the terminology of air transport. a contribution to the iate-cvt...
TRANSCRIPT
Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte
Jens Van Nieuwenhove
The terminology of air transport.
A contribution to the IATE-CvT project
(English, Dutch, German)
Volume I
Masterproef voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van
Master in het Vertalen
2016
Promotor: Prof. Dr. Joost Buysschaert
Vakgroep Vertalen Tolken Communicatie
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank my parents, friends and family for their unqualified support.
Secondly, I would like to express my gratitude to Jeroen Aspeslagh and Bart Bollingh, Main
Dutch Terminologist and translator of aviation-related texts, respectively, at the Directorate-
General for Translation of the European Commission. Mr Aspeslagh was a great help during
the internship and after.
I am also very grateful to Captain Instructor Jurgen Schmid for providing me with in-depth
knowledge of aviation and shedding light on some obscure issues. Additionally, I would like
to thank Hans van den Bos of Luchtverkeersleiding Nederland.
And last but definitely not least, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to
Prof. Dr. Joost Buysschaert for his support and valuable feedback, not only during the process
of writing this thesis, but for all he has done. As the curtain falls over the phonetics show, I
give him a roaring applause.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 3
List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................... 7
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Subject and structure .................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Terminology ................................................................................................................. 8
Principles ................................................................................................................. 8 1.2.1
Domain loss ............................................................................................................. 9 1.2.2
1.3 Method of research ....................................................................................................... 9
Sources .................................................................................................................. 10 1.3.1
Criteria ................................................................................................................... 11 1.3.2
1.4 IATE-CvT .................................................................................................................. 13
GenTerm ................................................................................................................ 14 1.4.1
Terminological record ........................................................................................... 14 1.4.2
2 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 17
2.1 Take-off phase – JVN01 ............................................................................................ 17
English term .......................................................................................................... 17 2.1.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 18 2.1.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 20 2.1.3
2.2 Climb(-out) phase – JVN02 ....................................................................................... 21
English term .......................................................................................................... 21 2.2.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 22 2.2.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 22 2.2.3
2.3 En-route phase – JVN03 ............................................................................................ 24
English term .......................................................................................................... 24 2.3.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 25 2.3.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 27 2.3.3
2.4 Minimum safe altitude – JVN04 ................................................................................ 28
English term .......................................................................................................... 28 2.4.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 29 2.4.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 29 2.4.3
2.5 Minimum sector altitude – JVN05 ............................................................................. 31
English term .......................................................................................................... 31 2.5.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 35 2.5.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 37 2.5.3
2.6 Area minimum altitude – JVN06 ............................................................................... 40
English term .......................................................................................................... 40 2.6.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 42 2.6.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 42 2.6.3
2.7 Minimum en-route altitude – JVN07 ......................................................................... 44
English term .......................................................................................................... 44 2.7.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 45 2.7.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 46 2.7.3
2.8 Obstacle clearance – JVN08 ...................................................................................... 47
English term .......................................................................................................... 47 2.8.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 48 2.8.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 48 2.8.3
2.9 Obstacle clearance altitude JVN09 ............................................................................ 50
English term .......................................................................................................... 50 2.9.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 51 2.9.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 52 2.9.3
2.10 Minimum obstacle clearance altitude – JVN10 ......................................................... 54
English term .......................................................................................................... 54 2.10.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 55 2.10.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 56 2.10.3
2.11 Emergency phase – JVN11 ........................................................................................ 57
English term .......................................................................................................... 57 2.11.1
Dutch term ............................................................................................................. 58 2.11.2
German term .......................................................................................................... 59 2.11.3
3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 60
3.1 Difficulties and general tendencies ............................................................................ 60
3.2 General conclusion ..................................................................................................... 61
4 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 62
4.1 Informants .................................................................................................................. 62
4.2 Paper and electronic sources ...................................................................................... 62
5 Appendices ...................................................................................................................... 82
5.1 Google Custom Search Engine .................................................................................. 82
5.2 Instrument approach chart – Land’s End ................................................................... 83
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CvT Terminology Centre (Centrum voor Terminologie)1
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency2
FAA Federal Aviation Administration3
IATE Inter-Active Terminology of Europe4
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation5
LDOCE Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
LVNL Air Traffic Control the Netherlands (Luchtverkeersleiding Nederland)6
OED Oxford English Dictionary
1 http://www.cvt.ugent.be/
2 https://www.easa.europa.eu/
3 http://www.faa.gov/
4 http://iate.europa.eu/
5 http://www.icao.int/Pages/default.aspx
6 https://www.lvnl.nl/
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1 INTRODUCTION
This thesis is a contribution to the IATE-CvT project, a collaboration between the Dutch
terminology department of the Directorate-General for Translation (DGT) of the European
Commission and the Terminology Centre of Ghent University (CvT – Centrum voor
Terminologie). Within this collaboration, master students are provided a set of texts, from
which they extract terms to investigate, or a set of terms related to a certain domain. As part
of this contribution, the students can opt for an internship at the DGT.
The students contributing to the project write a thesis consisting of two parts: a part in which
the terms are discussed (Volume I) and a part containing the terminology records of those
terms (Volume II). The records can be put into GenTerm, the term base of CvT, and IATE
(Buysschaert, 2015, p.1).
1.1 SUBJECT AND STRUCTURE
In this thesis, eleven concepts related to air transport are discussed. The terms were selected
from a list offered by Mr Aspeslagh, the DGT contact. In Volume I, the terms and translations
are discussed in section 2. Volume II comprises the terminology records. The concepts that
were selected for discussion contain either altitude or phase. The flight phases are discussed
in sections 2.1 – 2.3, the minimum safe altitudes are discussed in sections 2.4 – 2.10. The
concept of emergency phase is discussed in 2.11, as this is neither a flight phase nor a
minimum safe altitude.
1.2 TERMINOLOGY
Principles 1.2.1
The importance of terminology is undeniable, especially in specialised domains, since
terminology denotes concepts, which “are defined independently of any particular language”
(Barnbrook, G. et al., 2006, p.98). Nolet, D. et al (2001, p.xvii) gives the following definition
for terminology:
the language discipline dedicated to the scientific study of the concepts and terms used in
specialized languages
Traditional terminology is concept-oriented (Temmerman, 1997, p.53). This means that the
concept is the binding element and that all the synonyms and equivalents that denote the
concept are discussed in one and the same terminological record. This principle is also
adhered to in the present study.
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Specialised language is used to provide “unambiguous communication” (Nolet, 2001, p.xvii)
in a specific domain. Unambiguous communication in aviation is necessary, since any
misunderstanding can be catastrophic. Therefore, an accurate definition of a concept is vital.
Additionally, because of the international nature of aviation, pilots and air traffic controllers
communicate in English, a language which is in most cases not their native language
(Davison, J. et al, 1997, p.5). Hence, it is expected that translations of English terms will
exist, but that their use will be restricted to a number of (written) texts only. Moreover, since
English is the dominant language in aviation, those terms are expected to occur more
frequently.
Domain loss 1.2.2
It is expected that the other languages covered in this dissertation, Dutch and German, will
often borrow the English term and that the English loanword will occur more frequently than
a Dutch or German translation. This phenomenon is called domain loss:
loss of ability to communicate in the national language at all levels of an area of
knowledge because of deficient further development of the necessary means of
professional communication (Laurén, C. et al, 2007, p.5)
In fact, Belgocontrol (s.d.) provides a glossary on the Dutch page of its website, but they start
the list with the mention that the glossary is available in English only, since most acronyms
and aviation terminology is in English.
1.3 METHOD OF RESEARCH
First, a document with hundreds of terms was provided by Mr Aspeslagh, Main Dutch
Terminologist at the DGT. Eleven of those terms were selected for research. Each term was
analysed as described in the following paragraph.
Firstly, the current state of the term in IATE was checked. All the English terms were already
available in IATE, most of them with a definition as well. A context was hardly ever given. In
most cases, the Dutch and German equivalent(s) of the term were not provided. This resulted
in a slightly different research strategy for English versus Dutch and German terms. The
information provided in the English section was checked, whereas the Dutch and German
equivalents had to be added. In only one case was it necessary to add a term to an English
concept.
Secondly, a definition was looked for on specialised websites, using a Google Custom Search
Engine (see 1.3.1.1). If no definition could be found, a proposal was made at the end of the
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research phase, in order to provide a reliable definition. That proposal was then presented to a
pilot and altered if necessary.
Thirdly, the missing information, such as contexts, term notes and grammatical information,
was added to the terminology records of each term. When different terms defining the same
concept occur several times in IATE, a merger is suggested.
Afterwards, Captain Instructor Jurgen Schmid and Luchtverkeersleiding Nederland in the
person of Hans van den Bos were consulted for more in-depth explanation of some more
obscure concepts. Also Eurocontrol was contacted to verify the terms. No answer was
received, though.
Sources 1.3.1
In this section the various sources used to identify the concept and determine Dutch and
German equivalents are discussed. However, it should be noted that reliable texts related to
the domain of aviation are few and far between (Clematide, S., 2004, p.3). Especially Dutch
and German texts are rare. This adds to the hypothesis of domain loss.
SKYbrary7 proved a useful source for English definitions. The website is a safety portal on
aviation safety in general initiated by Eurocontrol in collaboration with ICAO, the Flight
Safety Foundation, the UK Flight Safety Committee and the European Strategic Safety
Initiative. Also the ATM Lexicon of Eurocontrol8 is a practical source of information. This
website, with the all-embracing subtitle One sky – one term, contains a lexicon only.
EUR-Lex9 was used to find out whether a term has been used in EU legislation and how that
term has been translated into Dutch and German. The glossary of Taalvlinder (2016) was used
to find a suggestion for a Dutch translation, if the term did not occur in EU texts. A German
translation was looked for in the Luftfahrtlexikon of the Luftwaffe10
.
1.3.1.1 Google Custom Search Engine
As mentioned before, reliable texts concerning the field of aviation are scarce. To save time
sorting out the reliable and unreliable English sources during a standard Google search, a
Google Custom Search Engine11
was created on the suggestion of Bjurstam (2015, p.14). This
personalised search engine contains 36 specialised websites, such as the website of Airbus,
7 http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Main_Page
8 https://www.eurocontrol.int/lexicon/lexicon/en/index.php/Main_Page
9 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html?locale=en
10 www.gotech.at/luftfahrtlexikon.xls
11 https://cse.google.com/cse/publicurl?cx=014888311472667354011:uv4ww76pqpw
11
Boeing, ICAO, the FAA, etc. The complete list of websites is included in appendix 5.1. The
settings of the search engine were adjusted so that all sites containing a particular URL were
displayed. For instance, although only ec.europa.eu/transport was added to the search engine,
any article that was published on the website of the Directorate-General for Transport will be
shown if that article contains the search query.
Although some Dutch and German sources have been included in the Google Custom Search,
the normal Google was still used for Dutch and German terms, since the number of hits for
those languages was rather low and could be sorted manually.
1.3.1.2 Jeppesen
Jeppesen12
is the bible for pilots (Jurgen Schmid, personal communication, 11.7.2016). It as a
Boeing company, which provides navigational information, such as low altitude enroute
charts showing the airways, airports, minimum altitudes, etc. of a particular area. Jeppesen
also publishes arrival charts containing necessary information for pilots to land take off
safely. Additionally, the company publishes airway manuals as well. This regularly updated
handbook explains everything that is shown on their charts. Furthermore, it contains an
elaborate glossary explaining a large number of aviation related terms. Interestingly, the
glossary also shows difference between a definition given by the FAA or by ICAO.
1.3.1.3 ICAO
The International Civil Aviation Organization13
(ICAO) is an agency under the UN
established in 1944. It was created to look after the implementation and observance of the
Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention. This
convention ensures the development of international civil aviation in a “safe and orderly
manner” and was signed on 7 December 1944 by 52 states (ICAO, 2006). The seminal
documents, such as Doc 8168 – Aircraft Operations, have a section with definitions,
abbreviations and acronyms, which proved very useful for the alphabet soup of aviation
terminology.
Criteria 1.3.2
1.3.2.1 Determining the preferred term
When multiple terms could be used to denote one concept, the preferred term had to be
determined. This was done on the basis of the frequency in the Google Custom Search
12
jeppesen.com/ 13
http://www.icao.int/about-icao/Pages/default.aspx
12
Engine, Google Books and Google. The queries in Google were sometimes adapted to make
sure some unwanted hits were filtered out or only results of certain websites were returned,
such as only sites containing .europa.eu. In some cases aviation/vliegtuig/Flugzeug was added
depending on the language of research, because the term was used in other domains as well.
Additionally, Dutch and German language markers were added to English terms to check
whether the English term occurred in Dutch or German texts as well. For Dutch, preference
was given to “de” “het” “een” instead of “de” “het” “om”, since the latter are also Swedish
words and the English terms occurred in Swedish texts as well. For German, those language
markers were the determiners “der” “die” “das”. If there was no clear preference after the
frequency search, the term which resembled the English term the most was labelled as
preferred (Vandepitte, 2010, p.79).
Although these frequencies give a general view of the use of a term, care should be taken not
to use them as the only criterion for a preferred term. First of all, The number of hits given on
the first page can be inaccurate and can give the impression that the term occurs in a large
number of texts. A term can have “about 3,500 results”, but when one clicks through to the
last page, the number of hits can be for example 263 instead of 3,500. Moreover, at the last
page of a Google query, the following message appears:
In order to show you the most relevant results, we have omitted some entries very similar
to the 263 already displayed.
If you like, you can repeat the search with the omitted results included.
If one repeats that search including the omitted results, the number of hits increases. However,
there are a lot of irrelevant hits using this search and this should therefore be ignored, since
only an indicative overview is needed to determine the preferred term. Furthermore, when this
search was used in a Dutch query, several hits showed the same sentence of the term used in
EU documents. For example, one hit was a reference to the EUR-Lex document, the other hit
referred to the same text published on the website of the European Council and yet another hit
led to a website of an airline company showing the European regulations. In general, the
number of hits given on the first page gives a good impression, since the exact number of hits
is actually not necessary, only a proportional relation has any value. However, that initial
number can be misleading, as one could think that a term occurs much more than it actually
does.
Next, the correct spelling had to be determined for some terms, for example en-route phase
(see 2.3). Although the preferred spelling was always chosen on the basis of the spelling rules
of the respective languages, the frequency of the different spellings was also counted. In the
13
case of hyphens versus spelling in separate words, this count had to be done manually, since
Google does not recognise the difference between a hyphen and a space. The query for the
above-mentioned term was “en route phase” after which the page was searched for “en-
route” using the shortcut Ctrl+F, because this function does recognise a hyphen and a space.
1.3.2.2 Altitude versus height
In aviation, there is a vital difference between altitude and height. Jeppesen (2003, p.3)
defines altitude as “the vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point,
measured from Mean Sea Level”. Height, on the other hand is measured in feet above ground
level. This means that when an aircraft flies at an altitude of 3,000 feet, it is possible that the
aircraft is at a height of 2,000 feet, if the earth is 1,000 feet above sea level. The distinction in
English is clear. Also in German, there are different terms for this: Höhe über NN
(Normalnull) and Höhe über Grund for altitude and height respectively. This distinction is not
often found in Dutch, though. Docslide.nl (s.d.), slide 12, makes a distinction between
“absolute hoogte (boven het oppervlak (agl))” and “werkelijke hoogte (boven zeenivo [sic]
(msl))”, but this terminological distinction is not very common in other documents. Although
most vertical distances are altitudes, care should be taken when translating those terms and
explicitation should be considered when necessary (Vandepitte, 2010, p.81).
1.3.2.3 Minimum versus minimale
In Dutch, the English adjective minimum can only be translated as minimale. Minimum is a
noun in Dutch and cannot be used as an adjective (VRT-taalnet, s.d.). Although minimum
occurs as an adjective in some compounds, this solution was regarded as wrong, but the
option was nevertheless added to the relevant field of the terminology record.
1.4 IATE-CVT
InterActive Terminology for Europe, commonly known as IATE, is the inter-institutional
term base of the European Union. The database combines all information of the different
term bases which were used before, such as EURODICAUTOM and EUTERPE, the term
bases of the European Council and European Parliament respectively (iate.europa.eu, s.d.).
The idea for a merged term base was launched in 1999. In 2004, IATE was born, but could
only be accessed by EU employees. As from 2007, the general public can access the term
base, containing 8.4 million terms covering all 24 official languages.
CvT, the Ghent-based Terminology Centre (Centrum voor Terminologie), is a research unit of
the Department of Translation, Interpreting and Communication in Ghent. It is the
14
coordinating body for activities concerning terminography and terminology in the Department
(cvt.ugent.be, s.d.).
GenTerm 1.4.1
The CvT uses GenTerm to record and store terminographical data, hence GenTerm (Ghent
Term base). This method is based on the traditional principle of terminology, i.e. it is concept-
oriented. All the terms and synonyms denoting the same concept are joined together in one
and the same term record (GenTerm, s.d.). Students and UGent staff have access to the
validated records on the intranet.
Terminological record 1.4.2
A terminological record is compiled of three levels: a language independent level (LIL) listing
general information on the entry; a language level (LL) containing the language discussed and
the definition; and a term level (TERM). This level gives information about the term and can
occur multiple times per language, since each synonym will be given a separate term level.
The records used in this thesis are a Word-file based on the records used for IATE, with some
additions for GenTerm.
Several fields of the terminological record have been highlighted in yellow or green for a
specific purpose. Yellow means that something has been added to the IATE entry. When the
field Language on the language level has been highlighted, there was no equivalent for that
language in IATE. When the term on the term level has been highlighted, this means that the
entire term level of that term has been added. Green is used to show that information that was
provided by IATE has been changed.
The outlook of a terminological record for this thesis is as follows:
LIL
o LL for English
TERM 1
(TERM 2)
…
o LL for Dutch
TERM 1
(TERM 2)
…
o LL for German
15
TERM 1
(TERM 2)
…
On the language independent level, general information on the concept is shown. The
underlined fields are part of the GenTerm record.
IATE number: when an entry already exists in IATE, the number is filled out here.
Domain: each domain has been given a code in EUROVOC14
, the EU’s multilingual
thesaurus. 4826 is the code given to air and space transport.
Domain note: used to denote a subdomain. In this thesis, the subdomain is air
transport. Therefore, the code 001 can be added to separate the entries from space
transport, which is given 002.
Collection: a code can be given to a concept, if that concept belongs to a certain
collection, for example terminographical research within the framework of an
upcoming translation.
Crossref: this field can be used to refer to other IATE entries, which are broader,
narrower or related to the concept which is discussed.
ProblemLanguage: gives the source language of the text in which the term was found
for the first time. This is predominantly English.
Project: displays the project code. For this thesis, this code was IATE-CvT JVN.
ConceptCode: gives the number of the concept, for instance JVN01, JVN02, etc.
Concept: shows a brief definition of the concept discussed in the record.
De-term/En-term/Nl-term: gives the terms in the respective languages.
Equival: in the case of synonyms, minor differences in meaning are discussed in this
field.
Graphics: an illustration of the concept can be included.
Graph_Reference: shows the source of the illustration.
The language level has four fields to be filled out. Some fields have not been explained, as
they are self-explanatory.
Language
Definition
Def_Reference
14
http://eurovoc.europa.eu/drupal/
16
Def_Note: remarks on a quoted definition can be included here. Or if a definition
could not be found, a definition suggested by the terminologist is filled out in this
field.
The term level displays information on each individual term. Some self-explanatory fields
have not been clarified.
TermType: displays the type of the term: Term, Phrase, Formula, Abbrev or Short
Form.
TermGroup: shows the number of the term. When synonyms have been listed, the
preferred term is given number 1, the other term is given number 2, etc. When an
abbreviation is clearly derived from the term, for example MOCA as the abbreviation
of minimum obstacle clearance altitude, the TermGroup of that abbreviation is the
same as the number of the term it is derived from.
Evaluation: displays whether the term is preferred or obsolete.
en-English/de-Deutsch/nl-Nederlands: shows the term.
Reliability: a score is given from 1 to 4. 1 being reliability not verified, 4 being
reliable. For this thesis, the reliability was set to 2. For cases in which the suggested
term could not be found in contexts, the reliability was set to 1.
Term_Reference: shows a reference to an EU document in which the term occurs, by
means of the full title, including the CELEX-number. This number will than become
a hyperlink in IATE.
RelatedMaterial: shows sources in which the term occurs as well, besides the EU
document.
Term_Note: remarks on the term or less common synonyms are shown in this field.
LangUsage: a comment on the language usage is mention here, for example informal.
RegionalUsage: if the term is typically Belgian or Dutch, this can be mention in this
field by means of NL-BE or NL-NL.
PartOfSpeech
Gender
LookUpForms: different spelling options are given in this field.
Context: shows one to three quotation(s) which illustrate(s) the use of the term.
Cont_Reference
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2 DISCUSSION
2.1 TAKE-OFF PHASE – JVN01
take-off phase startfase
take-off-fase
Startphase
Aufstiegsphase
Take-Off-Phase
English term 2.1.1
This concept is covered in IATE 182627, giving the following English definition:
operating phase defined by the time during which the engine is operated at the rated
thrust
According to IATE 1191137, rated/nominal thrust is the “thrust or power on an engine
according to the manufacturing design”. However, a search for more information on rated
thrust revealed that other thrust for take-off exist as well, such as reduced thrust takeoff
(Skybrary, 2015) or de-rated thrust (Barnhart, C. et al.). Although this concept is not within
the scope of this paper, it shows that the definition in IATE is not entirely correct, since a
take-off can also be done with de-rated thrust. Therefore the following definition is
suggested, based on IVAO (2016):
phase of flight from the application of take-off thrust until an altitude of 1 000ft or 1 500ft
has been reached
By referring to the take-off thrust, there can be no confusion about whether the thrust is rated
or de-rated. The take-off thrust is either a full take-off thrust, using maximum engine power
depending on the temperature and air pressure at the aerodrome, or a de-rated take-off thrust.
The latter is the more common, since a full take-off thrust is rather noisy and wears out the
engines (Jurgen Schmid, personal communication, 11.7.2016).
The take-off phase consists of the take-off and the initial climb to an altitude of 1,000 or 1,500
feet. After this, the aircraft enters the climb phase (see 2.2), the flaps are retracted and power
is reduced (IVAO, 2016). At some airports, the climb phase is entered at 1,000 feet, again for
noise and fuel consumption reduction (Air Transport World, 2013), for reason of wear and
also depending on the time of day (night or day). Despite this evolution, the 1,500 feet border
is the more common used (Schmid, personal communication, 11.7.2016). Because of the
choice between those two altitudes, they have both been added to the definition.
18
To determine the correct spelling of take-off, all spelling options were checked in Google
(22.7.2016). Aviation was added to the query, because take-off can be used in athletics as
well. This addition was left out in the Google Custom Search. As Google and EUR-Lex do
not recognise the difference between a space and a hyphen, the query for that option was
“take off phase” after which the frequency of the two options was counted using the shortcut
Ctrl+F. In EUR-Lex, take-off phase is used as a generic expression as well. The query
rendered twelve hits, only three of them considered relevant1. Furthermore, the term takeoff
phase is used in three documents, only two of which concern air transport2.
“term” aviation
Google Custom
Search Engine:
“term”
EUR-Lex: “term”
takeoff phase 172 10 2
take-off phase 110 20 3
take off phase 22 4 0
Although takeoff phase has more hits on Google, the number of reliable source is rather low
in comparison to the spelling with a hyphen. More specialised sources3, such as EASA,
Skybrary, Eurocontrol and ICAO, tend to use the hyphen. This is backed by Swan (2005,
p.559) and Cambridge Online Dictionary (2016). They both argue that compound nouns used
as an adjective should be separated by a hyphen. Swan even suggests that compound nouns
consisting of a noun and a preposition or adverb particle should be written with a hyphen as
well. Therefore, the spelling with a hyphen was chosen as the preferred spelling. The other
options have been added to the look-up form field.
Dutch term 2.1.2
There is no Dutch equivalent in IATE for this term. The proposed definition is based on an
article on the website of the Board Of Airline Representatives In The Netherlands and
contains both altitudes, 1,000 feet and 1,500 feet, as well. The term occurs in
CELEX:32015L0996, CELEX:02002L0049-20150702 and CELEX:52000PC0595, in which
it is translated as startfase. On the website of Brussels Airport Traffic Control4, the term is
translated as vertrekfase:
It is based on several parameters (destination, weight of the aircraft, runway-in-use, etc.)
to bring the aircraft from take-off phase to the international network of airways across
1 CELEX:52000PC0595; CELEX:JOC_2001_154_E_0001_01; CELEX:52013SC0539
2 CELEX:32015L0996; CELEX:02002L0049-20150702
3 Reliable aviation websites were aggregated in the Google Custom Search. See the appendix 5.1 for a full list of
the websites. 4 http://www.batc.be/en
19
Europe.
(Brussels Airport Traffic Control (2015). Flight paths info. In Website Brussels Airport
Traffic Control, http://www.batc.be/en/flight-paths-info [22.7.2016])
Ze is gebaseerd op verschillende parameters (bestemming, gewicht van het vliegtuig, baan
in gebruik, enz.) om het vliegtuig vanuit zijn vertrekfase te laten aansluiten op het
internationale netwerk van luchtwegen dat Europa doorkruist.
(Brussels Airport Traffic Control (2015). Info over de vliegroutes. In Website Brussels
Airport Traffic Control, http://www.batc.be/en/flight-paths-info [22.7.2016])
Nonetheless, the Dutch aviation sources using vertrekfase are negligible. The query
“vertrekfase” vliegtuig (22.7.2016) rendered 24 hits, several of which referring to tourist
business and hence irrelevant to the field of air transport. Also opstijgfase occurred as a
possible translation. Although the reference to an aircraft is clearer in this case (opstijgen), the
use of it is restricted to newspaper articles and a number of government documents such as
measures to reduce noise nuisance (Departement Leefmilieu, Natuur & Energie, s.d.).
Our informant Jurgen Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) comments that no pilot
will ever speak of a startfase or any other translation. They would rather say take-off fase, i.e.
closer to the English term. Several spelling options of this term can be found. Again, the
results had to be counted manually (22.7.2016). This time the Dutch articles de, het and een
were added to obtain Dutch results only. The term also occurred with double quotation marks,
but the results of the single and double quotation marks were added together.
Google query: “term” “de” “het” “een”
take-off fase 69
take-off-fase 19
‘take-off’-fase 15
take-offfase 13
takeoff-fase 11
takeoff fase 7
‘take-off’ fase 6
take off fase 6
‘take off’ fase 5
‘take off’-fase 1
‘takeoff’ fase 0
‘takeoff’-fase 0
Although the spelling with one hyphen and the space, resembling the English spelling, is the
most common, take-offfase is the correct spelling according to Taaltelefoon, rule 12 (2006).
However, to improve the legibility, a hyphen can be added in compound nouns, i.e. take-off-
fase is also correct. Additionally, neither takeoff nor take off is an option, since compound
nouns containing an English adverb or preposition at the end are written with a hyphen.
20
Confusingly, one could opt for a typographic solution, such as single or double quotation
marks, keep the English spelling and add a hyphen between the typographically marked
compound and the noun (Taaltelefoon, s.d.). According to the rules, the following options
(marked in the table) are correct: take-offfase, take-off-fase or ‘take-off’-fase. As the spelling
with two hyphens occurs the most, this is preferred. The other options have been added to the
term-note field.
German term 2.1.3
A German term was not available either in IATE. The suggested definition, based on Brünig,
G. et al., contains all the essential elements. The term is translated as Startphase in
CELEX:52000PC0595, CELEX:32015L0996 and CELEX:02002L0049-20150702.
Aufstiegsphase was encountered as well, together with Take-Off-Phase. Flugzeug was added
to the query to make sure only aviation related texts came up.
Google: “term” Flugzeug Google Books: “term”
Flugzeug
Startphase 404 148
Aufstiegsphase 225 55
Take-Off-Phase 55 14
The table above shows that Startphase is the most popular in aviation related texts and Google
and on Google Books. Aufstiegsphase occurs relatively frequent as well and is therefore
considered a full synonym. Take-Off-Phase has been added as a separate term as well, again
because English is the lingua franca in air transport, even when a German pilot has contact
with a German air traffic controller.
Query: “term” “der” “die” das”
Take-Off-Phase 160
Take-Off Phase 65
Take Off Phase 14
“Take-Off”-Phase 4
“Take Off” Phase 1
“Take-Off” Phase 0
To determine the preferred spelling of the English term in German, several options were
entered in Google (22.7.2016). This shows that the spelling with two hyphens occurs
significantly more than the other options. This contradicts the German spelling rule 41, which
says that a compound foreign word is to be written together (Duden, s.d.). However, the
Duden also states that the possible spelling options have multiplied significantly due to the
new spelling rules.
21
2.2 CLIMB(-OUT) PHASE – JVN02
climb-out phase
climb phase
stijgvlucht
klimvlucht
Steigflug
Steigphase
English term 2.2.1
Climb phase is covered in IATE 200406. Although there is only one term in this entry, there
are two types of climb phases: climb-out phase and climb phase. The climb-out phase starts
after take-off and initial climb when the aircraft reaches 1,000 feet or 1,500 feet and the flaps
are retracted. It ends when the aircraft levels off at the cruising level (Skybrary). At that point,
the en-route phase starts (see 2.3, en-route phase – JVN03). Climb phase, on the other hand,
can refer to that climb-out phase, but it can also refer to a phase in which the aircraft has to
gain height during the en-route phase for safety reasons or because the air traffic controller
assigned a higher altitude.
operating phase defined by the time during which the engine is operated in the climb
operating mode (Definition IATE, International Civil Aviation Vocabulary’. (CD-ROM).
International Civil Aviation Organization. 2nd edition. Montreal: ICAO, 2002.)
This definition is rather vague, but covers both terms at the same time. However, a definition
note with the information mentioned above has been added to make clear that there is a
distinction between the two terms. Furthermore, a term note completes both entries by stating
that climb-out phase is only used to describe the flight phase between take-off phase and en-
route phase, and that climb phase is also used when an aircraft gains height during another
flight phase. Climbing phase is considered a synonym of the latter. The following example
illustrates the use of climb phase as a term for height gain during the en-route phase:
“It was caused by the convergence of a cruising aircraft and another aircraft in climbing
phase, the routes of which crossed at right angles.”
(Swiss Accident Investigation Board SAIB (2011). Final Report No. 2183 of the Swiss
Accident Investigation Board SAIB. In Website Skybrary.aero,
http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/2587.pdf [24.7.2016])
The quote is taken from an investigation report concerning a serious incident in which two
airplanes almost collided in mid-air. Both airplanes were flying at cruising altitude, one of
which climbed higher than the altitude it was assigned because an incorrect flight level was
entered into the flight management system (Swiss Accident Investigation Board SAIB, 2011).
22
Dutch term 2.2.2
IATE 200406 has no Dutch entry. Climb phase occurs in CELEX:32012R0965 and is
translated as stijgvlucht. Climb-out phase is mentioned in CELEX:32012R0923 and translated
as klimfase. However, the query “klimfase” vliegtuig received 47 hits on Google (23.7.2016).
By analogy with stijgvlucht, the query “klimvlucht” vliegtuig was launched and received 133
hits. This term is also used in CELEX:32011R1178. Because of those Google hits, klimfase
was added to the look-up form field of klimvlucht, together with the English terms. The query
“stijgvlucht” vliegtuig received 172 hits and is therefore preferred. As in English, there seems
to be a restriction on the use of both terms. Klimvlucht can only be used to denote the flight
phase between take-off phase and en-route phase, whereas stijgvlucht can also be used to
denote the height gain during the en-route phase. This difference has been added to the field
LangUsage.
“term” vliegtuig
stijgvlucht 172
klimvlucht 133
klimfase 47
The definition is based on the Dutch Wikipedia of Klimmen (luchtvaart). In that article, there
is the notion of phase after take-off or an incremental climb due to weight loss because of fuel
consumption. This information was checked on various aviation-specialised websites and
confirmed by Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016).
German term 2.2.3
The German definition is based on Scheiderer, J. (2008) and contains both meanings of climb
phase. Both in CELEX:32012R0923 and in CELEX:32012R0965, Steigflug is the translation
of climb-out phase and climb phase respectively. In linguee, Steigphase was found as a
translation of climbing phase. Both German terms seem to be used interchangeably for either
climb-out or climb phase. Although no clear distinction can be made, Steigphase is
predominantly used in sentences where the phase between take-off and en-route is meant.
Steigflug, on the other hand, was encountered in texts containing both meanings and therefore
considered synonymous with climb phase. A Google search (24.7.2016) seems to corroborate
this assumption. The query “Steigflug” “FL350”1 received 115 hits, “Steigphase” “FL350”
1 FL or Flight Level is “A surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is related to a specific pressure datum,
1013.2 hectopascals (hPa), and is separated from other such surfaces by specific pressure intervals” (Jeppesen,
2003). The altitude is measured above sea level in 100ft units. This nominal altitude is not necessarily the actual
23
received only 5 hits. In all five of them, the two terms seem to have no relation to each other.
Such relation is the case in the first query, which can be seen below.
TUI2MD derzeit auf FL330 wird an München übergeben und erbittet dort einen Steigflug
auf FL370, befindet sich jedoch noch in Langen Airspace.
(IVAO Deutschland, s.d.)
Indonesische Medien zitieren Jonan mit einer aufgezeichneten Steigrate von 6.000 Fuß
pro Minute. Eine Erklärung für diesen extremen Steigflug liege noch nicht vor .
(Aero.de Luftfahrtnachrichten, 2015)
The second quotation, taken from an article on a plane crash in the Java Sea, also confirms
that Steigflug can be used to denote a gain in height during the en-route phase. The aircraft
was “cruising” at an altitude of 32,000 feet and plummeted into the sea, after a climb to a
higher altitude to avoid bad weather. However, the aircraft was flying too fast to perform a
safe climb to 38,000 feet (deredactie.be, 2015). Because of this, the aircraft slowed down and
lost altitude (Komite Nasional Keselamatan Transportasi, 2014).
The Germanised English term Climb-Out-Phase has been added in the look-up form field, as
the query “Climb out phase” Flugzeug rendered 12 hits and because of the fact that
communication in the aviation world is predominantly in English.
altitude, since it depends on the air pressure. In this case, the altitude would 35,000ft when the pressure at sea
level is 1013.2 hPa (Skybrary, 2011). FLs are used above the transition altitude, which is mainly 4,000ft.
24
2.3 EN-ROUTE PHASE – JVN03
en-route phase
cruise phase
en-routefase
kruisfase
Reiseflugphase
Streckenflugphase
English term 2.3.1
IATE 226848 gives the following definition for en-route phase:
part of the flight from the end of the take-off and initial climb phase to the commencement
of the approach and landing phase
However, as explained in 2.1 and 2.2, the flight phase after take-off and initial climb is the
climb-out phase. According to this definition, the en-route phase is entered immediately after
take-off and initial climb. The aircraft would then be en route at an altitude of 1,000 feet or
1,500ft (300-450 metre). Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) states that an aircraft
still climbs after initial climb to cruising altitude at which point the en-route phase starts.
Because of this misunderstanding, a different definition is suggested based on IVAO (2016):
part of the flight from the end of the climb phase to the commencement of the approach
and landing phase
(IVAO, 2016)
During research, three possible spelling options came up: en route phase, en-route phase and
enroute phase. A Google search (12.7.2016) was carried out and the results for the
hyphen/no-hyphen spelling were counted manually.
“term” “term”
site:.europa.eu
“term”
site:.co.uk
Google Custom
Search: “term”
enroute phase 339 12 33 14
en-route phase 118 64 53 23
en route phase 102 26 17 13
As can be seen in the table, enroute phase is the most frequently used spelling. However, as
the English Style Guide of the European Commission (2016, p.17) argues, hyphens should be
used for the “good purpose” to connect two parts that belong together, in this case en and
route. Hence, the correct spelling is en-route phase, with a hyphen. This option is also
predominantly used on specialised websites (Google Custom Search) and by the European
Union. Yet, Swan (2005, p.551) and Cambridge Online Dictionary (2016) both mention that
the use of hyphens is ambiguous and that there is a tendency to write it as one word, which
would explain the 339 hits on Google. For this paper, the preference has been given to en-
route phase, with a hyphen, since that option occurs significantly more on EU and British
25
websites and in the Google Custom Search, containing only reliable aviation sources and in
addition is written according to the Style Guide. All other options have been added in the field
LookUp Forms.
As Boeing (2007) and IVAO (2015) argue, cruise phase is also used to denote the flight phase
between climb phase and approach phase, and is therefore a synonym for the en-route phase.
In order to determine which term is to be preferred, both terms were entered in Google
(24.7.2016). The query for cruise phase had to be altered to “cruise phase” aviation -Dukan,
as cruise phase is also used as a term for a phase in the Dukan Diet (Dukan Diet, s.d.).
Furthermore, because of the different spelling options, the results for en(-)route phase and
enroute phase were added up, since the different spellings are irrelevant for this particular
search.
“term” Google Custom
Search: “term”
“term”
site:.europa.eu
en-route phase 549 50 105
cruise phase 307 24 107
The outcome of this search shows that en-route phase is used significantly more in
comparison to cruise phase, except in EU texts, which have only a negligible preference for
the latter.
En(-)route phase and cruise phase occur in several EUR-Lex documents. In order to see how
these terms have been translated, the following table has been compiled.
CELEX EN NL DE
51999DC0640 cruise phase kruisfase Reiseflugphase
32011R1178 cruise phase kruisfase Reiseflugphase
32009R0029 en route phase “en route”-fase Streckenflugphase
32011R0677 en route phase en-route-vluchtfase Streckenflugphase
32014R0245 en route phase “en-route”-fase Streckenphase
02011R1178-20160408 en route phase “en route”-fase Streckenphase
32010R1089 en-route phase “en-route”-fase Streckenphase
32012R0965 en-route phase en-route-fase Streckenflugphase
Reiseflugphase
32014R0716 en-route phase en-routefase Streckenflugphase
Dutch term 2.3.2
The Dutch translation of en-route phase has several spellings in EU documents. According to
Taaltelefoon (2006), rule number 12, compounds containing foreign groups of words should
be written with a hyphen and the last part of the compound noun should be attached to the
26
foreign compound. Considering this, the correct spelling is en-routefase, which is used in only
one text, i.e. CELEX:32014R0716. Additionally, the spelling with two hyphens is also
allowed to improve legibility, cf. CELEX:32012R0965 and CELEX:32011R0677. In contrast
to the Dutch spelling rules for English words, words originating from another language than
English cannot be written with typographic markers, such as double or single quotation
marks, but should be written with a hyphen. Since en route is originally French (OED), it
should be written according to section 12 of the spelling rules (Woordgroepen uit andere talen
(behalve het Engels)). This rules out “en route”-fase as a correct spelling. The various
variations and combinations have been added to the look-up form field of the terminology
record.
Cruise phase has been translated as kruisfase in both EUR-Lex documents and occurs 45
times on Google (24.7.2016). The results for en-routefase have been added together because
of the large variety of spellings. The results for the cruisefase query had to be slimmed down
by adding –Dukan, although some diet sources still slipped through the net, and the hits for
the spellings as one word, with a hyphen or with a space were added together.
“term” Google Custom Search: “term”
en-routefase 49 9
kruisfase 45 5
cruisefase 40 0
These results might not surprise. En-route phase is more likely to be translated as en-
routefase, than as kruisfase, since a translator “unconsciously converts the sentences into the
target language combined with literal translation” (Vandepitte, 2010, p.13) and en-route
phase is more similar to en-routefase than to kruisfase. Additionally, aviation related texts are
rarely written in Dutch, because the language is hardly ever used in air traffic communication,
either written or oral. It should also be noted that cruisefase does not occur on specialised
websites and the sources that the query returned on Google are not as reliable as the sources
returned by en-routefase and kruisfase.
A Dutch definition for this term could not be found. However, on the basis of research in the
three languages and consultation of several texts on the topic, the following definition is
suggested:
fase vanaf het einde van de klimfase tot aan het begin van de landingsfase
27
German term 2.3.3
The definition is based on Guth (s.d.) and was checked for its relevance against the English
definition. The translations provided by the EUR-Lex documents, together with the English
term, were entered in Google separately (24.7.2016). Some language particles, i.e. der, die
and das, were added to the English term, to ensure that the results contained predominantly
German texts. As in the English and Dutch query, one of the terms is used to denote the
second phase of a certain diet. Surprisingly, that term is not the one that looks the most like
the English term. The query for Reiseflugphase had to be strengthened by the addition –
Dukan.
“term”
Reiseflugphase 168
Cruise(-)Phase 138
Streckenflugphase 42
Streckenphase 38
As can be seen in the table, both Reiseflugphase and Cruise Phase occur significantly more.
The high number for the Anglicism Cruise Phase might be caused by the fact that this term is
also used in space transport. The results for that domain have been not filtered out, since it
would be too time-consuming to determine for each document whether it concerns air
transport or space transport. Nonetheless, the term has not been listed as a full synonym in
the term record, but has been added to the term-note field and preference has been given to
the terms occurring in EU legislation, as the German terms are considered more suitable for
the IATE term base than the Anglicism. Moreover, Streckenphase was encountered as a
possible term as well, but due to its similarity added as a term note to Streckenflugphase.
28
2.4 MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE – JVN04
minimum safe altitude
MSA
minimale veilige vlieghoogte Sicherheitsmindesthöhe
English term 2.4.1
This generic term for an altitude “below which it is unsafe to fly owing to presence of terrain
or obstacles” (Skybrary), is covered in IATE 30018, IATE 970434, IATE 1187896, IATE
1348194 and IATE 234035. It is suggested to merge those entries with IATE 30018, as they
all contain the same terms in most of the languages. The correctness of those languages has
not been verified, though, except for English, Dutch and German.
In aviation, there is no unity on what minimum safe altitude exactly means. Some argue that it
is a synonym for minimum sector altitude, others think that those two terms are not the same.
This division is mainly geographical between the US and Europe (in the broader sense). This
confusion is extended to the use of the abbreviation MSA. ICAO (2006) state that MSA is the
abbreviation of minimum sector altitude, the FAA on the other hand argue that MSA stands
for minimum safe/sector altitude, by which they mean that it either refers to minimum safe
altitude or minimum sector altitude. The difference between those two terms, according to the
FAA, is explained in section 2.5.1 of this paper. However, whether the abbreviation refers to
minimum sector altitude or to minimum safe altitude or to minimum safe/sector altitude, a
pilot knows that it is a safety altitude under which he/she is not to fly.
“term” –warning
minimum safe altitude 282
minimum safety altitude 152
Both minimum safe altitude and minimum safety altitude occur, but due to the minor spelling
difference, minimum safety altitude was added to the term-note field of minimum safe altitude.
However, a note should be made on the Google hits for these terms (25.7.2016). To avoid
references to minimum safe altitude warning or MSAW, which is a “ground-based safety net
intended to assist in the prevention of controlled flight into terrain accidents by generating, in
a timely manner, an alert of aircraft proximity to terrain or obstacles” (Eurocontrol, 2009), the
query was changed to “term” –warning. Minimum safe altitude warning is not covered in this
paper, though.
29
Dutch term 2.4.2
There is a Dutch equivalent for all the IATE entries mentioned above, except for IATE
970434 and IATE 234035. The translations provided by those entries1 were all queried in
Google (25.7.2016), together with other possible terms2.
“term” vliegtuig
veiligheidshoogte 50
minimum safe altitude 17
minimale veilige vlieghoogte 16
minimale veilige hoogte 9
minimale veiligheidshoogte 4
laagste veilige hoogte 3
As in English, -warning had to be added to the query for minimum safe altitude to obtain only
minimum safe altitude and not minimum safe altitude warning. Nonetheless, the hits returned
in that query still contained nine English sentences containing the term. The eight remaining
sources were forums and non-specialised websites. The results for veiligheidshoogte mainly
concerned texts on engine model aircraft or occurred in combination with minimum/minimale.
The results for veiligheidshoogte and minimum safe altitude are therefore considered not
reliable to determine the preferred term. Third-in-line, minimale veilige vlieghoogte, is
consequently preferred. All other options were classified as less common synonyms and
added to the appropriate field.
MSA as the abbreviation for minimum safe altitude is hardly ever used in Dutch texts.
A definition was not provided by IATE and could not be found in the Google hits. The
proposed definition was composed after research for this concept.
German term 2.4.3
The definition is based on the Luftverkehrs-Ordnung of 29 October 2015. As in Dutch, the
German equivalents provided by IATE 30018, IATE 1187896 (both Sicherheitsmindesthöhe)
and IATE 1348194 (Sicherheitsmindestflughöhe) were checked, together with
Mindestsicherheitshöhe and Minimum Safe Altitude. The query for the latter had to be
changed to “Minimum Safe Altitude” “der” “die” “das” –warning, to obtain only German
hits and filter out the sentences containing minimum safe altitude warning.
1 IATE 30018: laagste veilige hoogte; IATE 1187896: veiligheidshoogte; IATE 1348194: minimale
veilige(vlieg)hoogte 2 Minimum safe altitude and minimale veiligheidshoogte
30
“term” Google Custom Search:
“term”
Sicherheitsmindesthöhe 282 8
Mindestsicherheitshöhe 124 4
Sicherheitsmindestflughöhe 60 0
Minimum Safe Altitude 49 1
As Sicherheitsheitsmindesthöhe is given in two out of the three entries and receives the most
hits, both on Google and on the Google Custom Search, preference is given to that term.
Although Mindestsicherheitshöhe occurs rather frequent as well, it was added as a term note
to Sicherheitsmindesthöhe, in order to avoid unnecessary term variation. Minimum Safe
Altitude is mainly used on forums, translation memory websites and glossaries. The term was
also added to Sicherheitsmindesthöhe.
MSA as an abbreviation for minimum safe altitude is used in German, however this is
considered incorrect according to ICAO, since it regards MSA as an abbreviation for
minimum sector altitude. The FAA on the other hand allows the use of MSA as an
abbreviation for minimum safe altitude.
31
2.5 MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE – JVN05
minimum sector altitude
minimum safe altitude
MSA
terminal arrival altitude
terminal arrival area
TAA
minimumsectorhoogte
laagste sectorhoogte
minimum sector altitude
MSA
Sektorenmindesthöhe
Sektormindesthöhe
Minimum Sector Altitude
MSA
English term 2.5.1
This concept is relatively well covered by IATE entries 30024 and 234037. Although the
languages covered in the latter entry (Spanish, French, English, German and Italian) have not
been checked because they are not within the scope of this dissertation, it is advisable to
merge the two entries. IATE refers to Annex 4 of ICAO's PANS-OPS for the following
definition:
the lowest altitude which may be used under emergency conditions which will provide a
minimum clearance of 300 m (1,000 ft) above all objects located in an area contained
within a sector of a circle of 46 km (25 nm) radius centered on a radio aid to navigation
An aspect which is not covered by this definition, is that the minimum sector altitude is
established for an aerodrome where instrument approach procedures have been established
(Aircraft Operations, Volume II, p. I-4-8-1). It is therefore suggested in a note to the
definition that this element needs adding.
As the adapted definition is no longer a literal quotation, it had also better be adapted to the
spelling rules of the English Style Guide of the European Commission (2016), which prefers
British English over American spelling, meaning that "centered" should be changed to
"centred". Furthermore, the same guide makes a note on the notation of numbers, proclaiming
that groupings of thousands should not be separated by commas or points, but by a hard space
(Ctrl + Shift + Space). Nevertheless, this issue might seem of minor importance to get the gist
of the definition.
A further issue is the notion of "emergency conditions". In Annex 4 to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation (2009), there is no mention of emergency use. The fact that this
aspect was added in the original definition is probably the outcome of an intralingual battle
32
between American and British English sprouting from the initialism MSA. In EN-US, this
abbreviation is used to refer to minimum safe/sector altitude, i.e. to either minimum safe
altitude or minimum sector altitude. However, as SKYbrary tentatively argues, the ICAO uses
MSA only to refer to minimum sector altitude and “care should always be taken to establish
which term the abbreviation MSA is referring to in any particular circumstance”1. This issue
is covered in 2.4 (minimum safe altitude – JVN04). In Europe, minimum sector altitude is
used to refer to the minimum altitude for an approach within a radius of 25 nautical miles of a
radio aid to navigation. That radius as a whole is called a sector.
Confusingly, in the US this altitude within a radius of 25 nautical miles is called the minimum
safe altitude. However, it is possible that this radius is divided into sectors, as illustrated in
Figure 1. Then, the altitude mentioned in the sectors is the minimum sector altitude (Jeppesen,
2012). In Europe, the minimum sector altitudes for Land’s End is 2 400ft. If Land’s End were
in the US, the altitude would be called the minimum safe altitude. In Charleroi the minimum
sector altitudes are 2 300ft, 2 500ft or 2 600ft depending on the sector of approach, both in the
US and in Europe. One minimum altitude, i.e. the MSA in Land’s End, may be established if
the differences between the sector altitudes are insignificant, i.e. less than 100m or 300ft
(ICAO, 2006).
The contexts and Jurgen Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) corroborate the
assumption that minimum safe altitude is a synonym for the European minimum sector
altitude. Furthermore, Jeppesen (2012, p.15) makes a distinction between minimum
safe/sector altitude used by the FAA and minimum sector altitude as used by ICAO. In their
definition, the notion of "emergency use only" is present for the FAA term, but not for the
ICAO term. However, Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) suggested that these
1 Minimum Sector Altitude. In SKYbrary, http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Minimum_Sector_Altitude
[8.4.2016]
Figure 1 MSA Land’s
End Figure 2 MSA
Charleroi/Brussels
South
33
altitudes are published should an aircraft be in emergency, otherwise the pilot is assigned an
altitude by the air traffic controller. Nevertheless, the notion of emergency cannot be found in
any European text and is therefore not included.
Research on terminal arrival altitude, IATE 3538218, suggests that it is a synonym for
minimum sector altitude. The term is abbreviated as TAA and was initially a separate term for
this paper. ICAO (2006) gives the following definition for TAA:
The lowest altitude that will provide a minimum clearance of 300 m (1 000 ft) above all
objects located in an arc of a circle defined by a 46 km (25 NM) radius centred on the
initial approach fix (IAF), or where there is no IAF on the intermediate approach fix (IF),
delimited by straight lines joining the extremity of the arc to the IF. The combined TAAs
associated with an approach procedure shall account for an area of 360 degrees around
the IF.
Our informant Jurgen Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) confirms that minimum
sector altitude and terminal arrival altitude are in essence synonyms. However, the contexts
for these terms contain a minor difference between the terms: the minimum sector altitude is
established for aerodromes where instrument procedures have been established; the terminal
arrival altitude is established for aerodromes with RNAV2. The FAA states that the terminal
arrival altitude, when published, replaces the minimum sector altitude for that particular
approach procedure (FAA, 2014). It is the purpose of the TAA to “provide a transition for the
en-route structure to an RNAV approach procedure” (Skybrary, 2014).
Minimum sector altitudes shall be established for each aerodrome where instrument
approach procedures have been established. (ICAO, 2006)
Terminal Arrival Altitudes (TAAs) are associated with an RNAV procedure based upon
the T or Y arrangement described in Chapter 3.(ICAO, 2006).
The T arrangement can be seen on the Instrument Approach Chart included in appendix 5.1.
Furthermore, the two terms occur side by side in many texts:
The procedure is entered at the 46 km (25 NM) minimum sector altitude or terminal
arrival altitude. Where the initial approach waypoint forms part of an air route, the
procedure should be entered at the minimum en-route altitude applicable to the route
segment. (ICAO, 2006)
Minimum sector altitude (MSA) or terminal arrival altitude (TAA) are established for
each aerodrome and provide at least 300m (1000ft) obstacle clearance within 46 km (25
2 Area navigation (RNAV) is a “method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path
within the coverage of the station-referenced navigation aids or within the limits of the capability of self-
contained aids, or a combination of these” (ICAO, 2006).
34
NM) of the navigation aid, initial approach fix or intermediate fix associated with the
approach procedure for that aerodrome. (IVAO, 2015)
The minimum sector altitude or terminal arrival altitude established by the competent
authority shall be shown, with a clear indication of the sector to which it applies. (ICAO,
2001)
In Annex 5.1, the Instrument Approach Chart for Land’s End (NATS, 2016) has been
included to show the difference in notation of the minimum sector altitude and the terminal
arrival altitude. As can be seen on that chart, the MSA is 2,400ft; the TAA on the other hand is
2,400ft in two quadrants of the 25 NM radius and 2,000ft in the other half of the radius (i.e. a
T arrangement).
Again, there is a different term for terminal arrival altitude in the US. This term, provided by
Jeppesen, is terminal arrival area:
[…]The Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) […] provides the pilot and air traffic controller
with an efficient method for routing traffic from enroute to terminal structures. (Jeppesen,
2000)
On the basis of the research, the following definition based on ICAO (2006) is suggested:
lowest altitude which may be used at a particular aerodrome and which provides a
minimum clearance of 300 m (1 000 ft) above all objects located in an area contained
within a sector of a circle of 46 km (25 NM) radius centred on a navigation aid
The minor differences between the two terms mentioned above were added to the language-
usage field of the respective terms. Based on the outcome of the research, it is suggested to
merge IATE 3538218 (terminal arrival altitude) and IATE 30024/234037 (minimum sector
altitude).
Due to the difference in term use between Europe and the USA, the abbreviation MSA is
ambiguous. A term note is added to rule out any confusion. MSA refers to minimum sector
altitude, minimum safe/sector altitude and minimum safe altitude depending on the country
where the text is written. The terminology glossary of Transport Canada3 and ICAO
documents suggest that MSA stands for minimum sector altitude and that minimum safe
altitude does not have an abbreviation at all. It seems that there is no clear distinction between
the terms in the US and that they are used interchangeably. In fact, there is only a subtle
difference between the two, and a pilot knows what to do when he/she reads the MSA.
3 http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/opssvs/secretariat-terminology-glossary-821.htm
35
Moreover, the FAA gives another term that MSA can refer to: Metropolitan Statistical Area4,
a geographical division based on urban areas in the US. However, this is not related to the
field of aviation and therefore irrelevant for this dissertation.
Although a good understanding of the term is necessary, is should be noted that these
altitudes, whether it is the minimum sector altitude or the terminal arrival altitude are
published to make the pilots aware of the minimum safe altitudes for the approach. In most
cases, the pilot will be assigned an altitude by the air traffic controllers.
Dutch term 2.5.2
There is no Dutch translation of minimum sector altitude in either the internal or the external
version of IATE. However, IATE: 31790 covers relevant minimum sector altitude translated
as betreffende minimum sectorhoogte. This translation contains a spelling error, though. As
explained in the introduction, ‘minimum’ cannot be used as an adjective. The term should
therefore either be betreffende minimumsectorhoogte or betreffende minimale sectorhoogte.
This entry will not be discussed in this dissertation, though.
The English term minimum sector altitude occurs four times in CELEX:32012R0923. In three
cases it is translated as minimumsectorhoogte and in the other as minimumsectoraltitude. The
same term is translated as laagste sectorhoogte in CELEX:32008R0859,
CELEX:32008R0008, CELEX:32006R1899, CELEX:52006AG0009, CELEX:01991R3922-
20070116, CELEX:52004PC0073, CELEX:52002PC0030, CELEX:52002AP0384 and
CELEX:52000PC0121. In fact, it is more or less the same sentence which occurs in those nine
documents. The CELEX-numbers containing PC are legislative proposals by the European
Commission, those containing AG are positions of the European Council, those containing
AP are legislative resolutions of the European Parliament and those containing R are
regulations (EUR-Lex, s.d.). As the oldest document, i.e. CELEX:52002PC00305, uses
laagste sectorhoogte as a translation, it is not surprising that this term is used in the other
documents in which the same sentence occurs (underlined section).
De exploitant dient ten minste één bestemmingsuitwijkhaven te kiezen voor elke IFR-
vlucht, tenzij:
(1) Zowel:
i. […]
4 http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/publications/orders/environmental_5050_4/media/chapter9.pdf
5 This document is considered the oldest, because the original text of the consolidated version of
CELEX:01991R3922-20070116 could not be found on EUR-Lex.
36
ii. op de bestemming twee afzonderlijke banen beschikbaar zijn en de
heersende weersomstandigheden zodanig zijn dat, voor de periode van één
uur voor tot één uur na de verwachte aankomsttijd, de nadering vanaf de
betreffende laagste sectorhoogte en de landing kunnen worden uitgevoerd
onder zichtweersomstandigheden (VMC)
(CELEX:52002PC0030)
Vluchten naar de meest veeleisende luchtvaartterreinen mogen alleen worden uitgevoerd
indien:
(1) […]
(2) de nadering vanaf de toepasselijke laagste sectorhoogte onder
zichtweersomstandigheden (VMC) plaatsvindt; en
(3) […]
(CELEX:32008R0859)
These two sentences are the only two in which this particular translation occurs. In the table
below (30.6.2016), it is stated that the term occurs 101 times on Dutch pages in Google.
However, those hits are all references to CELEX:32008R0859 in translation memories, such
as linguee and context.verso. Since there are no other hits on Google but translation memories
referring to EU texts, this term is considered NL-EU.
In some texts, the English term has been borrowed in predominantly non-professional Dutch
texts. The 77 Google hits include references to the English term on mijnwoordenboek.nl and
linguee, references to documents of the Flemish Parliament, and a Dutch airport investigation
report. The search clearly shows that EU texts do not borrow or adapt the English term
(search query: “minimum sector altitude” “de” “het” “een” site:.europa.eu). Therefore, this
term is not classified as preferred, since EU translators tend to choose a translation instead of
borrowing or adapting the English term.
Although laagste sectorhoogte has significantly more Google hits, minimumsectorhoogte has
been classified as the preferred translation of minimum sector altitude, since most of the hits
for laagste sectorhoogte refer to the two sentences mentioned above.
Minimale sectorhoogte can be used as well. However, in at least one text6, the term has no
relevance for the field of aviation, but belongs to the building trade, and refers for example to
four floors of a ten-floor building. Discounting this meaning, the version with ‘minimale’
6 http://isso.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/EPA-U/notitie_aanpassing_infiltratie_15-10-2010_def.pdf
37
occurs only twice and is therefore included in the look-up form field of the terminology
record.
“[term]”
“de” “het”
“een”
“[term]” “de”
“het” “een”
site:.nl
“[term]” “de”
“het” “een”
site:.be
“[term]” “de”
“het” “een”
site:.europa.eu
laagste sectorhoogte 101 34 0 15
minimum sector altitude 77 40 7 0
minimumsectorhoogte 20 13 0 5
minimumsectoraltitude 20 0 0 4
minimum(-)sectorhoogte 6 1 0 0
minimale sectorhoogte 8 6 1 0
Following the tendency to borrow or adapt the English term, the abbreviation MSA is also
found in Dutch texts. However, as mentioned in the introduction, the search for examples with
the abbreviation in the correct domain using the above queries is quite difficult, as there will
be a lot of noise in the results. Abbreviations are very domain specific. In order to solve this
problem, the search query had to be modified to “MSA” “de” “het” “een” vliegtuig and
generated 291.
As mentioned in the English section of this concept, pilots use terminal arrival altitude.
However, as van den Bos (personal communication, 27.7.2016) suggests, this term is not used
by LVNL. He also mentioned that the MSA is especially relevant for descents in mountainous
terrain or in an emergency, when for instance an aircraft cannot maintain altitude. Moreover,
for a departure from an airport the engine out procedures ensure that the aircraft maintains
sufficient obstacle clearance until the MSA has been reached.
The definition is based on sections of a voluminous report on an emergency landing following
a bird strike after take-off (Onderzoeksraad voor veiligheid, 2010) and on a manual on
aviation rules (Rossing, A.G.H. et al., 2011). As mentioned in the introduction, there is no
difference between altitude and height in Dutch. A definition note has been added to clarify
this distinction. Additionally, a minimum sector height as such does not exist.
German term 2.5.3
The definition for the German section is based on a document of the German Forschungs-
Informations-System für Mobilität und Verkehr (FIS), an organisation controlled by the
German Department of Transport. The conversion from metres to feet and from nautical miles
to kilometres has been added, corresponding the values in the English and Dutch definition.
38
A German translation of the term was not found in IATE either. Based on the translation of
EU legislation documents, e.g. CELEX:32008R0859 and CELEX:32012R0923, a number of
translation proposals could be found. Both Sektormindesthöhe and Sektorenmidesthöhe occur
in EU texts.
“[term]” “[term”] “der”
“die” “das”
“[term”] “der”
“die” “das”
site:.europa.eu
Sektormindesthöhe 170 38 12
Sektorenmindesthöhe 142 50 14
Mindestsektorenhöhe 12 9 0
Mindestsektorhöhe 4 2 1
Sektormindesthöhe is used in CELEX:32008R0859, CELEX:32008R0008,
CELEX:32006R1899, CELEX:52006AG0009 and CELEX:C2006/303E/03. Again, these
texts all contain the same sentence:
Flüge zu Flugplätzen mit dem höchsten Schwierigkeitsgrad dürfen nur durchgeführt
werden, wenn […] der Anflug ab der jeweiligen Sektormindesthöhe unter
Sichtwetterbedingungen durchgeführt wird […]. (Verordnung (EG) Nr. 859/2008 der
Kommission vom 20. August 2008 zur Änderung der Verordnung (EWG) Nr. 3922/91 des
Rates in Bezug auf gemeinsame technische Vorschriften und Verwaltungsverfahren für
den gewerblichen Luftverkehr mit Flächenflugzeugen, CELEX:32008R0859)
In the 60 Google hits, a considerable number refer to this passage with linguee and
context.verso on top. Sektorenmindesthöhe on the other hand occurs in more EU texts7 and in
more German texts not related to the EU passage. Although the EUR-Lex search renders more
results, only the 2012 document contains new material. Also Mindestsektorenhöhe and
Mindestsektorhöhe occur, but not that frequently. These terms have been added in the
respective look up form cells.
Bearing in mind the English dominated world of aviation, a search query was carried out for
minimum sector altitude on German pages as well, using the query “[term]” “der” “die”
“das”. Although it occurred rather frequently, i.e. 150 hits, the results are irrelevant, as most
of the hits involved either an explanation of the abbreviation at the start of a document
followed by one of the suggested translations above, or a reference to the English segment of
a translation memory website.
7 CELEX:32012R0923, CELEX:52002AP0384, CELEX:52004PC0073, CELEX:52002PC0030,
CELEX:52000PC0121, CELEX:JOC_2003_272_E_0025_01, CELEX:JOC_2002_227_E_0001_01
39
The abbreviation MSA is also used in German texts, either as a reference in the glossary
preceding almost any document, or after one of the suggested translations, accompanied by
the English term or not:
In der Bundesrepublik Deutschland gibt es derzeit folgende Verkehrsflughäfen mit einer
Sektormindesthöhe (MSA) über 5000 Fuß AGL. (Deutsche Wetterdienst (2015).
Wettermeldungen für die Luftfahrt. In Website Deutsche Wetterdienst,
https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/lf_11_flugwetterbetriebsdienste/handbuch_band_obs.p
df?__blob=publicationFile&v=2 [23.7.2016])
Für den Anflugbereich, in dem sich die Störung ereignet hatte, ist auf der Anflugkarte für
Faro eine MSA (Minimum Sector Altitude) von 3000 ft über NN veröffentlicht
(JEPPESEN, FARO / PORTUGAL, 13-3 vom 23. März 2001). (Bundesstelle für
Flugunfalluntersuchung (November 2003). Untersuchungsbericht QX001-0/03.
http://www.bfu-
web.de/DE/Publikationen/Untersuchungsberichte/2003/Bericht_03_QX001.pdf?__blob=p
ublicationFile [6.4.2016])
40
2.6 AREA MINIMUM ALTITUDE – JVN06
area minimum altitude
AMA
grid minimum off-route
altitude
Grid MORA
minimumvlieghoogte
Mindestflughöhe
Grid Minimum Off-Route
Altitude
Grid MORA
English term 2.6.1
The term area minimum altitude is covered by IATE 3538178, and this definition is given:
minimum altitude to be used under instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), that
provides a minimum obstacle clearance within a specified area, normally formed by
parallels and meridians
This is an altitude which " provides a minimum vertical clearance of 300 m (1.000 feet) or in
designated mountainous terrain 600 m (2.000 feet) above all obstacles in the area specified,
rounded up to the nearest (next higher) 30 m (100 feet)" (ICAO, 2006).
There is an entry (IATE 1800937) which describes area minimum altitudes (plural) and gives
the abbreviation AMA. This abbreviation is also found in ICAO documents and on various air-
traffic-control websites, such as the website of EUROCONTROL, to denote area minimum
altitude (singular). Those two entries are regarded as synonyms, since no difference in
meaning has been found and it is therefore suggested to merge those two entries. Moreover,
the terms in IATE 1800937 are all taken from the same source text, the AIP1 from
Switzerland. This could explain that all terms in that entry, for German, French and Italian,
refer to the plural noun as well.
In aviation documents, there is always a list of definitions and abbreviations for terms used in
that particular document or the full term is used once with the abbreviation in brackets, for
example in the sentence “the area minimum altitude (AMA) in the vicinity of CKQ3 is 2700
feet asl.”2. This is advisable, because AMA can also be the abbreviation for three other
concepts. Firstly, it can refer to the Academy of Model Aeronautics, especially in US
1 Aeronautical Information Publication. A document containing regulations, procedures and other information
important to fly with an aircraft in a particular country (ICAO, 2006). 2 Transportation Safety Board of Canada (s.d.). Aviation Investigation Report A12C0005. In Website
Transportation Safety Board of Canada,
http://www.tsb.gc.ca/eng/rapports-reports/aviation/2012/a12c0005/a12c0005.asp [19.3.2016]
41
contexts. Secondly, there is a test of the FAA called the Aviation Maintenance Technician –
Airframe, which has the test code AMA. Lastly, the abbreviation can be used to denote
Arrival Management Message as well, predominantly in combination with ‘message’: AMA
message.
It should be noted that this term and its abbreviation do occur only frequently in the
abbreviations and definitions list at the beginning of each text.
Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) states that grid minimum off-route altitude is a
synonym for area minimum altitude. This information was checked in Jeppesen (2003), which
provides this definition:
The Grid MORA [grid minimum off-route altitude] provides terrain and man-made
structure clearance within the section outlined by latitude and longitude lines.
The only notion not included in this definition is that of instrument meteorological conditions.
However, as Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) states, almost every airplane,
except some light aircraft, are flown according to instrument flight rules3 even when the
weather allows to fly with visual flight rules.
Additionally, minimum grid altitude or MGA was found as a synonym for grid minimum off-
route altitude:
The minimum grid altitude (MGA), also known as Grid MORA (grid minimum off-route
altitude) defines minimum altitude within a rectangular area defined by latitude and
longitude boundaries. (Jaffe, 2016)
The Grid MORA or AMA is established for each graticule, a grid of horizontal and vertical
lines, to ensure a minimum safe altitude within that quadrilateral (Civil Aviation Authority,
2011). These altitudes are important if a pilot flies off-route, i.e. if he/she does not follow the
airway because of an emergency or because he/she wants to save fuel and make a short-cut.
MGA [minimum grid altitude] represents the lowest safe altitude which can be flown off-
track. (EASA, 2014)
To determine the preferred term for this concept, a Google search was carried out (26.7.2016).
“term” Google Custom Search: “term”
area minimum altitude 145 12
grid minimum off-route altitude 53 2
3 “set of rules governing the conduct of flight under instrument meteorological conditions” (IATE 781438)
42
The search shows that area minimum altitude occurs significantly more, both on Google as on
the Custom Search, and is therefore the preferred term. Grid minimum off-route altitude has
been added as a full synonym on a separate term level.
Dutch term 2.6.2
Neither IATE 3538178 nor IATE 1800937 cover a Dutch equivalent. The proposed
translation minimumvlieghoogte was found in a glossary on air-force terms (Taalvlinder,
2016). A query was carried out including the proposed translation, minimale vlieghoogte and
area minimum altitutde, which was joined by “de” “het” “een” to obtain only Dutch results.
Nonetheless, quite a number of English sources were given as a result for this query.
“term”
minimumvlieghoogte 267
minimale vlieghoogte 164
area minimum altitude 29
Although minimumvlieghoogte is in fact not entirely correct, a language usage note was added
to inform the user that the altitude is used in an area delimited by parallels and meridians.
This was done in order to avoid a neologism such as gebiedsminimumvlieghoogte, as such a
term could cause confusion as well. A note would have had to be added as well to explain
what is defined as gebied, since it is not for example a forest or the Alps. In the case of the
latter, the area above the Alps is divided into graticules, for each of which a different Grid
MORA has been established. There is not one Grid MORA for the entire Alps.
The synonym for area minimum altitude, i.e. grid minimum off-route altitude or Grid MORA,
has been added to the term-note field. Although the full term yields only two irrelevant hits on
Google, its abbreviation receives eighteen hits (26.7.2016). It is chosen not to add this term as
a separate term, as the term and its abbreviation occur mostly on forums and non-specialised
websites.
The definition is based on CELEX:02012R0923-20150630. It is much more detailed than the
English definition in that it contains the specific obstacle clearance altitudes. Although these
are not included in the English definition, the exact altitudes could be derived from the
definitions list in ICAO (2006).
German term 2.6.3
As in Dutch, the German definition is based on CELEX:32012R0923 containing the exact
obstacle clearance altitudes. A possible translation is given in IATE 1800937. This entry
43
covers the plural noun, i.e. area minimum altitudes, and probably because of that, the German
translation is in the plural as well: Gebietsmindesthöhen.
“term”
Mindestflughöhe 350
Area Minimum Altitude 9
Gebietsmindesthöhen 5
Gird Minimum Off-Route Altitude 3
Gebietsmindesthöhe 1
Surprisingly, the query of the terms above (26.7.2016) shows that the plural
Gebietsmindesthöhen occurs more than the singular, Gebietsmindesthöhe. However, only one
of those five refers to the AIP of Austria (and not Switzerland as was expected because of the
IATE reference). The language particles der, die and das were added to the query for both
Area Minimum Altitude and Grid Minimum Off-Route Altitude. Mindestflughöhe has
significantly more hits than the others. This is probably due to the indefiniteness of the term.
To avoid confusion, a language-usage note was added, stating that the minimum altitude is
established for an area confined by longitude and latitude.
Grid Minimum Off-Route Altitude and Grid MORA are not in the term-note field, since they
are used in specialised texts, such as investigation reports on air crashes or air traffic
incidents:
Die sich an den Radius um das VOR TGL anschließende Mindestflughöhe (Grid MORA)
betrug zuerst 1900 ft, und später, als das Flugzeug auf die niedrigste Höhe 2000 ft
gesunken war, 2300 ft.(Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung, 2002).
44
2.7 MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE – JVN07
minimum en-route altitude
MEA
minimum en-route altitude
MEA
Mindestreiseflughöhe
Minimum Enroute Altitude
MEA
English term 2.7.1
Minimum en-route altitude or MEA is covered in IATE 234031, proposing this definition:
minimum altitude for an en-route segment that provides adequate reception of relevant
navigation facilities and Air Traffic Service (ATS) communications, complies with the
airspace structure, and provides the required obstacle clearance
This definition was checked in Jeppesen (2003, 2012) and it contains the essential elements.
However, quotation marks were added, since the definition in IATE is a literal quotation from
the Eurocontrol ATM Lexicon. Also the consultation date of source was changed.
By analogy with en-route phase (see 2.3.1), a query containing cruise was carried out
(16.7.2016). The results for minimum en-route altitude, minimum en route altitude and
minimum enroute altitude were added together.
“term” Google Custom Search: “term”
minimum en-route altitude 503 24
minimum cruise altitude 49 4
As can be seen, minimum en-route altitude has significantly more hits than minimum cruise
altitude. Unexpectedly, after six pages on Google for the query minimum cruise altitude, the
search engine gave the results for maximum cruise altitude. Specialised aviation websites use
minimum en-route altitude as well and is therefore preferred. Additionally, the spelling of the
latter was checked (16.7.2016). The results for minimum en-route altitude and minimum en
route altitude had to be counted manually, since Google does not recognise a hyphen or a
space in the query.
“term” Google Custom Search: “term”
minimum enroute altitude 271 9
minimum en route altitude 147 9
minimum en-route altitude 85 6
According to the search in both Google and the Custom Search, the spelling of one word
should be preferred. However, as oxforddictionaries.com (2016) argues, a compound adverb
used before a noun should be written with a hyphen. Both the OED and the LDOCE write
45
en route separately. That adverb used before a noun should then be written with a hyphen.
Although this spelling occurs the least on Google and the Custom Search, it is preferred, since
it is written according to the spelling rules. Nonetheless, as mentioned before, Swan (2005,
p.551) and Cambridge Online Dictionary (2016) argue that the rules on hyphens are
ambiguous and that the use of them in everyday life is in decline.
Dutch term 2.7.2
There is no Dutch equivalent for minimum en-route altitude in IATE 234031. The glossary of
Taalvlinder (2016) suggests minimumhoogte onderweg as a possible translation. However,
when this suggestion was queried in Google (27.7.2016), it received only one hit, which was
the Taalvinder glossary. Moreover, variations on that term, such as minimale hoogte
onderweg, minimale altitude onderweg, minimale en-route altitude, etc. returned no hits. Only
minimale enroute/en(-)route hoogte has three hits: two references to abbreviationfinder.org1
and one reference to a forum2.
The query “minimum en-route altitude” “de” “het” “een” returned 60 hits3. In only three
hits, the English term occurred in a Dutch sentence. The other hits were a mixture of English
and Dutch sentences:
The MOCA is always at or below the Minimum enroute altitude (MEA), and may put an
aircraft below air traffic control RADAR coverage and also below Minimum reception
altitude (MRA) for navigation aids; as a result, it is typically used only in emergencies,
especially to get below icing.
Dit is een fragment uit het artikel Minimum obstacle clearance altitude van de vrij
toegankelijke encyclopedie Wikipedia. Op Wikipedia kunt u een auteurslijst vinden.
(cyclopedia.net, 2013)
Because of these results, it is suggested to borrow the English term, i.e. minimum en-route
altitude, and not to create a neologism, since that might lead to confusion and unnecessary
term variation (Aspeslagh, 2013). Furthermore, it is also proposed to borrow the abbreviation
MEA. Consequently, as no reliable examples could be found, there are no contexts or term
references and therefore reliability 1 has been given to this term.
A definition could not be found either. And the following definition is proposed after the
research for this concept:
1 http://www.abbreviationfinder.org/nl/acronyms/mea_minimum-enroute-altitude.html
2 http://www.airwork.nl/bulletinboard/showthread.php?t=13555
3 The results for enroute, en-route and en route were added together.
46
minimumhoogte waarop radiocontact met de luchtverkeersleiding en hindernisvrijheid
gegarandeerd is, bepaald voor een segment van de route tijdens de en-routefase
German term 2.7.3
A equivalent is not given in IATE 234031. The proposed definition is based on IAVO (s.d.):
für jedes Segment einer Luftstraße festgestellte Mindesthöhe, die Funkkontakt mit der
Flugdienstleitung und Hindernisfreiheit gewährleistet
The aviation lexicon of the German air force proposed Mindeststreckenhöhe, comparable to
the translation Streckenflugphase of en-route phase (see section 2.3). By analogy with the
other translation of that term, Reiseflugphase, the derivations of that translation
Mindestreiseflughöhe, Mindeststreckenflughöhe and Mindestreisehöhe, were queried in
Google (27.7.2016). The language particles “der”, “die” and “das” were added to Minimum
Enroute Altitude and this term was queried as well.
“term”
Mindestreiseflughöhe 59
Minimum Enroute Altitude 41
Mindeststreckenhöhe 11
Mindeststreckenflughöhe 8
Mindestreisehöhe 5
That search shows that the Mindestreiseflughöhe receives significantly more hits than the
other German terms. The English term is also used relatively frequently. As a result, those
two terms are considered equivalents, with Mindestreiseflughöhe as the preferred term.
Mindeststreckenhöhe, Mindeststreckenflughöhe and Mindestreisehöhe were added as less
frequent synonyms to the term note.
Due to the high number of hits, Minimum Enroute Altitude and the abbreviation MEA were
added on a different term level.
47
2.8 OBSTACLE CLEARANCE – JVN08
obstacle clearance
obstruction clearance
hoogtemarge boven
hindernissen
obstacle clearance
Hindernisfreiheit
English term 2.8.1
The concept of obstacle clearance is covered in IATE 1190212, IATE 29557, IATE 234075
and IATE 924794. It is suggested to merge the those last three entries with IATE 1190212.
The proposed definition is a literal quote from Crocker (2005, p.86):
fact of being at a sufficient height to be able to fly over any obstacles in the area
Obstacle clearance is used in for instance CELEX:32008R0216 and CELEX:32012R0965. It
occurs in several EUR-Lex documents in combination with criteria, i.e. obstacle clearance
criteria, or altitude. Therefore, a complete list of documents has not been included.
On some websites, predominantly American, this concept is referred to as obstruction
clearance. The LDOCE defines both obstacle and obstruction as something that “blocks your
way”. In that view point, no difference in meaning could be found. This assumption is
corroborated by examples found containing both terms:
"A minimum of 150 m (492 ft) of obstacle clearance shall be provided in the primary area
of the intermediate approach segment. In the secondary area, 150 m (492 ft) of obstacle
clearance shall be provided at the inner edge, reducing to zero at the outer edge." (ICAO,
2006)
“The AOC provides data for computing maximum take-off and landing weights, for
establishing instrument approach and departure procedures, for engineering studies
relative to obstruction clearance and improvements in airport facilities.” (FAA, 2016)
Both terms were entered in Google (2.8.2016) and the Google Custom Search. –minimum
–altitude and –height were added to the query to filter out obstacle/obstruction clearance
altitude, obstacle/obstruction clearance height (see 2.9) and minimum obstacle/obstruction
clearance altitude (see 2.10).
“term” -minimum -
altitude -height
Google Custom
Search: “term” -
minimum -altitude
-height
“term” -
minimum -
altitude –height
site:.europa.eu
obstacle clearance 209 29 38
obstruction clearance 153 7 0
48
Since obstruction clearance yields a considerable amount of hits, it has been listed as a full
synonym. However, it is not the preferred term since it has no result on EU websites.
Dutch term 2.8.2
The Dutch equivalent is covered in IATE 1190212, which gives overschrijden van
hindernissen. The frequency of the terms was checked in Google (2.8.2016). The Dutch
language markers “de” “het” “een” were added to the query for obstacle clearance.
Hoogtemarge boven hindernissen was encountered in CELEX:32012R0965 and
CELEX:32008R0008. Hindernisklaring is given as a translation on mijnwoordenboek.nl and
hindernisvrijheid is used in the glossary of Taalvlinder (2016) and in CELEX:02008R0216.
“term”
obstacle clearance 70
hoogtemarge boven hindernissen 17
overschrijden van hindernissen 15
hindernisklaring 6
hindernisvrijheid 4
Although obstacle clearance has significantly more hits than the translations, a considerable
amount of hits contain the Anglicism in a Dutch sentence. Therefore, the Anglicism has not
been considered as preferred and the translation hoogtemarge boven hindernissen seems more
suitable for the IATE term base. However, obstacle clearance is considered as a synonym and
given a separate term level. Both hindernisklaring and hindernisvrijheid have been added to
the field Term_Note of obstacle clearance, since it is more or less a literal translation.
Overschrijden van hindernissen has been added to the term-note field of the preferred term,
hoogtemarge boven hindernissen.
A definition could not be found. However, on the basis of research, the following definition is
proposed:
toestand waarin het vliegtuig hoog genoeg vliegt om over alle obstakels in een bepaald
gebied te vliegen
German term 2.8.3
IATE 1190212 suggests Hindernisfreiheit as the German equivalent. However, a definition is
not provided. Therefore, the following definition is suggested, based on Mensen (2013):
gewährleistet das sichere Überfliegen aller Hindernisse nach dem Abheben des
Flugzeuges
49
A Google search was carried out with Hindernisfreiheit and Obstacle Clearance (2.8.2016).
The query for the latter was changed to “Obstacle Clearance” “der” “die” “das” Flugzeug
in order to yield German results only. However, this approach is not solid, since several hits
still contained an English sentence.
“term” Google Custom Search:
“term”
Hindernisfreiheit 242 11
Obstacle Clearance 136 1
The preference for Hindernisfreiheit can also be seen in the Google Custom Search.
Nevertheless, Obstacle Clearance has been added as a less common synonym for
Hindernisfreiheit.
50
2.9 OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE JVN09
obstacle clearance altitude
obstacle clearance height
OCA
OCH
hindernisvrije hoogte
obstacle clearance altitude
OCA
Hindernisfreihöhe
Obstacle Clearance Altitude
OCA
English term 2.9.1
Obstacle clearance altitude is covered in IATE 2234985, IATE 29558 and IATE 234076.
However, it is suggested to merge IATE 2234985 with IATE 29559, obstacle clearance
height. The definitions given in both entries contain similar elements.
Definition obstacle clearance altitude:
lowest altitude, referenced to mean sea level, above the elevation of the relevant runway
threshold or the aerodrome elevation as applicable, used in establishing compliance with
appropriate obstacle clearance criteria
Definition obstacle clearance height:
lowest altitude or height above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or the
aerodrome elevation as applicable, used in establishing compliance with appropriate
obstacle clearance criteria
Considering those definitions, the first seems the more complete, since both the notion of
altitude and height are implied. However, that definition does not completely cover obstacle
clearance altitude, as that is only referenced to sea level. It is therefore suggested to merge
the entries and specify the difference between the two terms in a definition note and in a term
note:
Obstacle clearance altitude (OCA) is measured above means sea level, whereas obstacle
clearance height (OCH) is measured above the threshold elevation or in the case of non-
precision approaches to the aerodrome elevation or the threshold elevation if that is more
than 2 m (7 ft) below the aerodrome elevation.
By analogy with obstruction clearance (see 2.8), a query for obstruction clearance altitude
was carried out (3.8.2016). –minimum was added to the query for both terms to ensure only
results for obstacle/obstruction clearance altitude were returned and no hits for minimum
obstacle/obstruction clearance altitude (see 2.10).
51
“term” -minimum Google Custom Search:
“term” -minimum
obstacle clearance altitude 118 6
obstruction clearance
altitude
33 0
This search shows that obstruction clearance altitude is less frequently used as obstacle
clearance altitude. As the hits for the former are significantly lower, and as it yields no results
in the Google Custom Search, the term has been added as a less common synonym and not as
a full synonym.
Additionally, the two abbreviations OCA and OCH have been added on a separate term level.
In some texts, the abbreviation OCA/H is given to denote this concepts. However, in order to
maintain the overview of the terminological record, this option has not been added on a
separate term level.
Procedure altitudes/heights shall not be less than the OCA/H [obstacle clearance
altitude/height] and shall be developed in coordination with air traffic control (ATC).
(Australian Transport Safety Bureau, 2012)
Dutch term 2.9.2
A Dutch equivalent is covered in IATE 29558. Firstly, the translation minimum hindernisvrije
hoogte contains a grammatical error, as minimum cannot be used as an adjective in Dutch (see
section 1.3.2.3). Secondly, this term cannot be suggested as a translation for obstacle
clearance altitude, since minimale hindernisvrije hoogte is the preferred translation of
minimum obstacle clearance altitude (see 2.10.2). In fact, obstacle clearance altitude and
minimum obstacle clearance altitude denote more or less the same concept: lowest altitude
that provides obstacle clearance. However, there is one major difference. The minimum
obstacle clearance altitude is used between radio fixes on VOR airways, i.e. when the aircraft
is flying en route. The obstacle clearance altitude is used in the vicinity of an aerodrome, i.e.
when the aircraft is taking off or landing. Because of this distinction, it is advisable not to use
the same term for both concepts. Therefore, the translation hindernisvrije hoogte is suggested.
Moreover, this term is used in CELEX:32016R0539 as a translation of obstacle clearance
altitude.
Bearing in mind the English dominance in aviation, we conducted a search comparing the
translation and the Anglicism (3.8.2016). The query for hindernisvrije hoogte was changed to
“hindernisvrije hoogte” –laagste –minimum –minimale so that only hits containing the
52
suggested translation were returned. At its turn, the query for the Anglicism was changed to
“obstacle clearance altitude” “de” “het” “een” –minimum.
“term”
hindernisvrije hoogte 12
obstacle clearance altitude 10
Although the difference in the number of hits is negligible, the Anglicism occurred in a Dutch
sentence in only three out of the ten hits. Nevertheless, the term has been added as a full
synonym. The query “obstacle clearance height” “de” “het” “een” –minimum yielded no
reliable results.
Additionally, a query containing both altitude and height, “obstacle clearance
altitude/height” “de” “het” “een” –minimum, returned only one document in which the
Anglicism is used in a Dutch sentence:
Uit het NACO rapport volgt dat de voorziene windturbines bij de non-precision
naderingsprocedure Require Navigation Performance Approach (hierna: RNP APCH)
van invloed zijn op de Obstacle Clearance Altitude/Height (hierna: OCA/H), maar dat
deze procedure zo ontworpen kan worden dat dit geen nadelige invloed hoeft te hebben op
de vliegveiligheid of op de bruikbaarheid van de luchthaven. (Raad van State, 2013)
The translation minimum hindernisvrije hoogte is given in IATE 29559 for obstacle clearance
height. However, as mentioned before, it is suggested to merge those concepts. Another
translation for obstacle clearance height could not be found, because the distinction between
altitude and height is not often found in Dutch.
The abbreviation OCA has been listed on a separate term level. The other abbreviations OCH,
OCA/H and OCH/A have been added in the field Term Note. Although the last abbreviation
OCH/A was not encountered that much, it occurs in CELEX:32016R0539:
Met de doorstart moet worden begonnen bij het bereiken van de gepubliceerde
hindernisvrije hoogte (OCH/A), echter niet na het bereiken van een
minimumdalingshoogte (MDH/A) van 500 voet boven de baandrempelhoogte.
German term 2.9.3
IATE 2234985 obstacle clearance altitude does not cover a German equivalent for this
concept. IATE 29559 obstacle clearance height gives a German term, but only the
abbreviation OCH is given. The proposed definition is a quotation from a German directive
and contains all essential elements:
Höhe, unterhalb welcher der vorgeschriebene senkrechte Mindestabstand zu einem
Hindernis beim Anflug oder im Fehlanflug nicht mehr eingehalten werden kann
53
The different translation options were entered in Google and the Google Custom Search to
determine the preferred term (3.8.2016). The German language markers “der” “die” “das”
Flugzeug were added to the query for Obstacle Clearance Altitude and Obstacle Clearance
Height.
“term” Google Custom Search:
“term”
Hindernisfreihöhe 80 8
Obstacle Clearance Altitude 52 5
Obstacle Clearance Height 24 5
As can be seen in the table, the German term turned out to be the preferred term in both
Google and the Google Custom Search. The difference between altitude and height has been
clarified in the term note of Hindernisfreihöhe. To denote altitude, über NN or über
Meeresspiegel has been added; to denote height, über Grund has been added. Because of the
relatively high number of hits for Obstacle Clearanca Altitude, this term is considered a full
synonym and has been added on a separate term level. A term note has been added to explain
the difference between Obstacle Clearance Altitude and Obstacle Clearance Height, but the
latter is not considered a full synonym and has therefore been added to the term note of
Obstacle Clearance Altitude.
Additionally, the abbreviation OCA was listed on a separate term level and the abbreviation
OCH was added to the term-note field. Although the abbreviation OCA/H was encountered
frequently, the preference was given not to use that as the preferred term, since the slash can
be misleading and does not correspond to first letters of the term Obstacle Clearance Altitude.
54
2.10 MINIMUM OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE – JVN10
minimum obstacle clearance
altitude
minimum obstruction
clearance altitude
MOCA
minimale hindernisvrije
hoogte
MOCA
Hindernismindestabstand
MOCA
English term 2.10.1
This concept is covered in IATE 3538179, which gives the following definition:
minimum altitude for a defined segment of flight that provides the required obstacle
clearance
As this definition is a literal quotation of Annex 4 to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation (ICAO, 2001, p.I-6), double quotation marks should be added to this definition. The
definition of minimum obstruction clearance altitude was checked in Jeppesen (2001, p.8):
lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways […] which meets
obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment and in the USA assures
acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 22 nautical miles of a VOR
This definition corroborates the ICAO definition and the definition given in IATE 3538179. It
also confirms the assumption that minimum obstacle clearance altitude and minimum
obstruction clearance altitude are synonyms (similar to obstacle/obstruction clearance (see
2.8)). The term with obstruction has therefore been listed as a full synonym. The notion of
navigational signal coverage, included in the definition given by Jeppesen, is missing in the
definition given in IATE. However, as Croucher (2004, p.6-59) argues, minimum obstacle
clearance altitude only ensures obstacle clearance, whereas minimum en-route altitude (see
2.7) ensures obstacle clearance and navigational reception. Moreover, it is stated in the
definition that navigational reception is only guaranteed in the US. Therefore, the notion of
signal coverage has been added in the field Def_Note. The quotations below show an extract
from two documents published by the Transportation Safety Board of Canada using both
terms.
The minimum obstacle clearance altitude for the intermediate approach segment is
determined by these cliffs. (Transportation Safety Board of Canada, 1998)
The nearly level attitude of the aircraft when it struck the trees suggests that it was flying
below the minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA) for IFR cruise flight.
(Transportation Safety Board of Canada, 2005)
55
Although minimum obstruction clearance altitude has more hits on Google (2.8.2016), it has
not been considered preferred, since minimum obstacle clearance altitude occurs slight more
in the Custom Search Engine and is the only term occurring on EU websites. The query for
“minimum obstruction clearance altitude” site:.europa.eu yielded no results. Moreover,
Google suggested the hits for minimum obstacle clearance altitude.
“term” Google Custom
Search: “term”
“term”
site:.europa.eu
minimum obstacle
clearance altitude
111 15 30
minimum obstruction
clearance altitude
139 10 0
The abbreviation MOCA is used for either minimum obstacle clearance altitude or minimum
obstruction clearance altitude.
Airway/route data, such as the airway identifications, bearings or radials, mileages, and
altitude (e.g., MEA), minimum obstacle clearance altitude (MOCA), and MAA, are
shown aligned with the airway and in the same color as the airway. (FAA, 2012)
If you’re flying the airways, than the […] minimum obstruction clearance altitude
(MOCA) found on instrument charts can be useful, […]. (En Route Busywork… What to
do, 2001)
Dutch term 2.10.2
IATE 3538179 does not cover a Dutch equivalent. The proposed definition is based on
CELEX:32013R0800. This document suggests a translation as well, minimale hindernisvrije
hoogte, which is also given in Taalvlinder (2016). A Google search was carried out (3.8.2016)
querying the different options. Laagste hindernisvrije hoogte occurs in CELEX:32008R0008,
the literal translation minimum hindernisvrije altitude is suggested by Koninklijk besluit tot
vaststelling van de voorwaarden voor de technische exploitatie van vliegtuigen behorende tot
de algemene luchtvaart (2005). The query for minimum obstacle clearance altitude was
changed to “term” “de” “het” “een” vliegtuig.
“term”
minimale hindernisvrije hoogte 15
laagste hindernisvrije hoogte 10
minimum obstacle clearance altitude 6
minimum hindernisvrije altitude 3
The table shows that the hits for minimale hindernisvrije hoogte are slightly higher than those
for laagste hindernisvrije hoogte. Despite the high number of hits for the latter, the term has
not been listed as a full synonym to avoid unnecessary term variation, but it has been added to
56
the field Term Note, together with the other options. It should be noted that a query for
minimum obstruction clearance altitude did not yield any results. Nonetheless, this option has
been added to the field term note, as it is used relatively frequently in English.
Additionally, the abbreviation MOCA is predominantly used at the beginning of a document
in a list of abbreviations:
MOCA: laagste hindernisvrije hoogte (Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude) (EASA,
2012)
Because of this, no context has been given, since the quotation above does not have any
supplementary value to the abbreviation.
German term 2.10.3
A German equivalent is not provided in IATE 3538179 either. The proposed definition is
based on EASA (2012, p.52) and Mensen (2013, p.216).
The term Hindernismindestabstand is suggested in CELEX:32013R0800 as a translation of
minimum obstacle clearance altitude. However, to check whether the English term occurs in
German texts as well, a query, added with “der” “die” “das”, has been carried out
(3.8.2016).
“term” Google Custom Search: “term”
Hindernismindestabstand 25 5
Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude 10 3
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude 8 0
The table shows that Hindernismindestabstand occurs significantly more than the Anglicism.
Additionally, it should be mentioned that the hits for Minimum Obstacle/Obstruction
Clearance Altitude contained only either English sentences or an explanation for the
abbreviation MOCA in a list of abbreviations. Because of that, the Anglicism has not been
listed as a separate term, but it has been added to the term-note field of the preferred term,
Hindernismindestabstand.
The abbreviation MOCA is used in specialised texts as well as in lay texts. However, in both
text types, the document is always preceded by a list of abbreviations and their explanation.
57
2.11 EMERGENCY PHASE – JVN11
emergency phase noodsituatie Alarmstufe
Luftnotlage
English term 2.11.1
Emergency phase is covered by IATE 31181 and gives the following definition:
situation following unforeseen or sudden catastrophic events that may lead to potential
unsafe situations and/or partial or full interruption of the air navigation services (ANS)
provision, therefore prompting an immediate response to contain the adverse impact and
where feasible initiate recovery actions
As Schmid (personal communication, 11.7.2016) suggests, an emergency phase can be
declared by either the air traffic service or by the pilot. In either case, there are different
procedures and steps to be taken (see Table 1 below). A mayday emergency phase can be
compared to the distress phase. A pan-pan emergency phase is similar to the uncertainty or
alert phase, depending on the cause of the emergency (ICAO, 2007).
Although ICAO (2011) refers to emergency phase as a “generic term meaning, as the case
may be, uncertainty phase, alert phase or distress phase”, Eurocontrol (2009) argues that the
term can also be used when a pan-pan or mayday emergency message has been declared.
However, the definition given in IATE covers both viewpoints. Therefore, a definition note
was added in which the different phases depending on whom declares the emergency are
explained:
An emergency phase can be declared be either the air traffic service (ATS) or the pilot.
When the ATS declares an emergency, there are three steps:
1. uncertainty phase [ IATE:1190382 ]
2. alert phase [ IATE:1190377 ]
3. distress phase [ IATE:1190391 ]
A pilot can declare:
pan pan [ IATE:1085358 ]: indicates an uncertainty or alert
mayday [ IATE:1085217 ]: which forms a distress call
The steps of an emergency phase declared by the air traffic service should be followed from
one to three. Each phase has specific conditions and procedures. For instance, the uncertainty
phase is declared when there has been no communication from the aircraft for thirty minutes.
58
If attempts to establish communication with the aircraft fail, the alert phase will be declared.
Should further attempts to establish communication fail as well, the distress phase is declared
and a search and rescue operation will be started (ICAO, 2014).
Emergency declared by air traffic control
services
Emergency declared by the pilot
PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN
MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY
Table 1 Emergency phase
A pilot uses the pan-pan emergency phase for situations that are not immediately life
threatening, but in which assistance from air traffic services are required, for example when
pilots cannot determine the position of the aircraft, or when there is a system failure, such as
an engine break-down. A mayday emergency phase is declared in life-threatening situations:
fire on board or pilot incapacity due to a hijacking (ATC Communication, s.d.).
Dutch term 2.11.2
There is no Dutch equivalent in IATE 31181. The proposed definition is based on
Luchtverkeersleiding Nederland (s.d.) and Vlaamse Overheid (2007), in order to cover both
senses of emergency phase:
situatie waarin de veiligheid van het luchtvaartuig en/of personen aan boord in gevaar
is/zijn en waarna het luchtvaartuig assistentie krijgt van de luchtverkeersleiding
As in English, the same term is used to denote an emergency phase declared by either the air
traffic service or the pilot.
Pas als de vlieger een noodsituatie afkondigt (mayday of pan pan), wordt het vliegtuig
behandeld als een vliegtuig in nood. (Luchtverkeersleiding Nederland, s.d.)
Hierbij is in overeenstemming met de regelingen voor de burgerluchtvaart een
noodsituatie onderverdeeld in drie fasen, t.w. de onzekerheidsfase, de alarmeringsfase en
de noodfase. (Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal, 1981)
Overheid.nl (1979) mentions noodtoestandsfase as a generic term for onzekerheids-,
alarmerings- and noodfase. Taalvlinder (2016), on the other hand, gives noodtoestand as a
uncertainty phase
alert phase
distress phase
59
generic term. Consequently, a query was carried out on the Google Custom Search. There was
no query on Google, since a significant amount of irrelevant sources came up (even when
vliegtuig was added to the query), because of the generality of the terms. Noodtoestand, for
instance, can also be used when a country is in trouble:
Op het Griekse eiland Chios is de noodtoestand afgekondigd. De aanleiding vormen de
felle bosbranden in het zuidwesten van het eiland. (deredactie.be, 2016)
Google Custom Search: “term” vliegtuig
noodsituatie 12
noodtoestand 6
noodtoestandsfase 0
emergency phase 0
Surprisingly, the English term does not occur at all in Dutch sources. Nonetheless, it has been
added to the term-note field, together with noodtoestand and noodtoestandsfase. Emergency
phase cannot be translated literally as noodfase, since that is the name given to the third
emergency phase, the distress phase (IATE 1190391).
German term 2.11.3
The German equivalent is not covered in IATE 31181 either. The suggested definition is
based on a section in a syllabus on aviation rules (Merklinger, s.d.). In contrast to the English
and Dutch concept, there are two terms in German to denote the different senses of emergency
phase. There is Alarmstufe for the emergency phases declared by the air traffic services and
there is Luftnotlage for the emergency phases declared by the pilots. This difference has been
explained in the term-note fields of the respective terms.
Queries in the Google Custom Search containing “Luftnotlage” combined with an air-traffic-
service emergency phase, such as Bereitschaftsstufe, returned only two hits (28.7.2016). The
query “Alarmstufe” “Bereitschaftsstufe” on the contrary returned 48 hits. The same method
was used with Mayday. The query “Luftnotlage” “Mayday” received 8 hits, whereas
“Alarmstufe” “Mayday” received zero hits. This shows that Luftnotlage tends to be used in
relation to the mayday and pan-pan emergency phases and Alarmstufe in contexts concerning
air-traffic-service emergency phases. This difference has been explained in the field
LangUsage.
60
3 CONCLUSION
Based on the research in section 2, two concept trees could be compiled, containing eight of
the eleven terms discussed.
Emergency phase (see 2.11) cannot be included in either concept tree, since that concept is
neither a flight phase nor a minimum safe altitude. Also obstacle clearance cannot included,
because that concepts is more general than the minimum safe altitudes. At first sight, obstacle
clearance altitude and minimum obstacle clearance altitude are synonyms, but there is a
substantial difference between the two. The former is used in the vicinity of aerodromes,
whereas the latter is used between radio fixes en route.
3.1 DIFFICULTIES AND GENERAL TENDENCIES
As discussed in the introduction, it proved challenging to find reliable sources both in Dutch
and in German. Even the use of the terms in legislation is not that frequent. This confirms the
assumption that aviation related texts are rarely published in Dutch or German. All
Aeronautical Information Publications (AIPs) for Belgian airports are written in English, there
is no Dutch translation. Surprisingly, the AIPs for Austrian airports are bilingual. However,
flight phases
take-off phase climb(-out) phase en-route phase
minimum safe altitude
area minimum altitude / grid
minimum off-route altitude
minimum sector altitude / terminal
arrival altitude
obstacle clearance altitude
minimum obstacle clearance altitude
minimum en-route altitude
61
the English terms are borrowed in the German text. The official AIPs for German aerodromes
could not be checked, as they can only be accessed when paid for.
Although English is the lingua franca in air transport, several English terms had a Dutch or
German equivalent. That equivalent was, however, hardly used in texts written in Dutch. That
is also apparent from the relatively low frequencies on the different Google platforms,
compared to those for English and German. Moreover, the hits that were yielded for Dutch
predominantly contained online translation memories, such as linguee or context.reverso,
which referred to the translation of EUR-Lex documents. For German, that tendency is less
explicit. When both the English and the German equivalents occur in texts, preference was
given to the German term, since that term is considered more suitable for the IATE term base.
Because of this preference for English, a different method had to be applied for the Dutch and
German terms. The English terms were all found covered in existing IATE records, though
not extensively, as in some cases no further information than just the term was given. When
the definition was included, it was checked whether it was a literal quotation or note and
whether it was similar to the definition given in Jeppesen and ICAO. The Dutch and German
equivalents, however, had so far hardly been dealt with in IATE. On top of that, it could be
noticed that almost every concept is already relatively well covered for the new languages, i.e.
Hungarian, Slovenian, Croatian, Bulgarian, etc.
3.2 GENERAL CONCLUSION
In the course of this research, it seemed more and more pointless to determine a translation for
an English term, since the English terms are commonly used in Dutch and German as well.
However, we think that although the English term is common knowledge for pilots and air
traffic controllers, it might be useful for laymen and women to find their way through the
acronyms ridden terminology of air transport. On the other hand, neologisms should be
avoided, as their creation can lead to unnecessary term variation. Ultimately, we recommend
adding the English term either as a full synonym or as a less common synonym to the
respective language equivalents and to leave the choice to the user. Although thus allowing
Anglicisms might add to domain loss in air transport terminology, it is of vital importance to
use unambiguous terminology in the context of aviation.
62
4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
4.1 INFORMANTS
Captain Instructor Jurgen Schmid (11.7.2016)
Hans van den Bos, Luchtverkeersleiding Nederland (27.7.2016)
4.2 PAPER AND ELECTRONIC SOURCES
AAIB. (1998). Boeing 737-300, 9H-ABT. AAIB Bulletin No: 5/98 Ref: EW/C97/8/3Category:
1.1. UK: s.n., https://assets.digital.cabinet-
office.gov.uk/media/5422ef3b40f0b61346000289/dft_avsafety_pdf_501751.pdf
[26.3.2016]
Aero Luftfahrtnachrichten (2014). Lufthansa spart mit neuem Startverfahren Sprit. In Website
aero.de, http://www.aero.de/news-20324/Lufthansa-spart-mit-neuenm-Startverfahren-
Sprit.html [20.6.2016]
Air Transport World (2013). Lufthansa to change takeoff procedure outside Germany airports.
In Website Air Transport World, http://atwonline.com/eco-aviation/lufthansa-change-
takeoff-procedure-outside-germany-airports [22.7.2016]
Altitude. In Klein Woordenboek van de Nederlandse Taal. Utrecht: Van Dale.
Area Minimum Altitude. In Eurocontrol ATM Lexicon,
http://www.eurocontrol.int/lexicon/lexicon/en/index.php/Area_Minimum_Altitude
[19.7.2016]
Armbruster, J. (2013). Flugverkehr und Umwelt: Wieviel Mobilität tut uns gut? Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag, https://books.google.be/books?id=U0IjBgAAQBAJ [20.7.2016]
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Uitvoeringsverordening (EU) n r. 923/2012 van de Commissie van 26 september 2012 tot
vaststelling van gemeenschappelijke luchtverkeersregels en operationele bepalingen
betreffende luchtvaartnavigatiediensten en -procedures en tot wijziging van
Uitvoeringsverordening (EU) nr. 1035/2011 en Verordeningen (EG) nr. 1265/2007,
(EG) nr. 1794/2006, (EG) nr. 730/2006, (EG) nr. 1033/2006 en (EU) nr. 255/2010
(geconsolideerde versie van 30 juni 2015), CELEX:02012R0923-20150630/NL
Uitvoeringsverordening (EU) Nr. 923/2012 van de commissie van 26 september 2012 tot
vaststelling van gemeenschappelijke luchtverkeersregels en operationele bepalingen
betreffende luchtvaartnavigatiediensten en -procedures en tot wijziging van
Uitvoeringsverordening (EU) nr. 1035/2011 en Verordeningen (EG) nr. 1265/2007,
(EG) nr. 1794/2006, (EG) nr. 730/2006, (EG) nr. 1033/2006 en (EU) nr. 255/2010,
CELEX:32012R0923/NL
Uitvoeringsverordening (EU) nr. 716/2014 van de Commissie van 27 juni 2014 betreffende de
vaststelling van het gemeenschappelijk proefproject ter ondersteuning van de
tenuitvoerlegging van het Europese masterplan voor luchtverkeersbeheer, CELEX:
32014R0716/NL
UK Government (2001). The Air Navigation (Overseas Territories) Order 2001No. 2128,
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Verordening (EG) n r. 216/2008 van het Europees Parlement en de Raad van 20 februari 2008
tot vaststelling van gemeenschappelijke regels op het gebied van burgerluchtvaart en
tot oprichting van een Europees Agentschap voor de veiligheid van de luchtvaart,
houdende intrekking van Richtlijn 91/670/EEG, Verordening (EG) nr. 1592/2002 en
Richtlijn 2004/36/EG , CELEX:02008R0216
Verordening (EG) nr. 1899/2006 van het Europees Parlement en de Raad van 12 december
2006 houdende wijziging van Verordening (EEG) nr. 3922/91 van de Raad inzake de
harmonisatie van technische voorschriften en administratieve procedures op het gebied
van de burgerluchtvaart, CELEX: 32006R1899/NL
Verordening (EG) nr. 29/2009 van de Commissie van 16 januari 2009 tot vaststelling van de
eisen inzake datalinkdiensten voor het gemeenschappelijke Europese luchtruim,
CELEX:32009R0029/NL
Verordening (EG) nr. 8/2008 van de Commissie van 11 december 2007 tot wijziging van
Verordening (EEG) nr. 3922/91 van de Raad ten aanzien van gemeenschappelijke
technische voorschriften en administratieve procedures van toepassing op
commercieel vervoer per vliegtuig, CELEX:32008R0008/NL
Verordening (EG) nr. 859/2008 van de Commissie van 20 augustus 2008 tot wijziging van
Verordening (EEG) nr. 3922/91 van de Raad ten aanzien van gemeenschappelijke
technische voorschriften en administratieve procedures van toepassing op
commercieel vervoer per vliegtuig, CELEX:32008R0859
Verordening (EG) Nr. 859/2008 van de commissie van 20 augustus 2008 tot wijziging van
Verordening (EEG) nr. 3922/91 van de Raad ten aanzien van gemeenschappelijke
technische voorschriften en administratieve procedures van toepassing op
commercieel vervoer per vliegtuig, CELEX:32008R0859/NL
Verordening (EU) 2016/539 van de Commissie van 6 april 2016 tot wijziging van
Verordening (EU) nr. 1178/2011 wat betreft opleidingen, tests en periodieke
bekwaamheidsproeven voor piloten inzake prestatiegebaseerde navigatie,
CELEX:32016R0539/NL
Verordening (EU) nr. 1178/2011 van de Commissie van 3 november 2011 tot vaststelling van
technische eisen en administratieve procedures met betrekking tot de bemanning van
burgerluchtvaartuigen, overeenkomstig Verordening (EG) nr. 216/2008 van het
Europees Parlement en de Raad (geconsolideerde versie van 8 april 2016),
CELEX:02011R1178-20160408/NL
Verordening (EU) nr. 1178/2011 van de Commissie van 3 november 2011 tot vaststelling van
technische eisen en administratieve procedures met betrekking tot de bemanning van
80
burgerluchtvaartuigen, overeenkomstig Verordening (EG) nr. 216/2008 van het
Europees Parlement en de Raad, CELEX:32011R1178/NL
Verordening (EU) nr. 245/2014 van de Commissie van 13 maart 2014 tot wijziging van
Verordening (EU) nr. 1178/2011 van de Commissie van 3 november 2011 tot
vaststelling van technische eisen en administratieve procedures met betrekking tot de
bemanning van burgerluchtvaartuigen, CELEX:32014R0245/NL
Verordening (EU) nr. 379/2014 van de Commissie van 7 april 2014 tot wijziging van
Verordening (EU) nr. 965/2012 van de Commissie tot vaststelling van technische
eisen en administratieve procedures voor vluchtuitvoering, overeenkomstig
Verordening (EG) nr. 216/2008 van het Europees Parlement en de Raad,
CELEX:32014R0379/NL
Verordening (EU) nr. 800/2013 van de Commissie van 14 augustus 2013 houdende wijziging
van Verordening (EU) nr. 965/2012 van de Commissie tot vaststelling van technische
eisen en administratieve procedures voor vluchtuitvoering, overeenkomstig
Verordening (EG) nr. 216/2008 van het Europees Parlement en de Raad,
CELEX:32013R0800/NL
Verordening (EU) nr. 965/2012 van de Commissie van 5 oktober 2012 tot vaststelling van
technische eisen en administratieve procedures voor vluchtuitvoering, overeenkomstig
Verordening (EG) nr. 216/2008 van het Europees Parlement en de Raad,
CELEX:32012R0965/NL
Verordening (EU) nr. 965/2012 van de Commissie van 5 oktober 2012 tot vaststelling van
technische eisen en administratieve procedures voor vluchtuitvoering, overeenkomstig
Verordening (EG) nr. 216/2008 van het Europees Parlement en de Raad,
CELEX:32012R0965/NL
Verordnung (EG) Nr. 1899/2006 des europäischen Parlaments und des Rates vom 12.
Dezember 2006 zur Änderung der Verordnung (EWG) Nr. 3922/91 des Rates zur
Harmonisierung der technischen Vorschriften und der Verwaltungsverfahren in der
Zivilluftfahrt, CELEX:32006R1899/DE
Verordnung (EG) Nr. 8/2008 der Kommission vom 11. Dezember 2007 zur Änderung der
Verordnung (EWG) Nr. 3922/91 des Rates in Bezug auf gemeinsame technische
Vorschriften und Verwaltungsverfahren für den gewerblichen Luftverkehr mit
Flächenflugzeugen, CELEX:32008R0008/DE
Verordnung (EG) Nr. 859/2008 der Kommission vom 20. August 2008 zur Änderung der
Verordnung (EWG) Nr. 3922/91 des Rates in Bezug auf gemeinsame technische
Vorschriften und Verwaltungsverfahren für den gewerblichen Luftverkehr mit
Flächenflugzeugen, CELEX:32008R0859/DE
Verordnung (EU) Nr. 1178/2011 der Kommission vom 3. November 2011 zur Festlegung
technischer Vorschriften und von Verwaltungsverfahren in Bezug auf das fliegende
Personal in der Zivilluftfahrt gemäß der Verordnung (EG) Nr. 216/2008 des
Europäischen Parlaments und des Rates (konsolidierte Version vom 8. April 2016),
CELEX:02011R1178-20160408/DE
Verordnung (EU) Nr. 245/2014 der Kommission vom 13. März 2014 zur Änderung der
Verordnung (EU) Nr. 1178/2011 der Kommission vom 3. November 2011 zur
Festlegung technischer Vorschriften und Verwaltungsverfahren bezüglich des
fliegenden Personals in der Zivilluftfahrt, CELEX:32014R0245/DE
81
Verordnung (EU) Nr. 677/2011 der Kommission vom 7. Juli 2011 zur Festlegung von
Durchführungsbestimmungen für die Funktionen des Flugverkehrsmanagementnetzes
und zur Änderung der Verordnung (EU) Nr. 691/2010, CELEX: 32011R0677/DE
Verordnung (EU) Nr. 800/2013 der Kommission vom 14. August 2013 zur Änderung der
Verordnung (EU) Nr. 965/2012 zur Festlegung technischer Vorschriften und von
Verwaltungsverfahren in Bezug auf den Flugbetrieb gemäß der Verordnung (EG)
Nr. 216/2008 des Europäischen Parlaments und des Rates, CELEX:32013R0800/DE
Verordnung (EU) Nr. 965/2012 der Kommission vom 5. Oktober 2012 zur Festlegung
technischer Vorschriften und von Verwaltungsverfahren in Bezug auf den Flugbetrieb
gemäß der Verordnung (EG) Nr. 216/2008 des Europäischen Parlaments und des
Rates, CELEX:32012R0965/DE
Vlaams Parlement (2011). Voorstel van decreet houdende de bevordering van windenergie in
Vlaanderen, de oordeelkundige plaatsing van windturbines en de participatie van de
burgers bij de realisatie van windturbines. Stuk 781 (2010-2011) - Nr.3.In Website
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3.pdf [31.3.2016]
Vlaamse Overheid (10 april 2007). MRCC Oostende OPPLAN-SAR v 1.5. Oostende:
Agentschap voor Maritieme Dienstverlening en Kust,
http://home.scarlet.be/zeekayak/Wetgeving_files/SAR%20Belgie.pdf [12.7.2016]
Voorstel voor een verordening van het Europees Parlement en de Raad tot vaststelling van
gemeenschappelijke regels op het gebied van de burgerluchtvaart en tot oprichting van
een Europees Agentschap voor de Veiligheid van de Luchtvaart,
CELEX:52000PC0595/NL
Voorstel voor een Verordening van het Europees Parlement en de Raad houdende wijziging
van Verordening (EG) nr. 1592/2002 van 15 juli 2002 tot vaststelling van
gemeenschappelijke regels op het gebied van burgerluchtvaart en tot oprichting van
een Europees Agentschap voor de veiligheid van de luchtvaart, CELEX:
52005PC0579/NL
Vorschlag für eine Verordnung des Europäischen Parlaments und des Rates zur Festlegung
gemeinsamer Vorschriften für die Zivilluftfahrt und zur Errichtung einer Europäischen
Agentur für Flugsicherheit, CELEX:52000PC0595/DE
VRT-taalnet (s.d.). Minimum. In Website VRT, http://www.vrt.be/taal/minimum? [1.8.2016]
82
5 APPENDICES
5.1 GOOGLE CUSTOM SEARCH ENGINE
ec.europa.eu/transport http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/homepage.html?locale=en
fgov.be https://www.dfs.de
gov.au http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Main_Page
gov.uk http://www.faa.gov
http://www.aero.de http://www.tsb.gc.ca
http://www.airbus.com https://www.belgocontrol.be
http://www.bfu-web.de https://www.ecac-ceac.org
http://www.boeing.com http://iate.europa.eu/SearchByQueryLoad.do;jse
ssionid=GwvLWsnC2TnjFpqc1vCRpH30cm0J
HyG51hxvvhgKP7mr4jWc1bM6!-
1993963638?method=load
http://www.icao.int http://www.bata.uk.com
https://www.caa.co.uk jeppesen.com/
https://www.ilent.nl http://mobilit.belgium.be/nl/luchtvaart
https://www.rolls-royce.com https://www.eurocontrol.int
usa.gov http://www.easa.europa.eu
wetten.overheid.nl http://www.nats.aero
www.gesetze.ch http://www.atn.aero
www.gesetze-im-internet.de http://www.lvnl.nl
www.jusline.at http://www.tc.gc.ca
www.luftwaffe.de https://www.rijksoverheid.nl
83
5.2 INSTRUMENT APPROACH CHART – LAND’S END
The
minimum
sector
altitude is
2,400ft
The terminal
arrival
altitudes,
depending
on the sector
of approach,
are 2,400ft
or 2,000ft.