The Turks of Samarra

HIST 100710/14/13

What is Slavery?

Slavery outside the Americas

• Some form of slavery has been attested for practically every human civilization around the globe.

• American slavery is unique in its scale and its treatment of slaves.

Society with Slaves vs. Slave Society

Forms of Slavery• Domestic slavery• State slavery– Soldiers– Bureaucrats– Janissaries

• Temple slavery• Economic slavery– Plantation slavery– Debt slaves

• Concubines

Slavery and Status

• Pre-modern societies built on institutionalized inequalities

• Very few people (if anyone) “free”– Conscription– Corvée labor– Serfdom

• Enslavement may offer upward mobility• Attachment to elite households or state institutions

offer protections• Code of Hammurapi

Slave Soldiers

• (Not entirely) unique institution in Muslim World• Origins in mercenary militias, elite bodyguards• Practice continues into 19th century– Janissaries – Ottoman Empire– `Abid al-Bukhari - Morocco

• Why use slaves as soldiers?

Ottoman Janissaries

Aftermath of the `Abbasid Civil War

• Changing face of `Abbasid elites• Khurasani Persians over Abna al-Dawla• Realization that elites are fickle and expect

certain concessions• Abu Ishaq `Abbas b. Harun al-Mu`tasim (r. 833-

842) – al-Ma’mun’s younger brother and successor

• 815 – al-Mu`tasim begins purchasing Turkish slaves from Central Asia

The Turks before al-Mu`tasim

• Pastoralist nomads• Inner Asian steppe• Raid and trade relationship• Iran and Turan• Mercenaries• Occasional conquest of cities and towns

Early 20th century photos of Central AsianTurkic pastoralists

Inner Asian Steppe

Why Turks?

• Outsiders – no independent networks within empire• Noted warriors – horseback archery• Khurasan and the steppe – proximity and existing slave trade

Turkish Slave Soldiers

• 833 – al-Mu`tasim makes his Turkish guard the royal body guard and field army

• Negative reaction from `Abbasid elites• Nomads in the city• Removing established elites from military

positions• 836 – al-Mu`tasim founds Samarra

Surra man raa (all who see it are pleased)

• Not meant to attract non-government residents• Essentially a large scale military encampment• Baghdad : Samarra as New York : Washington• Turkish commanders given land• Turkish soldiers are given wives• Non-Turkish branches of military also allotted space

The Mosque of al-Mutawakkil, Samarra

Turkish Commanders

• Ashinas, Khaqan, `Urtuj, Wasif, and Itakh• Administrative positions– Governorships– Positions that required close proximity to the caliph (chamberlain, cup bearer, etc.)

• Iqta` – Land grants

Ashinas parlaying with rebels

Are They Really Slaves?

• Mamluk – “property” or “owned”• Ghulam – can mean young servant or

entourage, primarily slave soldiers• Ashinas – Turkish prince• Khagan – same root as khan• Itakh – former cook?• 847 – 2 of 5 people involved in choosing new

caliph are Turkish slave generals

High Noon in Samarra

• Caliphal Fiction• Is Samarra a prison?• An `Abbasid fifth generation?• al-Mutawakkil Ja`far b. al-Mu`tasim (r. 847-861)• Attempts to limit power of Turks• 849 – Itakh imprisoned and killed… little reaction

High Noon in Samarra• 861 – Confiscation of Wasif’s estates• Give them to al-Fath b. Khaqan• Second generation Turks• Dec. 11, 861 – al-Mutawakkil and al-Fath killed by bodyguard

after night of drinking• Turkish slave soldiers dictating succession and policies of caliphs• Rising conflict between Turkish and non-Turkish elites

Abu Dulaf Mosque, Samarra