the triumph and sorrow of beauty: comparing the recursive

Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of LowlandSouth AmericaISSN: 2572-3626 (online)

Volume 4Issue 1 Special Issue in honor of Joanna Overing: In theWorld and About the World: Amerindian Modes ofKnowledge

Article 14

May 2006

The Triumph and Sorrow of Beauty: Comparingthe Recursive, Contrapuntal, and CellularAesthetics of BeingGeorge MentoreUniversity of Virginia, [email protected]

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Recommended CitationMentore, George (2006). "The Triumph and Sorrow of Beauty: Comparing the Recursive, Contrapuntal, and Cellular Aesthetics ofBeing," Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America: Vol. 4: Iss. 1, Article 14.Available at: http://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/tipiti/vol4/iss1/14

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Tipití (2006) 4(1&2):295–318 © 2006 SALSA 295ISSN 1545-4703 Printed in USA

The Triumph and Sorrow of Beauty: Comparing the Recursive, Contrapuntal,

and Cellular Aesthetics of Being

GEORGE MENTOREUniversity of [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

Thisisananthropologicalessayaboutalternativeformsofsocialbeing.ItiswrittenintributetotheteachingsofJoannaOvering.Inthisregardletmebeginbymakingitpatentlyobviousthatsuchteachingshaveneverfailedtodifferentiatebetweentextualrepresentationsandrealpeopleandthat(asithassoclearlybeenreconfirmedbyTimIngoldinhismostrecent2007Radcliff-Brown Lecture)noone shouldconfuseananthropologicalessayforethnographicdescription,asanthropologyandethnographydonotamounttothesamething. Overworked and often made to expire and become weakly whatthey represent, textual words remain practically all we possess in wayof legitimately expressing the anthropological knowledge learned fromcloistered academy and accomplished fieldwork. Yet regardless of howstronglyandanxiouslyourliteratecommunitywishestextualwordstobetheworldexperienced,thelattercanneveractuallybethesumofobservedand felthumanknowledge. Thehuman imagination and itsunlimitedcapacityforintellectualstimuluseasilyoutstriptext.Leftwiththeculturallegacyoftextualwords,however,theconscientiousanthropologistsmuststrugglewiththislimitintheprojectoftranslatingdifferentrepresentationsofthehumanexperience.Therefore,thisessaycelebrates,inthespiritofherparticularconcernfortheintegrityofsuchanthropologicalventures,theconsistentOveringcredothatanycomparativeknowledgeabout theworldalwaysproclaimsitslifeintheworldwithsomeformofmoralbias(Overing1985;OveringandPasses1999).Havingfirmlyinculcatedtheseconcerns I here turn cautiously to a critical anthropological analysis ofAmerindian,Antillean,andNorthAmericanknowledgeformsofsocialbeing.

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Icomparethreeculturalaestheticsofsocialbeing:(1)therecursiveofWaiwai,(2)thecontrapuntalofcoastalGuyanese,and(3)thecellularofUnitedStatesexpatriatesinGuyana.IarguethatbecauseWaiwaisocietyprivilegeslateralvisibilityittendstobringideasaboutthefractalindividualinto association with recursive appeals of presence. Alternatively, forcoastalGuyaneseandUnitedStates societies respectively, theyprivilegeaxialvisibilitythatbringstheirconceptsaboutautonomousindividualismintoassociationwithcontrapuntalandcellularaestheticsofbeing. MyFoucaudianemphasisuponvisibiltyarisesfromanunderstandingof modern societies as deeply “disciplinarian” and concerned withexercising a power that traverses every possible apparatus or institutionasthesurveillanceknowledgeofindividualbodies.Becauseiteffecientlyinduces“astateofconsciousandpermanentvisibility,”onethat“assurestheautomaticfunctioningofpower”(Foucault1978:201),thepanopticonservesastheprincipaloperatorforthismodernpower/knowledgerelation.Inthecirclearoundthecentraltower,itsarrangementofindividualcells“imposes … an axial visibility” (1978:201). Thus, while its impositionof axial visibility stresses docility and surveillance, its arrangement alsoexhibitsanaestheticofthecellular.Icontend,therefore,thatinidealformsofmodernpower,thesocialrelationsinWesternindividualsfunctionlikethepanopticeffect—separating“cells”ofidentitiesanddividingselvesfromothers.Inthisregard,lateralvisibilitywouldbetheabsenceordemiseofdividedcells, the sidewallsofwhichhavingneverbeenbuiltorhavingbeendestroyedtoallowcommunionbetweenindividualinmates.Lateralvisibilitydisplaysthentheequivalentofwhatoccursinmanynonmodernsocieties,thatis,theimpossibilityof“acollectionofseparatedindividuals”(1978:201). Also,with lateral visibility, a contrapuntal aesthetic canbeobtained;itssonicadmixturesinvadingandchallengingthevisual,helpingtogiveformtodifferentkindsofsocialbeing. Afteropeningwiththethemeofsorrow,IproceedtopresenttheWaiwaitriumphofbeauty,whereweaving,kinship,andcountingreiteratethecoreprincipletosequentialmovementintheassemblageofsocialpersonhood.ForWaiwaisociety,theassembledaggregateandthefractalentitiesoftheindividualalwaysintegrallyimplyeachother. IntheexampleofcoastalGuyanesesociety,wherethecontrapuntalauthorityofthevoicemakesitsappealtogatheredaudiences,thistendstobringforththelateralvisibilityofthespeaker.Bycontrast,thetextualprojectsofthestateseekoutandplaceemphasisuponaxialvisibility, specifically for theestablishmentofgreater control andobedienceof its citizens. The formerusesmimesisandlooksforhonorinthevoicewhilethelatterdemandsdisciplineandrespectbywayofthetext.IconcludewiththeJonestownTemplarsinthe

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The Triumph and Sorrow of Beauty 297

forestofGuyana,themakingofWesternloneliness,andthemoderndesireforfellowship.And,indoingso,IaskwhatdocellularaestheticandaxialvisibilitymeanforanunderstandingofUnitedStatesmasskillings. The heuristic device applied to affect this analysis derives fromanthropological considerations that work to identify the cultural spacesthatexpresssocialrelations.Iholdthatthepropensityofsuchspacesfornegotiatinghumanrelationsstemsfromtheirabilitytobethevisibleformsofknowinghowtoexperienceandconfirmthesociallifeoftheselfwithothers.I,therefore,singleoutlateralandaxialvisibilityasthemeansforidentifying thesecultural spaces.1Becausesocial relationsalwaysappearrobustwith ideas about anaestheticofbeing, lateral andaxial visibilityserve thus asmygeneraldevice forproviding a comparative analysis ofpowerandpleasure.

THE SORROW OF BEAUTY

Heinhaledhisbreath.Hehelditdeepinsidehisstomach.Afeelingofpaniccascadedoveranddownhisbody.Itwasdeliberate.Hewantedtoimpressinhisspeechaswellasinhisposturethefeelingofanimpedingcollapse. How better to bring to his talk the mood of a misgiving?Towatowa struggled to tell with old words this new tale about strangeeventsontheothersideoftheforest:

“TheSunfishPeoplearekillingthemselves.”Heexplainedwithanexhaleofbreath.

“Theyarekillingthemselvesandtheirbabies.”“Manyofthem,many,many,ofthem.”“Thevultureshavedarkenedthesky”“Theywillsoonbedrunkonthemeatofrottenflesh.”“Theearthwillbewrithingwithworms.”“Imminentlythebeautyoftheirvillagewillhavedisappearedandtheugliness

ofthebadshalltrumpetitsvictory.”

AsTowatowa continued, the crowd contemplated in bewildermentthewordsandimagestheywerereceiving.Formanydaysafterward,theWaiwaiofShepariymovillageremainedcuriousandintrigued.Theyhadneverbeforethoughtsuchkindofdyingcouldmanifestintheworld. AsthemessagesabouttherisingdeathtollofthePeoplesTemplecultmembers at Jonestown circulated among the villagers, I took particularnoteofhowtheWaiwaiinterpretedandwhereintheirintellectualschemetheyplacedtheknowledgeoftheseevents.WhatIgatheredwasthatthe

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The Triumph and Sorrow of Beauty: Comparing the Recursive, Contra

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darkshamanicforcesatworkmusthavebeeninfluencingorenticingawaytheekatï (spiritualvitalities)ofeachandeveryTemplar.Tobeabletoforceoutofeachlivingbodythesevitalitiesthatsustainedlife,andbeingabletodenythereturnofsuchvitalitiestotheirhumanhost,couldonlybetheworkofdarkshamanicintent.Howcouldacommunityofsomanypeoplebesoterriblyunconstrainedbygoodwillthatitwouldallowthepurposeofimmoralitytodestroyitinthisway?This,Ibelieve,wasthelingeringquestionbehindthelookofperplexityoneachface.ToamassthisamountofillwillagainstsomanypeopleatthesametimeandinthesameplaceappearedtotheWaiwaitobethemostshockingthingtheycouldimagine,and indeed, thevery sorrowover thedefeatofbeauty. For them, therecouldbeonlyonewaytolive,thatis,inthesplendorofkinshipmorality,whosemainpurposeistokeepsuchviolenceatbay.

THE TRIUMPH OF BEAUTY

The Waiwai, it can be ascertained, idealize social relations as iftheymanifestawovenpattern,onethatrevealsitselfasindividualreedsalternatingunderandovereachotherlikeknownhumanresponsibilities.The pattern entails woyesï: the replicating of an action in a sequencetowardsanassemblage, inotherwords,awovenpatternassimilatesintoitselfeachofitsprecedingplaits.Whenfunctioningastheoveralleffectofatightplaitofrelationships,these“reedsofresponsibility,”constitutethefullandsubstantivelifeofanindividualassocialperson.Atoneandthe same time and in the same space of the individual body, the reedsofresponsibilityassembleastheveryaggregateofsociety,aswellastheveracityofanindividual’ssubjectivities. Here in the conceptual anthropological understanding of Waiwaisociety—as they would manifest it as ewto and be interpreted byanthropology as “village”—no distinction should be drawn betweensociety and individual. TheWaiwaiword forhuman individual is toto.Inewtoto:meaningboth“theplacewherepeopleliveandthepeoplewholiveinthisplace,”thetwowordsaresplicedtogethertoformone.Notethatthisistheexactanthropologicalconclusionsuggestedforthe“FractalPerson,”inthatthis“isneveraunitstandinginrelationtoanaggregate,oranaggregatestandinginrelationtoaunit,butalwaysanentitywithrelationshipintegrallyimplied”(Wagner1991:163). IntheWaiwaimodelofthecompleteperson,čewyarono,thevitalityofspiritualsubstance(ekatï)mustfirst inhabitandgivelifetothebody.In providing heat, movement, emotion, thought, and consciousness to

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theindividual,spiritualvitalitybecomesdispersedandhousedatvariouslocationswithin and throughout thebody. The spiritual vitality of theeyes (ewrïkatï) can be observed when the tiny image of oneself can beseen reflected in theeyesof another. The spiritual vitalityof thechest(ewankatï) locates itself in thecavernousseatof thesolarplexus. Eventheveryheatofthelivingbodyprovidesproofofthespiritualsubstancesnecessary for maintaining an active life. And yet, in addition to thesedifferentialsubjectivities(madepossiblebyWaiwaiunderstandingsofthebody as having differential regions or parts offering location or “place”for such subjectivities), the social substantiveness of the body must bepresentedandbroughtintomotionforčewyarono tobefullyintheworldasapropercommentabouttheworld(seeRosengren,Santos-GraneroandWerlang,intra,fordiscussionofsimilarnotionsamongotherAmerindianpeoples). Thereciprocalrelationsofresponsibilitytoothersconsideredo-yepamrïoro-poyin(my-kindred)epitomizethesocialidentityofačewyarono.Socompleteinyepamrï relationsissuchaperson,heorsheunderstandshimorherselftobeindependentfromoutsideneedorassistance,forallcanbe gained and achievedwithin the kindofwholeness implicit to beingčewyarono.Tosubtractfromortoaddinfinitelytosuchwholenesscannot,however,proportionallyalteračewyarono.Justliketheindividualreedsofabasketbeingwoven,thefractalityofthečewyaronopersonhoodalwaysassemblessequentiallytowardorawayfromasupplementorassimilationofwholeness.Attheverymomentorintheveryambienceofbeingpossiblywithoutkindred(possiblysubtractedtozeroor indeedtoanabsenceofbeing),orhavingtoomanykindred(possiblyaddinginfinitumtobecominga supreme being), čewyarono substantively and recursively accountsproportionalkindred.Forexample,inWaiwaisocietyevenanunknownguest/visitor (pawana)within themidstof the community immediatelybecomesand,indeed,hasalwaysbeenconceptuallybothwošin(affine)andepeka(consanguine).Allthosewhoinstantlyrefertothevisitoraswošin—asisthecustom—willhavethoselivinginthecommunitywhocallthemwošin,callingthevisitortheirepeka.Anecdotally,inthisunderstandingofsociety,thefirstquestiontoaskavisitorisnot“whereisyourpassport?”but“whereareyourkindred?” ThemovementoffractalityandwholenessoperativeinčewyaronohasperhapsitsmostobviouscorollaryintheWaiwaicountingsystemofšim-šim or ukoknon macho. Šim-šim actually refers more deliberately to theknottedstringusedforcountingdownthedaystoceremonialevents.Theconceptofarecurringunitofonecanbeinferredfromtheonomatopoeicrepeatingofthewordšimandfromeachknottiedoruntiedonthestring.

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Both inferences implicate the sun and its movement through the sky“tying-up”orcompletingaday(seePasses,intra,forsimilarimportanceofmetaphorinPa’ikwenémathematics).Takeparticularnote,thewordforhand,kamorï,buildsonthewordforsun,kamo.Itis,however,inukoknon machothattheideaofrecursivecountingbestsuggestsitself.Inhistoricallyadjustingtothepreviouslyunknownobjectofthecamera(butcertainlynottoitsalreadyknowncapability)theWaiwaicallcamerasukoknon kacho.InterestinglyenoughtheycalltherelativelyrecentlyintroducedWesterncalendarnuni ukoknonandmaprowo ukoknon. Heretheinferenceseemstobe,likecounting,thatthecamera,calendar,andmaprepeatholisticallytheobjectsofwhichtheytakeaccount.Inotherwords,theyeachdotheworkofassemblage:theyassemble,respectively,theimageofthesubject/objectinthephotograph,thereappearanceofthemoon,andthesurfaceoftheearth. This assembling requires the sequentialmovementofwholenesstoprovide,initsaction,afractalityrecurvingintowholenessonceagain.ThustheveryprincipleofrecursivenesscanbeapprehendedintheWaiwaiwordsforcounting. They do indeed have a recursive counting system that offers fourbasicnumbers:čewñe(one),asakï (two), osorowau(three),andthathoyere(four).Itis,however,asystemwherethecounteddigitsassimilatetothefinalnumber reached. Hence,addinganotherdigit to thathoyerewouldprovidečewñe-kamorï (five, or literally“one-hand”). Continuing in thesamewaythesequencerepeats itselfbutasčewñe-šahara-kamorï(six,or“one-and-a-hand”), asakï-šahara-kamorï (seven, or “two-and-a-hand”),osorowau-šahara-kamorï (eight,or“three-and-a-hand”),thathoyere-šahara-kamorï (nine,or“four-and-a-hand”),andhanoro-kamorï (ten,or literally“another-hand).Sometimesinsteadofhanoro-kamorï,theywillsayasatho-kamorï,whichliterallytranslatesas“apairofhands”or“thehandtwinned.”Althoughiračon-hïrame-kïtarïcanbetranslatedliterallyas“a-foot-split-away-from-its-pair,”itcarriestheprincipalmeaningof“twohandsandafoot,”inotherwords,theassemblageoffifteen.Hanoro-kïtarï,althoughtranslatedas“anotherfoot”actuallymeanstheassemblageoftwenty.Thissequenceofcountingfingersandtoes,handsandfeetthatmakesevidentthe Waiwai recursive numerical system, also reveals, in the constantcompletingofthewhole,asinglehumanindividual:atoto. Theassembledaggregateoftheindividualalwaysintegrallyimpliesitsfractalentitiesandthefractalentitiestheiraggregatedassemblage.Thescaleorproportionremainsthesame;regardlessofwhere,who,orwhen,the conceptual human scale of the individual does not alter. Even theperfectibilityofthečewyaronomanifestsasaninstanceinaveryhumanproportionality.Anyincrementinsocialstatushastokeepitsscale;itis

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proportionallyexactandholisticinitsmultidimensionality.Anyinstanceofsuchgrandeurrecurvestowhatprecededitinordertoretainitshumanscale:anyincreaseinsocialstatusdoesnotthenaltertheproportionsoftheindividual,orofsociety.Inspiritualvitalityandinsocialbeing,thefractal and total sumof the individual, asaperson, retains thedefiningcharacteristicsofaveryhumanscale,evenintheirmagnitude. TheWaiwaiapplythesameaestheticcriteriaforallthingsbeautifulastheydotothemakingofpropersocialbeings.Theassemblagepointsformaterialculture,humanity,andsocialityareforthemdeliberatelyrecursiveincharacterandimplicate,Iwouldargue,thesameconceptualschemaofacontinuitybetweenfractalityandanaggregatedtotality. Considerthecategoryofo-yepamrï,my-kindred,asthecontributingscalefortheproperassemblageofthecompleteperson,čewyarono;italwaysexemplifies the fact of erowaray—the similarity of appearance betweenthings. In the case of kindred, it exemplifies the obvious resemblancebetweenindividualsfromthesamewomband,byimplication,thesamevillage. It is, however, woyesï, as the activated sequential assemblingof kindred, which actually allows the resemblances to be observableand, indeed, be the instance for commentary about the reeds of socialresponsibility.Čenporin,beauty,canbeappreciatedasthisassemblageofkindred.Itisthetotalityoronenessproducedbytherecursivenessoftheassemblingthatholdstheaesthetic.Theresemblancesbetweenkindredsuggestabalance:akindofharmonypleasingtoWaiwaisensibility.Thesame effect can be produced at assemblage points other than that ofkindred,forexample,atbaskets,canoes,andhouses,evenatthevaultedsphereoftheuniverse. Andyet,theproductionofsuchpleasureinthebeautyofthecomplete,ofoneness,necessitatesthegenerativeimpulseofdifference.Inotherwords,kindredresemblancesalreadyimplyanintegralfractality. Toreturnnowtočewyaronoasanexampleofamagnifiedsocialstatusthat, nevertheless, retains its human scale and unaltered proportions: Ithinkwecanestablishthefactthatkindred—whichdefinesthemagnitudeofčewyarono—assemblesasthefractalityofcompleteness.Whenproperlydeployedasthereedsofresponsibility,suchkindredaggregationoffersthečew prefixinčew-ne(one)tothečewprefixinčew-yarono:yaronobeingthe agreement, “yaro,” or truth of the matter, in this case, the obviousexpansivebeautyofthetotalityassembledthroughkindredinčewyarono.The sequence follows the same pattern throughout. For example, intheparticular instanceofačewyaronohavingkindredinthecategoryofkaripamšam—thedesignationforyoungunmarriedmen—thekariprefixderivesdirectlyfromthewordkari-tu,meaningtobeortofeelstrong.The

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wordstemofpamhasitsequivalentinthestemforthewordye-pam-rï,kindred.Itisasiftheassemblingfortheconceptofkindredrecurvesfromthefractalityofyoungmen’sstrength.Andyetthisstrengthofyouthfulmasculinityhas its source,nonetheless, in thepre-existing categoriesofadulthood. Thesocialenlargementofyoungmenandwomenintoadulthoodre-tainsarelativescale. Karipamšamandemasï(youngunmarriedwomen)complementeachotherand thusprovideeachotherwith the relationalpotentialforbecomingporintomo(adultman)andanačwan(adultwoman)respectively. Marriageandparenthoodtransformkaripamšamandemasïintoporintomoandanačwan.Thestrengthoftheyoungmanthatderivesfromhisparentsrecursivelyconstitutestheverysupplementnecessarytoformulatethepersonhoodofthenewadultman.Thesamecanbesaidfortheyoungwomanandhersocialenlargementintoanadultwoman.Thereeds of responsibility integrally implied in each individual bring otherindividualsintoformasproportionallycompletepersons.IntheWaiwaikinship system, category terms in the secondgeneration above andbe-lowegodesignateallaskindred.Becauseoftheprecedingwholenessofporintomoandanačwan,seniorpeopleinthegenderedformsofpocha(oldman)andchacha(oldwoman)becomeatthesametimegrandfatherandgrandmother respective to everyone in ego’s generation. Similarly, butwithoutthedifferenceofgender,allinthesecondgenerationbelowegobecomeo-parï(grandchild)tothoseinego’sgeneration.ButIthinkitiswiththeparticularcategoryofewto mïtwim or ewto yusom(literally“villageleader”)wecanseebesttheconsistencyoftheconceptualmodelfortheWaiwairecursivesystemofbeinganditstendencytoproduceatriumphofbeautyevenwhenaproportionalincreaseinstatusorpowerappears. TodaytheWaiwaiusethewordkayaritomoforvillageleaderfarmorefrequentlythantheydoeitherewto mïtwimorewto yusom. Ihaveitongood authority that the missionaries introduced this word during the1950swhentheywerecarryingoutevangelizingworkandtranslatingtheBibleintoWaiwai.Itappearstheycompoundedthewordkaritu(“strong”)andimo(stemfor“big”)tocapturetheirunderstandingoftheoverarching,singular power of political leadership. Given their particular NorthAmericanperspectiveontheindividualandpoliticalsystems,theintentoftheTexanmissionariesmusthavebeentointerpretWaiwaileadershipin terms of an accumulated and possessed axial power at the center.WhatmusthaveappearedtothemasWaiwai“chiefs”—bigmenwhoseenlargementofsocialstatusseemedtoprovidetheauthoritytocommandandbeobeyed—allowedforthemissionaryusurpingoftheoldwordwiththenew.Howdifficultmustithavebeenforthemnottoseethelateral

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pulloftheWaiwaireedsofresponsibility? Even though kayaritomo has successfully replaced the older termsfor village leader, the character of leadership itself remains very muchinthestyleofitstraditionalmeaning.Waiwaileaderspullinthelateralconcentric forcesof societyby allowing themselves tobe subject to thetasks they undertake and in which they wish others would participate.Obediencederivesnotfromanydirectcommand,punishment,orpotentialofpunishmentmadebyindividualorgroup,butratherfromknowinganintegral relationship already exists between self and other that delimitsdistinctionbetweenthetwo.Whenoneconvincesoneselftodoaparticularthingitimpliesthatothers—alreadypartofone’sfractalidentity—willdosoalsoasanintegralrepercussionofoneself.Thereforeanyaccumulationofandincreaseinprestige,privilege,orauthorityfromaccomplishmentsby an individual amounts to a similar magnitude of empowerment toothers. Inotherwords, theexerciseofpowercarries itsown impactofsubordination into the one who exercises it as well as into those uponwhomitisexercised.Whilefromonenarrowvantagepointhierarchycanclearlybeobservedintherisingelevationofeachcirclewithinthecircle,whenknownandexperiencedasfractal,concentriclateralpowerreducesand nullifies the overall impression of rank. Here the recursive systemofpowerproducesapoliticalaestheticneverreducingtheindividualtoasingleentityvulnerabletothenegativeeffectsofdomination. Thecomfortandsolaceachievedfrombeingafractalpersonamongthe Waiwai is the triumph of beauty. Individual autonomy cannot becontemplated.Ifitcould,itwouldbeasadistantshapelessformonthehorizon of experience: sad and ugly. Indeed, an autonomy leading tosolitudewouldbe theobviousoutcomeof such abeing,but inWaiwaitheory, one totally out of the question. In their modes of knowledge,autonomyandsolitudecannotevenbeposedasapossibility,muchlessasaquery. RatherthanimposingtheoriesaboutbeingandtimeontheWaiwai,perhapsitisbettertoconsideracceptingtheobvious—thattheirassumptionsandmeansofknowingexistindifferenthistoricalandculturalframeworks.Intheirsystemofknowledge,seekingtobeacompletepersonwhointheprocessofperfectibilityofanautonomousindividualityhasnogroundsfordesire.Here,intheirknowledgesystem,seekingtoobjectifythesingularityofanindividuallife,asanexperienceinchronologicaltime,cannotbeginto take affect. For this reason, disciplinary time cannot be used as acoercivetechniqueuponthebody.Measuring,protracting,documenting,andcompetingagainsttime,soastoclaimanachievedvictoryoverlifeortobringlifeundergreaterscrutinyandcontrol,doesnotappeartohave

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relevancefortheWaiwai. Thebeautyofafull lifeexistsandcannotbedenied to any individual who comes into the preexisting social world.Sinceassembledkindredexistinsociety,youthereforealreadyexist.TheWaiwairecursivesystemofbeingasocialpersondistributesthesplendoroflife,notasmomentsretrievedfromanabsence,butasasimultaneousacknowledgementofpreexistingpresence.

CONTRAPUNTAL AUTHORITY

“Shatter,” “Reload,” and “Bin Laden” appear as words on privatelyowned vehicles. Today they name treasured properties and proclaimtheir owners’ power topossess and todo so in an aggressivemasculinestyle. Virulent, vibrant texts reachout to snatchyourattentionas theyspeedbyonthe frontsandsidesof taxies,minibuses,anddonkeycarts,allplyingtheir trade in thebusystreetsofGeorgetown, thecapitalcityofGuyana.ThisisthecoastalurbanlandscapeofthesoldierswhowerestationedatKanashenwhen theWaiwaiwere receiving thenewsaboutthedeathsoftheTemplars.Hereoralityandtextualityhavehadalongandcontentious relationship: thevoiceand thewrittenwordhavebeenembattledoldwarriorsinthetheatreofhumanconflictfromthemomentcolonialismsteppedoff thedeck in theNewWorld. Beguiled into therampartsofthevoice,EuropeantextstillcontinuesinGuyanatodaytobemesmerizedbythepowerofcontrapuntalspeechstylesfromAfrica,India,andChina.Here,inthedeliriumofitsownconceit,textoftenpresentsitselfconfidentlyasthemasterratherthanastheslaveofthevoice. The concept of the individual in this social setting, I would argue,can be approached through an understanding of the contrapuntalauthorityofthevoice.(Becauseofthehistorical,linguistic,regional,andtheoretical confusion around theuseof the term“Creole,” Iheremaketheword“contrapuntal”dotheworkofconveyingthe ideaof“mixture”which the formerdoes in current scholarshipon theAntilles. Also, intribute toa littleknownbutprovocativearticlebyKarlRiesmancalled“Contrapuntal Conversations,” I consider what he evokes for speech inAntiguatobeausefulanalyticaldeviceforinterpretingGuyaneseaswellas Antillean identity in general.) Where the appeal to an immediatehumanaudienceprovidesthemostmeaningfulandcorroborativesenseofindividualempowerment,speech—ratherthanwriting—overwhelmsthesocialscene.Lateralvisibilitytoagatheredaudienceprovidestheprimarysenseofpresencethatfulfillsandcomfortstheindividual.Evenwhenthisaudiencecanbeconsideredimaginary,forexample,whenindividualstalk

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to what may appear to be themselves, an appeal to gathered spectatorsbringsforththespeakerandassumesaninterlocutorforthevoice.Thisisnotmadness.Itisratheraquestionofanassertedpresenceinacontinuousculturalcampaigntoredeemindividualhumanrespect. ToapplythiskindofperformancetheorytoGuyanesesocietyrequirestakingseriouslythesenseofanindividualhonor,firstmadedesirable,thenpermanentlykeptoutof reachbyperceivedmysteries toesteem,whoseoriginsnowappearlostinahistoryofslavery,emancipation,indenturedservitude, and European metropolitan greed (Wilson 1973; Rodney1981;Patterson1982;Abrahams1983).Thisprocessingoftheconceptof lateral visibility, through the means of contrapuntal speech, fondlyembracestheso-callednegativeanddividingidealsabout“impurity”and“fragmentation” instituted in societies influenced by Antillean cultureandhistory.Perhapsdisconcertingtous,butquitethenormforcoastalGuyanesesociety,contrapuntalauthorityacclaimsthepositiveattributesofmixtureandambiguity. Insodoing, itnotonlydispersesawayfromthevulnerableselftheculturalawarenessofshame,butalsoretrievesforthe individualaprideanddignity in theveryappropriationanddisplayof the impure and fragmented. Despite its overwhelming desire to beovercome by the axial visibility of European rationalist ideals, even theGuyanesestatehashadtodealwiththerealitiesofitsownprevalenceasadistinctcontrapuntalpolity.Arguablyunknown,perhapseventoitself,thedistinctivecontrapuntalattributesofitsstatehoodpercolateupfromacitizenrywhoseexpressivelivesdependuponanassertivepresentmentofagregariousindividualism. Bright,loud,pungent,hot,andspicyareattributesofcoastalGuyanesesocietythatinterminglewiththesubdued,moderate,clear,cool,andmildtoformanaestheticofbeingthatislivedratherthanreflectedupon.Setonadramaticstageofcontradictions,theconsciousnessofbeing“ThirdWorld,”—that is, ofhaving yet to“become”modern and“FirstWorld”andtheactuallivedrealityofbeingthisatthemomentitisexperiencedassuch—notonlygetsexplainedasaninferiorformofexistencebutalsoasbeingnoformofexistenceatall. It isas ifcoastalGuyanesesocietydeliberatelypropsupinfrontofitsview,atitsaxialcenter,theWesternrationalisttowerofmodernityonlytocounterpointitwithlateralrelationsinacontrapuntaldisplayofanalternativeauthoritysystem.Togetherthecenter and the circumference cancel eachother out in theperformanceof everyday life. The security,which the lateral circumferenceprovidesagainst the center, requires the interplayofboth the suppressionof thelatterandthetriumphoftheformerwhilerealizingsuchtriumphasnotriumphatall.2

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The axial effort to contrive inferiority not only for lateral relationsbut also for any alternative Antillean identity hinges upon denying theinterpretative worthiness of mimesis. The mimetic clearly augmentsperformance. It permits, for example, the familiar to be recognized inunfamiliarscenes.Italso,howeveruncritically,permitsthecopiedtoavoidtheaccusationofbeingfabricated:thecopyservestogivetotheoriginalitsoriginality.Thislatterpointhasworkedinfavorofthetransmissionof colonial power (where it is often argued, self-evident truth, ratherthan political coercion, has produced the experience and knowledge ofcolonizedbeing).Thestructureofmimesishasallowedcolonialpowers—thatconsider themimetic tobean invalid formofbeing—tomake theconfidentandsafeclaim, forexample, that thecopyhasnocredenceofitsown.Whenthecolonialgazeseesthecopy,ratherthanbeingseenastherepeatoftheauthentic,real,true,orevenasnaturalprogresslinkedtoinevitableforcesofdevelopment,itisviewedinsteadasservingtoidentifythechildlike,innocent,andfeeble.Ontheotherhand,whatappearstothedoubtersofauthenticitytobethemistakenproductofthemimetic,colonialpowersinterpretastheobviousrationalapproachtoknowledgeandbeing.Forexample,insteadofcolonialpowerssayingandbelievingthecolonizedputonshirtsandties,listentoclassicalmusic,learntobeliterate, and adopt bipartite parliamentary systems because they copyus,suchpowerssaythecolonizeddosobecauseitissimplytherational,appropriatethingtodo. Western and Western-influenced powers prefer this explanationbecause it deflects attention away from the fact that their so-called“original” is itself fabricated. Western andWestern-influenced ideas oftheindividualidentify,participate,andproduce,yetalsoblatantlydeny,theparttheyplayintheinventingandplacingofselfhoodintheoriginal.Totheseideasandthoseindividualsidentifiedbythemcomestheconfidentsenseoflegitimateempowermentandbenefits.Theycomedirectlyfromwithin societies establishedanddeterminedbyWesternknowledgeandtruth.Thecharacterofacertainkindofrationalistorderpervades.Thecharacterofanironickindofdocilityalsobecomesevidentinthemakingand sustaining of a rationalist order. While the policing of pain andhumiliation ranks high as an effort to achieve a greater sense of moralworth,itfallsshortandbelowtheconcerntomonitortheeffortsneededtoestablishgreatercontrolandobedience. LetmebrieflyprovideanexamplefromGuyanesestatehood:acaseof the mimetic, the influence from colonialism, and the persistence ofmodernWestern values producing instances and sites of axial visibility.Printedinblackandredletteringonwhitesignsoutsidethegatesofmany

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governmentministriesinGeorgetownisthecommand:

Ladies:Noslippers,shortpants,tights,finestraporstraplessdressortop,midriffortubes,T-shirtwithindecentlanguageorart.Gents:Noslippers,shortpants,3/4pants,trunks,sleevelessjerseys,vests,T-shirtwithindecentlanguageorart.Dressappropriately—saveyourselffromanyembarrassment.ByorderoftheManagement.

Idonothavethespaceortheagendatoexpoundin-depthupontherelevant meanings presumed to be operative within Guyanese conceptsaboutbodilyadornment.Itshouldbetakenforgranted,however,thataparticularculturallogicdoesfunctiontostructurethedresscodethestateseekstomanage.Iamlessinterestedhereinthelogicofaxialpowertoorganizeconceptsofbodilyadornmentandmoreinthesignificantconcernbythestateforitspowertocommandandtobeobeyedvis-à-visthingslikebodilyadornment. Ionceliterallyhadtogivemyshirttoamanwhohadtraveledfiftymilestothecityfromaruralcoastalcommunitytohavehispainfultoothextractedbyastateadministereddentalclinic. Theuniformedguardatthegateof theclinichadrefusedto lethimenterbecausehisshirtwastorn.Examplesofthiskindofanxietybythestateaboutthelackofrespectfor itspowerare legion. Theyaremademore incomprehensibleby thefactthatmanyofitsagentsknowverywellthekindsofhardshipinvolvedintravelingtothecityfromruralcommunitiesandtheindignityfeltbythosewhohavetostooptoreceivehelpfromthestate.Totheprospectthat thedesired yetunrequitedmodern“cellular” (orpanoptic induced)existence of its citizenry could be undermined by support from lateralsources, the state and its vulnerability at the centerplace the former inthepositionofbehavinginDraconianways.TheGuyanesewhooperateunder the influence of coastal culture do have and actively do instigatethemechanismsofaprincipleand theaestheticsof abeingwhichfindcomfort in the lateralasopposedto theaxialvisiblestrategiesofbeing.But,thisalternativethreatenstheauthorityofthestateandunderminesitsconfidencetogivecommandsandreceiveobediencefromitscitizens. Inthemiddleofthemostchokedintersectionandonthebusiestofshopping days in the city, I witnessed, along with many others, a fightbetweentwomen.Theywerestrippeddowntothewaist.Eachhelduptheirhands folded intofists. Theywerepoised like twopugilists fromanArcadianprint.Trafficfromallfourdirectionshadstoppedandwasbackedupforatleastfourblocks.Crowdsofpedestriansmilledaroundthe two protagonists, preventing the minibuses, cars, motorbikes, and

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horse-drawn vehicles from moving. The pugilists swung at each otherandthecrowdroared.Thecrowdwasjubilant.Thepugilistswereserious.Theuniformedpolicemen,normally stationedhere todirect traffic,hidamongstthecrowd.Nooneseemedtothinkthefightbetweenthetwomenneededtobestopped. Indeed,thegeneralopinionappearedtobethatoneofthemhadinsultedtheotherandtheneedtoreclaimordefendhonorhadpulledbothintothefight.Noonepresentseemedperturbedthatthemainstreamoftrafficinthecapitalcityhadbeenbroughttoastandstillbytwomenonthebusiestdayintheweek. IncoastalGuyanesesociety,throughdiverseinformalcodesofpublicconduct,eachindividualintuitivelycomestoknowandbelievethattheyhaveimmediateaccesstoamoraljusticelocatedinanaudience.Therighttoappealderivesfromalearntsenseofself-worthconfirmedintheevidentexpressiveownershipofthevoice.Itappearsthatthesamedemandfromthestateforrespectalsoexistsinitscitizens.Whatthestateseeksintextthecitizenseeksinthevoice.BothoperateinGuyaneseculturetooffsetorkeepatbaywhattheycall“eye-pass.” Eye-pass,orwhatiscalledinotherpartsoftheAntillesas“cut-eye,”hasbeendefinedas“adeliberate,aggressiveattempttocurtailorreducesomeone else’s being” (Sanders 1987:135). In common usage, “to takeyoureyesandpasssomeone”is“tohumiliateorbelittleanotherbyclaim-ing some form of moral superiority” (1987:135). To express disrespectdeliberately—toshamesomeonepubliclyinordertoclaimhighermoralstandingoverthem—isconsideredanactofsupremeinjustice.Becauseittargetstheinadequaciesoftheindividualbeinghumiliatedasanobliquetechniquefordrawingattentiontotheesteemoftheindividualperform-ing the shaming, eye-pass is always considered iniquitous. Quite apartfromtheeye-passermakingclaimstoanhonorheorshedoesnotdeserve,itisunjustifnotoutrightwickedtobuildone’sesteemonthedemiseofanother.Bythinkingsolittleofsomeone,youwouldnotbedeterredbytheirabilitytodefendthemselvesfromshaming,deniesthatsomeonetheirjustdesserts. Every individualpossesses the irreduciblemoralworthofanhonorthatcanandshouldbedefended.Todisrespectsuchhonor,“totakeyoureyesandpass”suchhonorbydeliberatelyattackingitinflictsanemotionalhurtupontheindividual(and,Imightevenadd,uponthecom-munityitself ).Itisanunjustformofviolencebecauseitoperatesunderthefalseassumptionofamoralweaknessonthepartofthevictim(andperhapsevenonthepartofthevictim’scommunity). When the contrapuntal Guyanese asserts individual self will and,in counterpoint, helps orchestrate an aesthetic of sociality with others,

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they permit perceived natural justice to manifest its absolute presence.Incorporating rather than vanquishing the oppositional contribution ofothers provides an inherent morality to enter society and to display itsexistence.Eveninthepoliticaltheatreofknownunequalrelationsbetweenthestateandcitizen,thecharacteroftheentranceandperformanceofthismoralitycannotbebutsuggestiveofarelativehorizontalequity.Itdoessobecauseitsfeaturesabsolutelydependupontheassertedcontributionofothers. ThecontrapuntalGuyanesepersonalwaysaggressively seekstoimplicateothers,todrawthemintocounterpointand,insodoing,togivelyricalmeaningtomoralexistence.Eachcontributingsubjectaddstothevolumeandorchestratedshapeofmoralexistence.Incoastalsociety,contrapuntalauthorityflaysnakedthelieembeddedinmodernpoliticalclaimsaboutdemocracyandthe“ruleof law.” Asitexposesthefactofequality unachieved, it also immediately introduces and provides theneededsanctuaryofequity.Inempiricallyembodiedways,theprocessesofcontrapuntalauthoritydelivertheconfirmedtruthsofanavailableandaccessedequitytoeachindividualsubject. Clocktowersandtrafficlights—builtandputinplaceduringBritishrule to instill a measured order and obedience among the colonized—standasbrokenmonumentsofacontradictoryhegemony. TodaynotasingleclocktowerchimesortocksitsregimeofpunctualityovercoastalGuyana. In these edifices,GreenwichMeanTime canno longer copyandrelay itscommandfromthetinyhill inLondontothewideshoresof South America. Even as consumer capitalism and the developedsense of autonomous individualism cultivated markets for the purchaseofpersonal“time-pieces”(watches),thelatterbecamestagepropsintheplay of status rather than instruments of docility for the contrapuntalGuyanese.Similarly,Georgetownstreetshavetrafficlightsotherthanasareminderofthenation’sfailuretobemodernorindeedofthenation’ssuccess in defeating the regime of colonial ideology. The assertiveindividual subjectivities of its road users carefully negotiate busy trafficintersectionsavoidingthekindofharmpresumedtoresultfromthelackofaneffacedauthority.FoundnotonlyintheseparticularculturalsitesbutalsothroughoutcoastalGuyanesesociety,thecounterpointoflateralandaxialvisibilityrepresents thecontrapuntalauthorityofaverydistinctiveresponse tobeing in themodernworld. It is thekindof response thesoldiersstationedatKanashencarriedwiththemintothesouthernforest. AtthetimeoftheJonestownkillings,thesoldiersmadetheirmemoryandlivedexperienceofcontrapuntalidentityresonatearoundtheforest.They purposely evacuated the solitude and tedium of daily life in the

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forestwiththesweetdinoftheirvoices.Thenoisetheymadeeverydaycould be heard for miles around rebounding off the wall of trees andricocheting back to them within the compound. Each soldier foundrefugefromtheirlonelinessbyinflictinganintrusivepresenceintotheirsurroundings. With such action, each pulled their comrades into thesharedworld of being impingedupon andhaving similarly to retaliate.Theseyoungmenknewalreadyhowtoarmthemselvesagainstthecivicexperienceofmodernsolitudeandintheforesttheyintuitivelybroughtsuchtacticsintoeffect.Theycarriedwiththemfromcoastalsocietythelearnt knowledge of contrapuntal authority. When news of Jonestowncametothemover theradiophonefromarmyunitscloser to thescene,theirincredulitywas,likethoseofothercoastalGuyanese,thickupontheirfaces and throughout their various attempts to explain the event. LiketheWaiwai,theycouldnotquitefathomtheimpulsesoftheTemplarstotaketheirlivesandthoseoftheirkindredinsuchcircumstances.LiketheWaiwai,thesoldiersalreadypossessedandhadservingthemaviablesocialmeansoferadicating individual loneliness,but itwasonewhichprovedinadequateforinterpretingtheactionsoftheTemplarsfromtheTemplars’pointofview.

CELLULAR AESTHETICS

Idonotwanttodelveextensively intotheeventsof Jonestown. Agooddealhasalreadybeenwrittenaboutthedeathsof922UnitedStatescitizens in the Northwest region of Guyana on November 18, 1978(see Lewis 1979; Mills 1979; Weightman 1983; Hall 1987; Chidester1988;Maaga1998). Mymain interestshere restwith the stricturesofknowledgewhichinformedtheactionsoccurringonthatfaithfulday.Iseekananthropologyoftheeventmadetorevealsomethingofthequalityofrelationsexistingbetweensocietyanditsmembers,particularlywhenplacedinasettingofcomparativeanalysis.ThuswhenpositionedtoviewUnitedStatesnationalsocietynotfromaperspectiveofeconomicfetishismorreligiousdeliriumbutratherfromwhatIamcallingtheaestheticsofcellularbeing,thekillingsatJonestowndonotappearextraordinary,butratherasapredictableoutcometo life inperhapsthemostadvancedofindustrializedsocieties. Iamnotgoingtobaredownuponthecapitalistalienationtheoriesoften cited as the cause for the heightened development of modernindividualism (Williams 1964; Lewis 1979; Rodney 1988). I believethemtobesuspect inoften implyingasocialistalternativeandthusdo

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notcriticallycrackopentheproblemofcentralizedstatepower.Idonotconsiderthepoliticalarchrivalofcapitalismtobecommunism. Rather,theyarecopartnersstrategicallysetinoppositiontoeachothertodivertattentionawayfromthefactthatbothhistoricallycomeoutofthesamemodern imaginings and social formations. Perhaps no better place towitness this assertion than in the compromise of religious andpoliticalideologyofthePeoplesTemplechurch,whereapostolicsocialismwastheguidingtheologyofitsfaithful. I am also not going to be tempted by pseudo or genuine socio-psychological theories like “brainwashing” and “cognitive dissonance”toexplaintheincreasedsenseoflongingandlonelinessoftensaidtobeindicativeofmodernWesternlife(Festinger1957;BrehmandCohen1962;Aronson1969;Hassan1990;Singer1995).Forme,suchtheoriesseemtoprevailbecause,withintheculturalparadigmsproducingthem,thespacefor identityandmotivation isalreadyoccupiedbya strongsenseof theindependentego.Inthisspacethebrainanditscognitionareconsideredprincipal players in human action. Hence weak brains and childlikecognitive response (rather than the realities of social existence) provideexplanations for thedrastic results of those lonelypeople influencedbytheravingsofcharismaticcultleaders,heavy-metalpopsingers,andthedevilhimself.Instead,however,Iamgoingtopresumeanysuchculturalknowledgeaboutselfhood,assembledinsociety,revealsagreatdealaboutthemeaningsandformsofitsmembers’actions. Itwouldbequiteeasytotracetheanxietythemodernstatebetraysaboutitslegitimaterighttouseviolencetoitsstronglyheldviewsaboutselfhood.Wecanwitness,forinstance,theimprintofstateconcernaboutits own power to kill through some of its evocative twentieth centuryrituals,beliefs,andecstaticexpressionssuchasthedeploymentofarmiesintointernationalwarfare,thegovernment-sanctionedracial“cleansings”oftheHolocaust,andcapitalpunishment.Thenervousnessstemsinpartfromthetremendousresponsibilitiesithastakenuntoitselfforbeingtheonlylegitimateuserofviolence.Aswitheconomicsystemsandlabor,sotoowithhumanpolitiesandviolence:societyappearstorecognize,initsvariousways,thateachandeveryoneofitsmembershasthepotentialtousephysicalforce.Onecouldargueadministratingsuchforceforeconomicproductionandforpoliticalpowertendstobethefundamentalinterestofallsocieties.Aspartofoursocialcontractwiththestateandasastatementaboutour vulnerable isolation,wemoderncitizenshaveagreed toofferuptothestateourknownindividualpotentialtouseviolence.Ideally,inotherwords,thestateusesviolencelegitimatelyonourbehalf. TheremarkablewaysinwhichmodernWesternsocietieshavegone

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aboutadministratingthehumanenergyoftheircitizensconsistentlypointstotherationalizationtheoriesoflogicalefficiency.Whatseemstohaveinformedthesetheoriesintargetingtheembodiedenergyofindividualshasbeenaconsistentlypropagatedknowledgeabouttheself.Thus,byfirstobjectifying individual subjectivity as autonomous, speaking directly tothisautonomy,indulgingitwithindependentdesires,claimingdominantjuridicalbondstoit,andhavingconsequentlyconstructeditsseparatecellsof identity,themodernstatethentacticallyoffers itselfastheconfidentprotectordeservingofrecipientloyaltyfromitsautonomoussubjects.Thisconfidencebelies,nonetheless,ananxiety, forwhile it restsuponclaimsabout knowing the subject, suchknowledge canonly come aboutuponfirstacceptinganepistemologicallackandobstacletoknowingthesubject(DeleuzeandGuattari1977,1987;Foucault1978). Putting the human rights of individuals in the law, encouragingdebateaboutsuchrights,andsituatingtheprincipleofrightsinconstantlydeliberatedconceptsabouthumanlifehaveallintentionallycontributedtoausurping.Iamreferringtotheusurpingofdominantlegitimateauthorityovertheindividualbysuchtraditionalcategoriesasthefamily,households,neighborhoods, villages, clans, and so-called tribes. In modern politiesitisthenationthathasbecometheidealcommunitythroughwhichthewidestandstrongestsentimentsofdevotionshouldpresumablycirculate.Inotherwords,thenationalcommunityclaimstobetheculturalformofdominantrelationsinwhichthestateanditscitizensshouldseekandactouttheirprimaryloyaltiestoeachother(Anderson1995). Theobediencetothestateanditspowertodemandsuchobediencethroughsentimentsof loyaltyanddevotioninthenationdependsuponfirstisolatingeachcitizenwithintheirowncellularidentity.Inourmodernworld,theseidentitiesregularlyappeartoberace,class,gender,andage.Theyhavebecome the avenues toward amodern typeof individualismweshouldallbeinvestingin,crafting,monitoring,andpolicing,notonlyfor our own sense of self, but also for the kind of knowledge the statehasof itself through itsmembercitizens. Bodiesmarkedby their race,class,gender,andageassist(at leasttemporarily) inabatinganyanxietythestatemayhaveaboutthekindofknowledgeitpossessesonwhat isinside each motivated individual with the potential for using violence.Knowledge about the potential use of violence from racial bodies, aswellasthosemarkedbyclass,gender,andage,shouldbetterinformaxialpowerinitstaskofadministratingandorderingsocietymoreeffectively.In addition,by each citizen investing internally in their own individualidentityandcreatinganoverridingrealityfor individualdifference,theyprovidecentralizedstatepowerwiththejustificationforitsownexistence.

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Wheneverdisputesarisebetweenthedifferences,thestatecanstepinandclaim(usuallythroughthelaw)tobetheonlyimpartialorlegalsourceofarbitration. We in the modern nation-state live everyday with contradictionsembeddedintheconstantproclamationsabouttheavailabilityofpleasureandliberty.Theyaresplatteredonthewallsofourcell.Forexample,veryfewchildrentravelingtoschoolfromtheirhomesinbuseswithinstalledsurveillancecamerascanmissseeingthestainof the lie to liberty. Theposters in classrooms glare down their antinomies to pleasure, for theywarneachpupilagainst stimulating theirbodywithdrugs,alcohol,andsex.Foreverycollegestudentwhohastoleavethecomfortoffamilyandhome for the four-year liminal life, the impact of being disciplined bytheacademystrangelyechoeswhat theyexperienced intheirnatalnest.Even graduating into the new, seemingly liberated status of “licenseddriver” requires following the strictcodesofconducton the roads: stopatredlights,goatgreenlights,andstayontherightsideofmedianlines.Vehiclesmadetotravelatspeedsof140milesanhourcannowhereonpublichighwaysbedrivenatsuchspeedswithoutbreakingthelaw.InalldirectionsofmodernlifeintheUnitedStates,thetechniquesofcommandandobediencecontinuedoggedlytobringforththeexperienceaswellasmakingtruetheaxialpowerofthestateandthedisciplinedautonomyoftheself. NowwhatmightallthismeanforanunderstandingoftheJonestowndeathsandalltheothersimilarcelebratedmasskillingsbyUnitedStatescitizensduringthelatetwentiethcentury?Iwouldarguetheanswerinitiallyrevolves around attempts to re-appropriate violence as an expression ofindividual empowerment and the eradication of solitude. In popularculture,weregularlysuspendoursenseofrealitywhenbombardedbytherawimagesofviolenceonthescreen.Theviciousnessofviolenceanditspowerstohurtandkillallbecomesafeonthesilverscreen.Yet,forthoseofuswhoneverexperiencethevisceralrealityoftakinglifeorgivingdeath(and,indeed,appreciatethatwedonotevenhavetoslaughterachickenforourfood),wemustnevereverlosetheknowledgeandtruththatphysicalviolencecanhurtandkill. Whiletheordinarycitizenmustgiveuptherighttouseviolenceandthestate(ifitaspirestobeingmoderninaWesternstyle)mustusethisrightonbehalfofitscitizens,both,nonetheless,mustalsoretainconfidenceinthepowerofviolencetoproduceitsdevastatingeffects.Insuchaworld,powerandviolencehavetobeintertwinedasoneandmustsoremain.Thus,inthislogic,thereappropriationofviolencebytheTemplarsshouldbeviewedasareappropriationofpower. Havingacceptedtheautonomybutnottheisolationofcellularbeing,

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modernindividualismappearstoreachoutforsomethingmorehumanlyintimatethantheprotectivejuridicalforceofthestate.Itseeksoutalateralcommunity that is closer, as well as more intuitive, than the imaginedfraternity of the nation and the filial bond of the state. When thesecannotbefound,orwhenfound,eithercannotfulfilltherequirementoferadicatingthedeepsolitudeofcellularbeingorcannotdefenditagainstattack, drastic measures often materialize. In this regard, its particularidentificationwithpoweranditsproceduresforusingthispowertoassertthedistinctivecharacterofanautonomouscellularindividualismindefenseagainstattack,madetheJonestownviolenceverymuchinlinewithUnitedStatescultureandsociety. Intheirstyleofreappropriation,wheretheveryritualofsuicidehadbeenpracticedmanytimesbeforetheactualevent,theTemplarshadbeenrepeatedlyshownakindofself-empowerment.Yes,ironicallyso,becauseatoneleveltheiractionsofself-immolationmaybeseenastheresultofextremelyobedientfollowers,oneswithoutanymeansavailabletothemforachievinglibertythroughawilltopower.Yetifweweretoseetheirbeliefsandactions in the same light thatweoftendirectupondevotedandpatrioticnationalswhoreadilyandwillinglyvolunteertodieaswellasfightfortheirnationinthemilitary,theironymaynotappearsostrange. TheTemplars discovered in their church and pastor an immediacyof human comfort as well as devotion to a cause securing them aninstantfertileachievementofselfhood.KeepinmindatJonestownthat70–80percentoftheTemplarscategorizedthemselvesasurbanAfricanAmericans. Consider also that of all the residents at Jonestown, two-thirdswerewomen:49percentblackwomenand14percentwhitewomen.Ofthe49percentblackwomen,14percentwere66yearsofageorolder.Only10percentofalltheresidentswerewhitemen.The70infantsoffiveyearsandyoungeraveraged8percentandthe417childrenandyouthsbetween the ages of six and nineteen averaged 46 percent of the totalpopulation (Maaga 1998:9). Within the rigor of discipline techniquesalreadyavailabletothemaspartoftheirculturalknowledge,thesemen,women,andchildrenimaginedandlivedaparadiseonearthwithinthecommune. Achieved through both the lateral and axial forms of communerelations, itwasnevertheless the cellular aesthetic of the latter,with itsstricthierarchicalframework,whichstampedthemostdiscerningfeaturesoftheircommunity.Armedguardsattheritualsofworship,watchtowersaroundthecompound,regimentedroutinesofwork,education,sleep,andbeatings,aswellascompleteandutterdevotiontotheirpastor,allprovidedfor the proper functioning and dominance of axial power. In the end,

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theissuefortheTemplarswasnotself-destruction.Inthewordsoftheirpastorand“father”JimJones,“Wedidn’tcommitsuicide,wecommittedanactofrevolutionarysuicide”(Maaga1978:164).Theygavetheirlivesasagiftofdeathtoprotecttheirchurchandwhatitmeanttothem.Atthetime,bothwereundersiegebytheagentsofthestateandUnitedStatespublicopinion.TheysacrificedtheirownlivesandthoseoftheirchildrenasagifttoJonesandtoGod.Insodoing,theyreclaimednotonlytheirwilltopowerbutalsotheeffectofviolenceinsuchpower.

CONCLUSION

The simple assumptionput forward in thispaperhasbeen, for theWaiwai,thattheprivilegingoflateralvisibilitybringsideasaboutafractalindividualintoassociationwithrecursivepower,whileforU.S.andcoastalGuyanese societies, respectively, the privileging of axial visibility bringsconcepts about an autonomous individual into association with cellularandcontrapuntalrelationsofpower.Ithasbeenarguedthat,initsagendatoachieveagreaterefficiencyfortheworkingsofitspoliticalrelationswithitscitizens,thedesireofthemodernstate,expressedthroughitsprivilegeduse of axial visibility, de-emphasizes lateral relations and brings aboutcategoricallyisolatedandsolitaryformsofindividuals. For the coastalGuyanese, having to live constantly within an ethicofmodernity,thescenariohasbeenoneofarefusaltosuccumbtosuchnotionsof identity. The apparent result for themhasbeen a collectivesenseofa lackoffulfillmentwithregardstoachievingmodernity,or. inotherwords,acontinuingexperienceoffeeling“ThirdWorld.”Primarilybecauselateralvisibilitystillremainsastrongsourcefortheexpressiveuseof contrapuntal authority, thedebilitating effects of beingThirdWorldhavenot,however,producedademoralizedsociety.FortheTemplars,whofoundthemselvesinGuyanawiththeculturalvaluesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,theirattemptsateradicatingthecivicexperienceofmodernsolitudebroughtthemtothe“cult,”thecomfortofitscongregation,andultimatelythesereneblissofdeathintheafterlife. LetmeconcludeonthisratherhesitantbutsuggestivenotetakenfromtheWaiwaimaterialandplacedwithinthebroadercontextofAmerindianmodesofknowledge.OneofthehiddenhunchesIhold—oftensubliminallyguidingmyresearch—hasbeenthesuspicionthatAmerindianmodesofknowledgepossesstheabilitytokeepatightgripuponmultipleconceptsattheverymomenttheyarebroughtintouse.Incontrast,linealWesternstylesofknowledge,subjecttotheirparticularhistoryofmetaphysics,force

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ustoreleaseattheinstancewemostneedtousethemthestructuresbywhichconceptsarebroughtforth.ItthenbecomesasomewhatcontortedtaskfortheanthropologisttorepresentAmerindianknowledgewhenthemeansof representationcannotclose thegapbetween the signand thesignifier,exceptofcoursebytheantinomyofthesuspensionofknowledgeitself. Amerindianmodesofknowing,Ibelieve,donothavethedesiretocloseonthefoundationsoftruth,fortruthalreadyis:truthisalreadyexperiencedandnot,asitsoofteniswithus,desired,standingforthinfrontofusyettobepossessed.PerhapsthentheproductoftheteachingsIhavebeenattempting topresentherehasbeen takingplacewith the teacherbehindmeand,behindher,theteachingsofanAmerindianexperience.

NOTES

Acknowledgments.Iwrotethefoundationoftheideasinthispaperfortheconference“IntheWorldandAbouttheWorld:AmerindianModesofKnowledge”organizedbymyself andFernandoSantos-Granero,heldat theUniversityofVirginia inCharlottesville, Virginia on November 28and 29, 2005. I am grateful to allof theparticipants inthatconferencefor theirhelpfulcommentsandgeneroussupport.Iamparticularlygrateful,however,toLauraMentore,theWaiwai,andtheWapishanapeopleofErepoimovillagefortheirsubstantivecontributiontomyideas.IdedicatethispapertoČanaandKamina.

1.ItakemyleadherenotonlyfromMichelFoucault(1978:200),butalsofromthemanyanthropologistsbeforehimwhohavewrittenon the subjectofsocialspace. 2.Itis,Ibelieve,aquestionofacertainkindofconsciousness,whatEdouardGlissant(1989:195–220)referstoasthepromiseofareflective“nationaltheater”livinginAntilleanfolkloricbeliefs,unawareofitspowerforpositivechange.

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the triumph and sorrow of beauty: comparing the recursive

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