the threat of the ungovernable mind

7/28/2019 The Threat of the Ungovernable Mind

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Chapter3:Fear,Security,Speed:TheThreatofthe

UngovernableMind

Inthepreviouschapter,Idiscussedhowthediscoursesofidentity,subjectivity,and

rightswerebeingre-imaginedinresponsetoadvancesinbrainsciences.Thesere-

imaginingsarelayingthefoundationforanewkindofpoliticalstrugglethat

involvesthecreationandutilizationofnewknowledge-powersemergingfrom

neuralimaging,sensoryprosthetics,andthequantificationofthemind.Aspartof

theoverallexplorationoftheneurocentricgovernmentalitythatismanifestingitself

inpoliticstoday,Iturnnowtothedomainofsecurity,surveillance,andpolicing.

Securityandsurveillancemakeforclearandpresentdemonstrationsof

neuropower,andpointtowardareaswhereinterventionisneededtoavoiditsmore

repressivetendencies.

Three Stories of Fear and Folly

Fear of a box: The Schrammie

FIGURE6:THESCHRAMMIE

ApackagearrivesatastateofficeinWashington.AddressedtoDeptofCorrections

SecretaryHaroldClarkinhandwrittenscrawl,thepackagecontainsnoreturn

addressbutdoeshavestrangestainsthatmakeitappearsomethingisleaking

inside.Amailroomworkerseesthesetelltalesignsofasuspiciouspackageand

notifieshissuperiors,settinginmotionafull-fledgedbomb-scare,includingthe


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evacuationofall350workersinthebuildingandactivatingtheWashingtonState

BombSquad.i

Afterseveraltensehours,abombtechnicianemergesfromthemailroomwiththe

newsthepackagedidnotcontainabomb,butratherabobbleheaddolloflocalTV

commentatorKenSchramm.Apparently,aseveryonecametofindout,asapublicity

stuntforhisopinionsegmentonthenews,Schrammsendsabobble-headdollof

himself,akaaSchrammie,tolocalofficials,businesses,andothersdeemedworthy

ofadubiousdistinctionforderelictionofdutiesorotherwiseunethicalbehavior.

HaroldClarkwassentaSchrammieaftertheannouncementthat83felonswereto

bereleasedearlyfromWashingtonjails.Thecrisisofenclosures,itseems,comes

withmanyunintendedconsequences.

Fear of a sweatshirt: Socket-to-me

FIGURE7:SOCKETTOMEii

StarSimpson,anMITstudentfromKihei,Hawaiiwenttomeetherboyfriendat

LoganInternationalAirportinBoston.Sheworeablack,hoodedsweatshirtsporting

acomputercircuitboard,someconnectingwires,andthewordssocket-to-meandCourseVIontheback--referringtoherelectricalengineeringandcomputer

sciencemajoratMIT.However,thisbitofcreativeschoolpride,madeforcareerday,

carriedadifferentmeaningfortheMAPortAuthoritystaffermanningthe

InformationboothasSimpsonapproached.Simpsonaskedtheguardabouther


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boyfriendsflightarrivaltime.Suspiciousthatthestudentssweatshirtmightbe

somesortofexplosivedevice,thestafferinitiatedanothercascadingemergency

response,leadingtoSimpsonsapprehensionandarrestfordisturbingthepeace

andthepossessionofahoaxdevice.Whileaharrowingpublicarrestmightseem

excessivetomost,ScottPareoftheMAStatePoliceclearlywarnedoftheotherhigh-

stakesalternative,sayingSimpsonwasluckyshefollowedtheinstructions[ofthe

arrestingofficers]ordeadlyforcewouldhavebeenused.Shesluckytobeinacell

asopposedtoamorgue(AssociatedPress2007b).Lucky,forsure,becausethe

gunscarriedbytheMAStatePolicearecertainlynothoaxdevices.

Fear of a fax: The Countdown Begins

FIGURE8:THECOUNTDOWNBEGINSiii

AbankmanagerinAshland,MApullsastrangefaxfromthemachine.Onthefaxis

animageofabomb,andahandjustabouttolightthefuse.Themanager,frightened

bythesuspiciousmessagedutifullycallsthepolice.Youcanimaginewhathappens

nextthebankandallthestoresinthemall,includingadaycarecenter,are

immediatelyevacuated.Apparently,thefaxwassentbythebankscorporateoffice

toraiseawarenessandbuildexcitementfortheupcomingSmallBusiness

CommitmentWeekandrelatedevents.Thisexcitementbuildermessage,


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unfortunately,wasgarbledbyamalfunctioningfaxatthecorporateoffice.Itshould

havelookedlikethis:

FIGURE9:SMALLBUSINESSCOMMITMENTWEEKiv

Whilemanyofthelocalbusinessesthatwereaffectedbytheevacuationcalledfor

thebanktopayforlostrevenueandemergencyservicecosts,similartowhatwas

doneaftertheAquaTeenHungerForcecampaignthatshutdownmuchofBoston

in2007,vAshlandPoliceChiefScottRohmerdisagreed.Supportingthebank

managersresponse,Rohmerbelieveditwasreasonabletoassumetherewasa

threat,basedonwhattheysawonthefax(Drake2007).

Fear and folly

WhilethesethreestoriescertainlyembodySamuelTaylorColeridgesdictum:in

politics,whatbeginsinfearusuallyendsupinfolly,thegovernmentalityemerging

fromthesecuritymindsetofthestateasittriestomaintaincontrolinthesevolatile

andrapidlychangingtimesisoftenfarfromfolly.Thesestories,andthescoreslike

them,areindicativeoflimitationsinourindividualandsocialcapacitiestoanalyze

andrespondtoriskinanappropriatemanner.Itseemswearelosingthetempering

functionsofgovernanceatmultiplelayersdototheincreaseinambiguityand

accelerationofspeed.


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Theneocortexisbeingoverwhelmedbyfearsignalscomingfromthelimbicsystems

andamygdala.Policeofficersandemergencyrespondersaremimickingthepanicof

overreactingcitizens.Overzealouspoliceofficersaresendingcity-wideandnation-

wideemergency-responsesystemsintoaction.Thereseemtobefewerandless

capableinstitutionalandpsychologicaltemperingstrategiestothehair-trigger,

stateofemergencymindsetthatpervadessocietytoday.Thesestoriesrepresentthe

limitationsofourcognitiveanddecision-makingskillsinahigh-risk,high-stakes

stateofalmostconstantemergency.Theydemonstrateashiftintheintensityof

securityandsurveillancebystatesandtheircitizensinresponsetoaccelerating

change,collapseofsafedistances,andtheamplifiedthreatofsuper-empowered

angryindividuals(Freidman1998).Neurocentricgovernanceisbeingdrivenbythis

pervasivesensitivitytorisk,anexaggeratedemphasisonsecurity,andpotentially

repressiveaffinityforpredictionandpreemption.Theexampleswerechosennotfor

theirshockvalueordeathcounts,buttoillustratethemillionseenandunseencosts

ofsocial,economic,andpoliticalfear.

Whilefearisthegatewaydrug,terroristheaddiction,withabusesandinvasionsas

theseeminglypredeterminedoutcomes.Thischapterexaminesthethree

neuropowersthatareconstitutedandreproducedbyagovernmentalityconcerned

withsecurityinanageofacceleratingchangeandamplifiedthreats.These

neuropowersare:treatingsimilaritiesasequalities,mentalsurveillance,and

predictionandpreemptionofbehavior.

Life at Amygdala Speed: Treating Similarities as Equalities

Thephrasetotreatsimilaritiesasiftheywereequalitiescomesdirectlyfrom

politicaltheoristWilliamConnollysNeuropolitics(2002).Inhisgenealogyofideas

aboutthenatureofthemind,ConnollycitesNietzschescritiqueofthehuman


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tendencytocreatebroad,oversimplifiedcategoricalresponsestostimuli.For

Nietzschethisisanillogicalstrategybecauseitmasksdifferencesthatareessential

tothoughtalthoughadmittingthatthesecategorizationsmakeformallogic

possible.Thesestrategiesgiveusquickandreadyreactionstothenovel.But,

neuroethicistErikParensrightlypointsout,theproblemwithreadilyavailable

responsesisthat,bydefinition,theydonotrequirethinking(2004).Categories

habituateusagainstconsiderationofthingsintheirparticularandidiosyncratic

fullness.Thesehabitsofthoughtbecomecorporallyencodedintopatternsof

perceptionandculturalvocabulary,asConnollyobserves,aswellasintothesocial

andpoliticaltechnologiesthatreproducethesehabitsovertimeandacrossspace

(2002,52-53).

Themodelswebuildaroundthesehabitsare,ofcourse,necessarytosomedegree

fordecisionstobemadeandactiontotakeplace.Theseefficienciesinthinking

andperceivingsaveusfromthecurseofBorgesfamouscharacterFunes,the

Memorious.Funesperfectrecordingmemorymeantthattheworldwaswritten

anewateveryinstantofperception.Adoglookingathismasterisnotthesamedog

thatturnstolookoutthewindow.Or,inotherwords,therewasnoneedforthe

efficienciesofcategorieswheneachandeverymomenthasitsowncategoryor

uniqueidentity.

And,insomeways,thisistruewearenottheexactsamebeingfrommomentto

moment.Wechangeinsmallandoftenimperceptibleways.Butthesechangesdont

alwayscarryinformation,i.e.theyarentdifferencesthatmakeadifference,as

Batesondefinedinformation(1972,457).Theymakenodifferencetohuman

existenceandtheprocessofmeaning-making.

Thereisacontinuumofresponse.Ononeextremepolethereisthissortofradical

particularityanduniqueidentifiability.Ontheotherpole,wehavethebroad

generalizationsofperceptionthathelpuselideactualencounterswiththenovel.

Thesegeneralizationshelpavoidencounteringthenew,andthereforethetroubleof


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actualthinking.Betweenthesetwopoles,societytodayseemstofallmoretoward

thelatterthantheformer.Inotherwords,wearelookingforefficienciesinthinking

tohelpuskeepupwithlifeathighspeedsandwithoverwhelminginformation

streams.Butbuildingtheseefficienciesintoeverylayerofthesocial,economic,and

politicalsystemswithoutadequatechecksandbalances(orbrakes)meansthat

deliberation,contemplation,orevensimpleappraisalofsituationsarelosttothe

blur.

Speedandfearareinitiatingafragmentationandre-distributionofthesensible

world.Theresponsestrategyoftreatingsimilaritiesasequalitiesmerelyamplifies

thedilemma,whichis:tryaswemighttouseourwell-rehearsedhabitsof

perception,orreturntotheunearnedcomfortsoffundamentalismsandabsolutes,

thespeedoflifecombinedwithinformationabundanceisforcingpeopleintonew

encountersandnewemotionallandscapesthattheymightnotbeadequately

preparedforasindividuals,oraspopulations.

VUCA for all

Themilitaryworksatthefrontlinesofthespeedandsecurity.AttheU.S.ArmyWar

CollegeinCarlisle,PAtheyhavecometousetheacronymVUCAtodescribethe

grandtheaterofoperationsinwhichtheirofficerswillbetryingtolead(Pang

2007).VUCAstandsforvolatility,uncertainty,complexity,andambiguity.Volatility

reflectsthemassiveamountofchangethathasandcanoccurinaveryshortperiodoftime,makingimprovisationandreassessmentvitalskills.Noveltyandincomplete

informationmakesuncertaintyanirreduciblepartofdecision-makingaswell.

Distributedandmulti-functionalagentsinaninformationrichcontextcreate

enormousamountsofcomplexity.Andfinally,fluididentities,fragmented

information,andaccelerationofchangeleadtoincreasedambiguity.


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VUCAcapturesthissenseofthegroundshiftingunderourfeet.AttheWarCollege,

moretimeisspenttrainingonhowtomakedecisionsinaVUCAenvironmentthan

lookingforwaystoreducethesecomplicatingfactors.Thiswayofthinkinghas

becomesoingrainedattheArmyWarCollegethatinternallyitisoftenreferredtoas

VUCAUniversity(Johansen2007,2).TheVUCAapproachreflectswhatpolitical

theoristMichaelDilloncallscorporealphenomenology(2003).Thisisamilitary

mindset,relatedtotheso-calledRevolutioninMilitaryAffairs(RMA),thatDillon

arguesembracestheviewofmilitaryresponseasafunctionofinformationand

code:

any(military)bodymustbeendlesslymutable,andthatthewaytocommandthismutabilityistodevelopastrategicvirtuosityintheemploymentofinformationinordertorefashion(military)bodies-in-formationaccordingtoanyandeveryeventuality(2003,129).

ButtheVUCAframeworkdoesntjustapplytotheatersofoperationsinwarzones.

Fromtheboardroomtothedomesticabode,VUCAiscomingtodefinerealityfor

peopleintheireverydaylives.Maintainingsituationalawarenessandcultivatingthecapacitytomakewisedecisionsinthefaceofinformationalambiguityisbecominga

necessaryskill-setforalmosteveryindividualinmodernsociety.Associologist

EnginIsinobserves,thisfeedbackloopbetweencomplexityandtheawarenessof

complexitycreatesasituationwherewehavetomakedecisionsandweareheld

responsibleforthosedecisionsthatwewereforcedtomakewithoutadequate

knowledgeofthesituation(2004,218).Asthethreestoriesofemergency

overreactionattest,ourcognitivecapacitiesandourmeta-cognitivesystems,i.e.our

formalsystemsofgovernance,havenotevolvedwiththesamespeedasourVUCA

world.Overcomingmaladaptivebiological,cultural,andinstitutionallegaciesis

extremelydifficult,andmademoredifficultwhendomainsoflifeareacceleratingat

differentratesandwhenthelong-termstakesofourdecisionsaremoresignificant.


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Hijacking the amygdala

Oneofourmostimportantlegacybrainregionsessentialtounderstandinghowwe

reacttopotentiallydangerousoremotionallyheightenedsituationsistheamygdala.

Theamygdalaeareapairofneuronalclusterslocateddeepwithinthebraininthe

limbicsystem,nearthehippocampusinthemedialtemporallobes.Theyareroughly

almondshaped,andtaketheirname,courtesyofanatomistK.F.Burdach,fromthe

Greekwordforalmonds(WhalenandPhelps2009,xi).

Historically,theamygdalahasbeenassociatedwithfearandfearconditioning.

Recentneuroscience,however,hasshowntheamygdalatobesignificantlyinvolved

innotonlyfearandanger,butalsoplaysaleadingroleinoverallmemoryformation

(especiallytheemotionalintensitiesassociatedwithmemories),reward

conditioning,andseveralofthehigher(andslower)brainfunctionsincluding

attention,perception,andsocialbehavior(LeDouxandSchiller2009,43-47).

Theamygdalareliesoninputfromallthesenses,butisparticularlyattunedto

informationcomingfromthevisualsystem,makingittheconsummatedanger

detectorinthebrain(FreeseandAmaral2009).Itisaquickanddirtybrain

regionthatoftenactsbelowourconsciousperception.AsConnollynotesinhis

discussionoftheimportanceoftheunconsciousneurologicalfunctionsthatcolor

perception,theamygdalaparticipatesinasystemthatgeneratesrapid,coarse

judgmentsindangeroussituationsoperatingbelowthecapacityofconscious

assessmentandfeeling(2002,90).Theamygdala,Connollycontinues,both

influencesconductonitsown,andbumpsintensitiesintoconsciousthinkingand

judgment(2002,91).

Wefeeltheresultofouramygdalaworkingwhenwerecoilfromagardenhosewe

firstperceiveasasnake,orwhenwesitupinbed,ourheartracingfromhearinga

bumpinthenight,orevenwhenwetakeevasiveactionwhiledrivingasplit

secondbeforeweconsciouslyrealizethedangerahead.Theamygdalaworksfast


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becauseithastoitevolvedtodealwithtemporarystatesofemergencyand

existentialthreats.Itisasenseandreactorgantakingactionfirstandlettingthe

neocortexaskquestionslater.Itisdesignedtoseealmosteverythingasapotential

threat.Failingtoseeathreatwhenthereisoneismoreevolutionarily

disadvantageoustoanimalsthanseeingathreatwherethereisNOTone.

Whatsimportantforthisdiscussionistheroleoftheamygdalainmanyaspectsof

affectiveinformationprocessing(WhalenandPhelps2009,xi).Accelerating

change,thecompressionofdistance,includingespeciallythelocalizationofaglobal

riskpool,meansthattheamygdalaisprocessingmoreemotionallycharged

encountersthaneverbefore,andtryingtoassessdangerinaglobalizedlandscape

ofphysical,psychological,andevenvirtualthreat.Foranorganthathasevolvedto

seekoutpotentialdangers,thehyperactiveandprecariousworldweliveintoday

(andwillbelivinginfortheforeseeablefuture)meansthattheamygdalabecomesa

centralcharacterintheneuropoliticaldrama.

Speedandglobalreachseemtohavestretchedandstressedthebiologicallytypical

functioningoftheamygdala.Thishascausedincreasedfearresponseoftenby

treatingtoomanydifferencesassimilarities,andsimilaritiesasequals.Psychologist

DanielGoleman,inhisbookEmotionalIntelligence,introducestheconceptof

amygdalahijackingtodescribethistendencyofambientminorthreatstoberead

asurgentandinneedofanimmediateandstrongresponse(2005,14-24).The

amygdala,ifitperceivesanemotionalemergency,cantakeovertherestofthe

brainbeforetheneocortex(thethinkingbrain)hashadtimetoanalyzethesignals

cominginanddecidewhattodo.Thattakesalongtimeinbraintime.Theamygdala

inthemeantimehasdecided(quotedinHughes,n.d.).Anamygdalahijackhasthreemaincomponents:1.Aninitiallystrongemotionalresponse,2.Aresponsethatis

quickandhappensbeforethethinkingbrainhastimetoprocess,and3.Aperiodor

realizationofregretthattheemotionalresponsewasinappropriateoroutof

boundsforthesituation.


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Weveallhadtheseexperiences,butifarecentaccountoftheculturalzeitgeistin

theU.S.isindicative,itseemsthefrequencyandscaleoftheseamygdalahijackings

areontherise.InUSCsociologistBarryGlassnersCultureofFear(2000),he

chronicleshowfearisconstitutedandperpetuatedinAmericansociety.Oneofthe

majorculpritsofincreasedfearisthedisproportionatecoverageoftragedies,

catastrophes,andviolencearoundtheworld,streamingconstantlyintoourliving

roomsandonthescreensthatfillourfieldofvisioneveryday.Thesetraumatic

events,eitherinourownlivesoronesthatweinternalizefromeventselsewhere,

createverystickyandemotionallyresonantmemories.

Thesememoriescanbedebilitatingtoindividuals,especiallyoneswhoareliving

withtraumafromwar,violence,ortheirjob.Psychiatristshavebeenworkingon

techniquestoamelioratetheimpactoftraumaticmemories,tohelpindividualsto

lightentheweightofmemory,ortopreventtheinstallationofphobias.Overriding

fearresponsesinthebrainisdifficult,andsomehavesuggestedtheuseofdrugs

suchasbeta-blockers,whichhavebeenshowntoreducetheintensityofmemories,

byfront-lineemergencyresponseworkerstokeeptheamygdalafromunderlining

particularmemories(Johnson2004,63-64).Thesemorning-afterpillsfor

traumaticeventsmightbecomeabreakfastsupplementifscenariosofclimate

disasters,globaleconomiccollapse,orpandemicdiseasecometopass.

Theseconsciousmemories,oreventheunconsciousmemorytracesleftbythe

constantbombardmentwithemotionallychargedimagesofpast,present,oreven

futuretrauma,createsubterraneanripplesinourmentalprocesses.Neuropower

surfsontheseripplesoffearanddread.Fearisabletoblind,distract,or

incapacitate.Fearplaystricksonthemind.Highanxietyisassociatedwiththoseforcesthatseektoplaywithourmemories,orinstituteaneraofforcedforgetting

insocialanthropologistPaulConnertonsphrase(1992,12).Ofcourse,notallfearis

badandfearisanecessarypartoflife,butthere-calibrationoffearbecomesa

methodofinterventionandcontestationinthepracticeofneuropolitics.


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Neuropoliticallifetodayinvolvesanamplifiedsenseofriskalongwithareduced

feelingofdistancefromrisk.Thisdistanceiswhatallowsouramygdalatoresist

sendingfranticsignalstheneocortexateveryturn.Ourambientfeelingsofthreat

anduncertaintylurkingallaroundushasleadtoageneralsenseofanxietyand

unease.Glassnersbookattemptstoidentifythevendorsofourfears,because

immensepowerandmoneyawaitthosewhotapintoourmoralinsecuritiesand

supplyuswithsymbolicsubstitutes(2000,xxxviii).Peopleneedafullyactivated

neocortextoparticipateeffectivelyinpolitics,butasTimothyLearyobservedinhis

takeonneuropolitics,noonelistensorthinksinafearsociety(1977,62).To

framethisasaneuropoliticalissue,wemightsayfeartransfersgovernanceofthe

mindtoforcesbothintheshadowofindividualconsciousness,suchasthe

amygdala,andoverthehorizonofindividualconsciousness,suchasstateand

corporatepowers.

The Threat of the Ungovernable Mind: Surveillance and Preemption

Governments,corporations,andentrenchedpowersarenavigatingacomplexfield

ofthreatsanduncertainties.Andtheyarenotnavigatingthoselandminessimplyfor

theirownsurvival,buthavetheaddedresponsibilitytoprotecttheirconstituents

andcitizensfromexistentialthreatsaswell.Environmentaldisasters,resource

scarcity,economicinsecurity,energydisruptions,terroristattacks,pandemic

diseases,andevenmoralpanicsarenowsquarelywithinthepurviewofgoverning

bodies.Ashiftingovernmentalityhasandiscontinuingtotakeplacethatstakesits

legitimacyontheprotectionofferedtocitizensfromexistentialrisksandmajor

disruptionsevenifthoseriskshavebeendirectlyorindirectlymanufacturedby

thegoverningbodiesthemselves.TheU.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity,an

agencythatsprungforthfromthe21stcenturysecurityworldview,capturesthis

sensibilityinitslateststrategicplan,weshallidentify,defeat,andmitigatethreats


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tothesafetyoftheAmericanpeople.Wewillconstantlyguardagainstthreats,

hazards,orotherdangersthatthreatenourNationandourwayoflife(2008).

Yetmanygovernmentsarentlookingtoslowthepaceofchangeinordertogeta

betterhandleonrisks.Infact,innovationandchangeisnthappeningfastenoughin

somequarters.Forexample,frustratedbytheslowprogressofnew

pharmaceuticalscomingtomarket,thethrottlingofresearchdollarsintight

economictimes,andthenowdecadeandahalflongdeclineinpharmaceutical

productivity,theU.S.hasdecidedtokick-startdrugdevelopmentthroughthe

creationoftheNationalCenterforAdvancingTranslationalSciences,withan

openingbudgetofabilliondollars(Harris2011).Changeisscary,butlackofgrowth

isoftenevenscariertopoliticalfigures.

Aparallel,butdivergentdynamicisatplayaswell.Whilecitizensexpecttheir

governmentstocarrymoreoftheburdensofprotection,thesesamegovernments

areshiftingmanyoftheburdenofriskstoindividuals.StatetheoristNikolasRose

tracksdevelopmentsinthegovernmentalityofbiopoliticsthatareforcing

individualstosecuretheirownsecurity(2006,4).Foodinspection,disease

tracking,bordercontrol,healthcare,homesafety,andmanyotheraspectsofour

riskenvironmentarebeinglefttocashstrappedstateandlocalgovernments,orto

individualsthemselves,tomanage.Uncertaintysurroundsrolesandresponsibilities

forsecurity.

Theempowermentoftheindividualandshiftinglandscapeofrolesand

responsibilitiesdisruptsmanyestablishedpowerdynamics,makinggovernance

evenmoredifficult.Butgovernmentsandagentsgoverningthroughrisk,asEnginIsinputsit(2004),areactivelyinvolvedinthefundingandincubationofnew

knowledgeregimesmeanttomanageandcontroltherisksgeneratedbythesuper-

empowermentofindividuals,smallgroups,andotherstateandnon-stateactorsall

performingontheglobalstage.Partofthisnewknowledge-powerinvolvedpeering

intothemindsofcitizens.


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Mental surveillance

Networkedindividualsandsmallgroupshaveleveragedopportunitiestoobserve

andexposetheactionsofgovernments,corporations,organizations,andeachother.

Wikileaks,viawebsitewhichprovidesaplatformforcitizenstodisseminatesecret

documentsandinformation,isbutonewell-knownexampleofhowthebarriersto

transparencyarebeinglowered.However,theinfrastructureandsophistication

neededtoperformlarge-scalementalsurveillancecapacitiesthatarestillonlyin

formationrightnowarestillheldbystatesandlargecorporations.Theseentities

havetheresourcesandthelegalorquasi-legalmandatetoengageinpracticesthat

willdrivethegrowthofmentalsurveillance.Aswasintroducedintheopening

chapterofthedissertation,thementalsurveillancetechniquesthataremost

relevanttothemobilizationsofneuropoweraredirectbrainimagingandthe

analysisofourextendedmindsasrepresentedinournetworked,digitalbehavioral

trailsandourpublicandevenprivatedigitalexpressions.Theseprocessesoffer

differentwindowsintothesameblackboxonethroughourprivatethoughts,

andonethroughouroutwardbehaviorsandwords.

Direct Observation

Directneuralimaginghasbeendiscussedinpreviouschaptersparticularlyinthe

contextofclinicalneuroimagingandtheformationofpersonalidentity.However,

PETscans,fMRI,EEGs,andothertechniquesforimagingaworkingbraincarry

differentimplicationsregardingsurveillanceinthesecuritystate.Throughoutthis

chapter,wellseehowinformationpulleddirectlyfromthebloodflowsandelectro-chemicalsignalsofthebrainarebeingusedastoolsforlawenforcement,crime

prevention,counter-terrorism,andevenenhancementofconcentrationand

attention.Whilethetechnologiesarenotadvancedenoughtoconfirmtheparanoid

fearsofthosewhothinkthegovernmenthasmindcontrolmachines,neuroethics


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andtheconceptofcognitivelibertyarebecomingmainstreampoliticalissuesthat

mustbeseriouslyaddressedbyourpolicy-makersandthegeneralpublictoday.

Thetechnicalcapacitytotellwhatapersonisthinkingjustbylookingatabrain

scanisdrawingcloser.Forexample,byplacingaseriesofmicroelectrodesonthe

speechcentersofthebrain,researchersattheUniversityofUtahhavebeenableto

pickoutwhatwordapatientisthinking.Eachwordhasaparticularneuralpattern,

andresearcherswereabletomatchthatpatterntotherightword86%ofthetime.

(Seigel2010).Thisresearchishighlyinvasiverightnowastheelectrodesare

placeddirectlyonthebrain,buthigherdensityelectrodearraysandlessinvasive

techniquesareintheworks.Thenextstep,saysDr.BradleyGreger,headofthe

project,istomakethegridbigger,havemoreelectrodesandgetatremendous

amountofdataoutofthebrain,whichprobablymeansmorewordsandbetter

accuracy(Seigel2010).

DARPAandothermilitaryagenciesarehighlyinterestedinmindreading

technology,notonlyforinterrogationandliedetectionpurposes,butalsofor

increasingcommunicationoptionsforsoldierswherevoice,text,orothersignalsare

inadequateordangerous.AsJonathanMorenopointsoutinhisbookMindWars:

BrainResearchandNationalDefense,philosophicaldiscussionsofmindreading

couldberenderedacademicifcertainDARPAprojectsareevenmodestlysuccessful

(Moreno2006,98).

Acloselookatthetypesofresearchfundingandsupportthatisgoingintoneuro

andcognitivesciencefromthemilitaryshowsthatgovernmentsaroundtheworld

areseriousaboutthebrainasatheaterofmilitaryintelligenceandpersonnelenhancement(Moreno2006,Gusterson2007).Ofparticularinterestintodays

counter-terrorismmindsetistheabilitytopeerinsideanenemysmind.TheAir

Forces711thHumanPerformanceWinghasbeenoneofmanyU.S.militaryresearch

armsthathavebeendevelopingtechnologiesandtacticstoread,disrupt,orcontrol

enemyminds.The711thhasreleasedacallforproposalstodeveloptechnologiesto


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anticipate,find,fix,track,identify,characterizehumanintentandphysiological

statusanywhereandatanytime(Schactman2010).

Optimizingfriendlymindsarealsowithinthepurviewofmilitaryinterest.Moreno

givesalitanyofDARPAprojectsthathecondenseswithinanoverallstrategyto

combineintoasinglesystemtechniquesformeasuringbrainactivityand

wirelesslytransmitallthatinformationtoacomputerthatwillinterpretthe

informationforvariouspurposes(Moreno2006,101).Thesepurposesinclude

monitoringstresslevels,attention,andespeciallyimportantintheVUCAcontext,a

soldieroragentscognitiveload.Thesefeedbacktoolshavebeencentraltothe

conceptualizationandprototypingofso-calledaugmentedcognition,oraugcog

technologies.viiThesetechnologiesnotonlymonitorcognitiveload,butalsoadapt

theusersinformationalinterfacetoanoptimallevel.Inotherwords,ifauseris

overwhelmedorhighlystressed,thescreenwillfilteroutwindows,dashboards,or

otherelementsofthevisualfield,leavingonlythemostimportantandpressing

information.Thesekindofadaptiveinterfacesbasedonneurofeedbackarefinding

theirwayintootherdomainsincludingstocktrading(Djajadiningratetal.2009),

knowledgework(Hirshfieldetal.2009),andpotentiallyalmosteveryendeavorthat

requiresdecision-makinginambiguousandhighstresssituations.

Thecourtsareonthefrontlinesofdecision-makinginnovelsituationsaswell.

Courtsoftenseesocialchangesandnewtechnologieswellbeforethelegislativeor

executivebranchhavetakenthemup.Thisincludesneurotechnology.Inthecoming

years,wecanexpecttoseeanexplosionofneuralimagingtechnologiesand

neuroscientificevidenceintroducedinalmosteverykindofcasefromcriminalto

juvenileandfamilylaw(Garland2004,ZekiandGoodenough2006,Gazzaniga2005).UPENNpsychiatristDavidLanglebenhasconductedneuralimagingstudies

showingthatcognitivedifferencesbetweendeceptionandtruthhaveneural

correlatesdetectablebyfMRI(inMoreno,2006,103).OnlyafewcasesintheU.S.

haveseenbrainscanliedetectionorneuralcorrelatesofpriorknowledgeevidence


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beenintroduced,andsofarnojudgeintheU.S.hasallowedthisevidenceintotrial,

butthestoryisdifferentinternationally.

InarecentmurdercaseinIndia,theBrainElectricalOscillationsSignature(BEOS)

test,developedbyneuroscientistChampadiRamanMukundan,wasadministeredto

theprimesuspect.Thissuspect,AditiSharma,waslaterconvicteddueinnosmall

parttotheevidencefromtheBEOSfMRItestshowingshehadpriorknowledgeof

thedetailsofthekillingthatnooneelseotherthanthekillercouldhave.AWiredUK

storyaboutthecasedescribestheimportanceofthebrainscan:

Evidencefromthescantookupalmosttenpagesofthejudgesruling

whenayearlater,onJune12,2008,hejailedSharmaforlifemakingherthefirstpersonintheworldreportedtobeconvictedofmurderbasedonevidencethatincludedabrainscan.Iaminnocentandhavenotcommittedanycrime,sheimploredPhansalkar-Joshibeforehesentencedher.Evenhe,herlawyersaid,hadtroublebelievingthatthissmall,calm,softlyspokenstudent,fromarespectable,middle-classfamily,wascapableofkilling(Saini2009).

FMRIliedetectionishighlycontroversial,however.Mostneuroscientistsandlegal

expertsbelievethatthelevelofsophisticationofthesetechnologiesareinsufficient

tobedeemedreliableandtrustworthy.Nopersonslieshouldhanginthebalance

giventhelackofverificationofthesetechniques.Nevertheless,thesewarningshave

notstoppedmanyentrepreneursfromdevelopingandaggressivelymarketingtheir

brain-basedliedetectionproductstolawyersandlawenforcementagencies.The

marketingappealreliesonthatveryseductiveassumptionthatwecanpeerinside

theheadsofpeopleespeciallywitnesses,suspects,andotherkeyfiguresinthe

worldoflawandorder.AsIdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,theappealof

objectivemeasuresliesinourdesiretominimizeidiosyncraticbiasesandhuman

limitations.Thisdesireisstrongestwhenthestakesarehighest.


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Butitdoesnttakeexpensiveimagingtechnologiestoreadsomeonesmindatleast

someoftheirattemptsatdeception.PaulEkmanatUCSFhasspenthiscareer

studyingfacialandbehavioralcluesofpeopleastheydeceive.Hesbeentraining

otherstodosoaswell,withremarkablesuccess.Heclaimstohaveachieved80%

accuracyindetectingwhensomeoneislying(Moreno2006,106).TSAagentsand

othersarelearningthesekindsoftechniquesaswell,solargemachineswillnotbe

thefirstoronlywaythatmentalsurveillancewilltakeplace.Moreover,notall

mentalsurveillancerequiresneuralimagingtechnologies,orevendirectaccesstoa

body.Aratherlargeandusefulwindowintoourmindscomesfromtheanalysisof

theproductsofourdistributedcognitionthedigitaltrailsandexpressionswe

leavebehindusonthewebandothernetworks.

Scanning the networked mind

Itseemsthattodaymanypeoplefeellittleneedtointernalizefactualinformation,as

itcanbeaccessedimmediatelyfromnetworkedmobiledevices.Butpeoplearealso

externalizingtheirthoughts,feelings,andmemoriesintodigitalnetworks.This

createsamorepermeableandfluidbarrierbetweenourminds,ourdevices,andour

networks,creatinganewrelationshiptoprivacyandshiftingourlocusofcognition.

AsBritishscientistandcommentatorSusanGreenfieldnotesinhercritiqueofthis

cognitiveoffloading,itismostlikelythattheisolated,privateworldofthe

individualimaginationasweknowitcouldsoonbeasobsoleteastheabilityofour

ancestorstorecitetribalsagasfromauralmemoryistoday(Greenfield2004,167).

Manysocialnetworkcompaniesarelookingtocapitalizeonthepassingofthe

privatemind.Marketersareespeciallyinterestedinfindingawaytoaccessreliableneurologicalpatternsofconsumerdesire.Acottageindustryofwebbehavioral

trackinghasemergedthatusebrowsercookies,viiisocialmediatoolsthatindicate

userpreferences(suchaslike,fan,ordigg),andnetworkanalysistocreate

tasteandbehavioralprofilesforindividual,groups,andfine-graineddemographic

categories.


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Whilecreatingenormousprivacyconcerns,ixthesetoolsprovidemuchmore

nuancedpicturesofconsumerdesiresandaffinitiesthanmarketresearch,surveys,

orfocusgroupscanhopetoreplicate.Socialnetworkresearchoffersthepromiseof

understandingconsumerdesireinmuchmoretargetedandcost-effectivewaysfor

marketers.AstoutedonthewebsiteofthesocialnetworkresearchfirmColligent,

thecompanytracks145millionactiveconsumersfromonlinesocialnetworks,

coveringmorethanhalfoftheUSadultpopulation.Affinitiesto37,500brands,

media,andentertainmentaretracked(colligent.com).

Mobiledevicesandubiquitousclosed-circuitsurveillancecamerasalsoofferanother

avenueforcreatinggroupmentalprofilesthroughbehavioralmapping.Millionsuse

toapplicationslikefoursquare,Gowalla,andFacebookPlacestocheck-inor

otherwisepublicizetheirdailytravels.Thisinformationisamarketersdreamfor

gaugingtheeffectoflocation-basedmarketingandadvertising.Inaddition,facial

recognitionsoftwareandsurveillancecamerafootagecanbecombinedfor

innovativetrackingandcrimefightingtechniques,suchasdetectingaquestionable

observerwhoreturntothesceneofthecrime(Sandhana2011).

Thiskindofmarketingresearchdescribedabovegenerallyfocusesonuser

behavior,preferences,andaffinities(i.e.theconsumermind)atacollectivelevel,

howevernewapplicationsarebeingdevelopedtohelpmakeusefulinferencesabout

individualmindsbysimilarmeansofmonitoringwebclicks,typingpatterns,and

speedofinformationconsumption.OneexampleisMicrosoftsBusyBody.

Weveallhadthosemomentswhenagreatideaortrainofthoughtislostduetoanuntimelyinterruption.ProbablythemostfamousinhistoryisSamuelTaylor

ColeridgebeinginterruptedinthemiddleofcomposingKublaKhanbyaperson

fromPorlock.xAbuddingColeridgeoftoday,however,wouldprobablynoteven

advancetothemomentofdecreeingapleasuredomebeforeadistractionwould


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wakethewriterfromhisorhercreativestate.xiThisneedcreatesanopportunity

spacefordesignersandprogrammers.

BusyBodyisaprototypecomputerapplicationdevelopedtohelpuserscombatthat

baneoftheinformationagetheconstantinterruption,aswellashelpameliorate

itssisterafflictioncontinuouspartialattention(Stone,n.d.)AstheMicrosoft

researcherswhoprogrammedBusyBodydescribeit,itisasystemthat

intermittentlyasksuserstoassesstheirperceivedinterruptabilityduringatraining

phaseandthatbuildsdecision-theoreticmodelswiththeabilitytopredictthecost

ofinterruptingtheuser(Horvitz,Koch,andApacible2004).Bylearninguser

patterns,andpredictingthelevelsofconcentrationandfocusneededtoaccomplish

agiventask,theprogramcanrespondautomaticallyinreal-timetoadaptausers

interfacetotheirparticularcognitiveneeds.Thesemind-readingtoolswillbe

essentialcomponentsofmanyhigh-stress,information-richenvironments,andwill

provideawealthofdataforproxysurveillanceapplications.

Andfinally,mind-readingcanbedonenotonlythroughphysicalandvirtualdeeds,

butthroughactualwordsaswell.Semanticanalysisofourelectronicallycaptured

andstoredtextualandrhetoricalexpressionsprovidesaportalintoourhabitsof

thoughtandevenouremotionalstates.Ourformalwritingandtheminutiaeofour

everydayexpressionsandstatusmessagesonFacebookandTwittercanbe

analyzedforpsychologicalprofilingandidentification.

PsychologistJ.W.PennebakerattheUniversityofTexashasspentmuchofhiscareer

lookingathowourpatternofworduseindicatesadistinctandchangingmental

state.Usinghislinguisticinquiryandwordcount(LIWC)technique,heandhiscolleagueshaveshownthatpoetswhousedfirstpersonpronounsandreferredto

themselvesrelativelymorethantoothersweremorelikelytohavecommitted

suicidethanpoetswhodidnot(StirmanandPennebaker2001).Extendingthese

insights,Pennebakerandothershavecreatedaseriesofpsychologicaland

emotionalassessmenttoolsthatrelyonanalysisofsubjectspeechandwriting


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(Rude,Gortner,andPennebaker2004;Pennebaker,Slatcher,andChung2004;

Pennebaker,Mehl,andNiederhoffer2003).Otherpopularwebapplications,like

TweetPsych(tweetpsych.com),doalgorithmicanalysisofpersonalelectronic

expressions,addingalayerofreal-timeidentityfeedbackandinsightinto

psychologicalandemotionalstatesthathasnotexistedbefore.

Thesetoolsarenotonlyusefulfordescribingourpsychologicalstates,butarebeing

usedtopredictbehaviorsandpreemptunwantedacts.DARPA,forexample,has

initiatedaresearchprogramelegantlydubbedtheIntegratedSystemforEmotional

StateRecognitionfortheEnhancementofHumanPotentialandDetectionof

CriminalIntentthatusesspeechpatterns,behaviors,gestures,facialexpressions,

chemosignals(suchaspheromonesoffear),andthermalimaging(Lynch2003).

Thissearchforpredictionandpreemptioncapabilityisdirectedtowardtheultimate

payoffformanyformsofsurveillancetodetectandthwartthreatsbeforethey

happenanddrivestheformationofaverypotentandpoliticallyfraughtformof

neuropower.

Wecanimagineafutureinwhichthesedataaggregatorsandanalysistoolswill

knowmoreaboutusthanweknowaboutourselves.Thiskindofdatamustbe

handledcarefullyandtransparentlyifwearetomaintainameasureofpoliticalself-

determinationandbalanceofpower.Havinggovernments,corporations,orother

powersastepaheadofitspeopleisarecipeforcontrolandrepression.

Prediction and preemption

Thenewwindowsofthemindarenotonlyopeningupnewspacesofcognitive,emotional,andbehavioralsurveillance,butalsoexpandingthetimesandtacticsof

intervention.xiiStanfordlawprofessorandneuroethicistHenryGreelyconsidersthe

predictionofindividualpsychologicalconditionsandbehaviorstobeoneofthe

mostsociallyandlegallytransformationaloutcomesofadvancesinneuroscience(in

Garland2004,114-156).Anytoolthatcanprovidepredictivecapacity,eventhe


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unverifiedsemblanceofpredictivecapacity,iscovetedinoursociety.Standardized

teststopredictscholarlyachievement,datingalgorithmsforperfectmatematching,

psychologicaltests,marketresearch,evensocialmodelingandsimulationprograms

arejustafewexamplesofthemyriadwaysweseektoseeandforeseehuman

activities.

Theallureofpredictionistiedtoourdesireforcontrol,adesirethatprecedes

neurosciencebutisconditionedinnewwaysbyit.Neurosciencegivesthisdesirefor

controlnewspacesofpossibilitywithinthebrainandoutintotheextendedmind,

andputscontrolleversonwhatwasthepreviouslyunseenandunmodifiable.What

aretheconditionsofpossibilitythatexisttodaythatbringneuroscienceintothe

conversationaboutcontrol?Inotherwords,whynow?

A state of emergency

Manypoliticalobserversbelievethatmostglobalpowerstoday,especiallythe

UnitedStates,canbedescribedasasecuritystate(Stuart2008).Placingthe

originsafterWWIIandassociatedwiththepassingoftheNationalSecurityActof

1947,thesecuritystategovernmentalityreflectsandinstitutionalizesthecore

missionsoftheCIAandDepartmentofDefensewithinthestructureoftheentire

government(Hogan2000).Asecuritystatehasseveraldistinctfeaturesthatdefine

itsparticularflavorofgovernmentality,includingtheprimacyofthemilitaryasthe

highestauthority,thedominanceofthemilitary-industrialcomplexinpolitical-

economicdecision-making,anobsessionwithenemies(bothforeignandhome

grown)andtheneedfortotaldestructionofthoseenemies,andthebeliefthat

secrecy,exceptionalism,andlimitationsonspeechandpoliticalparticipationarenecessaryforcontinuedsurvivalofthestate(Nelson-Pallmeyer1992).

Thiskindofgovernmentalityreflectstheon-goingshiftfromasocietyofdiscipline

toasocietyofcontrol,xiiiandhasalsobeendescribedasthenervoussystemby

anthropologistMichaelTaussig(1991).EchoingWalterBenjaminsobservationthat


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thetraditionoftheoppressedteachesusthatthestateofemergencyinwhichwe

liveisnottheexceptionbuttherule,Taussigarguesthatthenervoussystemofa

risk-oriented,securityandsurveillancestateexistsinaconstantstateofreadiness,

requiringconstantfeedbackfromthebodypoliticinordertoimmediatelysenseany

disturbanceorthreat(1991,2-10).

ItalianpoliticaltheoristGiorgioAgambenseesthishighalertmodeasdefault

positionofgovernancetoday,notingthatthispermanentstateofemergencyhas

becomeoneoftheessentialpracticesofcontemporarystates,includingso-called

democraticones(2005,2).Thishasledtoapermanentstateofexceptionthat

allowsleaderstoindefinitelysuspendcertainlawsandlegalproceduresthatare

deemeddetrimentaltotheoverridingnecessityofmaintainingvitalsecurityand

stability.

Thepeculiarstateofemergencymindsetthatcamealongwiththeadministration

ofGeorgeW.Bushxivisonethatallowedfortheindefinitedetentionofandthe

preemptiveattacksonourenemies(whethernationsornetworks).TheUSA

PATRIOTActallowsfortheincarcerationofenemycombatants,anappellation

determinedbytheexecutivethatcanbeappliedtoawiderangeofhostileenemies

onthebattlefieldoranyotheragentdeemedtobeanactivethreattotheinterestsof

theUnitedStates,againasdefinedbytheexecutive(WhiteheadandAden2002).

CombinetheexpansionsofpowerlegalizedbythePATRIOTActalongwiththeso-

calledBushDoctrine(i.e.preemptivewar),andwehavearadicalshiftinU.S.foreign

anddomesticpolicyonethatchangesthepracticeofdiplomacy,military

intervention,andtheoversightofexecutivepower.Thewholepointofthenervoussystem,Taussigargues,isitsalwaysbeingajumpahead(1991,2).Thepolitical

andlegalsystemsintheUnitedStateshavebeguntore-orientthemselvesaround

thisperceivedresponsibilitytobeajumpahead.Predictionandpreemptionof

violentoreventhreateningactsbecomesavitalcapacityofpower,onethatgoes


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beyond,orbelow,aninternationalstage,andappliedeventosmallgroupsand

individuals.

Super-empowerment

Alineofargumentinthediscourseonglobalizationsaysthatthedigital,networked

infrastructurehasallowedindividualstoscale-uptheirpowerandinfluencewith

rapidspeedandextendedreach.Profoundorpedanticpersonalobservationsonlife

canbebroadcasttotheworldinstantly,overnightsensationscomeandgoonthe

videositeYouTube,andworldeventsarestreamedandwatchedlivebymillions

aroundtheglobe.Wearetechnologicallyconnected,ambientlyaware,andneverfar

fromtheinformationalandevenphysicalresourcesweneedtoaccomplishour

chosenmissionsfromthemundanetothegrandiose.

Analystsandcommentatorsonglobalterrorismhaveobservedthatthesesame

technologies,networks,andloweredbarrierstoaccessthathaveallowed

individualstosharetheirtalentsandamplifytheirpowers,havealsoprovidedthe

infrastructuretoscale-upanindividualscapacityforspreadinghatred,

destruction,andmayhembothfarandwide.NYTimescolumnistThomasFriedman

callsthosewhousetheaffordancesofglobalizationandnetworkedtechnologiesfor

violence,super-empoweredangryindividuals,whoareangry,wired,anddeadly

(Friedman1998).Similarly,terrorismexpertJohnRobbcallsthemglobalguerillas

andglobalentrepreneurs.Theseindividualsbuildcomplexsupplychains,benefitfromglobalmoneyflows,travelglobally,innovatewithtechnology,andattack

shrewdly(2007,146).Theproblem,accordingtoRobb,isthatglobalizationis

quicklylayeringnewskillsetsonancientmind-sets(2007,146).


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Asweknowfromrecenthistoryandcurrentevents,however,thisincongruity

betweenapre-modernmind-setandpost-modernweaponryisnotlimitedtonon-

statesactorsorglobalnetworksofterrorists.ManyWesternleaders,especiallyhave

takenBronzeAgenotionsofgoodandevilastheirguidetoexercisetheir

monopolyonlegitimateviolence.xvNevertheless,thepowerofsingleindividuals

andverysmallgroupstoplan,obtaininformationandweapons,andexecute

massivelydestructiveactshasneverbeengreaterinhumanhistory.

Thismeansashiftinthefocusandresponsibilitiesforpublicprotection.Itmeans

recognizing(eveninventing)threatsfromindividualsbothnearandfarand

increasingthebreadthanddepthofsurveillance.Itmeanstheextensionofthe

doctrineofpreemptionbeyondthreatsfromrogueorungovernablenationsand

applyingthisdoctrinetorogueorungovernableindividuals.Itmeansa

governmentalitythatseeseveryhumanmindasapotentialweaponofmass

destruction.Itmeansgovernancebecomestheactofcontrollingthethreatofthe

ungovernablemind.

Violent Minds

JaredLoughnerwalkedtowardthecrowdgatheredtohearCongresswoman

GabrielleGiffordsinTucson,AZandopenedfire,killing6andwoundinganother20,

includingCongresswomanGiffords.Unfortunately,similarmassmurdersarealltoo

familiar.FromFortHood,TXtoBlacksburg,VAandallaroundtheworld,lone

gunmenhavewroughtterribleviolence.Ineachcaseitseems,thewarningsignsof

animminentsnapwerepresentandobvious.Tracingthesewarningsignsafterthe

factdoesnogoodforthevictimsofthesecrimes,andmanyinthepublicareclamoringformoreproactiveactionfromthemedicalsystemandpoliceforces

(Fahrenthold2011,Allen2009).Whilesomedecrytheeaseofaccesstohuman

killingweapons,thepoliticalwillforanymeaningfulchangetothegunlawsinthe

UnitedStatesislacking.However,thegovernmentandmilitarydoseemwillingto

putsignificantresourcestowardanotherstrategytheuseofdatamining,semantic


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analysis,behavioralpatterning,andbiometricsurveillancetoidentify,locate,and

potentiallydetainthoseindividualswhoappeartobeready,willing,andableto

commitviolentcrimes.Thekindofsafetyandsecuritystrategywechoosereflects

ourvaluesasasociety,andwillconstitutethepossibilityspaceforthedistribution

andaccesstopowerforcitizenstoday,andinthefuture.

DARPA(again)hasbeenattheforefrontofthisresearch,initiatingaprogram

entitledAnomalyDetectionatMultipleScales(ADAMS).Thisprogramsupports

researchintowaysofanalyzingthedigitaltrailsandbehavioralpatterndatawe

actively(andoftenpassively)createaboutourselvesinordertofindtell-tale

signaturesthatindicatehostileintentions(Ackerman2010).Thesciencehasnotyet

reachedthelevelofadvancementtoreliablydetectanomalouspatternsthatactually

indicateimminentorfutureviolence.However,ifthefrequencyandseverityofmass

killingsbyindividualscontinuesorevenrises,pressureforpreemptivemedicalor

policeactionwilllikelyincrease.Thisiswhyprospectiveneuropoliticsisdesperately

needednow,beforeprematuretechnologiesareforcedintoactionbyoverwhelming

politicalpressures.Thesegrowingpressures,potentiallyreleasedbyanotherpublic

tragedy,couldforcegovernmentsintoapositionwherefalsepositives(intervention

onindividualswhoareNOTactuallyathreat)willbemoretolerablethanfalse

negative(non-interventiononindividualswhoeventuallycommitviolentcrimes)

arecipeforinjusticeandamajorthreattofreedom.

Precrime

Everyproxyindicatorforhostileintent(includingdigitaltrails)addsanotherlayer

ofcomplexity,requiringspecializedskillsandnewliteracies,thusslowingdownthefeedbackloopbetweenperceptionandaction.Thusweseeaparallelmovement.On

onehandwehavethedesireforgoingstraighttothebrain,tobeabletodirectly

seewhatsomeoneisthinkingandintendingtodo.But,neurosciencereadsbrains,

notmindsasMichaelGazzanigahaswarned(inMoreno2006,109).However


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dubiousandprematurethistechnologyis,themindissoughtastheultimate

controlpoint.

Ontheotherhandistheexpansionofaprecrimegovernmentality.Asthe

criminologistLuciaZednerargues,weareonthecuspofashiftfromapost-toa

precrimesociety,asocietyinwhichthepossibilityofforestallingriskscompetes

withandeventakesprecedenceoverrespondingtowrongsdone(inMitchell2010,

239).Precrimeisbestexemplifiedinthepopularimaginationbythemajorplot

deviceinthefilmMinorityReport,xvireleasedjustastheBushDoctrinewasbeing

implementedandwhosenarrativerevolvesaroundtheuseofprecognitiveviewing

evidencetoarrestsuspectsbeforetheycommittheircrime.Thisprecrime

governmentality,asitisseeninactualpracticetoday,reliesmoreonstatistical

modelsthanpsychics,istakingshapeinvariouslocations,andcitizensare

beginningtoencounteritintheirdailylives(Beam2011).Soon,however,the

predictivecapacitiesofbrainimagingwillbefurtheremployed,startinginairports.

Fewplacesareasfunctionallyandsymbolicallyimportantforsecuritythanairports.

Airportscarrythefetish-powerofbordersintheevocativephraseofFrench

writerJeanGenet.Theyaretheliminalzonesbetweenhereandthere,homeand

away.Airportreceptionareashousethatmostwonderfulhumaneventthe

reunion,yetairportsarealsozonesofcontagion,terrorism,andsurveillance.Itisa

placeofinspectionandexceptionwhereweareaskedtoforgomanyoftherights

weholddearoutsidetheboundariesoftheairportinordertohavethosereunions

andtoconductthebusinessthatmakesupourlivelihoods.Itmayalsobeoneofthe

firstplaceswherewewillinglycedeovertherightstoprivacyofourinnermost

thoughtsandfeelingswherewewillallowthestatetolookinsideourbrains,bodies,andminds.Theairportiswhere,asKeeleUniversitygeographerPeterAdey

pointsout:

thebodyscirculatorysystems,biologicalrhythms,andaffectiveexpressionshavebecometheobjectofsuspicionmobilesurfaces


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fromwhichinnerthoughtsandpotentiallyhostileintentionsarescrutinized,read,andgiventhreateningmeaningbythenewestmodesofairportsecurityandsurveillance(2009,274).

Predictiveandpreemptiveneuropowerissuper-chargedatthecirculatory

membraneoftheairport.Technologiesandtacticsdescribedearlier,includingthe

IsraeliSuspectDetentionSystem(SDS),DARPAsRemotePersonnelAssessment

(RSA),theDepartmentofHomelandSecuritysFutureAttributeScreeningTest

(FAST),andPaulEkmansScreeningPassengersbyObservationTechnique(SPOT),

arealldesignedtothwartpotentialterroristattacksinthehighvolume,high-stakes

surveillancebattlefieldoftheairport(KarpandMeckler2006,Weinberger2010).

Andthismountainofacronymsisjustthetipoftheiceberg.Neurosciencestillinthe

researchlabpromisesevengreatersophisticationinuncoveringinnerthoughts.

AtBerlinsBernsteinCenterforComputationalNeuroscience,researchersarefine-

tuningdevicesandtechniquesthatcandeterminewhatintentionanindividualhas

inhermind.AttheOceanitInstitute,IanKatijimaandothershavedeveloped

technologiestosenseincreasedheartrateandbloodflowremotely,butsoonhe

says,thetechnologywillbemuchsmarter.Wellscanapersonandtellwhat

theyreactuallythinking(quotedinHawksley2007).Whilethesesanguine

predictionsformindreadingtechnologiesarecertainlynotsharedbyallthose

workinginthebrainimagingandsurveillanceworld,manywouldprobablyagree

withpsychologistToddBraverwhenhesaysthat"thebarriersthatweassumed

existedinreadingourmindskeepgettingbreached(quotedinAssociatedPress

2007).

Researchersaroundtheworldareworkinghardtocrackopenthesecretsofthe

mindtohelplocked-inpatientscommunicate,tohelppeoplemoveprosthetic

limbswiththeirmind,andtohelppeoplewithbehavioralandneurological

disorders,butgiventhepressuresonthoseingovernmenttoprotectcitizensat

higherandhighercosts,accesstotechnologiesthatcanreadthemindofpotential


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terroristsandpreemptcatastrophicviolencemakestheabilitytoresisttheuseof

thesetechnologiesweak.Onedemonstrationofhowthesetoolscouldhavestopped

anactualattack,butwerenotused,wouldendthecareer(orworse)oftheperson

responsibleforthatdecision.Thereforethescrutinizationofthoughts,emotions,

affects,andotherinternalevidencewillbestronglymotivated,andmay

overwhelmourhistoricallycovetedrighttoprivacy.Inshort,wewillbeaskedto

openourmindsatairportsinorderforpoliticiansandofficialstocovertheir

asses.

Thecriminaljusticesystemisfundamentallyorientedtowardissuesofprediction

andpreemption.Frompatroltoparole,goodmetricsforcorrectsentencing,

reducingrecidivism,reducingpublicrisks,andmaintainingfairnessarecentralto

themission.Neuroscienceoffersveryenticingtoolsforimprovingthesedecision-

makingprocesses,andforcraftingmoreaccurate,individualized,andeffective

protocols.Muchlikethepressuresonofficialstopreventafutureterroristattack,

accesstoneurologicaltestsandimagingresultsthatcouldshowifafelonismoreor

lesslikelytocommitfuturecrimeswillmakethesetoolsalmostirresistible.

Knowingtheobjectivemeasureofimpulsecontrolofasexoffenderwouldbe

cherishedinformationforthoseresponsibleforreleasingaprisoner.Thesetools

alsohavetheaddedbenefit(forthoseindecision-makingpositions)whereinthe

responsibilityforanyerrorcanbesafelyabstractedtothesystem,ratherthanthe

actualindividual(s)incharge.

Thiskindofpredictiveandprobabilisticmodelingcouldalsobeusedtoestablish

surveillanceandmonitoringprotocolsforthosewhoshowsignsofneurological

characteristicsassociatedwithcriminalbehavior,buthavenotcommittedanycrime.Youngpsychopaths,forexample,havedistinctbrainabnormalities:

associatedwithstructuralandfunctionaldamagetotheorbitalcortexandstronglyinterconnectedventralprefrontalsystemstructuressuchastheventromedialprefrontalcortex,ventralanteriorcingulate,


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amygdala,andassociatedbasalgangliaandcortico-subcorticalloopcircuits(Fallon2005-2006,341).

Ifbrainabnormalitiescanbeuncoveredbeforeaviolentactoccurs,whatistheroleofthepoliceandmedicalestablishmenttodosomethingaboutit?Thisisoneofthe

centraltensionsinneuropolitics,andonethathasthefamiliarfalsepositive/false

negativeriskprofile.

Rapidadvancesinneuroscienceandneurotechnologyaretakinghypothetical

ethicalquestionsandmakingthemamatterofpolicytoday.Wellseearangeof

responses,ascase-by-caseaggregationwillstarttoconvergeintotrends.Onesignal

doesnotmakeatrend,buttheimplementationofpredictivepolicingbytheSanta

CruzPolicepointstoapossiblefuture.UsingastatisticalmodeldevelopedatSanta

ClaraUniversitythatpredictsthetimesandlocationsofcriminalactivity,SantaCruz

policeareschedulingpatrolsthatprespondtothesepredictedcrimesbeforethey

happen.Theoverallmodelisbasedonthebeliefthatcrimeisnotrandom.Sowith

enoughdatapoints,youcouldpredictwhereandwhenitwillhappen,saysZach

Friend,aSantaCruzPoliceDept.analyst(Baxter2011).Andwhileitiscertainlyan

overstatementtosaythatthesekindsofmodelswillapplytoanindividualsbrain

scan,thelogicofpredictivepolicingisbeginningtoenterintomainstreampolice

strategy.Itisnotastretchtothinkthatsomeaspectsofneurologicalprofilingmight

beaddedtoapoliceforcesrepertoireoffuturedatapoints,andnottooearlyto

considertheneuropoliticalimplicationsofthis.

Anotherkeylocationforthemobilizationoftheneuropowerofpreemptioniswithin

thewarondrugs.Thiswarhasbeenthejustificationofalitanyofexpansionsof

governmentalpowers,intrusions,violations,andsuspensionsofcommonsense.At

itsmostfundamentallevel,nationaldrugpolicyisaboutwhatweasindividualsare

allowedtodotoandwithourmindsandbodies.Itisafightovertherightandthe

freedomtoalterthewaywethinkandfeel.


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Governmentsaroundtheworldseemtobewakinguptothefactthatasupply-side

eradicationstrategyisdoomedtofailure.Initsplace,aslegalscholarRichardBoire

argues,thefederalgovernmenthasbegunpursuinganewtactic,onethatexpands

thedrugwarbattlefieldfromtheColumbiancocafarmsandtheMiddleEastern

poppyfields,toanewterraindirectlyinsidethebodiesandbrainsofdrugusers,

leadingtoapolicyshiftfromdemandreductiontodesirereduction(CCLE2004,

6).

ACenterforCognitiveLibertyandEthicsreporttitledThreatstoCognitiveLiberty:

PharmacotherapyandtheFutureoftheDrugWar(2004)outlinesseveralnew

biologicaltechniquesthatinone-wayoranotherreducedesireforcertaindrugs.

Thesebio-andneurologicaltoolsaredesignedtohelpthosewhoareaddictedto

drugsbutcannoteffectivelyendtheiraddiction.

Pharmacotherapyworksviaseveralmodalities.Onewayistochemicallyblockdrug

receptorsitesattheneuron,preventingdrugmoleculesfrombindingtotheneuron

andproducingtheirmind-alteringeffects.Second,aclassofdrugsworksinthe

bloodstreamtobindtotheillegaldrugmolecule,makingittoolargetopassthrough

theblood-brainbarrier.Andfinallytherearemetabolismmodifiersthatchange

howthebodymetabolizesthedrug,oftengeneratingaveryunpleasantfeelingfor

theuser,aswiththealcoholdeterrentAntabuse.Opiates,cocaine,alcohol,

marijuana,andnicotinearejustsomeofthedrugstargetedbypharmacotherapy

(CCLE2004,6-11).Andnow,enterprisinglawmakershavediscussedtheuseofthe

drugvaccinesnotonlyforthosewhoarealreadyaddictedtoillegaldrugs,butasa

waytoinhibitacitizensabilitytogethighoffofillegaldrugsevenbeforetheirfirstuse.

TheUnitedKingdomhasbeenthemostaggressiveinpursuingthepossibilityof

drugvaccinesaspolicy.Agovernmentcommissionedreport,BrainScience,

addiction,anddrugssuggestedthatinthefaceofregulatingfailurestocurbtheuse


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ofillicitdrugs,wemightimagineanapproachthatresortsincreasinglytoa

technologicalfix(quotedinEaston2009).Thistechnologicalfixincludestheuseof

pharmacotherapyanddrugvaccines.

Whilepublicsentimentisstillsquarelyagainsttheideaofcompulsoryvaccinationof

citizens(includingchildren),andthescientificefficacyofthesedrugsisstill

uncertain,pharmacotherapywillcontinuetobeapromisingareaofresearchand

treatmentforthosesufferingfromdebilitatingaddictions.Torepeattherunning

themehere,oncethetoolsexist,thosewiththepowertousethemtotheirown

advantageortowardtheirownideologicalgoalsoftendo.Itisawell-known

occupationalhazardforscientificlabortobeusedinwaysincongruouswiththe

goalsandvalue-systemsofthoselaborers.NeuroethicistRonaldGreenpointsout

theever-lurkingironythatresearchbeguntoprovideameansforimproving

humanhealthmayeventuallycometobeknownbestforitscontributiontosocial

control(Green2007,119).

Conclusion: Responsibility in the Neurocentric Age

Thischapterbeganwithstoriesoffearandfollyforindividualsandgovernments

tryingtocopewithprofoundthreatsinanacceleratingVUCAworld.Thespeedof

lifeandthecompressionofdistancehavedistortedourcapacitiestorecognizeand

dealwithrisk,leadingtoapandemicofamygdalahijackings.Thesedynamicsareat

theheartoftheemergenceofthreeimportantneuropowerstreatingsimilarities

asequalities,mentalsurveillance,andpredictionandpreemption.

Treatingsimilaritiesasequalitiesisanecessarypartofhumanperceptionand

cognition,butweoftenforgetthatitisashort-cutformorerobustandfullyengaged

kindsofthinking.Theexigenciesofthespeedandconnectednessofourworldwill


33/55

pushus,andmostimportantlyourinstitutions,tousetheseshort-cutsinwaysthat

begintonegativelyimpactourcapacitiesforfairness,justice,andprudence.

Mentalsurveillancewillopenupaspectsofhowwethinkandwhatwethinkinways

neverbeforepossible.Itwillchangethewaywetalkaboutrightsandexpectations

ofprivacy,andwillcreateanewlocusofpoliticalcontestation.Thisincludesnot

onlypeeringdirectlyintothemind,butalsonewkindsofdigitalsurveillanceofour

electronicallyextendedanddigitallydistributedminds.

Predictionandpreemptionarehighlyseductiveandextremelypowerfultoolsthat

arebeingenabledbyneuroscientificresearchandapplications.Perhapsno

neuropowerdiscussedinthisdissertationhasasmuchpotentialforabuseandas

muchneedforwiderexaminationbythegeneralpublic.Everyapplicationand

instantiationofthesetechniquesshouldbethoroughlyinterrogated,andthevalues

behindtheseapplicationsshouldbelaidbareandcritiqued.

Theseneuropowersareenabledbyatechnicalandknowledge-powerinfrastructure

beingbuiltbyresearchersinthebrainsciencesandmembersofthepublicwhoare

activelycreatingdatabasesofextendedcognitiveinformation.Agovernmentalityof

controlisbeingdrivenbytheperceptionofgreaterexistentialrisks,creating

incentivesforexpansionofintrusionsandinvasionsofprivacy.

Alloftheseargumentsleadtotheoverallconclusionofthischapter:whenasecurity

statebecomesneurocentric,wemustbeparticularlyvigilantabouthow

neurosciencedrivespolicy.Itisincumbentuponneuroscientists,ethicists,andall

thosewithapoliticalstakeinneuroscienceoreventhosewhosimplycareaboutdemocracytoexamineandcritiquethemachinationsofneuropower.Theforcesof

controlshouldnotbebolsteredbyexaggeratedresearchclaims,unverified

technologies,prematureapplicationofresearch,andneurologicaldeterminism.If

thesecautionsarenotheeded,thenthepotentialtransformativebenefitsof

neuroscienceandneurotechnologieswillbelost,aswillkeytenetsofdemocracy,


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freedom,andmanyopportunitiesforhappinessforfuturegenerations.

i

http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2007-05-26-bobblehead-scare_N.htmiihttp://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/21/national/main3285154.shtmliiihttp://thinkingpictures.blogspot.com/2007_05_01_archive.htmlivhttp://thinkingpictures.blogspot.com/2007_05_01_archive.html vIn2007,asaguerillaadcampaignfortheupcomingreleaseoftheAquaTeenHungerForce(ATHF)movie,basedonanadult-orientedanimatedseries,lightedsignsofoneofthecartooncharactersflippingthebirdwereplacedaroundBostonandothercitiesintheU.S.IntheBostoncase,fearsthattheseambiguousdeviceswereterroristbombs,sentthecityintofullemergencymode,causingmassevacuationsandclosingofbuildingsandstreets.Aspartofthesettlement,TurnerBroadcasting,owneroftherightstoATHF,agreedtopaytheBostonPoliceForceandtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity$1millioneach.https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/2007_Boston_bomb_scare

vihttps://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/WikiLeaksviiwww.augmentedcognition.orgviiiCookiesareembeddedsoftwarecodesthattrackuserbehaviorthroughtheirwebbrowser.Typicalinformationgatheredincludedtimeonsite,linksclicked,andpageviews.Cookiesareofteninstalledunbeknownsttousersandraiseprivacyandsecurityconcerns.See.http://www.ghacks.net/2010/07/17/what-is-a-tracking-cookie/ixConcernsthatincludecorporatetracking,aswellasgovernmentsurveillance.See,http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/dec/30/newmedia.usnews.xhttps://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Person_from_PorlockxiForexample,Ivetoggledfromthiswritingscreentootherapplicationsonmycomputersixseparatetimessincestartingthisparagraph.xiiThissectionisaboutthegovernmentalitythatseekstousementalsurveillanceandother

techniquestopredictandpreemptcertainbehaviors.Itisnotabouttheabilityforthehumanbrainandmindtopredictorforecastcertaineventsofrelevancetoindividuals.Thisaspectwillbediscussedinalaterchapter,includingreferencetoagrowingbodyofliteratureonthesubject.xiiiDisciplineandcontrolsocietieswerediscussedinChapter1.xivBefore9/11/01,butacceleratedpost9/11/01.xvSee,forexample,RichardDawkinscommentaryathttp://newhumanist.org.uk/469/time-to-stand-upxviTheplotofMinorityReportconcernsthepolitics,ethics,andcorruptionofindividualsinvolvedintheinstitutionalizationofanexperimentalpolicingprogram.Thisprogramusesateamofprecognitivepsychicstoidentifyandcapturecriminalsbeforetheyhaveactuallycommittedtheircrime.

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