext,youmayeitherspelloutthenameoftheversion,atleastonfirstoccurrence,oruseabbreviations(see24.6.4),withoutprecedingorinternalpunctuation.

1SongofSol.2:1–5NRSVRuth3:14NAB

ThefollowingsectionslistbothtraditionalandshorterabbreviationsforthebooksoftheBible,arrangedinalphabeticalorder.Ifyouareunsurewhichformofabbreviationisappropriate,consultyourinstructor.Wherenoabbreviationisgiven,usethefullform.

24.6.1JewishBible/OldTestament

NotethattheabbreviationforOldTestamentisOT.

Traditional Shorter Fullname

Amos Am Amos1Chron. 1Chr 1Chronicles2Chron. 2Chr 2ChroniclesDan. Dn DanielDeut. Dt DeuteronomyEccles. Eccl EcclesiastesEsther Est EstherExod. Ex ExodusEzek. Ez EzekielEzra Ezr EzraGen. Gn GenesisHab. Hb HabakkukHag. Hg HaggaiHosea Hos HoseaIsa. Is Isaiah

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Jer. Jer JeremiahJob Jb JobJoel Jl JoelJon. Jon JonahJosh. Jo JoshuaJudg. Jgs Judges1Kings 1Kgs 1Kings2Kings 2KgS 2KingsLam. Lam LamentationsLev. Lv LeviticusMal. Mal MalachiMic. Mi MicahNah. Na NahumNeh. Neh NehemiahNum. Nm NumbersObad. Ob ObadiahProv. Prv ProverbsPs.(pluralPss.) Ps(pluralPss) PsalmsRuth Ru Ruth1Sam. 1Sm 1Samuel2Sam. 2Sm 2SamuelSongofSol. Sg SongofSolomon(SongofSongs)Zech. Zec ZechariahZeph. Zep Zephaniah

24.6.2Apocrypha

ThebooksoftheApocryphaareincludedinRomanCatholicbutnotJewishorProtestantversionsoftheBible.NotethatthetraditionalabbreviationforApocryphaisApoc.(noshorterabbreviation).

Traditional Shorter Fullname

Bar. Bar BaruchBelandDragon — BelandtheDragonEcclus. Sir Ecclesiasticus(Sirach)1Esd. — 1Esdras2Esd. — 2EsdrasJth. Jdt Judith1Macc. 1Mc 1Maccabees2Macc. 2Mc 2MaccabeesPr.ofMan. — PrayerofManasses(Manasseh)SongofThreeChildren — SongoftheThreeHolyChildrenSus. — SusannaTob. Tb TobitWisd.ofSol. Ws WisdomofSolomon— — AdditionstoEsther(RestofEsther)

24.6.3NewTestament

NotethattheabbreviationforNewTestamentisNT.

Traditional Shorter Fullname

Acts — ActsoftheApostlesApoc. — Apocalypse(Revelation)Col. Col Colossians1Cor. 1Cor 1Corinthians2Cor. 2Cor 2CorinthiansEph. Eph EphesiansGal. Gal GalatiansHeb. Heb HebrewsJames Jas JamesJohn Jn John(Gospel)1John 1Jn 1John(Epistle)2John 2Jn 2John(Epistle)

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3John 3Jn 3John(Epistle)Jude — JudeLuke Lk LukeMark Mk MarkMatt. Mt Matthew1Pet. 1Pt 1Peter2Pet. 2Pt 2PeterPhil. Phil PhilippiansPhilem. Phlm PhilemonRev. Rv Revelation(Apocalypse)Rom. Rom Romans1Thess. 1Thes 1Thessalonians2Thess. 2Thes 2Thessalonians1Tim. 1Tm 1Timothy2Tim. 2Tm 2TimothyTitus Ti Titus

24.6.4VersionsoftheBible

TheseabbreviationscovermanystandardversionsoftheBible.Iftheversionyouarecitingisnotlistedhere,consultyourinstructor.

ARV AmericanRevisedVersionASV AmericanStandardVersionAT AmericanTranslationAV Authorized(KingJames)VersionCEV ContemporaryEnglishVersionDV DouayVersionERV EnglishRevisedVersionEV Englishversion(s)JB JerusalemBibleNAB NewAmericanBibleNEB NewEnglishBibleNRSV NewRevisedStandardVersionRSV RevisedStandardVersionRV RevisedVersionVulg. Vulgate

24.6.5OtherSacredWorks

ManysacredworksofotherreligioustraditionsaredividedintopartssimilartothoseoftheBible.Capitalizeandsetinromantypethenamesoftheworksthemselves(Qur an[orKoran],Vedas),butitalicizethenamesoftheirparts(al-Baqarah,Rig-Veda).Althoughthereisnowidelyacceptedmethodforabbreviatingthenamesoftheseworksortheirparts,youmaypunctuatecitationsfromthemsimilarlytothosefromtheBible(seealso17.5.2and19.5.2).Ifaworkhasmultiplenumbereddivisions,youmaysubstituteperiodsorcommasforcolonsormakeotheradaptationstoclarifythelocationofthecitedpassage.

Qurʼan2:257orQurʼan2(al-Baqarah):257

Mahabharata1.2.3

Ifyourpaperisinreligiousstudies,consultyourinstructorformorespecificguidance.

24.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContextsManyabbreviationsarecommonlyusedandevenpreferredincitations,especiallyforidentifyingtherolesofindividualsotherthanauthors(ed.,trans.),thepartsofworks(vol.,bk.,sec.),andlocatinginformation(p.,n).Forguidelinesonusingabbreviationsincitations,see16.1.6andchapter17or18.1.6andchapter19.

Intext,itisusuallybettertospellthingsout.Commonabbreviationslikee.g.,i.e.,andetc.,ifused,shouldbeconfinedtoparentheses(see21.8.1).

Followingisalistofsomeofthemostcommonabbreviationsencounteredincitationsandotherscholarlycontexts.Unlessotherwiseshown,mostformthepluralbyaddingsores.Noneofthemarenormallyitalicized.

abbr. abbreviated,abbreviationabr. abridged,abridgmentanon. anonymousapp. appendixassn. association

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b. bornbib. Bible,biblicalbibliog. bibliography,bibliographerbiog. biography,biographerbk. bookca. circa,about,approximatelycap. capital,capitalizeCD compactdisccf. confer,comparechap. chaptercol. color(bestspelledout);columncomp. compiler,compiledbycont. continuedcorr. correctedd. dieddept. departmentdict. dictionarydiss. dissertationdiv. divisionDOI digitalobjectidentifierDVD digitalversatile(orvideo)disced. editor,edition,editedbye.g. exempligratia,forexampleenl. enlargedesp. especiallyetal. etaliioretalia,andothersetc. etcetera,andsoforthex. examplefig. figureff. andfollowingfol. folioftp filetransferprotocolhttp hypertexttransferprotocolibid. ibidem,inthesameplaceid. idem,thesamei.e. idest,thatisill. illustrated,illustration,illustratorinf. infra,belowintl. internationalintro. introduction1.(pi.II.) line(bestspelledouttoavoidconfusionwithnumerals1and11)loc.cit. lococitato,intheplacecited(bestavoided)misc. miscellaneousMS(pl.MSS) manuscriptn(pl.nn) notenatl. nationaln.b.orNB notabene,takecarefulnoten.d. nodateno. numbern.p. noplace;nopublisher;nopageNS NewStyle(dates)n.s. newseriesop.cit. operacitato,intheworkcited(bestavoided)org. organizationOS OldStyle(dates)o.s. oldseriesp.(pl.pp.) pagepara.orpar. paragraphpers.comm. personalcommunicationpl. plate(bestspelledout);pluralPS postscriptum,postscript

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pseud. pseudonympt. partpub. publication,publisher,publishedbyq.v. quodvide,whichseer. recto,rightrepr. reprintrev. revised,revisedby,revision;review,reviewedbyROM read-onlymemorysd. soundsec. sectionser. seriessing. singularsoc. societysup. supra,abovesupp. supplements.v.(p/.s.vv.) subverbo,subvoce,underthewordsyn. synonym,synonymoust.p. titlepagetrans. translatedby,translatoruniv. universityURL uniformresourcelocatorusu. usuallyv.(p/.vv.) verse;verso,rightviz. videlicet,namelyvol. volumevs.orv. versus(inlegalcontexts,usev.)

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25Quotations

25.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarism

25.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourText

25.2.1Run-inQuotations25.2.2BlockQuotations

25.3ModifyingQuotations

25.3.1PermissibleChanges25.3.2Omissions

Thischapteroffersgeneralguidelinesforpresentingquotations.AlthoughalloftheexamplesareinEnglish,theguidelinesalsoapplytoquotationsfromotherlanguages(seealso22.2.1).

Quotingdirectlyfromasourceisjustoneofseveraloptionsforrepresentingtheworkofothersinyourpaper;foradiscussionofthealternativesandwhentousethem,see7.4.Whicheveroptionyouchoose,youmustcitethesourceofthewordsorideas.Chapter15providesanintroductiontocitationpractices,andthefollowingchaptersdescribetwocommoncitationstyles(chapters16and17,bibliographystyle;chapters18and19,author-datestyle).

Ifyouarewritingathesisoradissertation,yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforpresentingquotations,whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,yourinstructormayalsoaskyoutofollowcertainprinciplesforpresentingquotations.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.

Ifyourdissertationwillbesubmittedtoanexternaldissertationrepository,youmayneedtoobtainformalpermissionfromcopyrightholdersforcertaintypesofquotations.Seechapter4ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).

25.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarismAccuratequotationiscrucialtothescholarlyenterprise,soyoumust

■useonlyreliable,relevantsources(seechapter3)■transcribewordsexactlyastheyareintheoriginal,ormodifythemonlyasdescribedin25.3■accuratelyreportthesourcesinyourbibliographyorreferencelist(seechapters16and18)sothatreaderscanconsultthemforthemselves

Theethicsofscholarshipalsorequirethatwheneveryouquotewordsorrelyontables,graphics,ordatafromanothersource,youclearlyindicatewhatyouborrowedandfromwhere,usingtheappropriatecitationstyle(seechapter15).Ifyoudonot,youriskachargeofplagiarism.Butevenifyoudociteasourceaccurately,youstillriskachargeofplagiarismifyouusetheexactwordsofthesourcebutfailtoidentifythemasaquotationinoneofthewaysgivenin25.2.Forafullerdiscussionofplagiarism,see7.9.

25.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourTextYoucanincorporateaquotationintoyourtextinoneoftwoways,dependingonitslength.Ifthequotationisfourlinesorless,runitintoyourtextandencloseitinquotationmarks.Ifitisfivelinesorlonger,setitoffasablockquotation,withoutquotationmarks.Followthesameprinciplesforquotationswithinfootnotesorendnotes.

Youmayuseablockquotationforaquotationshorterthanfivelinesifyouwanttoemphasizeitorcompareittoalongerquotation.

25.2.1Run-inQuotations

Whenquotingapassageoflessthanfivelines,enclosetheexactwordsquotedindoublequotationmarks.Thereareseveralwaystointegrateaquotationintotheflowofyourtext;see7.5.Youmayintroduceitwiththenameoftheauthoraccompaniedbyatermsuchasnotes,claims,argues,oraccordingto.(Notethatthesetermsareusuallyinthepresenttense,ratherthannoted,claimed,andsoforth,butsomedisciplinesfollowdifferentpractices.)Inthiscase,putacommabeforethequotation.

Ricoeurwrites,“Theboundarybetweenplotandargumentisnoeasiertotrace.”

AsRicoeurnotes,“Theboundarybetweenplotandargumentisnoeasiertotrace.”

Ifyouweaveaquotationmoretightlyintothesyntaxofyoursentence,suchaswiththewordthat,donotputacommabeforeit.

Ricoeurwarnsusthat“theboundarybetweenplotandargumentisnoeasiertotrace.”

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Ifyouputtheattributingphraseinthemiddleofaquotation,setitoffwithcommas.

“Theboundarybetweenplotandargument,”saysRicoeur,“isnoeasiertotrace.”

Fortheuseofcommas,periods,andotherpunctuationmarksrelativetoquotations,see21.12.2and25.3.1;forpermissiblechangestocapitalizationandotherelements,see25.3.1.

25.2.1.1PLACEMENTOFCITATIONS.Ifyoucitethesourceofaquotationinafootnoteorendnote,whereyouplacethesuperscriptnotenumber(see16.3.2)dependsonwherethequotationfallswithinasentence.Ifthequotationisattheendofthesentence,putthenumberaftertheclosingquotationmark.

AccordingtoLitwack,“Scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation.”4

Ifthequotationendsinthemiddleofasentence,putthenumberattheendoftheclausethatincludesthequotation,whichoftenistheendofthesentence.

“Scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation,”accordingtoLitwack.4

Litwackarguesthat“scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation,”4andheproceedstoprovethisassertion.

Thesameplacementoptionsapplytocitationsgivenparentheticallywitheitherbibliography-style(16.4.3)orauthor-datecitations(see18.3.1),withtwonotabledifferences:

■Ifaperiodorcommawouldnormallyprecedetheclosingquotationmark,placeitoutsidethequotation,followingtheclosingparenthesis.

Theauthorsseektounderstand“howpeoplecategorizetheobjectstheyencounterineverydaysituations”(BowkerandStar1999,59).

Todetermine“howpeoplecategorizetheobjectstheyencounterineverydaysituations”(BowkerandStar1999,59),theauthorsdevisedastudy.

■Whentheauthor snameismentionedintextalongwiththequotation,placethedatenexttotheauthor sname,regardlessofwhereitappearsrelativetothequotation.

“Scoresofnewlyfreedslavesviewedmovementasavitalexpressionoftheiremancipation,”accordingtoLitwack(1999,482).

Litwackʼs(1999,482)observationthat“scoresofnewlyfreedslaves…”

25.2.1.2SPECIALPUNCTUATION.Foraquotationwithinaquotation,usesinglequotationmarksfortheinnersetofquotedwords.

Rothko,arguesBall,“wantedtomakeworksthatwroughtatranscendenteffect,thatdealtwithspiritualconcerns:ʻPaintingsmustbelikemiracles,ʼheoncesaid.”

Ifyouruntwoormorelinesofpoetryintoyourtext,separatethemwithaslash(/),withaspacebeforeandafterit.Inmostcases,however,useblockquotationsforpoetry(see25.2.2.2).

Theyreducelifetoasimpleproposition:“Allthingshaverest,andripentowardthegrave;/Insilence,ripen,fall,andcease.”

25.2.2BlockQuotations

25.2.2.1PROSE.Presentaprosequotationoffiveormorelinesasablockquotation.Introducethequotationinyourownwordsinthetext;see7.5.Ifyouintroducethequotationwithacompletesentence,endthesentencewithacolon.Ifyouuseonlyanattributionphrasesuchasnotes,claims,argues,oraccordingtoalongwiththeauthor sname,endthephrasewithacomma.Ifyouweavethequotationintothesyntaxofyoursentence,donotuseanypunctuationbeforethequotationifnopunctuationwouldordinarilyappearthere(seethesecondexamplebelow).

Single-spaceablockquotation,andleaveablanklinebeforeandafterit.Donotaddquotationmarksatthebeginningorend,butpreserveanyquotationmarksintheoriginal.Indenttheentirequotationasfarasyouindentthefirstlineofaparagraph.(Inliterarystudiesandotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,youshouldindentthefirstlineofablockquotationfurtherthantherestofthequotationifthetextisindentedintheoriginal;seealso25.3.)Forotherpunctuationandcapitalizationwithinthequotation,see25.3.1.

Jacksonbeginsbyevokingtheimportanceofhome:

Housingisanoutwardexpressionoftheinnerhumannature;nosocietycanbefullyunderstoodapartfromtheresidencesofitsmembers.Anineteenth-centurymelodydeclares,“Thereʼsnoplacelikehome,”andeventhoughshehadEmeraldCityatherfeet,DorothycouldthinkofnoplaceshewouldratherbethanathomeinKansas.Ourhomesareourhavensfromtheworld.1

Intherestofhisintroduction,hediscusses…

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Ifyouquotemorethanoneparagraph,donotaddextralinespacebetweenthem,butindentthefirstlineofthesecondandsubsequentparagraphsfartherthantherestofthequotation.

Heobservedthatgovernmentsordinarilyperishbypowerlessnessorbytyranny.Inthefirstcase,powerescapesthem;intheother,itistornfromthem.Manypeople,onseeingdemocraticstatesfallintoanarchy,havethoughtthatgovernmentinthesestateswasnaturallyweak

andpowerless.Thetruthisthatwhenwaramongtheirpartieshasoncebeensetaflame,governmentlosesitsactiononsociety.(Tocqueville,248)

Ifyoucitethesourceinafootnoteorendnote,placethenotenumberasasuperscriptattheendoftheblockquotation,asinthefirstexampleabove(seealso16.3.2).Ifyoucitethesourceparenthetically,putthecitationaftertheterminalpunctuationofablockquotation,asinthesecondexampleabove.(Notethatthisdiffersfromitsplacementwitharun-inquotation,asexplainedin25.2.1.1.)

25.2.2.2POETRYANDDRAMA.Presentaquotationoftwoormorelinesfrompoetryasablockquotation.Begineachlineofthepoemonanewline,withpunctuationattheendsoflinesasintheoriginal.Formostpapers,indentablockofpoetryasyouwouldaprosequotation;ifalineistoolongtofitonasingleline,indenttherunoverfartherthantherestofthequotation.(Inadissertationorotherlongerpaperthatincludesmanypoetryquotations,centereachleft-alignedquotationonthepagerelativetothelongestline.)

Whitmanʼspoemincludessomememorablepassages:Mytongue,everyatomofmyblood,formʼdfromthissoil,thisair,Bornhereofparentsbornherefromparentsthesame,andtheirparentsthesameI,nowthirty-sevenyearsoldinperfecthealthbegin,Hopingtoceasenottilldeath.

Ifyouarequotingapoemwithanunusualalignment,reproducethealignmentoftheoriginaltothebestofyourability.

ThisiswhatHerbertcapturedsobeautifully:Suretherewaswine

Beforemysighsdiddrieit:therewascornBeforemytearsdiddrownit.

Istheyeareonelylosttome?HaveInobayestocrownit?

Noflowers,nogarlandsgay?allblasted?Allwasted?

Ifyouquotetwoormorelinesofdialoguefromadramaticwork,setthequotationapartinablockquotationformattedasyouwouldprose.Presenteachspeaker snamesothatitisdistinctfromthedialogue,suchasinallcapitallettersorinadifferentfont.Begineachspeechonanewline,andindentrunoversfartherthantherestofthequotation.

Thentheplaytakesanunusualturn:

R.ROISTERDOISTER.ExceptIhavehertomywife,Ishallrunmad.

M.MERYGREEKE.Nay,“unwise”perhaps,butIwarrantyoufor“mad.”

25.2.2.3EPIGRAPHS.Anepigraphisaquotationthatestablishesathemeofyourpaper.Forepigraphsusedinthefrontmatterofathesisordissertation,seeA.2.1.Treatanepigraphatthebeginningofachapterorsectionasablockquotation.Onthelinebelowit,givetheauthorandthetitle,flushrightandprecededbyanemdash(ortwohyphens;see21.7.2).Youdonotneedamoreformalcitationforanepigraph.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthesourcelineandthebeginningoftext.SeealsofigureA.9.

Thecity,however,doesnottellitspast,butcontainsitlikethelinesofahand.—ItaloCalvino,InvisibleCities

25.3ModifyingQuotationsWhenyoudoyourresearch,youmustrecordtheexactwording,spelling,capitalization,andpunctuationofanytextyouplantoquote,eveniftheydonotfollowtheguidelinesinthismanual.Whenyouincorporatethequotationintoyourpaper,however,youmaymakeminoradjustmentstofitthesyntaxofthesurroundingtextortoemphasizecertainpartsofthequotation.

Notethatdisciplineshavedifferentstandardsforissuesdiscussedinthissection,suchasmodifyinginitialcapitalandlowercaselettersandusingellipsesforomissions.Forpapersinmostdisciplines,followthegeneralguidelines.Forpapersinliterarystudiesandotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,followthestricterguidelinesgivenundersometopics.Ifyouarenotsurewhichsettofollow,consultyourlocalguidelinesoryourinstructor.

25.3.1PermissibleChanges

25.3.1.1SPELLING.Iftheoriginalsourcecontainsanobvioustypographicerror,correctitwithoutcomment.

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Original:Theseconclusionsarenotdefinate,buttheyarecertainlysuggestive.

Claytonadmitsthathisconclusionsare“notdefinite.”

If,however,suchanerrorrevealssomethingsignificantaboutthesourceorisrelevanttoyourargument,preserveitinyourquotation.Immediatelyfollowingtheerror,inserttheLatinwordsic( so ),italicizedandenclosedinbrackets,toidentifyitastheauthor serror.Itisconsideredbadmannerstocallouterrorsjusttoembarrassasource.

Original:TheaverageAmericandoesnotknowhowtospellandcannotuseacomaproperly.

RussellexemplifiesherownargumentbyclaimingthattheaverageAmerican“cannotuseacoma[sic]properly.”

Whenquotingfromanoldersourceoronethatrepresentsdialectwithnonstandardspelling,preserveidiosyncrasiesofspelling,anddonotusesic.Ifyoumodernizeoralterallofthespellingandpunctuationforclarity,informyourreadersinanoteorpreface.

25.3.1.2CAPITALIZATIONANDPUNCTUATION.Inmostdisciplines,youmaychangetheinitialletterofaquotedpassagefromcapitaltolowercaseorfromlowercasetocapitalwithoutnotingthechange.Ifyouweavethequotationintothesyntaxofyoursentence,beginitwithalowercaseletter.Otherwise,beginitwithacapitalletterifitbeginswithacompletesentence,withalowercaseletterifitdoesnot.Youmayalsomakesimilarchangeswhenyouuseellipses;see25.3.2.

Original:Asaresultofthesefactors,theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.

Fernandezclaims,“TheMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Fernandezclaimsthat“theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Fernandezpointsoutthat“asaresultofthesefactors,theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

“TheMexicanpeople,”notesFernandez,“wereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Dependingonhowyouworkthequotationinthetext,youmayalsoomitafinalperiodorchangeittoacomma.

FernandeznotesthattheMexicanswere“boundtobenefitfromthechange”asaresultofthefactorshediscusses.

“TheMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange,”arguesFernandez.

Likewise,iftheoriginalpassageendswithacolonorsemicolon,youmaydeleteitorchangeittoaperiodoracomma,dependingonthestructureofyoursentence(see21.12.2.1).

Inliterarystudiesandotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,indicateanychangeincapitalizationbyputtingthealteredletterinbrackets.(Fortheuseofellipsisdotsinliterarystudies,see25.3.2.3.)

“…[T]heMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange,”arguesFernandez.

Fernandezpointsoutthat“[a]saresultofthesefactors,theMexicanpeoplewereboundtobenefitfromthechange.”

Inanydiscipline,ifyouputdoublequotationmarksaroundapassagethatalreadyincludesdoublequotationmarks,changetheinternalmarkstosinglequotationmarksforclarity(see25.2.1.2).

25.3.1.3ITALICS.Youmayitalicizeforemphasiswordsthatarenotitalicizedintheoriginal,butyoumustindicatethechangewiththenotationitalicsmineoremphasisadded,placedeitherinthequotationorinitscitation.Withinthequotation,addthenotationinsquarebracketsimmediatelyaftertheitalicizedwords.Inacitation,addthenotationafterthepagenumber,precededbyasemicolon(seealso16.3.5).Ingeneral,avoidaddingitalicstopassagesthatincludeitalicsintheoriginal;ifitbecomesnecessary,youmaydistinguishthesewiththenotationitalicsinoriginalor,forexample,Flaubert sitalics.

AccordingtoSchultz,“Bytheendof2010,everydemocracy[emphasisadded]willfacethechallengeofnuclearterrorism.”1

Brownnotessimplythatthedestructionofthetribes“hadallhappenedinlessthantenyears”(271;italicsmine).

25.3.1.4INSERTIONS.Ifyouneedtoinsertawordormoreofexplanation,clarification,orcorrectionintoaquotation,enclosetheinsertioninbrackets.Ifyoufindyourselfmakingmanysuchinsertions,considerparaphrasingorweavingsmallerquotationsintoyourtextinstead.

Assheobserves,“Thesemasters[Picasso,Braque,Matisse]rebelledagainstacademictraining.”

SheobservesthatPicasso,Braque,andMatisse“rebelledagainstacademictraining.”

25.3.1.5NOTES.Ifyouquoteapassagethatincludesasuperscriptnotenumberbutdonotquotethenoteitself,youmayomitthenotenumber.

25.3.2Omissions

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Ifyouomitwords,phrases,sentences,orevenparagraphsfromaquotationbecausetheyseemirrelevant,becarefulnottochangeormisrepresentthemeaningoftheoriginalsource.Notonlymustyoupreservewordsthatmightchangetheentiremeaningofthequotation(suchasnot,never,oralways),butyoumustalsopreserveimportantqualifications.Thequotationshowninthefollowingexamplewouldbeamisrepresentationoftheauthor smeaning.(Seealso4.2.3.)

Original:Thechangewassuretobebeneficialoncetheimmediatetroublessubsided.

Yangclaims,“Thechangewassuretobebeneficial.”

25.3.2.1INSERTINGELLIPSES.Toindicatetheomissionofaword,phrase,orsentence,useellipsisdots threeperiodswithspacesbetweenthem.Toavoidbreakinganellipsisovertheline,useyourwordprocessor sellipsischaracteror,alternatively,useanonbreakingspacebeforeandafterthemiddledot.Youwillalsoneedtouseanonbreakingspacebetweentheellipsisandanypunctuationmarkthatfollows.(Anymarkthatprecedestheellipsis,includingaperiod,mayappearattheendofthelineabove.)Sincethedotsstandforwordsomitted,theyalwaysgoinsidethequotationmarksorblockquotation.

Howyouuseellipsesincertainsituationsdependsonyourdiscipline.Formostdisciplines,followthegeneralmethod;forliterarystudiesandotherfieldsconcernedwithcloseanalysisoftexts,followthetextualstudiesmethod(see25.3.2.3).Ifyouarenotsurewhichmethodtofollow,consultyourlocalguidelinesoryourinstructor.See25.3.1foradjustmentstocapitalizationandpunctuationwithomissions.

25.3.2.2GENERALMETHODFORELLIPSES.Youmayshortenaquotationsuchasthefollowinginseveraldifferentways.

Original:Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty.Itshouldconductitselfaccordingtothestandardsofinternationaldiplomacy.Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.

Ifyouomitwordswithinasentence,usethreeellipsisdotsasdescribedabove(25.3.2.1).

“Whenanationiswrong,itshould…apologizetothewrongedparty.”

Ifyouomitmaterialbetweensentencesandthematerialprecedingtheomissionisagrammaticallycompletesentence,useaterminalpunctuationmarkimmediatelyfollowingthatsentence.Leaveaspacebetweenthatpunctuationmarkandthefirstellipsisdot.Followthispracticeeveniftheomissionincludestheendoftheprecedingsentenceaslongaswhatisleftisgrammaticallycomplete(asinthesecondexamplehere).

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsayso….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

Ifyouomitmaterialbetweensentencessothatthematerialprecedingandfollowingtheomissioncombinestoformagrammaticallycompletesentence,donotincludeterminalpunctuationbeforetheellipsis.Toavoidmisrepresentingtheauthor smeaning,however,itisgenerallybettertouseoneoftheshorteningoptionsaboveortousetwoseparatequotationsinthissituation.

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoand…takestepstochangethesituation.”

Thesameprinciplesapplywithothertypesofpunctuationmarks,whichprecedeorfollowanellipsisdependingonwherethewordsareomitted.Insomesituations,suchasthesecondexamplebelow,considerusingamoreselectivequotation.

“Howhotwasit?…Noonecouldfunctioninthatclimate.”

“Themerchantʼsstockincludeddrygoodsandsundryotheritems…,allforpurchasebythewomenofthetown.”

or

Themerchantstocked“drygoodsandsundryotheritems”forthetownʼswomen.

Sinceinmanycontextsitisobviouswhenaquotationhasbeenshortened,youneednotuseellipsispointsinthefollowingsituations:

■beforeorafteraquotedphrase,incompletesentence,orotherfragmentfromtheoriginalthatisclearlynotacompletesentence;ifyouomitanythingwithinthefragment,however,useellipsispointsattheappropriateplace:

Smithwrotethatthepresidenthadbeen“verymuchimpressed”bythepaperthatstressed“usingtheeconomicresources…ofallthemajorpowers.”

■atthebeginningofaquotation,evenifthebeginningofthesentencefromtheoriginalhasbeenomitted(butsee25.3.2.3forthetextualstudiesmethodforellipses).

■attheendofaquotation,eveniftheendofthesentencefromtheoriginalhasbeenomitted

25.3.2.3TEXTUALSTUDIESMETHODFORELLIPSES.Thetextualstudiesmethodusesellipsesmorestrictlythanthegeneralmethodtorepresentomissionsofmaterialatthebeginningandendofquotedsentences.Ifyouusethismethod,followtheprinciplesofthegeneralmethodexceptasnotedbelow.

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Original:Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty.Itshouldconductitselfaccordingtothestandardsofinternationaldiplomacy.Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.

■Ifyouomitmaterialbetweensentencesbutquotethesentenceprecedingtheomissioninfull,includetheterminalpunctuationmarkfromtheoriginal.Leaveaspacebetweenthatpunctuationmarkandthefirstellipsisdot,asinthegeneralmethod,showninthefirstexamplebelow.However,iftheomissionincludestheendoftheprecedingsentence(evenifwhatisleftisagrammaticallycompletesentence),putaspaceinsteadofapunctuationmarkimmediatelyfollowingthatsentence.Afterthespace,usethreeellipsisdotstorepresenttheomission,followedbyaspaceandtheterminalpunctuationmarkfromtheoriginal(asinthesecondexamplehere).

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

but

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsayso….Itshouldalsotakestepstochangethesituation.”

■Ifyoubeginaquotationwithasentencethatisgrammaticallycompletedespiteanomissionatthebeginningofthesentence,indicatetheomissionwithanellipsis.Ifthefirstwordiscapitalizedinthequotationbutnotintheoriginal,indicatethechangedletterinbrackets(see25.3.1).

“…[I]tshouldsaysoandapologizetothewrongedparty.”

■Ifyouendaquotationwithasentencethatisgrammaticallycompletedespiteanomissionattheendofthesentence,indicatetheomissionwithaspaceandathree-dotellipsis,followedbyaspaceandtheterminalpunctuationfromtheoriginal,asyouwouldforanomittedendingbetweensentences.

“Whenanationiswrong,itshouldsayso….”

25.3.2.4OMITTINGAPARAGRAPHORMORE.Thefollowingpracticeappliestoboththegeneralandtextualstudiesmethodsofhandlingomissions.

Ifyouomitafullparagraphormorewithinablockquotation,indicatethatomissionwithaperiodandthreeellipsisdotsattheendoftheparagraphbeforetheomission.Ifthequotationincludesanotherparagraphaftertheomission,indentthefirstlineofthenewparagraph.Ifitstartsinthemiddleofaparagraph,beginwiththreeellipsispointsaftertheindentation.

Mertonwrites:

Abrand-newconsciencewasjustcomingintoexistenceasanactual,operatingfunctionofasoul.Mychoiceswerejustabouttobecomeresponsible….…Sincenomanevercan,orcould,livebyhimselfandforhimselfalone,thedestiniesofthousandsofotherpeoplewere

boundtobeaffected.

25.3.2.5OMITTINGALINEORMOREOFPOETRY.Forboththegeneralandtextualstudiesmethods,showtheomissionofoneormorecompletelinesofapoemquotedinablockquotationbyalineofellipsispointsaboutaslongasthelineaboveit.

Thekeypassagereadsasfollows:

Weepnomore,woefulshepherds,weepnomore,ForLycidasyoursorrowisnotdead,.................................Toallthatwanderinthatperilousflood.

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26TablesandFigures

26.1GeneralIssues

26.1.1PositionintheText26.1.2Size26.1.3SourceLines

26.2Tables

26.2.1TableStructure26.2.2TableNumbersandTitles26.2.3Rules26.2.4ColumnHeads26.2.5TheStub26.2.6TheBodyofaTable26.2.7Footnotes

26.3Figures

26.3.1ChartsandGraphs26.3.2FigureNumbersandCaptions

Manyresearchpapersusetablesandfigurestopresentdata.Tablesaregridsconsistingofcolumnsandrowsthatpresentnumericalorverbalfactsbycategories.Figuresincludecharts,graphs,diagrams,photographs,maps,musicalexamples,drawings,andotherimages.Allthesetypesoftabularandnontextualmaterialsarecollectivelyreferredtoasillustrations(atermsometimesusedinterchangeablywithfigures)orgraphics.

Whenyouhavedatathatcouldbeconveyedinatableorfigure,yourfirsttaskistochoosethemosteffectiveoftheseformats;somekindsofdataarebetterrepresentedinatable,someinachart,othersinagraph.Yourchoicewillaffecthowyourreadersrespondtoyourdata.Thesearerhetoricalissues,discussedinchapter8.Thischapterfocusesonhowtoconstructtheparticularformyouchoose,lookingspecificallyattablesandtwotypesoffigures chartsandgraphs.

Mosttables,charts,andgraphsarenowcreatedwithsoftware.Youcannotrelyonsoftware,however,toselectthemosteffectiveformatortogeneratesuchitemsinthecorrectstyle,norwillsoftwareensurelogicalorformalconsistency.Expecttochangesomedefaultsettingsbeforecreatingtables,charts,andgraphsandtofine-tunetheseitemsoncetheyareproduced.

Yourdepartmentoruniversitymayhavespecificrequirementsforformattingtablesandfigures,usuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,checkwithyourinstructorforanyspecialrequirements.Reviewtheserequirementsbeforeyouprepareyourpaper.Theytakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.Forstyleguidesinvariousdisciplines,seethebibliography.

Formoreinformationoncreatingandformattingtablesandfiguresandinsertingthemintoyourpaper,seeA.3.1.

26.1GeneralIssuesThereareseveralissuescommontothepresentationoftablesandfiguresinpapers.

26.1.1PositionintheText

Normallyyoushouldplaceatableorfigureimmediatelyaftertheparagraphinwhichyoufirstmentionit.Sometimes,however,suchplacementwillcauseashorttabletobreakunnecessarilyacrossthepageorafiguretojumptothetopofthenextpage,leavingmorethanafewlinesofwhitespaceatthebottomofthepreviouspage.Topreventeitherofthesefromhappening,youmay(a)placethetableorfigurefartheralonginthetext,aslongasitremainswithinapageofitsfirstmention,or(b)placethetableorfigurejustbeforethefirstmention,aslongasitappearsonthesamepageasthemention.(Suchadjustmentsarebestmadeafterthetextofyourpaperisfinal.)

Youmaygroupsmallertablesorfiguresonapage,aslongastheyareclearlydistinctfromoneanother.Groupedtablesgenerallyretaintheirowntitles(see26.2.2).Ifgroupedfiguresarecloselyrelated,givethemasinglenumberandageneralcaption;otherwiseuseseparatenumbersandcaptions(see26.3.2).(Dependingonyourlocalguidelines,youmayinsteadgrouptablesandfigurestogetherinasectionlabeledIllustrationsinthebackmatterofyourpaper;seeA.2.3.1.)

Ifatableorfigureismarginallyrelevantortoolargetoputinthetext,putitinanappendixinthebackmatterofyourpaper(seeA.2.3).

Formoreinformationoninsertingtablesandfiguresintoyourpaper,seeA.3.1.

26.1.2Size

Wheneveryoucan,formattablesandfigurestofitononepageinnormal,orportrait,orientation.Iftheydonotfit,tryshortening

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longcolumnheadsorabbreviatingrepeatedterms.Ifyoucannotmakeatableorfigurefitonapage,youhaveseveraloptions.

■Landscape.Ifatableorfigureistoowideforapage,turnitninetydegreessothattheleftsideisatthebottomofthepage;thisorientationiscalledlandscapeorbroadside.Donotputanytextonapagecontainingalandscapetableorfigure.Setthetabletitleorfigurecaptionineitherlandscapeorportraitorientation.SeefigureA.13foranexample.(Youmayneedtoconvertatableintoanimagefileinordertorotateit.)

■Sidebyside.Ifatableislongerthanapagebutlessthanhalfapagewide,doubleitupandpositionthetwohalvessidebysideinonetableonthesamepage.Separatethetwohalveswithaverticalrule,andincludethecolumnheadsonbothsides.

■Multiplepages.Ifatableorfigureistoolongtofitonasinglepageinportraitorientationortoowidetofitinlandscape,divideitbetweentwo(ormore)pages.Fortables,repeatthestubcolumnandallcolumnheads(see26.2)oneverypage.Omitthebottomruleonallpagesexceptthelast.

■Reduction.Ifthefigureisaphotographorotherimage,considerreducingit.Consultyourlocalguidelinesforanyrequirementsrelatedtoresolution,scaling,cropping,andotherparameters.

■Separateitems.Ifnoneoftheabovesolutionsisappropriate,considerpresentingthedataintwoormoreseparatetablesorfigures.

■Supplement.Ifthetableorfigureconsistsofmaterialthatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasalargedatasetoramultimediafile,treatitasanappendix,asdescribedinA.2.3.

26.1.3SourceLines

Youmustacknowledgethesourcesofanydatayouuseintablesandfiguresthatyoudidnotcollectyourself.Youmustdothisevenifyoupresentthedatainanewform forexample,youcreateagraphbasedondataoriginallypublishedinatable,addfreshdatatoatablefromanothersource,orcombinedatafrommultiplesourcesbymeta-analysis.

Treatasourcelineasafootnotetoatable(see26.2.7)oraspartofacaptionforafigure(see26.3.2).Fortables,introducethesourcelinewiththewordSource(s)(capitalized,initalics,followedbyacolon).Ifthesourcelinerunsontomorethanoneline,therunoversshouldbeflushleft,single-spaced.Endasourcelinewithaperiod.

Ifyouarefollowingbibliographystyleforyourcitations,citethesourceasinafullnote(seechapter16),includingtheoriginaltableorfigurenumberorthepagenumberfromwhichyoutookthedata.Unlessyoucitethissourceelsewhereinyourpaper,youneednotincludeitinyourbibliography.

Source:DatafromDavidHalle,InsideCulture:ArtandClassintheAmericanHome(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1993),table2.

Sources:DatafromRichardH.AdamsJr.,“Remittances,Investment,andRuralAssetAccumulationinPakistan,”EconomicDevelopmentandCulturalChange47,no.1(1998):155–73;DavidBevan,PaulCollier,andJanGunning,PeasantsandGovernment:AnEconomicAnalysis(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1989),125–28.

Ifyouarefollowingauthor-datestyleforyourcitations,citethesourceasinaparentheticalcitation(minustheparentheses)andincludefullbibliographicalinformationaboutitinyourreferencelist(seechapter18).

Source:DatafromHalle1993,table2.

Sources:DatafromAdams1998,155–73;Bevan,Collier,andGunning1989,125–28.

Ifyouhaveadaptedthedatainanywayfromwhatispresentedintheoriginalsource,includethephraseadaptedfrominthesourceline,asshownintables26.1and26.3.

Forphotographs,maps,andotherfiguresthatyoudidnotcreateyourself,includeanacknowledgmentofthecreatorinplaceofasourceline.

MapbyGeraldF.Pyle.PhotographbyJamesL.Ballard.

Ifyourdissertationwillbesubmittedtoanexternaldissertationrepository,youmayalsoneedtoobtainformalpermissiontoreproducetablesorfiguresprotectedbycopyright.Seechapter4ofTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thedition(2010).Ifyouneedtoincludecreditlinesinconnectionwithsuchpermissions,seeCMOS3.28 36(figures)and3.74(tables).

26.2TablesInmanysituations,youmaychoosetopresentdatainatable.Chapter8describescriteriaforusingtablesaswellasgeneraldesignprinciplesforthem.Thissectioncoversmostoftheissuesyouarelikelytoencounterintheirpreparation.Tables26.1 26.3provideexamplesoftheprinciplesdiscussedhere.

Tablesvarywidelyinthecomplexityoftheircontentandthereforeintheirstructure,butconsistencybothwithinandacrosstablesisessentialtoensurethatreaderswillunderstandyourdata.

Usearabicnumeralsforallnumericaldataintablesunlessotherwisenoted.Tosavespace,youcanuseabbreviationsandsymbolsmorefreelythanyoucanintext,butusethemsparinglyandconsistently.Ifstandardabbreviationsdonotexist,createyourownandexplainthemeitherinafootnotetothetable(see26.2.7)or,iftherearemany,inalistofabbreviationsinyourpaper sfrontmatter(seeA.2.1).

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Table26.1.SelectedchurchesinFourCorners,Boston

Table26.2.ElectionresultsinGotefrithProvince,1950–60

Table26.3.Unemploymentratesforworking-ageNewYorkers,2000

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26.2.1TableStructure

Atablehaselementsanalogoustohorizontalandverticalaxesonagraph.Onthehorizontalaxisalongthetoparecolumnheads.Ontheverticalaxisalongtheleftareheadingsthatconstitutewhatiscalledthestubcolumn.

Thisgridofcolumns(vertical)androws(horizontal)inatableusuallycorrelatestwosetsofvariablescalledindependentanddependent.Theindependentvariablesaretraditionallydefinedontheleft,inthestubcolumn.Thedependentvariablesaretraditionallydefinedinthecolumnheads.Ifyouincludethesamesetofvariablesintwoormoretablesinyourpaper,beconsistent:puttheminthesameplaceineachtable,ascolumnheadsorinthestub.

Thedata,whichmaybewords,numbers,orboth(seetable26.1),areenteredinthecellsbelowthecolumnheadsandtotherightofthestubcolumn.

26.2.2TableNumbersandTitles

Ingeneral,everytableshouldhaveanumberandatitle.Placetheseitemsflushleftonthelineabovethetable,withthewordTable(capitalized,inromantype),followedbythetablenumber(inarabicnumerals),followedbyaperiod.Afteraspace,givethetitlewithoutaterminalperiod.Capitalizethetitlesentencestyle(see22.3.1).Ifatitlerunsontomorethanoneline,therunoversshouldbeflushleft,single-spaced.

Table13.Yen-dollarratiosinJapaneseexports,1995–2005

Asimpletabulationthatcanbeintroducedclearlyinthetext,suchasasimpletwo-columnlist,neednotbenumberedortitled.

Chicagoʼspopulationgrewexponentiallyinitsfirstcentury:

1840 4,4701870 298,9771900 1,698,5751930 3,376,438

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26.2.2.1TABLENUMBERS.Numbertablesseparatelyfromfigures,intheorderinwhichyoumentiontheminthetext.Ifyouhaveonlyafewtables,numberthemconsecutivelythroughoutthepaper,evenacrosschapters.Ifyouhavemanytablesandmanychapters,usedoublenumeration:thatis,thechapternumberfollowedbyaperiodfollowedbythetablenumber,asinTable12.4.

Whenyourefertoatableinthetext,specifythetablenumber( intable3 )ratherthanitslocation( below )becauseyoumayendupmovingthetablewhileeditingorformattingthepaper.Donotcapitalizethewordtableintextreferencestotables.

26.2.2.2TABLETITLES.Keeptabletitlesshortbutdescriptiveenoughtoindicatethespecificnatureofthedataandtodifferentiatetablesfromoneanother.Fordiscussionofgoodtitlingpractices,see8.3.1.Tabletitlesmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethantherestofyourtext.

26.2.3Rules

Rulesseparatedifferenttypesofdataandtext.Toomanyrulescreateaconfusingimage,sousethemsparinglyandconsistently(seealso8.3.2).

■Insertfull-widthhorizontalrulestoseparatethetitlefromthecolumnheads(see26.2.4),thecolumnheadsfromthebodyofthetable,andthebodyofthetablefromfootnotes.Aruleabovearowoftotalsistraditionalbutnotessential(seetable26.2).Unnumberedtablesrunintothetextcanusuallybesetwithnorules,aslongasanycolumnheadsaresetofftypographically.

■Usepartial-widthhorizontalrulestoindicatewhichcolumnheadsandcolumnsaregovernedbyspecialtypesofheads,ifyouusethem(see26.2.4,table26.2).

■Leaveenoughspacebetweendatacellstoavoidtheneedforadditionalrules.Donotuseverticalrulestoenclosethetableinabox.Butifyouneedtodoubleupalongandnarrowtable(see26.1.2),useaverticalruletoseparatethetwohalves.

■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning(see8.3.2).EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscurethetextofthetable,anddonotusemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.

26.2.4ColumnHeads

Atablemusthaveatleasttwocolumns,eachwithaheadorheadingatthetopthatnamesthedatainthecolumnbelow.

■Whenpossible,usenounphrasesforcolumnheads.Keepthemshort(orsetthemtowrap,asintable26.1)toavoidanexcessivelywidetable.

■Capitalizecolumnheadssentencestyle(see22.3.1).■Alignthestubheadflushleft(see26.2.5);centerothercolumnheadsoverthewidestentryinthecolumnbelow.Alignthebottomofallheadshorizontally.

Youmayneedtoincludespecialtypesofheadsinadditiontothecolumnheads.Suchaheadmayapplytotwoormorecolumnsofdata.Centertheheadovertherelevantcolumnswithapartial-widthhorizontalrulebeneath(and,ifnecessary,above)it.Table26.2showsheadsbothabove( 1950 )andbelow( ProvincialAssembly )thecolumnheads.

Headsmayhaveexplanatorytagstoclarifyortoindicatetheunitofmeasurefordatainthecolumnbelow.Enclosesuchtagsinparentheses.Youmayuseabbreviationsandsymbols(mpg,km,lb.,%,$M,andsoon),butbeconsistentwithinandamongyourtables.

Responses(%)Pesos(millions)

26.2.5TheStub

Theleftmostcolumnofatable,calledthestub,liststhecategoriesofdataineachrow.

■Includeacolumnheadforthestubwheneverpossible,evenifitisgeneric( TypicalCharacteristic or Variable ).Omittheheadonlyifitwouldmerelyrepeatthetabletitleorifthecategoriesinthestubaretoodiverseforasinglehead.

■Makestubentriesnounsornounphraseswheneverpossible,andkeepthemconsistentinform: Books, Journalarticles,Manuscripts, ratherthan Books, Articlespublishedinjournals, Manuscripts. Usethesamewordforthesameiteminallofyourtables(forexample,ifyouuseFormerUSSRinonetable,donotuseFormerSovietUnioninanother).

■Capitalizeallstubentriessentencestyle(see22.3.1),withnoterminalperiods.■Setthestubheadandentriesflushleft,andindentanyrunovers(asintable26.1).■Toshowthesumofthenumbersinacolumn,includeanindentedstubentrytitledTotal(seetable26.2).

Ifthestubcolumnincludessubentriesaswellasmainentries(seetable26.3),distinguishthemthroughindentation,italics,orboth.Followthesameprincipleslistedaboveformainentriesforcapitalizationandsoforth.

26.2.6TheBodyofaTable

Thebodyofatableconsistsofcellscontainingyourdata,whichmaybewords,numbers,orboth(seetable26.1).Ifthedataarenumericalandallvaluesinacolumnorintheentiretableareinthousandsormillions,omittherightmostzeros

andnotetheunitinanexplanatorytagintherelevantcolumnhead(see26.2.4),inthetabletitle(26.2.2),orinafootnote(26.2.7).Indicateanemptycellwiththreespacedperiods(ellipsisdots),centeredasintable26.3.

26.2.6.1HORIZONTALALIGNMENT.Alignthedataineachrowwiththestubentryforthatrow.

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■Ifthestubentryrunsoverontotwoormorelinesbuttherelateddatadoesnot,aligntherowwiththebottomlineofthestubentry(seetherowbeginning ChurchoftheHolyGhost intable26.1).

■Ifboththestubentryandthedatarunoverontotwoormorelines,aligntherowwiththetoplineofthestubentry(seetherowbeginning Mt.NeboApostolic intable26.1).

■Ifnecessary,insertleaders(linesofperiods,ordots)toleadthereader seyefromthestubtothedatainthefirstcolumn.(Foranexampleofleadersinasimilarcontext,seefig.A.5.)

26.2.6.2VERTICALALIGNMENT.Alignacolumnofnumbersverticallyontheirrealorimplieddecimalpoints,sothatreaderscancomparethevaluesinthecolumn.Ifallnumericalvaluesinacolumnhaveazerobeforeadecimalpoint,youmayomitthezeros(seefig.A.13).

Aligndollarsigns,percentsigns,degrees,andsoon.Butiftheyoccurineverycellinthecolumn,deletethemfromthecellsandgivetheunitasataginthecolumnhead(see26.2.4,table26.2,andfig.A.13).

Ifthedataconsistofwords,centereachcolumnunderthecolumnhead.Ifanyitemshaverunovers,aligneachcolumnflushleft(seetable26.1).

26.2.7Footnotes

Ifatablehasfootnotes,positionthemflushleft,single-spaced.Leaveablanklinebetweenthebottomruleofthetableandthefirstnote,andalsobetweennotes.Footnotesmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethantherestofthetext;consultyourlocalguidelines.

Footnotesfortablescanbeoffourkinds:(1)sourcelines(discussedin26.1.3),(2)generalfootnotesthatapplytothewholetable,(3)footnotesthatapplytospecificpartsofthetable,and(4)notesonlevelsofstatisticalsignificance.Ifyouhavemorethanonekindofnote,puttheminthatorder.

26.2.7.1GENERALNOTES.Generalnotesapplytotheentiretable.Theydefineabbreviations,expandonthetabletitle,specifyhowdatawerecollectedorderived,indicateroundingofvalues,andsoon.Gatherallsuchremarksintoasinglenote.Donotputanotenumber(orothersymbol)anywhereinthetableorthetabletitle,orwiththenoteitself.SimplybeginthenotewiththewordNote(capitalized,initalics,followedbyacolon).Seealsotable26.3.

Note:Sincenotalldatawereavailable,thereisdisparityinthetotals.

26.2.7.2SPECIFICNOTES.Notestoexplainspecificitemsinatablecanbeattachedtoanypartofthetableexceptthetablenumberortitle.Designatesuchnoteswithlowercasesuperscriptlettersratherthannumbers,bothwithinthetableandinthenoteitself.Donotbeginthenotewiththewordnotebutwiththesamesuperscriptletter,withnoperiodorcolonfollowing.

aTotalexcludestradeandlaboremployees.

Ifyouincludemorethanonesuchnoteinatable(asintable26.2),uselettersinsequentialorder,beginningattheupperleftofthetable,runninglefttorightandthendownward,rowbyrow.Ifanoteappliestotwoormoreitemsinthetable,usethesameletterforeachitem;ifitappliestoallitemsinacolumnorrow,puttheletterintherelevantcolumnheadorstubentry.

26.2.7.3NOTESONSTATISTICALSIGNIFICANCE.Ifyouincludenotesonthestatisticalsignificanceofyourdata(alsocalledprobabilitynotes),andifthesignificancelevelsarestandard,designatenoteswithasterisks,bothwithinthetableandinthenoteitself.Useasingleasteriskforthelowestlevelofprobability,twoforthenexthigher,andthreeforthelevelafterthat.If,however,youarenotingsignificancelevelsotherthanstandardones,usesuperscriptlettersinstead.Becausethesefootnotesareshortandtheyshareasinglepurpose,youmaycombinethemonthesameline,spaced,withoutinterveningpunctuation.Theletterp(forprobability,noperiodafterit)shouldbelowercaseanditalic.Omitzerosbeforedecimalpoints(see23.1.3).

*p<.05**p<.01***p<.001

26.3FiguresThetermfigurereferstoavarietyofimages,includingcharts,graphs,diagrams,photographs,maps,musicalexamples,anddrawings.Mostsuchmaterialscannowbepreparedandinsertedintoapaperelectronically.Thetechnicaldetailsaresoftware-specificandtoocomplextobecoveredinthisbook,butsomegeneralguidelinesarepresentedinA.3.1.

Thissectiondescribessomeprinciplesforpresentingtwotypesoffigurescreatedfromdata:chartsandgraphs.Italsodiscussescaptionsforfiguresofallkinds.

Treatavideo,ananimation,oranyothermultimediafilethatcannotbepresentedinprintformasanappendix(seeA.2.3).

26.3.1ChartsandGraphs

Inmanysituationsyoumaychoosetopresentdatainachartorgraph.Chapter8laysoutcriteriaforusingthesegraphicformsaswellasgeneraldesignprinciplesforthem.Italsoprovidesexamplesofseveraldifferenttypesofgraphics.Fordetailedguidanceonconstructingchartsandgraphs,consultareliableauthority.

Eachchartandgraphinyourpapershouldtaketheformthatbestcommunicatesitsdataandsupportsitsclaim,butconsistencybothwithinandacrosstheseitemsisessentialtoensurethatreaderswillunderstandyourdata.Keepinmindthefollowingprincipleswhenpresentingchartsandgraphsofanytype:

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■Representelementsofthesamekind axes,lines,datapoints,bars,wedges inthesameway.Usedistinctvisualeffectsonlytomakedistinctions,neverjustforvariety.

■Usearabicnumeralsforallnumericaldata.■Labelallaxesusingsentence-stylecapitalization.Keepthelabelsshort,followingpracticesforgoodtabletitles(see8.3.1).Usethefigurecaption(see26.3.2)toexplainanyaspectsofthedatathatcannotbecapturedinthelabels.Tosavespace,youcanuseabbreviationsandsymbolsmorefreelythanyoucanintext,butusethemsparinglyandconsistently.Ifstandardabbreviationsdonotexist,createyourownandexplainthemeitherinthecaptionor,iftherearemany,inalistofabbreviationsinyourpaper sfrontmatter(seeA.2.1).

■Labellines,datapoints,andotheritemswithinthechartorgraphthatrequireexplanationusingeitheralllowercaseletters(forsinglewords)orsentence-stylecapitalization(forphrases).Ifphrasesandsinglewordsbothappear,theyshouldallbestyledthesame(asinfig.8.3).Theotherprinciplesdescribedaboveforaxislabelsalsoapplytolabelsofthistype.

■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning(see8.3.2).EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertation,itmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscureanytextinthefigure,anddonotusemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.

26.3.2FigureNumbersandCaptions

Ingeneral,everyfigureinyourpapershouldhaveanumberandacaption.Ifyouincludeonlyafewfiguresinyourpaperanddonotspecificallyrefertotheminthetext,omitthenumbers.Figurecaptionsmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethantherestofyourtext;consultyourlocalguidelines.

Onthelinebelowthefigure,writethewordFigure(flushleft,capitalized,inromantype),followedbythefigurenumber(inarabicnumerals),followedbyaperiod.Afteraspace,givethecaption,usuallyfollowedbyaterminalperiod(butsee26.3.3.2).Ifacaptionrunsontomorethanoneline,therunoversshouldbeflushleft,single-spaced.

Figure6.TheGreatMosqueofCordoba,eighthtotenthcentury.

Inexamplesfrommusicalscoresonly,placethefigurenumberandcaptionabovethefigure.

26.3.3.1FIGURENUMBERS.Numberfiguresseparatelyfromtables,intheorderinwhichyoumentiontheminthetext.Ifyouhaveonlyafewfigures,numberthemconsecutivelythroughoutthepaper,evenacrosschapters.Ifyouhavemanyfiguresandmanychapters,usedoublenumeration:thatis,thechapternumberfollowedbyaperiodfollowedbythefigurenumber,asinFigure12.4.

Whenyourefertoafigureinthetext,specifythefigurenumber( infigure3 )ratherthanitslocation( below ),becauseyoumayendupmovingthefigurewhileeditingorformattingthepaper.Donotcapitalizethewordfigureintextreferencestofigures,anddonotabbreviateitasfig.exceptinparentheticalreferences forexample, (seefig.10).

26.3.3.2FIGURECAPTIONS.Figurecaptionsaremorevariedthantabletitles.Insomecases,captionscanconsistsolelyofanounphrase,capitalizedsentencestyle(see22.3.1),withoutaterminalperiod.

Figure9.MaryMcLeodBethune,leaderoftheBlackCabinet

Morecomplexcaptionsbeginwithanounphrasefollowedbyoneormorecompletesentences.Suchcaptionsarealsocapitalizedsentencestylebuthaveterminalperiods,evenaftertheinitialincompletesentence.Ifyourcaptionsincludeamixofbothtypes,youmayincludeaterminalperiodinthoseofthefirsttypeforconsistency.

Figure16.BenitoJuárez.Mexicoʼsgreatpresident,acontemporaryandfriendofAbrahamLincoln,representsthehard-foughttriumphofMexicanliberalismatmidcentury.CourtesyofBancroftLibrary,UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.

Whenafigurehasasourceline,putitattheendofthecaption,followingtheguidelinesin26.1.3.

Figure2.7.ThelaoValley,siteofthefinalbattle.PhotographbyAnastasiaNowag.

Figure11.3.USpopulationgrowth,1900–1999.DatafromUSCensusBureau,“HistoricalNationalPopulationEstimates,”accessedAugust9,2011,http://www.census.gov/popest/archives/1990s/popclockest.txt.

Sometimesacaptionisattachedtoafigureconsistingofseveralparts.Identifythepartsinthecaptionwithtermssuchastop,bottom,above,lefttoright,andclockwisefromleft(italicizedtodistinguishthemfromthecaptionitself)orwithlowercaseitalicletters.

Figure6.Aboveleft,WilliamLivingston;right,HenryBrockholstLivingston;belowleft,JohnJay;right,SarahLivingstonJay.

Figure15.FourtypesofHawaiianfishhooks:a,barbedhookoftortoiseshell;b,trollinghookwithpearlshelllureandpointofhumanbone;c,octopuslurewithcowrieshell,stonesinker,andlargebonehook;d,barbedhookofhumanthighbone.

Ifthecaptionforafigurewillnotfitonthesamepageasthefigureitself,putitonthenearestprecedingtextpage(seeA.3.1.4),withplacementidentificationinitalicsbeforethefigurenumberandcaption.

Nextpage:Figure19.Atoddlerusingafourth-generationiPhone.RefinementsintouchscreentechnologyhelpedAppleandothercorporationsbroadenthetargetmarketfortheirproducts.

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Appendix:PaperFormatandSubmission

A.1GeneralFormatRequirements

A.1.1MarginsA.1.2TypefaceA.1.3SpacingandIndentationA.1.4PaginationA.1.5Titles

A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElements

A.2.1FrontMatterA.2.2TextA.2.3BackMatter

A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements

A.3.1PreparingYourFilesA.3.2SubmittingElectronicFilesA.3.3SubmittingHardCopy

Whenyouarewritingathesis,adissertation,oraclasspaper,youmustobservecertainformatandstylerequirements.Forathesisordissertation,theserequirementsaresetbyyourdepartmentoryouruniversity sofficeofthesesanddissertations;foraclasspaper,theyaresetbyyourinstructor.Youmayalsohavetofollowspecificproceduresforsubmittingthepaper,whetherinhardcopyorelectronically.IfyourpaperwillbesubmittedtoanelectronicrepositorymaintainedbyaservicelikePro-Quest sDissertationsandThesesorbyyouruniversity,additionalguidelinesmayapply.

Beparticularlyawareoftheserequirementsifyouarewritingathesisordissertation.Youwillbejudgedonhowwellyoufollowtheacademicconventionsofyourfield.Also,manyoftherulesforformatandsubmissionareintendedtomakethepreservedcopy,boundorelectronic,asaccessibleaspossibleforfuturereaders.

Theguidelinespresentedherearewidelyacceptedfortheformatandsubmissionofthesesanddissertations,butmostuniversitieshavetheirownrequirements,whichareusuallyavailablefromtheofficeofthesesanddissertations.Reviewthecurrentguidelinesofyourdepartmentoruniversitybeforeyousubmityourthesisordissertation.Theselocalguidelinestakeprecedenceovertherecommendationsprovidedhere.

Ingeneral,therequirementsforaclasspaperarelessextensiveandstrictthanthoseforathesisordissertation.Suchpapersusuallyhavefewerelements,andsincetheyarenotlikelytobeboundorpreservedelectronically,therearefewersubmissionrequirements.Evenso,youmaybeexpectedtofollowcertainguidelinessetbyyourinstructorordepartment,andthoseguidelinestakeprecedenceovertheguidelinessuggestedhere.

Thisappendixassumesthatyouwillprepareyourpaperonacomputerandsubmititasanelectronicfile,hardcopy,orboth.Althoughword-processingprogramsvary,mostcanbeusedtosetmarginsize,numberpages,placeandnumberfootnotes,andinserttablesandfiguresaccordingtotheguidelinesinthisappendix.Ifyouarefollowingspecificguidelinessetbyyourinstructororinstitution,makesuretocheckyourpaper sformatcarefullyagainstthoseguidelinesbeforesubmittingit;ifyouaresubmittinganelectronicfileandaprintout,reviewtheformattingofboth.

A.1GeneralFormatRequirementsThissectionaddressesgeneralformatissuesthatapplytoyourpaperasawhole.Fordiscussionofspecificelementsandtheirindividualformatrequirements,seeA.2.Yourinstructor,department,oruniversitymayhaveguidelinesthatdifferfromtheadviceofferedhere.Ifso,thoseguidelinestakeprecedence.

A.1.1Margins

NearlyallpapersintheUnitedStatesareproducedonstandardpagesof8 x11inches.Leaveamarginofatleastoneinchonallfouredgesofthepage.Forathesisordissertationintendedtobebound,youmayneedtoleaveabiggermarginontheleftsideusually1 inches.

Besurethatanymaterialplacedinheadersorfooters,includingpagenumbersandotheridentifiers(seeA.1.4),fallswithinthemarginsspecifiedinyourlocalguidelines.

A.1.2Typeface

Chooseasingle,readable,andwidelyavailabletypeface(alsocalledfont),suchasTimesNewRoman,Courier,orHelvetica.Ifyouusealesscommontypeface,youmayneedtoembedthefontintheelectronicfile.Avoidornamentaltypefaces,whichcandistractreadersandmakeyourworkseemlessserious.(Forthecharacteristicsofspecifictypefaces,seeRobertBringhurst,TheElementsofTypographicStyle[PointRoberts,WA:HartleyandMarks,2004].)Ingeneral,useatleastten-pointandpreferablytwelve-point

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typeforthebodyofthetext.Footnotesorendnotes,headings,andotherelementsmightrequireothertypesizes;checkyourlocalguidelines.

A.1.3SpacingandIndentation

Double-spacealltextinpapersexceptthefollowingitems,whichshouldbesingle-spaced:

■blockquotations(see25.2.2)■tabletitlesandfigurecaptions■listsinappendixes

Thefollowingitemsshouldbesingle-spacedinternallybutwithablanklinebetweenitems:

■certainelementsinthefrontmatter(seeA.2.1),includingthetableofcontentsandanylistoffigures,tables,orabbreviations■footnotesorendnotes■bibliographiesorreferencelists

Somedepartmentsoruniversitiesalloworrequiresinglespacingoroneandahalfspacesbetweenlinesinthebodyofthetext.Checkyourlocalguidelines.

Putonlyonespace,nottwo,followingtheterminalpunctuationofasentence.Usetabsorindentsratherthanspacesforparagraphindentationandothercontentrequiringconsistentalignment.Blockquotationshavetheirownrulesforindentation,dependingonwhethertheyareproseorpoetry(see25.2.2).

A.1.4Pagination

A.1.4.1NUMBERING.Ifyouronlyfrontmatterisatitlepage,donotnumberthatpage.Numberpagesinthebodyofthepaperandthebackmatterwitharabicnumerals,startingonthefirstpageoftext(page2ifyoucountthetitlepage).

Ifyouarewritingathesisordissertation,numberfrontmatterseparatelyfromtherestofthetext.(Manywordprocessorshavefunctionssuchassectionbreaksthatcanaccomplishthistask.)

■Frontmatterincludesthetitlepageandvariousotherelements(seeA.2.1).Numberthesepagesconsecutivelywithlowercaseromannumerals(i,ii,iii,etc.;seetable23.1).Everypageoffrontmatterexceptthesubmissionpageisusuallycountedinnumbering,butnotallofthesepageshavenumbersdisplayedonthem.Departmentsanduniversitiesoftenprovidespecificdirectionsfornumberingfrontmatterpages;ifyoursdoesnot,followtheguidelinesdescribedinthisappendix.

■Therestofthetext,includingbackmatter(seeA.2.3),isnumberedconsecutivelywitharabicnumerals(usuallystartingwithpage1).

Ifyourthesisordissertationisverylongandapapercopyofitwillbebound,yourdepartmentoruniversitymaybinditinmultiplevolumes.Yourlocalguidelinesshouldindicatethemaximumnumberofpagespervolumeaswellasanyspecialrequirementsfornumberingamultivolumepaper.

A.1.4.2PLACEMENT.Pagenumbersareusuallyplacedinoneoffourlocations:centeredorflushrightinthefooter(atthebottomofthepage)orcenteredorflushrightintheheader(atthetopofthepage).Forclasspapers,chooseoneoftheselocationsandfollowitconsistently.

Traditionally,pagenumbersforthesesanddissertationshavebeenplacedindifferentlocationsdependingonthepartofthepaper(asshowninthesamplesinthisappendix).

■Inthefooter:allfrontmatterpages;pagesinthetextandbackmatterthatbeartitles,suchasthefirstpageofachapteroranappendix

■Intheheader:allotherpagesinthetextandbackmatter

Manydepartmentsanduniversitieshaveeliminatedthesedistinctionsandnowrequireconsistentplacementofpagenumbersthroughoutathesisordissertation.Somespecifyalocation,whileothersallowyoutochoose.Inanyposition,thenumbershouldbeatleasthalfaninchfromtheedgeofthepage.Checkyourlocalguidelines.

A.1.4.3OTHERIDENTIFIERS.Insomesettingsyoumaybeallowedorevenencouragedtoincludeidentifyinginformationbesidesthepagenumberintheheaderorfooter.Foraclasspaper,yourinstructormayaskyoutoincludeyourlastname,thedateofthepaper,oradesignationsuchas FirstDraft. Forlongerpapers,chapterorsectiontitleshelpreaderskeeptrackoftheirlocationinthetext.Therequirementsforheadersandfootersinthesesanddissertationsvary,soconsultyourlocalguidelines.

A.1.5Titles

Dependingonitscomplexity,yourpapermayconsistofmanyelements,aslistedinA.2,andmostofthemshouldhaveatitle.Usethesametypeface,typesize,andformatting(boldface,italic,etc.)forthetitlesoflikeelements.Ingeneral,andunlessyour

localguidelinessayotherwise,titlesshouldappearinboldface.Amoretraditionalmethodcallsforfullcapitalization,butthishastheundesirableeffectofobscuringthecapitalizationofindividualwordsinatitle.

Onthetitlepage,centereachelementanduseheadline-stylecapitalizationforall,includingthetitleofyourpaper.(Yourlocalguidelinesmayrequiresentence-stylecapitalizationforthetitleofyourpaper;see22.3.1forthetwostyles.)

Titlesforthefrontandbackmatterarealsotypicallycentered,asarechapternumberdesignationsandchaptertitles.Forchaptertitles,useheadline-stylecapitalizationunlessyourlocalguidelinesspecifysentencestyle.

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Allsuchelementsmaybeinalargertypesizethanthetextofyourpaper.Checkyourlocalguidelines.Forsubheadingswithinchapters,seeA.2.2.4.

Ifyourlocalguidelinesareflexible,youmayusedifferenttypographyandformatfromthosedescribedhereforvarioustypesoftitles,aslongasyouareconsistent.Titlesoflargerdivisions(parts,chapters)shouldbemorevisuallyprominentthansubheadings.Ingeneral,titlesaremoreprominentwhenlargerorcentered(orboth),inboldfaceoritalictype,orcapitalizedheadlinestylethanwhenflushleft,inregulartype,orcapitalizedsentencestyle.

Themostefficientwaytoensureconsistencyintitlesistouseyourwordprocessortodefineandapplyauniquestyle(specifyingtypeface,size,position,linespacing,andsoforth)foreachtypeoftitle.SeealsoA.3.1.2.

A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElementsInadditiontothegeneralrequirementsoutlinedinA.1,specificelementsofapaperhavespecificformatrequirements.Thissectiondescribeselementsmostcommonlyfoundinclasspapers,theses,anddissertations,anditprovidessamplesofmanyofthem.AllofthesamplesexceptfiguresA.1andA.8arepagesdrawnfromdissertationswrittenattheUniversityofChicago.Asneeded,thepageshavebeeneditedtomatchthestyleandformatrecommendationsinthismanual.Ifyourinstructor,department,oruniversityhasspecificguidelinesthatdifferfromthesesamples,theytakeprecedence.

Mostlongpapersandallthesesanddissertationshavethreemaindivisions:(1)frontmatter,(2)thetextofthepaperitself,and(3)backmatter.Thefrontandbackmatterarealsodividedintoelementsthatvary,dependingonyourpaper.

Inaclasspaper,thefrontmatterwillprobablybeasingletitlepageandthebackmatterjustabibliographyorreferencelist.

A.2.1FrontMatter

Thefrontmatterofyourthesisordissertationmayincludesomeorallofthefollowingelements.Departmentsanduniversitiesusuallyprovidespecificdirectionsfortheorderofelements;ifyoursdoesnot,followtheordergivenhere.

A.2.1.1SUBMISSIONPAGE.Mostthesesanddissertationsincludeasubmissionpage,usuallyasthefirstpageofthedocument.Ifitappearsinthisposition,itdoesnotbearapagenumberandisnotcountedinpaginatingthefrontmatter.

ThesubmissionpagestatesthatthepaperhasbeensubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforanMAorPhDdegree(thewordingvaries),anditincludesspaceforthesignaturesoftheexaminingcommitteemembers.Mostdepartmentsanduniversitiesprovidemodelsubmissionpagesthatshouldbefollowedexactlyforwordingandform.Inelectronicsubmissionsthesignaturesmayneedtobeomitted.

A.2.1.2TITLEPAGE.Classpapersshouldbeginwithatitlepage(butsomeputthetitleonthefirstpageofthetext;consultyourinstructor).Placethetitleofthepaperathirdofthewaydownthepage,usuallycentered(seeA.1.5).Ifthepaperhasbothamaintitleandasubtitle,putthemaintitleonasingleline,followedbyacolon,andbeginthesubtitleonanewlinewithaninterveninglinespace.Severallinesbelowit,placeyournamealongwithanyinformationrequestedbyyourinstructor,suchasthecoursetitle(includingitsdepartmentandnumber)andthedate.FigureA.1showsasampletitlepageforaclasspaper.Formostsuchpapers,thisistheonlyfrontmatterneeded.

Forathesisordissertation,mostdepartmentsanduniversitiesprovidemodeltitlepagesthatshouldbefollowedexactlyforwordingandform.Otherwise,usefigureA.2asamodel.Countthetitlepageaspagei,butdonotputthatnumberonit.

Ifyourthesisordissertationwillbesubmittedashardcopyandboundinmorethanonevolume(seeA.1.4.1),youwillprobablyneedtoprovideaseparatetitlepageforeachvolume.Consultyourlocalguidelines.

A.2.1.3COPYRIGHTPAGE.Inathesisordissertation,insertacopyrightpageafterthetitlepage.Countthispageaspageii,butdonotputthatnumberonitunlessdirectedbyyourlocalguidelines.Includethecopyrightnoticenearthebottomofthispage,usuallyflushleft,inthisform:

Copyright©20XXbyYourNameAllrightsreserved

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FigureA.1.Titlepageforaclasspaper

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FigureA.2.Titlepageforadissertation.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFonnaForman-Barzilai,“AdamSmithandtheCirclesofSympathy”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2001).

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Youneednotapplyforaformalcopyright.However,incasesofinfringementformalregistrationprovidesadditionalprotections.Formoreinformation,seechapter4inTheChicagoManualofStyle(16thed.,2010).

A.2.1.4DEDICATION.Ifyourdepartmentoruniversityallowsdedications,youmayincludeabriefonetoacknowledgesomeonewhohasbeenespeciallyimportanttoyou.Countthededicationpageinpaginatingthefrontmatter,butdonotputapagenumberonitunlessdirectedbyyourlocalguidelines.Placethededicationathirdofthewaydown,usuallycentered,andsetitinromantypewithnoterminalpunctuation.Youneednotincludethewordsdedicationordedicated;simplysayto:

ToGraceLenore

Youmayidentifythepersontowhomyoudedicatethework( Tomyfather,SebastianWells )andgiveotherinformationsuchasbirthanddeathdates.

A.2.1.5EPIGRAPH.Ifyourdepartmentoruniversityallowsepigraphs,youmayincludeabriefoneinadditiontoorinsteadofadedication.Anepigraphisaquotationthatestablishesathemeofthepaper.Itismostappropriatewhenitswordsareespeciallystrikinganduniquelycapturethespiritofyourwork.Counttheepigraphpageinpaginatingthefrontmatter,butdonotputapagenumberonitunlessdirectedbyyourlocalguidelines.Youshouldnotincludethewordepigraphonthepage.

Placetheepigraphathirdofthewaydownthepage,eithercenteredortreatedasablockquotation(see25.2.2).Donotencloseitinquotationmarks.Givethesourceonanewline,setflushrightandprecededbyanemdash(see21.7.2).Oftentheauthor snamealoneissufficient,butyoumayalsoincludethetitleofthework(see22.3.2)and,ifitseemsrelevant,thedateofthequotation.

ThusoutofsmallbeginningsgreaterthingshavebeenproducedbyHishand…and,asonesmallcandlemaylightathousand,sothelightherekindledhathshoneuntomany,yeainsomesorttoourwholenation.

—WilliamBradford

Somepeoplethinkthewomenarethecauseofmodernism,whateverthatis.

—NewYorkSun,February13,1917

Epigraphsmayalsoappearatthebeginningofachapterorsection;see25.2.2.3andfigureA.9.

A.2.1.6TABLEOFCONTENTS.Allpapersdividedintochaptersrequireatableofcontents.Numberallpagesofthiselementwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageContentsatthetopofthepage.Ifthetableofcontentsismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitemlisted.Single-spaceindividualitemslisted,butaddablanklineaftereachitem.Betweenthelistsforthefrontandbackmatterandthechapters,orbetweenpartsorvolumes(ifany),leavetwoblanklines.

Atableofcontentsdoesnotlistpagesthatprecedeit(submissionpage,titlepage,copyrightorblankpage,dedication,epigraph)orthetableofcontentsitselfbutshouldbeginwiththefrontmatterpagesthatfollowit.Followingtheseitems,listinordertheparts,chapters,orotherunitsofthetext,andthentheelementsofthebackmatter.Ifyouhavesubheadsinthetext(seeA.2.2.4),youneednotincludetheminyourtableofcontents.Ifyoudoincludethem,listonlythefirstlevelunlessfurtherlevelsarespecificenoughtogivereadersanaccurateoverviewofyourpaper.Besurethatthewording,capitalization,numberstyle(arabic,roman,orspelledout),andpunctuationofalltitlesandsubheads(seeA.1.5)matchexactlythoseinthepaper.Ifyouhavegeneratedyourtableofcontentsautomaticallywithyourwordprocessor,checktheresults.

Givepagenumbersonlyforthefirstpageofeachelement(notthefullspanofpages),anduselowercaseromanorarabicnumeralsasonthepagesthemselves.Listpagenumbersflushrightand,ifyouchoose,usealineofperiodsordots(calledleaders,afeatureavailablefromthetabsettingofmostwordprocessors)toleadareader seyefromeachtitletothepagenumber.

FigureA.3showsasampletableofcontentsforapaperwithasimplestructure.Partandchaptertitlesappearflushleft,withpagenumbersflushright.

Foramorecomplexpaper,followthelogicofyourpaper sorganizationunlessyourlocalguidelinesrequireaspecificformat.FigureA.4showsthesecondpageofalongtableofcontents.Todistinguishchaptertitlesfromsubheadings,youmayindentthesubheadings,witheachlevelconsistentlyindentedahalfinchtotherightoftheprecedinglevel.

Ifyourthesisordissertationwillbesubmittedashardcopyandboundinmorethanonevolume,youmayneedtorepeatthetableofcontents,oratleasttherelevantlistingsfromit,ineachvolumeafterthefirst.Consultyourlocalguidelines.

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FigureA.3.Tableofcontents.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFonnaForman-Barzilai,“AdamSmithandtheCirclesofSympathy”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2001).

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FigureA.4.Secondpageofacomplextableofcontents.ReprintedwithpermissionfromDanaJeanSimmons,“MinimalFrenchmen:ScienceandStandardsofLiving,1840–1960”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2004).

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A.2.1.7LISTOFFIGURES,TABLES,ORILLUSTRATIONS.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesfigures,tables,orboth,youmaychoosetolisttheminthefrontmatter.Numberallpagesofsuchalistwithromannumerals.Ifyourpaperincludesonlyfigures(seechapter26fordefinitions),labelthefirstpageFiguresatthetopofthepage;ifitincludesonlytables,labelitTablesinstead.Ifthelistismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitemlisted.Single-spaceindividualitemslisted,butleaveablanklinebetweenitems.FigureA.5showsasamplelistoftables.

Ifyourpaperincludesbothfiguresandtables,youmayprovideaseparatelistforeach,oryourlocalguidelinesmayallowyoutocombinethemintoasinglelist.InthelattercaselabelthelistIllustrations(followingthepatterndescribedabove),butdivideitintotwosectionslabeledFiguresandTables,asinfigureA.6.

Giveeachtableorfigurenumberinarabicnumerals,andverticallyalignthelistonthelastdigit.Ifyouareusingdoublenumeration(asinfig.A.5),alignthenumbersonthedecimalsinstead.

Figurecaptionsandtabletitlesshouldmatchthewordingandcapitalizationofthoseinthepaperitself,butiftheyareverylong,shortentheminalogicalwayinthislist.(See26.2.2and26.3.2formoreontabletitlesandfigurecaptions.)Listpagenumbersflushrightand,ifyouchoose,useleaderdots(seeA.2.1.6)toconnectthecaptionsandtitlestopagenumbers.

A.2.1.8PREFACE.Inathesisordissertationyoumayincludeaprefacetoexplainwhatmotivatedyourstudy,thebackgroundoftheproject,thescopeoftheresearch,andthepurposeofthepaper.Theprefacemayalsoincludeacknowledgments,unlesstheyaresonumerousanddetailedthattheymerittheirownsection(seeA.2.1.9).Numberallpagesofthiselementwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpagePrefaceatthetopofthepage.Iftheprefaceismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Double-spacethetextofthepreface,andformatittomatchthemaintext.

A.2.1.9ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.Inathesisordissertationyoumayhaveaseparatesectionofacknowledgmentsinwhichyouthankmentorsandcolleaguesornametheindividualsorinstitutionsthatsupportedyourresearchorprovidedspecialassistance(suchasconsultationontechnicalmattersoraidinsecuringspecialequipmentandsourcematerials).Youmayalsoberequiredtoacknowledgetheownersofcopyrightedmaterialwhohavegivenyoupermissiontoreproducetheirwork.Ifyouronlyacknowledgmentsareforroutinehelpbyanadvisororacommittee,includetheminthepreface(seeabove)oromitthementirely.Numberallpagesoftheacknowledgmentswithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageAcknowledgmentsatthetopofthepage.Iftheacknowledgmentsaremorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Double-spacethetextoftheacknowledgments,andformatittomatchthemaintext.

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FigureA.5.Listoftables.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:MilitaryEnterprise,theState,andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

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FigureA.6.Listofillustrations.ReprintedwithpermissionfromDanaJeanSimmons,“MinimalFrenchmen:ScienceandStandardsofLiving,1840–1960”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2004).

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A.2.1.10LISTOFABBREVIATIONS.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesanunusualnumberofabbreviationsotherthanthecommontypesdiscussedinchapter24,listtheminthefrontmatter.Examplesofitemstoincludewouldbeabbreviationsforsourcescitedfrequently(see16.4.3)orfororganizationsthatarenotwidelyknown(24.1.2).

Numberallpagesofsuchalistwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageAbbreviationsatthetopofthepage.Ifthelistismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitemlisted.Single-spaceindividualitemslisted,butleaveablanklinebetweenitems.FigureA.7showsasamplelistofabbreviations.(Theitemsinthissampleareitaliconlybecausetheyaretitlesofpublishedworks.)

Notethattheitemsarearrangedalphabeticallybytheabbreviation,notbythespelled-outterm.Theabbreviationsthemselvesareflushleft;spelled-outterms(includingrunovers)aresetonaconsistentindentthatallowsaboutahalfinchofspacebetweenthelongestabbreviationinthefirstcolumnandthefirstwordinthesecondcolumn.

A.2.1.11GLOSSARY.Youmayneedaglossaryifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesmanyforeignwordsortechnicaltermsandphrasesthatmaybeunfamiliartoyourreaders.Somedepartmentsanduniversitiesalloworrequiretheglossarytobeplacedinthebackmatter,afteranyappendixesandbeforetheendnotesandbibliographyorreferencelist.Ifyouarefreetochoose,putitinthefrontmatteronlyifreadersmustknowthedefinitionsbeforetheybeginreading.Otherwise,putitinthebackmatter(seeA.2.3.3).

Ifitappearsinthefrontmatter,numberallpagesofaglossarywithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageGlossaryatthetopofthepage.Iftheglossaryismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstitemlisted.Single-spaceindividualitemslisted,butleaveablanklinebetweenitems.FigureA.8showsasampleglossary.

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FigureA.7.Listofabbreviations.(Notethattheitemsinthislistareitalicizedonlybecausetheyaretitlesofpublishedworks.)ReprintedwithpermissionfromAnthonyPerron,“RomeandLund:AStudyintheChurchHistoryofaMedievalFringe”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

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FigureA.8.Glossary

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Notethatthetermsarearrangedalphabetically,flushleftandfollowedbyaperiod(acolonordashissometimesused).Youmayputthetermsinboldfacetomakethemstandout.Thetranslationordefinitionfollows,withitsfirstwordcapitalizedandaterminalperiod.If,however,thedefinitionsconsistofonlysinglewordsorbriefphrases,donotuseterminalperiods.Ifadefinitionismorethanoneline,indenttherunoversbyahalfinch.

A.2.1.12EDITORIALORRESEARCHMETHOD.Ifyourthesisordissertationrequiresanextensivepreliminarydiscussionofyoureditorialmethod(suchasyourchoicesamongvarianttexts)orresearchmethod,includeitasaseparateelement.Youcanalsobrieflydiscussmethodinthepreface.Ifyoustateonlythatyouhavemodernizedcapitalizationandpunctuationinquotedsources,putthatintheprefaceorinanoteattachedtothefirstsuchquotation.

Numberallpagesofadiscussiononmethodwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageEditorialMethodorResearchMethodatthetopofthepage.Ifthesectionismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Double-spacethetextofthissection,andformatittomatchthemaintext.

A.2.1.13ABSTRACT.Manydepartmentsanduniversitiesrequirethatathesisordissertationincludeanabstractsummarizingitscontents.(Sometimestheabstractissubmittedasaseparatedocument.)AbstractsofpaperssubmittedtoProQuestwillbefeaturedonitsDissertationsandThesesdatabaseandpublishedinDissertationsandThesesAbstractandIndex.Numberallpagesofthiselementwithromannumerals.LabelthefirstpageAbstractatthetopofthepage.Iftheabstractismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Mostdepartmentsoruniversitieshavespecificmodelsforabstractsthatyoushouldfollowexactlyforcontent,wordcount,format,placement,andpagination.

A.2.2Text

Thetextofapaperincludeseverythingbetweenthefrontmatterandthebackmatter.Itbeginswithyourintroductionandendswithyourconclusion,bothofwhichmaybeasshortasasingleparagraphoraslongasseveralpages.Inathesisordissertation,thetextisusuallyseparatedintochaptersandsometimesintoparts,sections,andsubsections.Manylongerclasspapersarealsodividedinthisway.

Sincemostofthetextconsistsofparagraphslayingoutyourfindings,therearefewformatrequirementsforthebodyofthetext.Theonlyadditionalissuesarehowtobegindivisionsofthetext,howtoformatnotesorparentheticalcitations,andhowtopositiontablesandfigureswithinthetext.

Beginthearabicnumberingofyourpaperwiththefirstpageofthetext(normallypage1or2;seeA.1.4.1).

A.2.2.1INTRODUCTION.Manythesesanddissertations(and,insomecases,classpapers)beginwithasectionthatpreviewsthecontentsandargumentoftheentirepaperandissodistinctthatthewriterseparatesitfromtherestofthepaper.(Thebackgroundoftheprojectandanyissuesthatinformedtheresearchshouldbecoveredinthepreface;seeA.2.1.8.)Ifyoubeginwithsuchanintroduction,labelthefirstpageIntroductionatthetopofthepage.Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesoftheintroduction.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Ifthesubstanceofyourintroductorymaterialisnotclearlydistinctfromthechaptersthatfollowit,considerincorporatingitintoyourfirstchapter.

A.2.2.2PARTS.Ifyoudividethetextofyourthesisordissertationintotwoormoreparts,eachincludingtwoormorechapters,begineachpartwithapart-titlepage.Thefirstpart-titlepagefollowstheintroduction(eveniftheintroductionislabeledchapter1).Countapart-titlepageinpaginating,butdonotputapagenumberonitexceptinthecasedescribedbeloworunlessdirectedbyyourlocalguidelines.LabelthispagePartfollowedbythepartnumberatthetopofthepage.Dependingonyourlocalguidelines,givethepartnumbereitherincapitalizedromannumerals(II)orspelledout(Two);besuretonumberthechaptersinadifferentstyle.Iftheparthasadescriptivetitleinadditiontoitsnumber,placethistitletwolinesdown,followingablankline.

Ifyouincludetextintroducingthecontentsofthepartonthepart-titlepage,numberthepagewithanarabicnumeral.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.Ifthetextismorethanonepagelong,donotrepeatthepartnumberortitle.

Followaconsistentformatforallofyourpart-titlepages:ifoneparthasadescriptivetitleinadditiontoanumber,thengiveallpartsdescriptivetitles;ifoneparthasintroductorytext,thenincludeintroductorytextinallparts.

A.2.2.3CHAPTERS.Mostthesesanddissertations,andmanylongclasspapers,consistoftwoormorechapters.Eachchapterbeginsonanewpage.LabelthispageChapterfollowedbythechapternumberatthetopofthepage.Youmaygivethechapternumbereitherinarabicnumerals(4)orspelledout(Four).Ifyourpaperhasparts,chooseadifferentstyleofnumberingforthechapternumbers(forexample,PartII;ChapterFour).Ifthechapterhasadescriptivetitleinadditiontoitsnumber,placethistitletwolinesdown,followingablankline.Donotrepeatthenumberorthetitleonsubsequentpagesofthechapter.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.FigureA.9showsasamplefirstpageofachapterwithanepigraph(see25.2.2.3andA.2.1.5).

AnalternativeformatistoomitthewordChapteranduseonlythechapternumberandtitle,whichcanthenappearonthesameline,separatedbyacolonoratabspace.Donotusethisformat,however,ifyourpaperhaspartsaswellaschapters,ifitdoesnothavechaptertitles,orifthereisanypossibilityofconfusinganewchapterwithanyotherdivisionofthepaper.

A.2.2.4SECTIONSANDSUBSECTIONS.Longchaptersintheses,dissertations,andlongclasspapersmaybefurtherdividedintosections,whichinturnmaybedividedintosubsections,andsoon.Ifyourpaper,orachapterwithinit,hasonlyafewsections,youmaysignalthedivisionbetweensectionsinformallybycenteringthreespacedasterisks(***)ontheirownline.

Ifyoucreateformalsectionsinapaperorinitschapters,youmaygiveeachoneitsowntitle,alsocalledasubheadingorsubhead.Youmayhavemultiplelevelsofsubheads,whicharedesignatedfirst-level,second-level,andsoon.Unlessyouarewritingaverylongandcomplexpaper,thinkcarefullybeforeusingmorethantwoorthreelevelsofsubheads.Ratherthanbeinghelpful,theycanbecomedistracting.Youshouldhaveatleasttwosubheadsatanylevelwithinachapter;ifyoudonot,yourdivisionsmaynotbelogicallystructured.Twoconsecutivesubheadlevelsmayappeartogetherwithoutinterveningtext.

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Unlessyourlocalguidelineshaverulesforsubheads,youmaydeviseyourowntypographyandformatforthem.Eachlevelofsubheadshouldbeconsistentanddifferentfromallotherlevels,andhigher-levelsubheadsshouldbemorevisuallyprominentthanlower-levelones.Ingeneral,subheadsaremoreprominentwhencentered,inboldfaceoritalictype,orcapitalizedheadlinestylethanwhenflushleft,inregulartype,orcapitalizedsentencestyle.Exceptforrun-insubheads(seefifthlevel,below),putmorespacebeforeasubheadthanafter(uptotwoblanklinesbeforeandoneline,ordoublelinespacing,after)anddonotendasubheadwithaperiod.Tomaintainconsistency,useyourwordprocessortodefineastyleforeachlevel.

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FigureA.9.Firstpageofachapter.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFonnaForman-Barzilai,“AdamSmithandtheCirclesofSympathy”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2001).

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Hereisoneplanforfivelevelsofsubheads.

■Firstlevel:centered,boldfaceoritalictype,headline-stylecapitalization

ContemporaryArt

■Secondlevel:centered,regulartype,headline-stylecapitalization

WhatAretheMajorStyles?

■Thirdlevel:flushleft,boldfaceoritalictype,headline-stylecapitalization

AbstractExpressionism

■Fourthlevel:flushleft,romantype,sentence-stylecapitalization

Majorpaintersandpractitioners

■Fifthlevel:runinatbeginningofparagraph(noblanklineafter),boldfaceoritalictype,sentence-stylecapitalization,terminalperiod

Pollockastheleader.TheroleofleadingAbstractExpressionistpainterwasfilledbyJacksonPollock…

Neverendapagewithasubhead.Setyourwordprocessortokeepallheadingsattachedtotheensuingparagraph.(Thebuilt-inheadingstylesinmostwordprocessorsaresettostaywiththenextparagraphbydefault.)

A.2.2.5NOTESORPARENTHETICALCITATIONS.Ifyouareusingbibliography-stylecitationswithfootnotes,see16.3foradiscussionofhowtoformatfootnotes.FigureA.10showsasamplepageoftextwithfootnotes.

Ifyouareusingauthor-datecitations,see18.3foradiscussionofhowtoformatparentheticalcitations.FigureA.11showsasamplepageoftextwithparentheticalcitations.

A.2.2.6TABLESANDFIGURES.Ifyourpaperincludestablesorfigures,seechapter26foradiscussionofhowtoformattables,sometypesoffigures,andfigurecaptions,andA.3.1forinformationaboutinsertingtheseelementsintoyourpaper.FigureA.12showsasamplepageoftextwithafigurepositionedonit,andfigureA.13showsasampleofatableinlandscapeorientationonitsownpage.

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FigureA.10.Pageoftextwithfootnotes.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:MilitaryEnterprise,theState,andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

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FigureA.11.Pageoftextwithparentheticalcitations.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMonicaPrasad,“ThePoliticsofFreeMarkets:TheRiseofNeoliberalEconomicPolicyinBritain,France,andtheUnitedStates”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2000).

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FigureA.12.Pagewithtextandafigure.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarjorieElizabethWood,“EmancipatingtheChildLaborer:Children,Freedom,andtheMoralBoundariesoftheMarketintheUnitedStates,1853–1938”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2011).

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FigureA.13.Pagewithalandscapetable.ReprintedwithpermissionfromNathanielBaum-Snow,“EssaysontheSpatialDistributionofPopulationandEmployment”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2005).

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A.2.2.7CONCLUSION.Inathesisordissertation(or,insomecases,alongclasspaper),youwillprobablyendwithaconclusionthatislongenoughtotreatasaseparateelement.Ifyouincludesuchaconclusion,labelthefirstpageConclusionatthetopofthepage.Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesoftheconclusion.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftext.

Youmayalsolabeltheconclusionasthelastnumberedchapterofyourpaperifyouwanttoemphasizeitsconnectiontotherestofyourtext.Ifso,treatthewordConclusionasachaptertitle(seeA.2.2.3).

A.2.3BackMatter

Thebackmatterofyourpapermayconsistofallorsomeornoneofthefollowingelements.Departmentsanduniversitiesusuallyprovidespecificdirectionsfortheorderofelements;ifyoursdoesnot,followtheordergivenhere.Numberthebackmattercontinuouslywiththetextusingarabicnumerals.

A.2.3.1ILLUSTRATIONS.Ifyougroupallofyourillustrationstogetherattheendofyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)insteadofincludingtheminthetext(see26.1.1),makethemthefirstelementinthebackmatter.LabelthefirstpageofsuchasectionIllustrationsatthetopofthepage.Ifthissectionismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Forinformationaboutinsertingfiguresintoyourpaper,seeA.3.1.

Ifsomeillustrationsareplacedinthetext,however,anythataregroupedinthebackmattermustbeplacedinanappendix;seeA.2.3.2.

A.2.3.2APPENDIXES.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)includesessentialsupportingmaterialthatcannotbeeasilyworkedintothebodyofyourpaper,putthematerialinoneormoreappendixesinthebackmatter.(Donotputappendixesattheendsofchapters.)Examplesofsuchmaterialwouldbetablesandfiguresthataremarginallyrelevanttoyourtopicortoolargetoputinthetext;schedulesandformsusedincollectingmaterials;copiesofdocumentsnotavailabletothereader;andcasestudiestoolongtoputintothetext.

LabelthefirstpageAppendixatthetopofthepage.Iftheappendixismorethanonepage,donotrepeatthetitle.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstlineoftextorothermaterial.

Iftheappendixmaterialisofdifferenttypes forexample,atableandacasestudy divideitamongmorethanoneappendix.Inthiscase,giveeachappendixanumberorletterandadescriptivetitle.Youmaygivethenumbersineitherarabicnumerals(1,2)orspelledout(One,Two),oryoumayusesinglelettersofthealphabetinsequentialorder(A,B).PutthenumberorletterfollowingthewordAppendix,andplacethedescriptivetitleonthenextline.(Ifyourpaperhasonlyoneappendix,youmayalsogiveitadescriptivetitle,butdonotgiveitanumberorletter.)

Iftheappendixconsistsofyourownexplanatorytext,double-spaceitandformatittomatchthemaintext.Ifitisinlistformorconsistsofaprimarydocumentoracasestudy,youmaychoosetosingle-spacethetext,especiallyifitislong.

Treatsupportingmaterialthatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasalargedatasetoramultimediafile,asanappendix.Includeabriefdescriptionofthematerialanditslocation,includingahyperlink(ifrelevant).Consultyourlocalguidelinesforspecificrequirementsforfileformat,presentation,andsubmission;seealsoA.3.1.

A.2.3.3GLOSSARY.Ifyourthesisordissertation(or,insomecases,yourclasspaper)needsaglossary(seeA.2.1.11),youmayincludeitineitherthefrontorbackmatter,whereitfollowsanyappendixesandprecedesendnotesandthebibliographyorreferencelist.AllofthespecialformatrequirementsdescribedinA.2.1.11apply,exceptthattheback-matterglossarypagesshouldbenumberedwitharabicinsteadofromannumerals.FigureA.8showsasampleglossary(paginatedforthefrontmatter).

A.2.3.4ENDNOTES.Ifyouareusingbibliography-stylecitations,andunlessyourlocalguidelinesrequirefootnotesorend-of-chapternotes,youmayincludenotesinthebackmatterasendnotes.LabelthefirstpageofthiselementNotesatthetopofthepage.Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesoftheendnotessection.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstnote,andoneblanklinebetweennotes.Thenotesthemselvesshouldbesingle-spaced,withastandardparagraphindentatthestartofeachone.Ifyourestartnumberingforeachchapter,addasubheadingbeforethefirstnotetoeachchapter.FigureA.14showsasamplepageofendnotesforapaperdividedintochapters.Seealso16.3.3andA.2.2.4.

Ifyouareusingauthor-datecitations,youwillnothaveendnotes.

A.2.3.5BIBLIOGRAPHYORREFERENCELIST.Ifyouareusingbibliography-stylecitations,youwillprobablyincludeabibliographyinthebackmatter.LabelthefirstpageofthiselementBibliographyatthetopofthepage.

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FigureA.14.Endnotes.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:MilitaryEnterprise,theState,andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

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Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesofthebibliography.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstentry,andoneblanklinebetweenentries.Theentriesthemselvesshouldbesingle-spaced,withrunoversindentedhalfaninch.FigureA.15showsasamplepageofabibliography.

Forsometypesofbibliographiesyoushoulduseadifferenttitle,suchasSourcesConsulted.Ifyoudonotarrangethebibliographyalphabeticallybyauthor,includeaheadnote,subheadings(formattedconsistently),orbothtoexplainthearrangement.See16.2forthesevariations.

Ifyouareusingauthor-datecitations,youmustincludeareferencelistinthebackmatter.LabelthefirstpageofthelistReferencesatthetopofthepage.Donotrepeatthetitleonsubsequentpagesofthereferencelist.Leavetwoblanklinesbetweenthetitleandthefirstentry,andoneblanklinebetweensingle-spacedentries.Indentrunovershalfaninch.FigureA.16showsasamplepageofareferencelist.

Intherarecasethatyoudonotarrangethereferencelistalphabeticallybyauthor(see18.2.1),includeaheadnote,subheadings(formattedconsistently),orbothtoexplainthearrangement.

A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements

A.3.1PreparingYourFiles

Byfollowingsomebasicpracticesforgoodelectronicfilemanagementandpreparation,youcanavoidproblemsandproducealegible,properlyformattedpaper.Thesepracticesapplywhetheryouwillbesubmittingyourpaperelectronically,ashardcopy,orboth.

A.3.1.1FILEMANAGEMENT.Trytominimizetheriskthatyourdatawillbelostorcorruptedatsomepoint.

■Prepareyourpaperasasingleelectronicfile,regardlessofitslength.Workingwithasinglefileallowsyoutosearchandmakechangesglobally,touseyourwordprocessor sautomatednumberingfunctionsaccurately(forfootnotes,pagination,andthelike),andtodefineandapplystylesconsistently(seeA.3.1.2).Paperssubmittedelectronicallymustalmostalwaysbeinasinglefile,butyoumaydividethefileintosectionsusingwordprocessorfunctionsforcertainformatrequirements,suchaslistingnotesattheendofachapterorchangingheaders.Largedatabasesormultimediafilesmayneedtobesubmittedseparatelyassupplementalfiles.

■Namethefilesimplyandlogically.Ifyousavedifferentversionsofthefileovertime,namethemconsistently(alwaysendinginthedate,forexample)toavoidconfusionofversions.Beforefinalsubmissioncheckyourlocalguidelinesfornamingconventionsthatapplytothefileandanysupplementalmaterials.

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FigureA.15.Bibliography.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMarkR.Wilson,“TheBusinessofCivilWar:MilitaryEnterprise,theState,andPoliticalEconomyintheUnitedStates,1850–1880”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2002).

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FigureA.16.Referencelist.ReprintedwithpermissionfromMonicaPrasad,“ThePoliticsofFreeMarkets:TheRiseofNeoliberalEconomicPolicyinBritain,France,andtheUnitedStates”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofChicago,2000).

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■Avoidworkingonthefileinmorethanonetypeofsoftwareoroperatingsystem.Conversionsalwaysinvolvesomeriskoferrorsandlostdata,evenwhenmovingbetweenstandardwordprocessors.

■Savethefileoftenduringeachwritingsession.■Backupthefileinmorethanonelocationaftereachwritingsession.Inadditiontoyourlocalharddrive,saveittoanetworkorfile-hostingservice(ifavailable)ortoaremovablestoragemedium,suchasaflashdrive.

■Printoutthefileorconvertittotherequiredelectronicformatbeforeyoursubmissiondate.Lookitoverforanysoftwareglitches,suchasspecialcharactersthatarenotsupportedbyyourprinter,whilethereistimetocorrectthem.Labeltheprintoutornamethenewfile Draft andkeepitatleastuntilyousubmitthefinalversion.Inanemergency(suchasacomputermalfunctionoraseriousillness),youcanuseittoshowthatyoudidindeedproduceadraft.

Forconsiderationsrelatedtocitationmanagementsoftware,see15.6.

A.3.1.2TEXTCOMPONENTS.Presentallcomponentsofyourtextclearlyandconsistently.

■Formateachtextcomponentconsistently,includingregulartext,blockquotations,footnotes,andeachtypeoftitleandsubhead.Themostefficientwaytoensureconsistencyistouseyourwordprocessortodefineandapplyauniquestyle(specifyingtypeface,size,position,linespacing,andsoforth)foreachcomponent.

■Setyourwordprocessortoaligntextflushleftwitharaggedrightmarginunlessyourlocalguidelinesrecommendotherwise,anddonotuseitsautomatedhyphenationfeature(see20.4.1).

■Useyourwordprocessor smenuforspecialcharacters(alsocalledsymbols)toinsertletterswithaccentsandotherdiacritics,charactersfromGreekandothernon-Latinalphabets,mathematicaloperators(butseebelow),paragraphorsectionmarks,andthelike.Ifaparticularcharacterisnotavailable,youmayneedtoselectadifferenttypefaceforthatcharacter.

■Supplyinternalbookmarksandexternalhyperlinksasyourlocalguidelinesrecommend.■Avoidcolorfonts.EvenifyousubmityourpaperasaPDForprintitonacolorprinter,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andthecolormightnotreproducewell.

■Createequationsandformulaswiththeequationeditorinyourwordprocessor,ifpossible.Ifnot,createtheseitemsintherelevantprogramandinsertthemintoyourfileasimages(seeA.3.1.3).Leaveatleastoneblanklinebetweentheequationandthetextbothaboveandbelow.

A.3.1.3TABLES.Useyoursoftwaretopresenttablesthatareclear,wellformatted,andeasilyreadable.Formoreinformation,see8.3.

■Createtableswiththetableeditorinyourwordprocessor,ifpossible.Ifnot,createtheminaspreadsheetprogramandinsertthemintoyourfileasunlinked(embedded)tables.Formatthemtomatchthesurroundingtext.Seechapter26fordiscussionoftablestructure,format,andplacementintext.

■Putatablenumberandtitleonthelineaboveatable(see26.2.2).Runthetitlethefullwidthofthetable,anddonotindentanyrunovers.

■Puttablefootnotes(ifany)underthebottomruleofatable,withablanklinebetweentheruleandthefirstnote,andalsobetweennotes.Footnotesmaybepresentedinasmallertypefacethanthetextofyourpaper;consultyourlocalguidelines.

■Leaveatleastoneblankline(andpreferablytwo)betweenthetabletitleandanytextaboveitonthepage,andalsobetweenthebottomrule(orlastfootnote)andanytextbelowit.

■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertationitmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolormaynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscurethetextofthetable,anddonotusemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.

■Repeatthestubcolumnandallcolumnheads(see26.2.4and26.2.5)oneverypageofamultipagetable.Omitthebottomruleonallpagesexceptthelast.

■Remainwithinyourpaper sstandardmarginsforatablethattakesupanentirepageorisinlandscapeorientation(see26.1.2).Donotputanyregulartextonapagecontainingalandscapetable.Setthetabletitleineitherlandscapeorportraitorientationandincludeapagenumber,butcheckyourlocalguidelinesforthenumber sorientation.

■Keepatablethatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasonecontainingalargedataset,asaseparatefile,andtreatitasanappendixtoyourpaper(seeA.2.3.2).

A.3.1.4FIGURES.Takecarethatyourgraphicsareeasytoread,accurate,andtothepoint.Formoreinformation,see8.3.

■Createcharts,graphs,anddiagramswithyourwordprocessor,ifpossible.Ifnot,createthemintherelevantprogramandinsertthemintoyourfileasimages.Formatthemtomatchthesurroundingtext.Seechapter26fordiscussionoffiguretypes,format,andplacementintext.

■Insertphotographs,maps,andothertypesoffiguresintoyourfileasimages.Iftheitemisavailabletoyouonlyinhardcopy,scanandinsertitifpossible.

■Putafigurenumberandcaptiononthelinebelowafigure(see26.3.2).(Withexamplesfrommusicalscoresonly,puttheseitemsonthelineaboveafigure.)Runthecaptionthefullwidthofthefigure,anddonotindentanyrunovers.Ifthereisnotenoughroomforbothfigureandcaptionwithinthemarginsofapage,putthecaptionatthebottom(or,ifnecessary,thetop)ofthenearestprecedingtextpage.

■Leaveatleastoneblankline(andpreferablytwo)betweenthefigureandanytextaboveitonthepage,andalsobetweenthecaptionandanytextbelowit.

■Usecautioninemployingshadingorcolortoconveymeaning.EvenifyouprintthepaperonacolorprinterorsubmititasaPDF,itmaybeprintedorcopiedlateronablack-and-whitemachine,andifitisadissertationitmaybemicrofilmed.Shadingandcolor

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maynotreproducewellinanyoftheseforms.Ifyouuseshading,makesureitdoesnotobscureanytextinthefigure,anddonotusemultipleshades,whichmightnotreproducedistinctly.

■Consultyourlocalguidelinesforanyrequirementsrelatedtoresolution,scaling,cropping,andotherparameters.■Remainwithinyourpaper sstandardmarginsforafigurethattakesupanentirepageorisinlandscapeorientation(see26.1.2).Donotputanyregulartextonapagecontainingalandscapefigure.Setthefigurecaptionineitherlandscapeorportraitorientationandincludeapagenumber,butcheckyourlocalguidelinesforthenumber sorientation.

■Keepafigurethatcannotbepresentedinprintform,suchasamultimediafile,asaseparatefile,andtreatitasanappendixtoyourpaper(seeA.2.3.2).

A.3.2SubmittingElectronicFiles

Manydepartmentsanduniversitiesnowrequireelectronicsubmissionofathesisordissertationinadditiontoorinsteadofhardcopy(seeA.3.3).Instructorsmayalsorequestelectroniccopiesofclasspapers.Forclasspapers,consultyourinstructorregardingacceptablefiletypes.

Therequirementsforthesesanddissertationsaremorestringent.Wellinadvanceofthedeadline,reviewthespecificguidelinesofyourdepartmentoruniversityregardinganyformsorproceduresthatmustbecompletedbeforeyoucansubmityourpaper.Ifpossible,getanofficialtoreviewyourpaperforproperformatandotherrequirementsbeforeyousubmitthefinalcopy.

Mostdissertationsandsometheseswillbesubmittedtoanelectronicrepository.ManyuniversitiesworkwithProQuestDissertationsandTheses,acommercialrepository;othersmaintaintheirown.Ineithercase,followyouruniversity sguidelinesforformattingyourpaperandcreatingtheelectronicfile.MostpaperswillneedtobesubmittedasasinglePDFdocument.IfyourpaperincludessupplementalfilesthatcannotbeincludedinthePDF(seeA.2.3.2),followyouruniversity s(ortherepository s)guidelinesforpreparingandsubmittingthem.Ataminimum,performthefollowingchecks:

■Testanyinternalbookmarksorexternalhyperlinksforaccuracy.■EnsurethatallfontsusedinaPDFofyourpaperareembedded,orsavedinthefile,topreservetheappearanceofyourpaper.■Verifyalldescriptivemetadataassociatedwitheachfileyouplantosubmit.

Oncethefulltextofyourpaperispublishedinanelectronicrepository,otherswillhaveaccesstoyourwork.Youmaybegiventheoptiontopublish traditionally ortoprovidefree,openaccesstoyourworkonline.(Paperspublishedwithoutopenaccessaretypicallyavailableonlythroughacommercialdatabaseoralibrary.)Ifyouareconcernedaboutlimitingaccesstoyourpaperforaspecificperiod,youmaybeabletoapplyforanembargo;checkyourlocalguidelines.

Whicheverpublishingoptionyouselect,copyrightrestrictionsapply.Ifyouincludecopyrightedmaterialbeyondtheconventionsoffairuse,youmustobtainwrittenpermissionfromthecopyrightholder,andyoumayberequiredtosubmitthatdocumentationwithyourpaper.Failuretoprovidesuchmaterialmaydelayacceptanceorpublicationofyourdissertation.Consultyourlocalguidelinesandthoseofferedbytherepository.Formoreinformation,seechapter4inTheChicagoManualofStyle,16thed.(2010),orthebooklet CopyrightLaw&GraduateResearch:NewMedia,NewRights,andYourDissertation byKennethD.Crews.

A.3.3SubmittingHardCopy

Evenifyousubmityourpaperelectronically(A.3.2),youmayalsobeaskedtosubmitoneormorehardcopiesofthefullpaperorofspecificpagesit.Insomecasesyoumaybeaskedtosubmitonlythehardcopy.Ifyouarewritingaclasspaper,submittingitmaybeassimpleasprintingoutasinglecopyandhandingitintoyourinstructor.Oryoumayinsteadbeaskedtosubmitmultiplecopiestomultipleindividuals(yourclassmates,orotherfacultymembers).Followinstructionsexactly,andalwayskeepbothahardcopyandtheelectronicfileforyourrecords.Allcopiesshouldexactlymatchtheoriginal.

Therequirementsforthesesanddissertationsaremorestringent,inpartbecausesuchpapersmaybepreservedinboundformbytheuniversityorbyacommercialrepository.Wellinadvanceofthedeadline,reviewthespecificguidelinesofyourdepartmentoruniversityregardingsuchmattersasthenumberofcopiesrequiredandanypaperworkorproceduresthatmustbecompletedbeforeyoucansubmityourpaper.Ifpossible,getanofficialtoreviewyourpaperforproperformatbeforeyouproducethefinalcopies.

Followyouruniversity srecommendationsforpaperstock.Mostwillspecifyapaperthatis8 x11inches(inUSuniversities)andsuitableforlong-termpreservationofthework.Iftheguidelinesdonotspecifythepaperstock,followtheAmericanLibraryAssociation srecommendationfortwenty-poundweight,neutral-pH(acid-free)paperthatislabeledeither buffered orashavingaminimum2percentalkalinereserve.Somebutnotallstockreferredtoas dissertationbond meetstheserequirements,sobesuretoexaminethepaperspecificationsbeforemakinganycopies.Unlessyourguidelinesspecifyotherwise,printyourpaperononlyonesideofeachpage.

Mostuniversitiesareservedbyoneormorecopycenters,eitheronornearcampus,whosestaffisfamiliarwiththerequirementsforcopiesofthesesanddissertations.Althoughusingtheirservicesmaybemoreexpensivethanproducingthecopiesonyourown,itreducestheriskthatyourpaperwillberejectedforincorrectpaperstockorcopyqualityproblems.

253

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267

Authors

WayneC.Booth(1921 2005)wastheGeorgeM.PullmanDistinguishedServiceProfessorEmeritusattheUniversityofChicago,wherehetaughtintheEnglishDepartment,theCommitteeonIdeasandMethods,andtheCollege.HismanybooksincludeTheRhetoricofFiction,ARhetoricofIrony,CriticalUnderstanding,TheVocationofaTeacher,andFortheLoveofIt:AmateuringandItsRivals,allpublishedbytheUniversityofChicagoPress.

GregoryG.Colomb(1951 2011)wasprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofVirginiaandtheauthorofDesignsonTruth:ThePoeticsoftheAugustanMock-Epic.

JosephM.Williams(1933 2008)wasprofessoremeritusofEnglishandlinguisticsattheUniversityofChicago.HeistheauthorofStyle:LessonsinClarityandGrace.ColombandWilliamsjointlywroteTheCraftofArgument.

TogetherBooth,Colomb,andWilliamsauthoredTheCraftofResearch,currentlyinitsthirdedition(UniversityofChicagoPress,2008).

268

Index

Referencesaretosectionnumbersexceptwherespecifiedaspage(p.),figure(fig.),table,ornote(n)number.

abbreviationsforacademicdegrees,24.2.3inaddresses,24.3.2foragencies,companies,andorganizations,24.2.4inauthor-datestylecitations(commonexamples),18.1.6,18.3.2,24.7;Bibleandothersacredworks,19.5.2;books(additional

examples),19.1.2,19.1.5,19.1.7,19.1.8;classicalworks,19.5.1.1;dissertations,19.6.1;manuscriptcollections,19.6.4.2;microformeditions,19.5.7;publicdocuments,19.9;USConstitution,19.9.5

capitalizationof,24.1.3conventionsforuseof,24.1.2indateandtimereferences,23.1.5,24.4andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2formattingof,24.1.3italicsin,24.1.3,24.7listof(inpaper),24.1.2,A.1.3,A.2.1.10,fig.A.7innamesandprofessionaltitles,22.1.3,24.2.1,24.2.2innotes-bibliographystylecitations(commonexamples),16.1.6,16.4.1,24.7;Bibleandothersacredworks,17.5.2;books

(additionalexamples),17.1.4,17.1.6,17.1.7;classicalworks,17.5.1.1;dissertations,17.6.1;manuscriptcollections,17.6.4.2;microformeditions,17.5.7;publicdocuments,17.9;USConstitution,17.9.5

forplace-names,24.3.1pluralformsof,20.1.2.2,20.1.2.3,24.7possessiveformsof,20.2.1,20.2.2.1punctuationof,24.1.3inscholarlycontexts,24.7intablesandfigures,24.1.2,24.2.4,24.3.1,24.4.2,26.2,26.3typesof,24.1.1withunitsofmeasure,23.1.1,24.5,26.2.4

abstractscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.5.5;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.5indissertationsandtheses,A.2.1.13locatingsourcesvia,3.3.4,3.3.7

academictermsabbreviationsfordegrees,24.2.3namesofcoursesandsubjects,22.1.3scholarlyabbreviations,24.7

accessdates,incitations,3.2.2,15.4.1.3acknowledgments,A.2.1.8,A.2.1.9addresses

e-mail,20.4.2street,23.1.7,23.2.2,24.3.2

adjectives,compoundformsof,20.3.1,20.3.2advertisements,citationof

inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1.2,19.8.3.4innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1.2,17.8.3.4

alphabetization,principlesof,16.2.2.1,18.2.1.1AnnalsoftheCongressoftheUnitedStates,17.9.2.1,19.9.2.1anthologies,citationofworksin

inauthor-datestyle,19.1.9.3innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.8.3

Apocrypha,abbreviationsin,24.6.2.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworksapostrophes,20.1,20.2,21.11appendixes

formatrequirementsfor,A.2.3.2multimediafilesin,26.3,A.2.3.2tablesandfiguresin,8.3.2,26.1.1,26.1.2,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4

appositives,punctuationof,21.2.4Arabic,namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2argument,buildingan,5.1 5.6,fig.5.1,9.1.Seealsoclaims;drafts;evidence;hypothesis;questions,research;reasons;warrantsartexhibitioncatalogs,citationof

269

inauthor-datestyle,19.8.5.1innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.5.1

artworkscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1titlesof,22.3.2.1

author-datestylecitations,3.2.1,26.1.3basicformof,15.3.2,pp.216 17,18.1 18.3,fig.18.1specifictypesofsourcesin:abstracts,19.5.5;artworksandgraphics,19.8.1;Bibleandothersacredworks,19.5.2;blogs,19.7.2;

books,19.1;CD-ROMsandDVD-ROMs,19.5.8;classical,medieval,andotherearlyEnglishliteraryworks,19.5.1;dissertationsandtheses,19.6.1;electronicdiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,19.7.4;governmentdocuments,19.9;interviewsandpersonalcommunications,19.6.3;journalarticles,19.2;lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings,19.6.2;legalcases,19.9.7;liveperformances,19.8.2;magazinearticles,19.3;manuscriptcollections,19.6.4;microformeditions,19.5.7;movies,television,radio,andthelike,19.8.3;newspaperarticles,19.4;onlinecollections,19.5.9;pamphletsandreports,19.5.6;publicdocuments,19.9;referenceworks,19.5.3;reviews,19.5.4;socialnetworkingservices,19.7.3;soundrecordings,19.8.4;textsinthevisualandperformingarts,19.8.5;USConstitution,19.9.5;websites,19.7.1

Seealsoparentheticalcitations;referencelists;andspecificelementsofcitationsbynameauthor sname,incitations,3.2.2,15.4.1.1

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notes-bibliographystyle,16.1,fig.16.1,16.2.2.1,17.1.1,17.2;anonymousauthors,17.1.1.5;multipleauthors,fig.16.1,16.2.2.1,fig.16.2,17.1.1;inparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.2;pseudonyms,17.1.1.4,17.7.2,17.7.4,17.8.3.5;inshortenednotes,16.4.1,fig.16.2

Seealsonames

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BibliographicIndex,3.3.4bibliographies

arrangementofentriesin,16.2.2assemblyof,15.5basicpatternof,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.1,fig.16.1,16.2omissionofsourcesfrom,16.2.3,26.1.3

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17.1.1.5,17.1.2.3,17.1.6.1,17.1.6.3andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2withmodificationsinquotations,7.5,25.3.1andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.2.2

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inauthor-datestyle,19.9.10innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.10

Canadiangovernmentdocuments,citationofinauthor-datestyle,19.9.9innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.9

capitalizationinabbreviations,24.1.3incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.3;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.3

270

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CD-ROMs,citationofinauthor-datestyle,19.5.8innotes-bibliographystyle,17.5.8

chaptersandotherpartsofbookscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,fig.18.1,19.1.1.1,19.1.9;innotes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,17.1.1.1,17.1.8titlesof,22.3.2.2

chapter-titlepages,A.2.2.3charts

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effectiveuseof,8.2 8.4,table8.7ethicaluseof,8.4,fig.8.10histograms,table8.7imagecharts,table8.7labelswithin,8.3.2,fig.8.7piecharts,8.3.3.2,table8.7relationshiptotext,8.3.1,fig.8.4,fig.8.5scatterplots,table8.7Seealsofigures

ChicagoManualofStyle,Theonabbreviations,p.331,24.5oncitations:author-datestyle,18.2.1.1,p.231;notes-bibliographystyle,16.2.2.1,p.166oncopyrightregistration,A.2.1.3onendashes,21n1onforeignlanguages,22.2.1onmathematicalexpressions,23.1.9onnames,22.1onpermissionsformaterialundercopyright,p.346,26.1.3,A.3.2

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softwarefor,3.2.2,15.6stylesfor,3.2.1,15.3Seealsoauthor-datestylecitations;notes-bibliographystylecitations

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classical,medieval,andearlyEnglishliteraryworks,citationofinauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.5.1innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.5.1

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271

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CompilationoftheMessagesandPapersofthePresidents,1789 1897,17.9.3,19.9.3compoundterms,spellingof,20.1.2.1,20.2.2.2,20.3.1 20.3.2conclusion

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A.2.3.5,fig.A.15conclusion,A.2.2.7copyrightpage,A.2.1.3dedicationandepigraph,A.2.1.4,A.2.1.5,fig.A.9departmentoruniversityguidelinesfor,pp.371 72editorialorresearchmethod,A.2.1.12elementsof,A.2externalrepositoriesfor,26.1.3,p.371,A.3.2,A.3.3filepreparationof,A.3.1

272

footnotesvs.endnotesin,16.3.1formatrequirementsfor,pp.371 72,A.1 A.2frontmatterfor,A.2.1glossary,A.2.1.11,fig.A.8,A.2.3.3illustrations(inbackmatter),A.2.3.1inappropriateassistancewith,7.10introduction,A.2.2.1listofabbreviations,A.2.1.10,fig.A.7listsoftables,figures,andillustrations,A.2.1.7,fig.A.5,fig.A.6literaturereview,3.5,10.1.1multivolume,A.1.4.1,A.2.1.2,A.2.1.6openaccessto,A.3.2paginationof,A.1.4part-titlepages,A.2.2.2permissionsformaterialundercopyright,p.346,26.1.3,A.2.1.9,A.3.2prefaceandacknowledgments,A.2.1.8,A.2.1.9publicationof,A.3.2subheadings,6.2.4,9.2,9.3,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.4submissionpage,A.2.1.1submissionrequirementsfor,A.3.2 A.3.3tableofcontents,A.2.1.6,fig.A.3,fig.A.4tablesandfigures,samplepageswith,fig.A.12,fig.A.13titlepage,A.2.1.2,fig.A.2titlesof,22.3.2.2writingsupportgroupsfor,2.4

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andresearchtopics,2.1.1,2.1.3electronicsources,citationof,15.4.Seealsoonlinesources;andspecifictypesofsourcesbynameElementsofTypographicStyle,The(Bringhurst),A.1.2elevatorstory,2.4,13.4ellipses,7.5,21.1

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e-mailaddresses,20.4.2messages,citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.6.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.3

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citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.5.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.3

273

evaluationof,assources,3.1.2,3.1.3locatingtopicsandsourcesin,2.1.2,3.3.5

endashes,21n1endnotes,p.145

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epigraphs,25.2.2.3,A.2.1.5,fig.A.9equationsandformulas,23.1.9,A.3.1.2evidence

inbuildinganargument,5.1 5.6,9.1,14andcompetingpointsofview,3.1.2,14andnote-taking,4.3.2organizingandintroducingindraft,6.2.8,7.7andreasons,3.1.1,4.2.2,5.4.2onstoryboard,2.3.3,4.5,6.2.1andwarrants,5.5Seealsoclaims;reasons

ExchequerCourtReports(Canada),17.9.9,19.9.9exclamationpoints,21.6

andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.1,21.12.2.1intitles,17.1.2.1,19.1.3.1,22.3.3

FederalCourtsReports(Canada),17.9.9,19.9.9FederalRegister,17.9.3,19.9.3FederalReporter,17.9.7,19.9.7FederalSupplement,17.9.7,19.9.7feedback,learningfrom,12.1 12.2figures

inappendixofpaper,26.1.1,26.1.2,A.2.3.1,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.4captionsfor,8.3.1,26.1.1,26.1.3,26.3.2,A.2.1.7,fig.A.6,A.3.1.4citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.1.8.2,26.1.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2,26.1.3colorandshadingin,8.3.2,8.3.3,A.3.1.4definitionof,8n1,p.358designof,8.3,26.1.2,A.3.1.4effectiveuseof,8.1 8.3,table8.7ethicaluseof,8.4,fig.8.10,fig.8.11,fig.8.12filepreparationfor,A.3.1.4labelswithin,8.3.2listof(inpaper),A.1.3,A.2.1.7,fig.A.6numberingof,26.1.1,26.3.2,A.3.1.4positionof,intext,26.1.1,26.3.3.2relationshiptotext,8.3.1,fig.8.3,fig.8.4,fig.8.5,26.3.3.1resolutionandscalingof,A.3.1.4samplepagewith,fig.A.12sizeandorientationof,26.1.2,A.3.1.4sourcelinesfor,26.1.3,26.3.3.2typesof,8n1,p.358Seealsocharts;graphs

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foreignlanguages

274

namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2titlesin,17.1.2.3,17.2.2,17.4.1,19.1.3.2,19.2.3,19.4.1,22.3.1wordsandphrasesin,22.2.1

format,paperblockquotations,7.5,25.2.2,A.1.3colorandshadingin,8.3.2,8.3.3,26.2.3,A.3.1.2,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4andfilepreparation,A.3.1fonts,8.3.2,A.1.2graphics,8.3,26.1,26.3headersandfooters,A.1.4hyperlinks,20.4.2,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.2,A.3.2hyphenationandjustification,20.4,A.3.1.2indentation,16.1.7,16.3.4,18.1.7,A.1.3lists,23.4.2.1margins,A.1.1,A.3.1.2,A.3.1.3multiplevolumes,A.1.4.1,A.2.1.2,A.2.1.6outlines,23.4.2.2pagination,A.1.4paperstock,A.3.3spacing,A.1.3subheadings,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.4titles(main,parts,andchapters),A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.2,A.2.2.3typesize,A.1.2,A.1.5typographicoptions,8.3.2,A.1.2,A.1.5,A.2.2.4Seealsobibliographies;notes;referencelists;andspecificelementsofpapersbyname

frontmatter,A.1.3,A.1.4,A.2.1.Seealsospecificelementsoffrontmatterbyname

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275

hypothesisdevelopmentof,2.2,4.1.2,5.3andnote-taking,4.3.2,4.5onstoryboard,2.3.1Seealsoclaims;questions,research

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keytermslocatingsourcesvia,3.3.2,3.3.6,3.4.1,4.3.4innote-taking,4.2.1,4.2.3,4.3.4,4.5.3inpaper,6.2.2 6.2.4,7.3,10.1.5

LawReports(UnitedKingdom),17.9.10,19.9.10leaders(punctuation),21.1,26.2.6.1,A.2.1.6,A.2.1.7,fig.A.4,fig.A.5LeagueofNationsTreatySeries,17.9.6,19.9.6lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings,13.1 13.3

citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.6.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.6.2titlesof,22.3.2.2

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276

literarystudies,quotationpracticesin,25.2.2.1,25.3.1.2,25.3.2.3 25.3.2.5literaturereview,10.1.1,13.1.1liveperformances,citationof

inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.2innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.2

magazinesandmagazinearticles,3.1.3citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.3.2.3,19.2,19.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.2,17.3titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2

manuscripts,unpublishedcitationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.6.4;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.4titlesof,22.3.2.2,22.3.2.3

mapscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1sourcelinesfor,26.1.3

margins,generalguidelinesfor,A.1.1measure,unitsof,23.1.1,24.5,26.2.4Merriam-Webster sBiographicalDictionary,16.2.2.2,p.281,22.1.1Merriam-Webster sCollegiateDictionary,p.281,22.2.1,p.331Merriam-Webster sGeographicalDictionary,p.281microformeditions,citationof

inauthor-datestyle,19.5.7innotes-bibliographystyle,17.5.7

money,referencesto,23.1.4movies

citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.1titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2

musicalcompositions,titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2,22.3.2.3musicalscores,citationof

inauthor-datestyle,19.8.5.3innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.5.3

namesofacademiccoursesandsubjects,22.1.3brand,22.1.3capitalizationof,22.1compoundformsof,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2,20.3.2.1,22.1.1ofelectronictechnology,22.1.3ofethnicandnationalgroups,20.1.1,22.1.1governmentalandpolitical,22.1.3,23.1.6ofhistoricaleventsandculturalterms,22.1.2,23.1.6initialsin,17.1.1,18.3.2.1,19.1.1,20.4.2,24.2.1italicsin,22.1.3,22.2.1oflegalcases,22.1.3withnumbers,23.1.6personal:andabbreviations,24.2.1;alphabetizationof,16.2.2.1,18.2.1.1;andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2;inforeignlanguages,

16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2,22.2.1;withparticles,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2,22.1;pluralformsof,20.1.1;possessiveformsof,20.2ofplaces,p.241,21.2.4,22.1.1,24.3.1ofplantsandanimals,22.1.3andprofessionaltitles,22.1.1,24.2.2ofreligiousandsecularorganizations,23.1.6ofships,aircraft,andothervessels,22.1.3spellingof,p.281Seealsoauthor sname,incitations;publisher sname,incitations

naturalandphysicalsciencesabbreviationstylein,20.1.2.3,p.331,24.5citationstylein,3.2.1,15.3,pp.216 17numberstylein,p.317,23.1,23.2.2quoting,paraphrasing,andsummarizingin,7.4researchquestionsin,1.2.1sourcesin,3.1.1,3.4.2

newspapersandnewspaperarticles,3.1.3citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.3.2.3,19.4;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.4titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2

NewTestament,abbreviationsin,24.6.3.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworksnotenumbers,incitations

author-datestyle,19.1.8.2notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2

277

notesbasicpatternof,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.1,fig.16.1,16.3footnotesvs.endnotes,16.3.1formattingof,16.3.2 16.3.4,A.2.3.4Ibid.,16.4.2,17.5.1.1judicioususeof,7.6,16.3.5.2formultiplecitations,16.3.5.1numberingof,16.3.2,16.3.3parenthetical,pp.144 45,16.4.3,25.2.1.1relationshiptobibliographyentries,16.1,fig.16.1,16.2samplepageswith,fig.A.10,fig.A.14,A.2.3.4shortened,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.4.1spacingof,A.1.3substantive,7.6,16.3.5.2superscriptsintextfor,16.3.2,16.3.4,25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1

notes-bibliographystylecitations,3.2.1,26.1.3basicformof,15.3.1,pp.144 45,16.1 16.4,fig.16.1,fig.16.2specifictypesofsourcesin:abstracts,17.5.5;artworksandgraphics,17.8.1;Bibleandothersacredworks,17.5.2;blogs,17.7.2;

books,17.1;CD-ROMsandDVD-ROMs,17.5.8;classical,medieval,andotherearlyEnglishliteraryworks,17.5.1;dissertationsandtheses,17.6.1;electronicdiscussiongroupsandmailinglists,17.7.4;governmentdocuments,17.9;interviewsandpersonalcommunications,17.6.3;journalarticles,17.2;lecturesandpaperspresentedatmeetings,17.6.2;legalcases,17.9.7;liveperformances,17.8.2;magazinearticles,17.3;manuscriptcollections,17.6.4;microformeditions,17.5.7;movies,television,radio,andthelike,17.8.3;newspaperarticles,17.4;onlinecollections,17.5.9;pamphletsandreports,17.5.6;publicdocuments,17.9;referenceworks,17.5.3;reviews,17.5.4;socialnetworkingservices,17.7.3;soundrecordings,17.8.4;textsinthevisualandperformingarts,17.8.5;USConstitution,17.9.5;websites,17.7.1

Seealsobibliographies;notes;andspecificelementsofcitationsbynamenote-taking,4.2 4.5,fig.4.1nouns

compoundsandformswithprefixes,20.3effectiveuseof,11.1pluralformsof,20.1possessiveformsof,20.2proper(seenames)

numbersaddresses,23.1.7,23.2.2incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.5;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.5compoundsincluding,20.3.2.2dates,23.2.4,23.3decimalsandfractions,20.3.2.2,23.1.3,23.1.4,23.2.2andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2equationsandformulas,23.1.9,A.3.1.2graphicpresentationof,8.1 8.4,table8.1,table8.2inlists,23.4.2.1money,23.1.4ordinal,23.1.1,23.3.1inoutlines,23.4.2.2inpaginationofpaper,A.1.4inpartsofpublishedworks,23.1.8percentages,20.3.2.2,23.1.3pluralformsof,20.1.2.2,23.2.1possessiveformsof,20.2.1punctuationwithin,23.2.2,23.2.3spansof,20.3.2.2,23.2.4,table23.2spelledoutvs.numerals,23.1intablesandfigures,26.2,26.3timereferences,23.1.5,23.2.2,24.5unitsofmeasure,23.1.1verbalpresentationof,8.1,table8.1,table8.2Seealsopagenumbersandotherlocators

numeralsarabic,23.1roman,23.2.4,table23.1Seealsonumbers

OldTestament,abbreviationsin,24.6.1.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworksonlinecollections,citationof

278

inauthor-datestyle,19.5.9innotes-bibliographystyle,17.5.9

onlinesources,22.1.3categoriesof,15.4.1.2citationof,15.4.1evaluationof,3.1.3,3.3,3.4.3,15.4.1andresearchtopics,2.1.1,2.1.2,2.1.3revisiondateson,15.4.1.1Seealsospecifictypesofsourcesbyname

oralpresentations,13.1 13.2outlines,2.3,6.2.1,23.4.2.2.SeealsostoryboardOxfordClassicalDictionary,17.5.1.1,19.5.1.1

pagenumbersandotherlocatorsinauthor-datestylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,18.1.1,18.1.5;Bibleandothersacredworks,19.5.2;books,19.1.8;e-books,

19.1.10;journals,19.2.6;magazinearticles,19.3;manuscriptcollections,19.6.4.2;microformeditions,19.5.7;newspaperarticles,19.4.2;referenceworks,19.5.3

innotes-bibliographystylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,16.1.1,16.1.5;Bibleandothersacredworks,17.5.2;books,17.1.7;e-books,17.1.10;journals,17.2.5;magazinearticles,17.3;manuscriptcollections,17.6.4.2;microformeditions,17.5.7;newspaperarticles,17.4.2;inparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.2;referenceworks,17.5.3;inshortenednotes,16.4.1

spansof,20.3.2.2,23.2.4,table23.2intext,23.1.8,23.2.2

pagination,generalguidelinesfor,A.1.4paintings

citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1titlesof,22.3.2.1

pamphlets,citationofinauthor-datestyle,19.5.6innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.6

paraphrasing,25.3.1.4andcitationofsources,15.2.1indrafting,7.4innote-taking,4.2,4.4andplagiarism,7.9

parentheses,21.2.4,21.8.1,23.4.2incitations:author-datestyle,18.3;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.2,16.4.3anddefinitionsofforeignterms,22.2.1andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.2.2

parentheticalcitationsbasicpatternof,15.3.2,pp.216 17,18.1,fig.18.1,18.3,p.231withfootnotes,18.3.3formattingof,18.3.2formultiplecitations,18.3.2.5placementof,intext,18.3.1,25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1relationshiptoreferencelists,18.1,fig.18.1,18.2.1.1samplepagewith,fig.A.11

parentheticalcitations referenceliststylecitations.Seeauthor-datestylecitationspart-titlepages,A.2.2.2PDF,submissionofpaperas,A.3.1.2,A.3.2percentages,20.3.2.2,23.1.3periodicals.Seejournalsandjournalarticles;magazinesandmagazinearticles;newspapersandnewspaperarticlesperiods,21.1

inabbreviations,21.12.1,24.1.3incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.2;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.2andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12spaceafter(terminal),A.1.3permissions,formaterialundercopyright,p.346,26.1.3,A.2.1.9,A.3.2

personalcommunications,citationofinauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.6.3innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.3

photographscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1titlesof,22.3.2.1

physicalsciences.Seenaturalandphysicalsciencesplace-names,p.241,21.2.4,22.1.1,24.3.1placeofpublication,incitations,3.2.2

279

author-datestyle,19.1.7notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.6

plagiarism,avoiding,4.2.3,7.9,15.1,25.1plays

citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.5.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.8.5.2quotationofdialoguefrom,25.2.2.2titlesof,22.3.2.1

pluralterms,spellingof,20.1,20.2.1,23.3.1podcasts,citationof

inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.5innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.5

poetrycitationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.1.8.2,19.5.1.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2,17.5.1.3quotationsfrom,25.2.1.2,25.2.2.2,25.3.2.5titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2

possessiveterms,spellingof,20.2posterpresentations,13.3preface,A.2.1.8prefixes,spellingofwordswith,20.3.3presidentialpublications,citationof

inauthor-datestyle,19.9.3innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.3

procrastination.Seetimemanagementprofessionaltitles,22.1.1,24.2.2proofreading,11.4,p.282ProQuestDissertationsandThesesdatabase,p.371,A.2.1.13,A.3.2pseudonyms,incitations

author-datestyle,19.1.1.4,19.7.2,19.7.4,19.8.3.5notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.1.4,17.7.2,17.7.4,17.8.3.5

publicdocuments,citationofinauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.9innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.9

PublicPapersofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates,17.9.3,19.9.3publisher sname,incitations,3.2.2,15.4.1.1

author-datestyle:books,19.1.4.2,19.1.7;websites,19.7.1notes-bibliographystyle:books,17.1.3.2,17.1.6;websites,17.7.1

punctuation,21.1 21.12inabbreviations,20.1.2.3,24.1.3incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.2,18.3.1;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.2,16.3.2andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2modificationof,inquotations,25.3.1.2,25.3.2withinnumbers,23.2.2,23.2.3spaceafter(terminal),A.1.3oftitles,22.3.3Seealsospecificpunctuationmarksbyname

questionmarks,21.5andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.5,21.12.1,21.12.2.1intitles,17.1.2.1,19.1.3.1,22.3.3

questions,researchdevelopmentof,1.1 1.2,2.1 2.2andnote-taking,4.3.2,4.5statementof,10.1.2,10.1.3typesof,1.2Seealsoclaims;hypothesis

quotationmarks,21.10incitations:author-datestyle,18.1.4;notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.4arounddefinitionsofforeign-languageterms,22.2.1andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2ironicuseof,22.2.2andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.10,21.12.2.1andpluralforms,20.1.2.4andpossessiveforms,20.2.2.4aroundquotedmaterial,25.2 25.3single,21.10,21.12.2.1,25.2.1.2,25.3.1.2aroundtitlesofworks,22.3.2.2

280

aroundwordsdefinedasterms,22.2.2quotations

blockstyle,7.5,25.2.2,A.1.3citationof,fromsecondarysources:inauthor-datestyle,19.10;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.10indrafting,7.4inendnotesorfootnotes,16.3.5.2epigraphs,25.2.2.3,A.2.1.5,fig.A.9fromforeignlanguages,22.2.1incorporatingintotext,7.5,25.2insertionsinto,25.3.1.4modificationof,7.5,25.3innote-taking,4.2.2,4.3.3omissionsfrom,25.3.2placementofsourcecitationsfor:inauthor-datestyle,18.3.1,25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.3.2,16.4.3.2,

25.2.1.1,25.2.2.1andplagiarism,7.9,15.2.1,25.1run-instyle,7.5,25.2.1spacingof,A.1.3

Qur an,24.6.5.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworks

radioprogramscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.2titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2

Readers GuidetoPeriodicalLiterature,3.3.7reasons

inbuildinganargument,2.3.2,5.1 5.6,14andevidence,3.1.1,4.2.2,5.4.2andnote-taking,4.3.2organizingindraft,6.2.5,6.2.8onstoryboard,2.3.3,4.5andwarrants,5.4.4,fig.5.1Seealsoclaims;evidence

referencelistsarrangementofentriesin,18.2.1assemblyof,15.5basicpatternof,15.3.2,pp.216 17,18.1,fig.18.1,18.2omissionofsourcesfrom,18.2.2relationshiptoparentheticalcitations,18.1,fig.18.1,18.2.1.1samplepagefrom,A.2.3.5,fig.A.16spacingof,A.1.3

referenceworks,citationofinauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.5.3innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.3SeealsoencyclopediasanddictionariesRegisterofDebates,17.9.2.1,19.9.2.1

reports(sourcetype),citationofinauthor-datestyle,19.5.6innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.6

researchacademic,p.5,1.2,2.1.1,2.4asconversation,3.1.2,p.37,5.1,5.2,5.4.3,10.1.1,10.2.2,13.1 13.4,14,15.1goalsfor,pp.12 13,3.1.2professional,p.5,1.2.2spiritof,14

reviews(booksandliveperformances)citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.5.4;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.5.4locatingsourcesvia,3.3.4

RevisedStatutesofCanada,17.9.9,19.9.9revising,9.1 9.5,10.1 10.3,11.1 11.5

sculpturescitationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.8.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,16.4.3.1,17.8.1titlesof,22.3.2.1

searchengines,2.1.3,3.3.2,3.4.2.Seealsoonlinesourcessemicolons,21.2.4,21.3

incitations:author-datestyle,18.3.2.5;notes-bibliographystyle,16.3.5.1andmultiplepunctuationmarks,21.12.2.1

281

series,21.2.2,21.3sentences,revising,11.1 11.5seriestitles

incitations:author-datestyle,19.1.6;notes-bibliographystyle,17.1.5titlesof,22.3.2.3

sic,useof,25.3.1.1slashes,21.9,25.2.1.2socialnetworkingservices,citationof,15.4.1.2

inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.7.3innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.7.3

socialsciencesabbreviationstylein,pp.330 31,24.5citationstylein,3.2.1,15.3,pp.144 45,pp.216 17modelsforresearchin,3.1.2numberstylein,p.317,23.1.1quoting,paraphrasing,andsummarizingin,7.4researchquestionsin,1.2.1,2.1.4sourcesin,3.1.1,3.4.2

softwarefunctionsalphabetizingnames,16.2.2.1,18.2.1.1automatednumberingofelements,A.3.1.1citationmanagement,3.2.2,15.6definingstyles,A.1.5,A.3.1.1filepreparationandmanagement,A.3.1graphics,8.2,8.3,13.3,pp.358 59,A.3.1.3,A.3.1.4hyphenationandjustification,20.4,A.3.1.2sectionbreaks,A.1.4.1,A.3.1.1specialcharacters,21.11,25.3.2.1,A.3.1.2spell-checking,11.4,p.282word-processing(general),21.11,p.372,A.2.2.4,A.3.1.1,A.3.1.2

soundrecordings,citationofinauthor-datestyle,19.8.4innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.4

sourcesavailabilityof,2.1.4citationof(seecitationofsources)criticalengagementwith,2.1.3,3.1.2,4.1 4.6limitingnumberof,2.1.2,2.1.4,6.2.2note-takingfrom,4.2 4.5online(seeonlinesources)plagiarismof,7.9,15.1,25.1primary,3.1.1,3.1.2secondary,3.1.2,17.10selectionandevaluationof,3.1 3.5,15.1,15.4.1.1tertiary,3.1.3,3.4.2Seealsospecifictypesofsourcesbyname

Sowhat?question,1.1 1.2,2.1,5.4.1,6.2.2,10.1.3,13.4Spanish,namesin,16.2.2.2,18.2.1.2spelling

checkingforerrorsin,11.4,12.1 12.2,p.282ofcompoundsandwordswithprefixes,20.3andend-of-linebreaks,20.4modificationof,inquotations,25.3.1.1ofnumbers,23.1ofpluralterms,20.1,20.2.1,23.3.1ofpossessiveterms,20.2softwareforchecking,11.4,p.282

StatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1789 1873,17.9.2.5,19.9.2.5StatutesofCanada,17.9.9,19.9.9storyboard,2.3,4.5,p.49,5.4 5.6,6.2subheadings,6.2.4,9.2,9.3,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.4submissionpage,A.2.1.1summarizing

indrafting,7.4innote-taking,4.2.2,4.4

SupremeCourtReporter,17.9.7,19.9.7

282

SupremeCourtsReports(Canada),17.9.9,19.9.9

tableofcontents,A.2.1.6,fig.A.3,fig.A.4tables

abbreviationsin,26.2inappendixofpaper,26.1.1,26.1.2,A.2.3.2,A.3.1.3citationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.1.8.2,26.1.3;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.1.7.2,26.1.3colorandshadingin,8.3.2,8.3.3,26.2.3,A.3.1.3columnheads,26.2,table26.2,A.3.1.3datain,26.2definitionof,8n1,p.358designof,8.3,table8.5,table8.6,26.1.2,26.2,A.3.1.3effectiveuseof,8.1 8.4ethicaluseof,8.4filepreparationfor,A.3.1.3footnotesto,26.1.3,table26.2,table26.3,26.2.7,A.3.1.3labelswithin,8.3.2listof(inpaper),A.1.3,A.2.1.7,fig.A.5numberingof,26.2.2,A.3.1.3positionof,intext,26.1.1relationshiptotext,8.3.1,table8.3,table8.4,26.2.2.1rulesin,26.2.3samplepagewith,fig.A.13sizeandorientationof,26.1.2,A.3.1.3sourcelinesfor,26.1.3,table26.1,table26.3stub,26.2.1,26.2.5,A.3.1.3titlesof,8.3.1,table8.5,table8.6,26.1.1,26.2.2,A.2.1.7,fig.A.5,A.3.1.3

televisionprogramscitationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.2;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.2titlesof,22.3.2.1,22.3.2.2

textmessages,citationofinauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.6.3

innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.6.3theses.Seedissertationsandthesestimemanagement,4.4,4.6,7.1,7.2,7.8,7.11,9.5timereferences.Seedatesandtime,referencestotitlepage,A.2.1.2,fig.A.1,fig.A.2titlesinpaper

maintitle,10.3,A.1.5,A.2.1.2ofpartsandchapters,A.1.5,A.2.1.6,A.2.2.2,A.2.2.3

titlesofworksinauthor-datestylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,18.1.3,18.1.4;blogs,19.7.2;books,19.1.3,19.1.5,19.1.6;foreign-languagetitles,

19.1.3.2,19.2.3,19.4.1;journals,19.2.3,19.2.4,19.2.7;liveperformances,19.8.2;magazinearticles,19.3;manuscriptcollections,19.6.4.2;movies,televisionprograms,andthelike,19.8.3;newspapers,19.4.1;subtitles,19.1.3,19.2.3;unpublishedworks,19.6;websites,19.7.1

capitalizationof:headline-style,22.3.1.1;sentence-style,22.3.1.2inforeignlanguages,22.3.1italicsin,22.3.2.1innotes-bibliographystylecitations:basicpattern,3.2.2,16.1.3,16.1.4;blogs,17.7.2;books,17.1.2,17.1.4,17.1.5;foreign-language

titles,17.1.2.3,17.2.2,17.4.1;journals,17.2.2,17.2.3,17.2.6;liveperformances,17.8.2;magazinearticles,17.3;manuscriptcollections,17.6.4.2;movies,televisionprograms,andthelike,17.8.3;newspapers,17.4.1;inparentheticalnotes,16.4.3.2;inshortenednotes,16.4.1,fig.16.2;subtitles,17.1.2,17.2.2;unpublishedworks,17.6;websites,17.7.1

punctuationwithinandaround,22.3.3quotationmarksaround,22.3.2.2spellingof,22.3

topics,research,1.1 1.2,2.1 2.2.Seealsoquestions,researchtransitionalwords,6.2.6translator sname,incitations,3.2.2

author-datestyle,fig.18.1,18.1.6,18.2.1.1,18.3.2,19.1.1notes-bibliographystyle,fig.16.1,16.1.6,16.2.2.1,fig.16.2,17.1.1Seealsoauthor sname,incitations

treatiescitationof:inauthor-datestyle,19.9.6;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.9.6namesof,22.1.3

TreatiesandOtherInternationalActsSeries,17.9.6,19.9.6typographicoptions,8.3.2,A.1.2,A.1.5,A.2.2.4

UnitedNationsTreatySeries,17.9.6,19.9.6

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UnitedStatesCode,17.9.2.5,19.9.2.5UnitedStatesStatutesatLarge,17.9.2.5,17.9.6,19.9.2.5,19.9.6UnitedStatesSupremeCourtReports,17.9.7,19.9.7UnitedStatesTreatiesandOtherInternationalAgreements,17.9.6,19.9.6Upanishads,22.3.2.3.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworksURLs(uniformresourcelocators),3.2.2,15.4.1.3

alternateformsof,15.4.1.3,15.4.1.4changeabilityof,15.4.1.1andDOIs,15.4.1.3,fig.16.1,fig.18.1andend-of-linebreaks,20.4.2ashyperlinks,20.4.2

USConstitutioncapitalizationofnameof,22.1.3citationof:inauthor-datestyle,18.2.2,19.9.5;innotes-bibliographystyle,16.2.3,17.9.5

Vedas,24.6.5.SeealsoBibleandothersacredworksverbs,effectiveuseof,11.1videos,citationof

inauthor-datestyle,19.8.3.5innotes-bibliographystyle,17.8.3.5

volumenumbers,incitations,3.2.2author-datestyle,18.1.6,19.1.5,19.2.5notes-bibliographystyle,16.1.6,17.1.4,17.2.4.1

warrants,5.4.4,fig.5.1,5.5,6.2.8.Seealsoclaims;reasonswebsites

citationof,15.4.1.1;inauthor-datestyle,19.7.1;innotes-bibliographystyle,17.7.1titlesof,22.3.2.2,22.3.2.3Seealsoonlinesources;andotherspecifictypesofwebsitesbyname(e.g.,blogs)

Webster sThirdNewInternationalDictionary,p.281WeeklyCompilationofPresidentialDocuments,17.9.3,19.9.3Wikipedia,reliabilityof,3.1.3.Seealsoencyclopediasanddictionariesworkinghypothesis.Seehypothesiswriter sblock,7.1,7.2,7.11writing

firstdraft,7.1 7.11preparatory,4.4andrevising,9.1 9.5,10.1 10.3,11.1 11.5

writingsupportgroups,2.4

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TableofContents

Copyright 2TitlePage 3Contents 6ANotetoStudents 10Preface 11PartI:ResearchandWriting:FromPlanningtoProduction 12

1WhatResearchIsandHowResearchersThinkaboutIt 161.1HowResearchersThinkaboutTheirAims 161.2ThreeKindsofQuestionsThatResearchersAsk 17

2MovingfromaTopictoaQuestiontoaWorkingHypothesis 192.1FindaQuestioninYourTopic 192.2ProposeSomeWorkingAnswers 222.3BuildaStoryboardtoPlanandGuideYourWork 232.4OrganizeaWritingSupportGroup 23

3FindingUsefulSources 253.1UnderstandtheKindsofSourcesReadersExpectYoutoUse 253.2RecordYourSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately 263.3SearchforSourcesSystematically 273.4EvaluateSourcesforRelevanceandReliability 293.5LookbeyondtheUsualKindsofReferences 30

4EngagingSources 314.1ReadGenerouslytoUnderstand,ThenCriticallytoEngageandEvaluate 314.2TakeNotesSystematically 334.3TakeUsefulNotes 344.4WriteasYouRead 354.5ReviewYourProgress 354.6ManageMomentsofNormalPanic 36

5PlanningYourArgument 375.1WhataResearchArgumentIsandIsNot 375.2BuildYourArgumentaroundAnswerstoReaders’Questions 375.3TurnYourWorkingHypothesisintoaClaim 385.4AssembletheElementsofYourArgument 385.5DistinguishArgumentsBasedonEvidencefromArgumentsBasedonWarrants 425.6AssembleanArgument 43

6PlanningaFirstDraft 446.1AvoidUnhelpfulPlans 446.2CreateaPlanThatMeetsYourReaders’Needs 446.3FileAwayLeftovers 48

7DraftingYourReport 497.1DraftintheWayThatFeelsMostComfortable 497.2DevelopProductiveDraftingHabits 497.3UseYourKeyTermstoKeepYourselfonTrack 497.4Quote,Paraphrase,andSummarizeAppropriately 507.5IntegrateQuotationsintoYourText 507.6UseFootnotesandEndnotesJudiciously 517.7InterpretComplexorDetailedEvidenceBeforeYouOfferIt 517.8BeOpentoSurprises 51

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7.9GuardagainstInadvertentPlagiarism 527.10GuardagainstInappropriateAssistance 537.11WorkThroughChronicProcrastinationandWriter’sBlock 53

8PresentingEvidenceinTablesandFigures 558.1ChooseVerbalorVisualRepresentations 558.2ChoosetheMostEffectiveGraphic 558.3DesignTablesandFigures 578.4CommunicateDataEthically 66

9RevisingYourDraft 729.1CheckforBlindSpotsinYourArgument 729.2CheckYourIntroduction,Conclusion,andClaim 729.3MakeSuretheBodyofYourReportIsCoherent 729.4CheckYourParagraphs 739.5LetYourDraftCool,ThenParaphraseIt 73

10WritingYourFinalIntroductionandConclusion 7410.1DraftYourFinalIntroduction 7410.2DraftYourFinalConclusion 7610.3WriteYourTitleLast 77

11RevisingSentences 7811.1FocusontheFirstSevenorEightWordsofaSentence 7811.2DiagnoseWhatYouRead 8211.3ChoosetheRightWord 8211.4PolishItUp 8211.5GiveItUpandPrintItOut 83

12LearningfromYourReturnedPaper 8412.1FindGeneralPrinciplesinSpecificComments 8412.2TalktoYourInstructor 84

13PresentingResearchinAlternativeForums 8513.1PlanYourOralPresentation 8513.2DesignYourPresentationtoBeListenedTo 8613.3PlanYourPosterPresentation 8713.4PlanYourConferenceProposal 87

14OntheSpiritofResearch 88

PartIISourceCitation 8915GeneralIntroductiontoCitationPractices 90

15.1ReasonsforCitingYourSources 9015.2TheRequirementsofCitation 9015.3TwoCitationStyles 9115.4ElectronicSources 9215.5PreparationofCitations 9315.6CitationManagementSoftware 93

16Notes-BibliographyStyle:TheBasicForm 9416.1BasicPatterns 9416.2Bibliographies 9716.3Notes 9916.4ShortFormsforNotes 101

17Notes-BibliographyStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources 10517.1Books 10617.2JournalArticles 11417.3MagazineArticles 116

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17.4NewspaperArticles 11617.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources 11717.6UnpublishedSources 12017.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups 12217.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts 12317.9PublicDocuments 12617.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother 131

18Author-DateStyle:TheBasicForm 13218.1BasicPatterns 13218.2ReferenceLists 13518.3ParentheticalCitations 137

19Author-DateStyle:CitingSpecificTypesofSources 13919.1Books 14019.2JournalArticles 14819.3MagazineArticles 15019.4NewspaperArticles 15019.5AdditionalTypesofPublishedSources 15119.6UnpublishedSources 15419.7Websites,Blogs,SocialNetworks,andDiscussionGroups 15519.8SourcesintheVisualandPerformingArts 15719.9PublicDocuments 16019.10OneSourceQuotedinAnother 165

PartIIIStyle 16620Spelling 167

20.1Plurals 16720.2Possessives 16820.3CompoundsandWordsFormedwithPrefixes 17020.4LineBreaks 175

21Punctuation 17721.1Periods 17721.2Commas 17821.3Semicolons 18021.4Colons 18121.5QuestionMarks 18121.6ExclamationPoints 18121.7HyphensandDashes 18121.8ParenthesesandBrackets 18221.9Slashes 18221.10QuotationMarks 18221.11Apostrophes 18321.12MultiplePunctuationMarks 183

22Names,SpecialTerms,andTitlesofWorks 18522.1Names 18522.2SpecialTerms 18822.3TitlesofWorks 189

23Numbers 19223.1WordsorNumerals? 19223.2PluralsandPunctuation 19623.3DateSystems 19723.4NumbersUsedoutsidetheText 198

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24Abbreviations 20024.1GeneralPrinciples 20024.2NamesandTitles 20124.3GeographicalTerms 20424.4TimeandDates 20624.5UnitsofMeasure 20724.6TheBibleandOtherSacredWorks 20724.7AbbreviationsinCitationsandOtherScholarlyContexts 209

25Quotations 21225.1QuotingAccuratelyandAvoidingPlagiarism 21225.2IncorporatingQuotationsintoYourText 21225.3ModifyingQuotations 214

26TablesandFigures 21826.1GeneralIssues 21826.2Tables 21926.3Figures 223

Appendix:PaperFormatandSubmission 225A.1GeneralFormatRequirements 225A.2FormatRequirementsforSpecificElements 227A.3FilePreparationandSubmissionRequirements 249

Bibliography 254Authors 268Index 269

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