the study of adjectives with prefix in- - usd
TRANSCRIPT
THE STUDY OF ADJECTIVES WITH PREFIX IN- WITHOUT NEGATING THE STEM
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
DAUD NIANJAYA WIBAWA
Student Number: 034214110
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY 2008
THE STUDY OF ADJECTIVES WITH PREFIX IN- WITHOUT NEGATING THE STEM
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
DAUD NIANJAYA WIBAWA
Student Number: 034214110
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY 2008
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my mentor Dr. Fr. B.
Alip, M. Pd, M.A and Adventina Putranti S.S, M. Hum who have spared their
time to give me some advice and guidance so that I can finish my thesis. I am
deeply thankful to Jesus Christ who has always accompanied me in hard times
during my study in this University.
I would also like to thank my family for their love and spirit. I give
thanks to all my friends, the students of 2003 English Letters Department Demus,
Abit, Rian, Tio, Ginting, Muji, and others that have spent their time to help me
during my confusing and boring hours. Thanks also to Gibran’s boarding house
family Bagong, Bayu, Andre, Abit, Hendi, Nisar, and others who have spared
their time to encourage and entertain me. I will always miss our WE moment.
Special thanks to Tyas Intani, who has been my friend, my support, and
my motivation.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………….. i APPROVAL PAGE ……………………………………………………. ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ……………………………………………. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...……………………………………………. vi ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………. vii ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………. viii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………. 1
A. Background of the study ……………………………………. 1 B. Problem Formulations ……………………………………. 3 C. Objectives of the Study ……………………………………. 3 D. Definition of Terms ……………………………………. 4
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ………………………...... 6 A. Review of Related Studies ………………………………….. 6 B. Review of Related Theories…………………………………... 8 C. Theoretical Framework …………………………………….. 24
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY …………………………………... 26 A. Object of the Study …………………………………………… 26 B. Approach of the Study ……………………………………….. 27 C. Method of the Study …………………………………………. 27
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS A. Adjectives Attached to Prefix in- with Positive Meaning and their
Morphophonemic processes ...................................................... 29 B. The Most Common Characteristics …………………….. 38
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION …………………………………...... 47 BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………….. 50 APPENDICES ……………………………………………………... 51
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ABSTRACT
Daud Nianjaya Wibawa. 2003. The Study of Adjectives with Prefix in- without Negating the Stem. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters. Faculty of Letters. Sanata Dharma University.
The objectives of this study is to find out the adjectives which are
attached to the prefix in- without negating the stem, their common characteristics and also their morphophonemic changes. There are two problems that will be discussed in this thesis. The first problem is what adjectives attached to the prefix in- without negating he stem and what morphophonemic processes occur after the attachment of the prefix in- are. The second problem is what their common characteristics are.
To accomplish this research, the writer has done the library research. It means that all of the writer’s data were taken from the book. The writer used dictionary as the primary source of the data. Due to the different dictionary entries, the writer used two dictionaries for this research. The dictionaries that the writer used here are The Oxford Dictionary of Etymology a n d Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. The writer will also use the Merriem Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary: Tenth Edition as the additional information about their etymology.
The data of this research are adjectives that are attached to prefix in- without negating the stem. The writer can find nine adjectives as the data for this research. There are some similarities that can be found from the words that can be put in this category. The first similarity is the meaning characteristics of the adjectives itself. The attachment of prefix in- does not negate the meaning of the stem. The second similarity is the combination from the affixes. Some of the data use the combination between negative prefix in- and suffix –able. Among the nine adjectives, there are four adjectives that use this combination of affixes.
In the morphophonemic processes, the writer found there are three processes that occur in the data. They are assimilation process, stress shift, and vowel change. However, the most common morphophonemic process that occurs in the data is the assimilation process.
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ABSTRAK Daud Nianjaya Wibawa. 2003. The Study of Adjectives with Prefix
in- without Negating the Stem. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris. Fakultas Sastra. Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Tujuan dari riset ini adalah untuk mengetahui kata sifat yang bisa
dilekatkan dengan awalan in- dalam bahasa inggris tanpa menegasi kata dasarnya karakter mereka pada umumnya, dan juga perubahan morphophonemik yang terjadi pada kata- kata tersebut. Ada dua pertanyaan yang akan dibahas dalam riset ini. Pertanyaan pertama adalah kata sifat apa yang diawali dangan awalan in- yang tidak menegasi kata dasarnya dan perubahan morphophonemik apa yang ada di dalam data setelah data mendapat awalan in-. Pertanyaan yang kedua adalah apakah persamaan yang ada di dalam data.
Untuk menyelesaikan riset ini, penulis menggunakan riset pustaka. Artinya data-data yang digunakan oleh penulis diambil dari buku. Penulis menggunakan kamus sebagai sumber utama. Karena adanya perbedaan pembendaharaan kata dalam tiap kamus, penulis menggunakan dua buah kamus. Kamus-kamus yang digunakan penulis adalah The Oxford Dictionary of Etymology d a n Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Penulis juga menggunakan Merriem Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary: Tenth Edition sebagai informasi tambahan dari segi sejarah dari tiap kata..
Data dari fiset ini adalah kata sifat yang diawali dengan awalan in- yang tidak menegasi kata dasarnya. Penulis berhasil menemukan sembilan kata sifat yang dapat digunakan sebagai data. Ada beberapa kemiripan dalam kata- kata sifat yang dapat dimasukan dalam kategori ini. Pertama, kemiripan karakteristik arti dari kata-kata tersebut. Walaupun kata-kata tersebut diberi sebuah awalan in- akan tetapi tidak terjadi negasi dalam kata-kata tersebut. Persamaan yang kedua adalah kombinasi dari imbuhan. Beberapa dari kata-kata yang ada menggunakan kombinasi dari awalan in- dan akhiran –able. Dari sembilan kata, terdapat empat kata yang menggunakan kombinasi imbuhan ini.
Dari morphophonemik proses, penulis menemukan tiga proses perubahan yang terjadi dalam data. Ketiga perubahan tersebut adalah proses asimilasi, pergeseran tekanan, dan perubahan huruf vokal. Akan tetapi, proses yang paling sering muncul di dalam data adalah proses asimilasi
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
Morphology is the study of words formation. It means that in
morphology we learn how to arrange words in a correct formation. Words in
English can be divided into two major categories. The two categories are content
words and function words. Content words also known as the open class category.
The examples of this category are nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. Function words
also known as the close class category. The examples of this category are
pronouns, prepositions, etc. The benefit of studying morphology is that it can help
us to encounter words which we never heard before.
According to Saphir (Dinnen, 1967:234) every word, grammatical
element, location, sound, and accent is a slowly changing configuration. It means
that language change gradually as time goes by. It is very important for us to
consider phonetic, phonological, morphological, lexical, and syntactic patterning
in order to study language.
Basically, what we study in morphology is morpheme. According to
Katamba, morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language, because it
cannot be broken into smaller unit without destroying its meaning. We can see the
example of a morpheme in the word butterfly.
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The meaning of butterfly is any of numerous slender-bodied diurnal
insects with broad often colored wings (Webster, 1993: 155). We cannot divide
the word butterfly into butter and fly, because it will change the meaning of the
word butterfly. A word may consist of one or more than one morphemes.
In English, there are two kinds of morphemes. The two morphemes are
free morphemes and bound morphemes. A free morpheme is a morpheme which
can occur by itself in a large language unit because it is meaningful. A free
morpheme occurs as a word and as an element of a phrase; such as noun, verb,
adjective, adverb and pronoun. While, a bound morpheme is a morpheme which
cannot stand by itself, because bound morpheme has to be attached to a free
morpheme in order to be meaningful. The example of bound morphemes can be
seen in affixes, such as: prefix, suffix, and infix.
In this research, the writer will focus the discussion on the prefix
especially prefix in-. In English, there are two kinds of prefix in-. The first prefix
is prefix in- that means in, toward, or near to. This prefix is used to indicate a
place (just like what we have in the word inland). The second prefix is the one
that means not. This second prefix also known as the negative prefix. This prefix
can be attached to adjectives (as seen in impossible and imbalance) and nouns (as
seen in inaction and inability). As the focus of the discussion, the writer will talk
about the group of adjectives which are attached to prefix in- without negating the
stem
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B. Problem Formulation
As it stated above, the writer will discuss the adjectives which are
attached to prefix in- without negating the stem. Here are some problems which
will be discussed in the thesis.
1. What adjectives are attached to the prefix in- without negating the stem
and what morphophonemic processes occur after the attachment of the
prefix in-?
2. What are their common characteristics?
C. Objectives of the Study
The focus of the discussion in this research is the adjectives that are
attached to prefix in- but without negating to the stem. Based on the problems that
mentioned, this research has two objectives.
First, the writer will find the data for this research. The data for this
research is the adjectives that are attached to prefix in- without negating the stem.
Most people think that the attachment of prefix in- to an adjective always results a
meaning that negates the meaning from the stem. In other words, it can be said
that prefix in- means “not” whenever it is attached to an adjectives. However, in
this research the writer will show that there are also some exceptions. After that,
the writer will analyze the morphophonemic processes that occur in the data. For
the next step, the writer will analyze the most common characteristics from the
data.
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D. Definition of Terms
Katamba said morpheme as the smallest meaningful unit of a language.
A morpheme can not be decomposed into smaller units that are either meaningful
by themselves or mark a grammatical function like singular or plural number in a
noun. (Katamba, 1993:20)
Before we talk about prefix we have to talk about the affix, because
prefix is one of the examples of affix. According to Katamba, an affix is a
morpheme which only occurs when it is attached to some other morpheme or
morphemes. According Szymanek (1989:62), affixation is probably the most
frequent and widespread of producing morphologically complex words in human
language. Therefore, a lot of English words are derived by using this process.
Based on its definition, we can simply conclude that affix is one of the
examples from bound morphemes. Based on their position, there are three kinds
of affixes. The three affixes are:
a. Prefixes: an affix which is attached before a root, as in improper, undone,
nonstop, etc.
b. Suffixes: an affix which is attached after a root, as in beautiful, greater,
endless, etc.
c. Infix: an affix which is inserted into the root itself. We only have one infix
in English, namely -o-, as in speedometer, thermometer, etc.
Based on the function, affixes can be classified into inflectional affixes
and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes are the group of affixes that function
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to modify a word form and indicate the grammatical subclass to which it belongs
without changing the grammatical category. The derivational affixes are the
affixes that function to form the new words and it change the grammatical
category and meaning (O’Grady, 1996:161).
According to Quirk, et al. (1972: 982-992), major prefixes can be
classified according to the meaning. According to the meaning, there are ten kinds
of prefixes. Since the focus of the discussion is the negative prefixes, the writer
will just give definition from the negative prefixes only. Negative prefixes are
prefixes which mean are “the opposite of”, “not”, “lacking in”, and “lack of”.
They are un-, non-, in-, dis-, a -, an-. Each of them has their own characteristics
which make them different from one another.
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
There are three items that will be discussed in this chapter. The writer will
discuss the review of related studies, review of related theories, and the theoretical
framework from this research.
A. Review of Related Studies
Barly Bram conduct a study about the forms, function, and meanings of
the Latin prefixes com-, in-, and sub-. The data from his study is the vocabulary
items that are attached to prefix com-, in-, and sub-. He focused his discussion on
the forms, functions, and the meaning of the prefixes.
However, he does not give the absolute meaning from his data because the
data in his research do not have a clear context. It means that they stand alone as a
word. The prefix com- may mean together, with intensification. He defines the
prefix in- itself as a negative prefix means not. While, the prefix sub- itself means
under, below, less than, secondary repetition, or subordinate. Since this research is
about prefix in- the writer will discuss the prefix in- only.
According to Barly Bram, there are two kinds of prefix in- in English.
Both of the prefixes are taken from Latin. One is used with the meaning of in,
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into, within, on, and toward. The other prefix in- is used with the meaning of no,
not, without, and non.
The discussion about the prefix in- signifying in or into is excluded. He
has three reasons to do this action. The first reason is because the productivity.
The fist prefix in- is less productive than the second prefix in-. The second reason
is because of the similarity in terms of assimilated forms. The first prefix in- has
the same assimilated form with the second prefix in-.The third reason is because
of the attachment of the first prefix in-. The first prefix in- is combined with verbs,
whereas verbs, mostly infinitives, have been discussed in the prefix com- and sub-
According to him, the second prefix in-, meaning not, does not change the
word class category. The second prefix in- is attached to English adjectives like
correct and perfect to form new words like incorrect and imperfect. The second
prefix is functioned to negate the meaning of the stem where the prefix is
attached. The attachment of this prefix results a new words that meaning is the
opposite from the stem where the prefix is attached.
The writer does not agree with the statement that the attachment of prefix
in- to adjective will negate the meaning of the stem where the prefix is attached.
In this thesis, the writer will show that there are exceptions for certain words.
Through this research, the writer will prove that the attachment of prefix in- to an
adjective can also create a new word without negating the meaning of the stem
where the prefix is attached.
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B. Review of Related Theories
1. Affixation
An affix is a morpheme that only occurs when it is attached to some
other morpheme or morphemes (Katamba 1993: 44). Based on the definition, we
can conclude that affixes are bound morphemes. Affix can be inflectional and
derivational. The explanation about inflectional and derivational affix will be
discussed in the next part. There are three kinds of affixes that is prefixes, suffixes
and infixes (Katamba, 1993: 44 - 45)
a. Prefixes as in : remake, reread, unkind, untidy, indecent, etc.
b. Suffixes as in : kindly, quickly, waiter, player, books, mats, etc.
c. Infixes According to Bauer, we only have one infix in English that is /-n /
(Katamba, 1993: 45). This infix undergoes of articulation assimilation,
example: succumb, incumbent, and decumbent.
According to Szymanex, affixation is probably the most frequent and
widespread method of producing morphologically complex words in human
language. Affixation occurs as the result of combination between bound
morphemes with a stem. A bound morpheme is a dependent morpheme. It means
that a bound morpheme cannot stand by it self because it has to be attached with a
free morpheme.
There are two kinds of affixations that is simple affixation and multiple
affixations. The examples of the simple affixation can be simply seen in the word
inaccurate and unkind. The process of simple affixation only happen in one round
but the process of the multiple affixations can take in number of rounds, with the
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output that is created by one round of affixation serving as the input for the next
round. The example of the multiple affixations can be seen in the word
contradictoriness (Katamba, 1993: 52-53). In the word contradictoriness, the
affixation process not happens in one round only. In the word contradictoriness,
there are three rounds of affixation process.
The first process is the attachment of the prefix contra- to the root that is
suffix –dict. This affixation process creates a new word, contradict, that is
categorized into verb. The second affixation process is the attachment of the suffix
–ory to the word contradict. This affixation process creates a new word,
contradictory, that is categorized into adjective. The second affixation process is
the attachment of the suffix –ness to the word contradictory. This affixation
process creates a new word, contradictoriness, that is categorized into noun.
Quirk also added some information about prefixation and suffixation in
English. The writer will focus on the prefixation only in order to limit the
discussion.
He said that a productive prefixes generally have a light stress on their
first syllable while the main stress of the word is placed on the base (for example
is the word, pre’fabricated) He classified nine kinds of prefixes in English. (Quirk
1973: 431). The nine prefixes are:
a Negative prefixes.
b. Reservative or privative prefixes.
c. Pejorative prefixes.
d. Prefixes of degree or size.
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e. Prefixes of attitude.
f. Locative prefixes.
g. Prefixes of time and order.
h. Number prefixes.
i. Conversion prefixes.
The writer will focus the discussion on the negative prefixes only.
Nevertheless due to their similiarity, the writer will also give some additional
information about the reservative or privative prefixes. Reservative or privative
prefix has similarity with the negative prefix because both of the prefix is used to
negate the meaning of the stem. There are three kinds of reservative prefixes
(Quirk 1973: 432). The three prefixes can always be attached to verbs. The three
prefixes are un-, de-, and dis-.
The first prefix is un-. This prefix is attached to verbs (as seen is untie,
unhorse). The meaning of this prefix is to reverse an action or to take something
away. The second prefix is de-. This prefix can be attached to verbs (as seen in
defrost) and abstract nouns (as seen in deforestation). The meaning of this prefix
is to reverse an action. The third prefix is dis-. The meaning of this prefix is
similar with the meaning of prefix un-. This prefix can be attached to a verbs (as
seen i n disconnect and discolured) and to a participles nouns (as seen in
discontent) (Quirk 1973: 432).
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2. Negative Prefixes
According to Quirk, five negative prefixes can be attached to an
adjective. (Quirk 1973: 431). The five prefixes are:
a. un-, as in unfair, unexpected, unable, etc.
b. non-, as in nondescript, nonplussed, nonchalant, etc.
c. in-, as in informal, impossible, infinite, etc.
d. dis-, as in disloyal, dislike, discourteous, etc.
e. a-, as seen in amoral and asymmetry, etc.
Those five prefixes have their own characteristics and can also be combined with
the other word classes such as; verb and noun to form a unit of negative meaning.
Each of the prefix function to give the negative meaning to a word. Since this
research discuss about prefix in-, the writer will focus on the characteristics of
prefix in-. Nevertheless, the writer will also discuss the other negative prefixes as
the additional information.
According to Katamba, prefix in- is the prefixes meaning “not” which
can be attached to adjectives and verbs (Katamba 1993: 26). Moreover, he also
added that prefix in– can transforms to several forms, such as:
a. Іl- if it is placed before the liquid stop consonant sounds.
b. Іm- if it is placed before the labial consonants sounds.
c. Іr- if it is placed before the liquid fricative consonant sounds.
d. Іη- if it is placed before the velar consonants sounds.
e. Іn- if it is placed elsewhere.
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Prefix in- is one of the examples of Latin prefix that is functioned as a
negative prefix. It is similar with prefix un- that is also used to indicate a negation
in Latin. Since the meaning of the prefix in- is negative, the attachment of prefix
in- can give negative meaning to the stem where the prefix is attached. This prefix
is used to indicate a negative or the absence of something. For example, the word
accurate that means correct and true in every detail. When it is attached to prefix
in-, it changes into inaccurate means not completely correct. The attachment
prefix in- can create a new words that simply become the negation for the stem
where the prefix is attached.
Prefix dis- can be said to have a confusing development. This prefix
commonly used with verbs and abstract noun. Some linguists (Koziol and
Marchand) believe that this prefix originate from the Old French prefix des-
which in turn came from the Latin prefix dis- (for example disease: des- + aese).
Jespersen believed that this prefix has a purely negative meaning and generally
implying contradictory rather than contradictory opposition. This prefix also has a
various meaning like apart, in different direction as in dispel (push in different
directions) and discursive (tending to turn in different directions). (B. Dzuganova.
Negative Affixes in Medical English <http: www.bmj.sk/2006/10708-13.pdf>
(Monday 17 September 2007)).
The prefix non- means not, came from the Latin non. It can be attached
to nouns and adjectives. This prefix cannot be attached to verbs. This prefix
commonly used in Roman law terms that were adopted into Old French before it
were adopted into English. In the sixteenth century, there are many compounds
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with non used in English (for example non-power, non-payment, non-claim, non-
resident, etc).
In the seventeenth century, the use of non was getting higher. The use of
this prefix spread to words belonging to philosophy, religion, and political history
(for example, non-graduated, non-proficiency, non-necessity). In the nineteenth
century, the use of this prefix has became more frequent. Nowadays, this prefix
can be attached to almost all of the adjectives in English (for example non-
interrupted, non-breakable, non-active, etc). However, this prefix is less frequent
appear in the deverbal and personal nouns (for example non-admission, non-
conviction, non-believer, non-heritor, etc). (B. Dzuganova. Negative Affixes in
Medical English <http: www.bmj.sk/2006/10708-13.pdf> (Monday 17 September
2007)).
Prefix un- is the native English prefix used to indicate a negation but it
can also be combined with non-native roots bas well. This prefix is the most
productive negative prefix although it is not frequently used in word that is related
with the medical terms. This prefix originates from Old English. There are two
kinds of negative prefix un- in Old English. The first prefix is the negative prefix
means “not” as we seen in the word unhappy. The first prefix has the same Indo-
European root with Old Greek a- / an-, Latin prefix in-, and German prefix un-. It
is normally attached to adjectives (for example unclean, uneven, unwise, etc).
During Old English era, this prefix was very productive and produced many
adjectives (about 1250 words) unfortunately most of them disappeared in the end
of the 13th century and only few of them survived in the present English. (B.
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Dzuganova. Negative Affixes in Medical English <http: www.bmj.sk/2006/10708-
13.pdf> (Monday 17 September 2007)).
The second prefix is the reversative un- prefix. Although they have the
same origin, the second prefix un- is not related with the first one. This prefix is
much closer to the Old Greek anti- and Latin prefix ante- meaning “the opposite”.
This prefix originates from Old English and, ond- that tended to lose its d before a
consonant. It is related etymologically with to a German prefix ent-. Normally the
second prefix is attached to verbs and functioned to indicate a reversal process.
Many verbs produced with this prefix in Old English era but only few of them
survive in the present English vocabulary (for example unbind, undo, untie, etc).
( B . D z u g a n o v a . Negative Affixes in Medical E n g l i s h <http:
www.bmj.sk/2006/10708-13.pdf> (Monday 17 September 2007)).
3. Derivational Affixes
Based on the function, affixes can be classified into inflectional and
derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes are the group of affixes that function to
modify a word form and indicate the grammatical subclass to which it belongs
without changing the grammatical category.
The derivational affixes are the affixes that function to form the new
words. We can see the example from the comparison between the words happy
and unhappy. The attachment of prefix un- change the meaning of the word happy
from having feeling of pleasure into not having the feeling of pleasure. The
attachment of derivational affixes can also change the grammatical category
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(O’Grady, 1996:61). See the table below for further explanation about
the differences between the two.
Derivational Inflectional
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It can produce new words.
It can change the category or meaning
of the word.
It can be placed in the initial as a
prefix and final position as a suffix.
It is more creative.
It is less productive.
It deals with grammar only.
It cannot change the category or
meaning of the word.
It can only be placed in the final
position as a suffix.
It is less creative
It is more productive.
4. Word Formation.
A form where a rule of word formation is applied is known as a base
(Quirk 1973: 430). According to Quirk, there are three types of word formation
process in English:
a. Affixation is the process of adding either prefix or suffix to the base, with or
without changing the word class (for example author› c o -author and drive›
driver).
b. Conversion is assigning the base to a different word class without
changing its form (for example the zero affixation as seen in drive (v) and
drive (n)).
c. Compounding is adding one base to another (for example tea + pot = teapot).
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We can also have more than one process in a word. The example can be
seen in the word colour-blindness. In the word colour-blindness, we have two
processes. The first process is compounding process from the word colour and
blind that results the word colour-blind. The second process is the affixation
process from the word colour-blind and the suffix –ness that results the word
colour-blindness. Beside the three major processes mentioned above, there are
also others word formation processes such as reduplication, clipping, blending,
and acronym as means to form new words by using the old words as its base.
(Quirk 1973: 431).
5. Tree Diagram
According to Andrew Carstairs, tree diagram is a way to represent
information about affixation since there are many derived words contain more
than one affix. Node is a part of a tree diagram from which branches sprout. Here
is the explanation about the word unhelpfulness for further information. The word
unhelpfulness means not helping in a situation or makes the situation worse. This
word belongs to noun category. In order to find the stem, we separate the last
attached affix that is suffix –ness. This action changes the word unhelpfulness into
unhelpful that belongs to adjective category. After that, we take prefix un-. This
action changes the word unhelpful into helpful that belongs to adjective. Finally,
we take suffix -full from the word helpful and change the word helpful into help
that belong to noun category. Here is the picture of the tree diagram.
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N A A N
un- help -ful -ness
The nodes in the tree diagram above are all labeled. A is used to label
adjectives. N is used to label nouns. V is used to label verbs. Adv is used to label
adverbial (Carstairs, 2002: 73-74).
The information about a tree diagram can also be conveyed by using
labelled bracketing. In labeled bracketing, one pair of bracket corresponds to each
node in the tree (Carstairs, 2002: 74). See the example from the word helplessness
below:
[[[helpV]N –less]A –ness]N.
The word help can be classified into verbs and nouns category. In order
to be attached with suffix –less, the word help is classified into nouns category
because suffix –less can be attached to nouns and cannot be attached to verbs.
After the attachment from the word help and suffix –less, the word help changes
into helpless which is categorized into adjectives. After that, the second affixation
process between the word helpless and suffix -ness happens. The word helpless is
18
attached to suffix –ness and changes into helplessness that is categorized into
nouns.
6. Allomorphs
According to Francis Katamba, if there are different morphemes that
represent the same morphemes they are called allomorphs (Katamba 1993:26).
For example /ıd/, /d/, and /t/ are grouped together as allomorphs of the past tense
in English. The allomorphs above are the examples taken from the English past
tense suffix. The relation between morphemes, allomorphs, and morphs can be
seen in the picture below (Katamba 1993: 26).
morpheme past tense
allomorphs allomorphs allomorphs
morph morph morph / ıd/ /d/ /t/
According to Katamba, prefix in- has some allomorphs, in this case, he mentions
three examples of allomorphs for prefix in-. The three allomorphs are im- [ ı m -],
in- [ ı n -], and in- [ ı η-] . The nasal consonants in the allomorphs of prefix in- are
pronounced in three different ways. The pronunciations itself depend on the
following sounds. Here are the rules for the pronunciation of allomorphs in the
prefix in- (Katamba 1993: 26).
19
a. Prefix in- will be pronounced [ ı m-] if it is placed before the bilabial
consonants.
b. Prefix in- will be pronounced [ı η-] if it is placed before the velar
consonants.
c. Prefix in- will be pronounced [ı n -] if it is elsewhere.
The three allomorphs above are in the complementary distribution. It
means that selecting one precludes selecting the others. It is very impossible for
the three of them to occur in the identical environments. If a morpheme has
several allomorphs the choice of allomorphs used in the given context is normally
phonologically conditioned. It means that the allomorphs selected to represent the
morpheme in a certain context is the one that phonological properties are similar
to those of sounds found in the closest allomorphs of some other morphemes. The
phonological resemblance between the nasal found in the prefix and the first
consonant representing the previous morpheme is done for the assimilation
process.
Based on the discussion about allomorph, Katamba concludes that
spelling is a very poor guide for to pronunciation in English and many other
languages (Katamba 1993: 26). There are some criteria to determine whether a
morpheme is the allomorph of the other morpheme. Here are some steps to decide
whether a morpheme is an allomorph or not.
a. Decide whether the morpheme have the same meaning or not.
b. Decide whether the morpheme is phonologically similar.
c. Decide whether the morpheme is complementary distribution or not.
20
7. Relation between Meaning and Form
Many people always think that words can be divided into parts. This can
happen because of the traditional concept that we have in morphology that always
concern on the morphemes’ identification. However, we have to realize that not
all words can be divided into smaller parts. According to Joan L Bybee,
sometimes there are zero morphs (semantics unit that seem to have no expression
in a word) and empty morphs (parts of the word that do not associate with any
semantics units) or some cases where it is impossible for us to find boundaries
between morphemes in the word (Bybee, 1985: 3).
In his Morphology: A Study of Relation between Meaning and Form,
Bybee (1985) concerns with two major problems. The first problem is about
morphological fusion that focused on the combination between morphology and
phonology. The second problem is about allomorphy that deals with the
disturbance in the one to one association of sound and meaning. In this research,
the writer will focus on the first problem that is morphological fusion.
Bybee developed and tested a hypothesis that the degree of morpho-
phonological fusion is related with the degree of semantic relevance of the affix to
the stem. This hypothesis can be used to arrange inflectional categories on a scale
where various predications can be made.
8. Word Meaning
Many linguists have tried to fine the perfect way to define the meaning
of a word. The easiest way to know the meaning of a word is by looking at the
21
meaning of the word in the dictionary. However, there are some elements that
need to be considered in defining the meaning of a word. Here are the four
elements:Connotation is the set of associations and elements of meaning that can
be evoked by a word, but not the entire meaning of the word.
a. Denotation is the set of entities to which the word refers (also known as
referent.).
b. Extension is the entity which a word or expression picks out in the world.
c. Intension is the concepts a word evokes.
(Dozier, Evan Marie. Semantics on Words <http://www.angelfire.com/tn/semantics/words.html> (30 August 2007))
According to John Lyons in Linguistics Semantics (1995), the
referential theory of meaning is perfectly satisfactory to define the meaning of a
word by identifying what they stand for (Lyons 1995:75). However, according to
Lyons we have to distinguish denotation from reference so that we are able to
identify or define what a word stands for. Denotation is connected with reference.
Many authors think that denotation and reference are the same. However, Lyons
said that they are two different things.
The difference between denotation and reference is that the denotation is
invariant and utterance independent. Denotation is the relation between expression
and physical entities in the external world. Denotation is part of the meaning that
belongs to the expression in a language system. Reference is a variable and
utterance dependent. For example, the word “dog “always denotes the same class
22
of animal whereas the word “my dog” or “the dog” will refer to different member
of the class on different occasions of utterance.
Another important thing that needs to be considered is sense. Sense and
denotation is related to one another. The larger the denotation, the smaller the
sense is and vice versa. For example, the denotation of “animal” is larger than
“dog”, but the sense of “animal” is less specific than “dog”.
Lyons also added that denotation has two complementary aspects. They
are extension and intension. Extension is the class of entities that it defines and
the intention is the defining property of the class. Usually, the attachment of the
negative prefix in- always denote the negative meaning. However, in this
research, the writer will prove that there are also some cases where the attachment
of the negative prefix in- does not give negative meaning to the resulting word.
9. Componential Analysis
We can describe and analyze a word from the semantics components. In
other words, we can say that we are able to analyze a word based on their
semantics features. Componential analysis is known as semantic feature analysis.
In componential analysis, we described the meaning of a word through their
semantics features, for example:
man = [+ male], [+ mature]
woman = [– male], [+ mature]
boy = [+ male], [– mature]
girl [– male] [– mature]
child [+/– male] [– mature].
23
From the example above, we know that a man is different from a boy.
Although both male and boy have the same semantics feature, they are different
because a man is a mature male while a boy is not a mature male.
According to Lyons, we can formalize or making precise the sense of
relations that hold between lexemes by using componential analysis (Lyons 1995:
107). As the example, he took the semantic features from the words “boy”,
“girl”, “man”, and “woman” that denote to human being. He said that we could
see their differences by looking at their sense component. “Man” and “woman”
have the sense component adult while “boy” and “girl” have the sense lack of
adult. The sense from four examples can be seen as:
a. “man” = “human” x “male” x “adult”
b. “woman” = “human” x “female” x “adult”
c. “boy” = “human” x “male” x “non-adult”
d. “girl” = “human” x “female” x “non-adult”
Instead of saying that a man is the product from “human”, “male”, and
“adult”, he preferred to say that a man is the product from HUMAN, MALE, and
ADULT because small capital refers the allegedly universal sense components
where the senses of expression of in a particular languages are constructed.. Then,
he developed the formalization a little further by using the negation operator (~) in
order to distinguish a positive and a negative value of the two-valued variable +/-
ADULT. In order to make clear the difference between the absence of a
component and its negation, he changed the symbol of multiplication sign with
24
“&” (Lyons 1995: 110). Since the symbol changed, the representations from the
examples are also changed into:
a. “man” = HUMAN & MALE & ADULT
b. “woman” = HUMAN & ~MALE & ADULT
c. “boy” = HUMAN & MALE & ~ADULT
d. “girl” = HUMAN & ~MALE & ~ADULT
e. “child” = HUMAN & ~ADULT
C. Theoretical Framework
In the theoretical framework, the writer will discuss how the problems
(which already stated in the problem formulation) will be answered by using the
theories (which are stated in the review of related theories). In other words, the
writer will explain how the problems can be answered theoretically. The data that
will be used in this research is the adjective that is attached to the prefix in-
without negating their stem.
The theories on the affixation and relation between meaning and form
will be used to answer the first problem (What adjectives a re with prefix in-
without negating the stem?) The reason why the writer uses this two theories are
because, as we know, that there are words that are having in as the two initial
letters but they do not have the characteristics of the prefixes (such as incline,
incisor, incident, etc). The possible answer for this phenomenon is word origin
because English as a language has developed and borrowed many words from
many different languages.
25
For the next problem (What morphological processes occur after the
attachment of the prefix in-?) will be answered by using the theories of
allomorphs by Katamba (1993). By using this theory, we can check the allomorph
of the prefix in-. Since the most common morphological process in the prefix in-
is the assimilation process, it is very important for us to know the allomorphs of
the prefix in- and their characteristics.
In order to answer the last question (What are their common
characteristics?), the writer will use the theory of the tree diagram from Carstairs.
The reason why the writer uses this theory is because of the characteristics of the
theory itself. By using this theory, we can see the attachment process of the
affixation in each word. We can decide the common syntactic characteristics from
each of the word by looking at the tree diagram. The writer will also use
componential analysis to analyze this problem in order to give additional
information about the semantic properties from the data.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The research that will be conducted in this thesis is the identifying one.
In this research, the writer will try to identify which adjectives are attached to the
prefix in- without negating the stem. After that, the writer will identify the
morphophonemic change that occurs after the attachment of the prefix. Then, the
writer will try to identify their common characteristics.
A. Object of the Study.
The population of this research is the adjectives which are attached to the
prefixes in- without negating the stem. Due to the difference of dictionary entries,
the data will be taken from two different dictionaries. The two dictionaries are The
Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology a n d Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English. Moreover, the writer will also use the definition from
Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary: Tenth Edition.
In order to obtain the data, the writer will make a convenient sampling
to the adjectives which are attached to prefix in- without negating the stem.
26
27
B. Approach of the Study
Morphology is the study of internal structure of words (Katamba,
1993:3). In morphology, we learn how to arrange words into correct formation.
Phonology is different from morphology. Phonologists are interested in the sound
patterns of a particular language (McMahon, 2002: 2). In this research, the writer
will combine morphology and phonology. In other words, the writer will use the
morphophonology approach to analyze the data. The writer will analyze the sound
and the word formation of the adjectives.
C. Method of the Study
1. Types of Research
The research will be a library research. It means that the writer will try to
find the data based on the finding in the books or dictionary. The writer will use
the dictionary as the main source to find the data. Since the writer having
difficulties to find the some information to validate the answers toward the
problem formulation in the library, the writer will use the information from the
internet as the secondary sources, so that the answer in the analysis will be much
better and clearer.
2. Data Collection
The data from this research are adjectives that are attached to the prefix
in- with positive meaning in The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology and
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. The writer find there are nine
28
adjectives that have these special characteristics. In order to collect the data, there
were some steps taken to make an analysis in this research. The first step of this
research was listing the adjectives which are attached to prefix in- but having
positive meaning from The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology and Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English.
The second step from this research is check the meaning of the whether
the resulted meaning is negates the meaning of the stem. Usually, the resulted
meaning negates the meaning of the stem. However, the data that will be taken is
the adjectives that are attached to prefix in- without producing negative meaning.
After that, the writer will use the theory of allomorph from Francis
Katamba to analyze the morphophonemic process that occurs after the attachment
of prefix in-. Normally, there is only assimilation process that occurs in the
attachment of the prefix in-. However, the writer will try to find the other
morphophonemic process from the data.
As the fourth step, the writer will use the tree diagram to check the most
common characteristics that can be found in the data. Moreover, the writer will
use componential analysis in order to analyze the semantic features from the data.
Then, the writer will explain the reason why the resulted meaning from
the adjectives is not negating the meaning of the stem. The writer will combine
the answer from the first and the second problem formulation to explain this
problem.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULT
In this chapter, the writer will answer the problems that have been stated
in the problem formulation. The writer has formulated three problems in the
problem formulation. The writer will use the theory given in the review of the
related theories to solve the problem formulation.
A. Adjectives with Pref ix in- without Negating the Stem and their
Morphophonemic Changes.
During the research, the writer found nine words that have these special
characteristics. In order to obtain the data, the writer uses two dictionaries. From
the two dictionaries, the writer can find nine words. The nine words are
illuminated, impassioned, incandescent, incomparable, infamous, inflammable,
ingenious, innumerable, and invaluable.
The further explanation about the nine words can be seen in the further
explanation. The writer decided to unite the data from both of the dictionary.
Although the writer used two dictionaries as the data source, the writer found out
that there are five same entries from both dictionaries that can be used as the data.
They are illuminated, invaluable, ingenious and infamous. Due to the same
entries, the data will be discussed once only.
29
30
1. Adjectives Attached to Prefix in- without Negating their Stem and their
Meaning.
a. Illuminated
The word illuminated means to supply or brighten with lights (Webster,
1993:577). This word was taken from Latin inluminatus in eighteenth century
(Webster, 1993:577). The stem from this word is luminated. Luminated i s an
adjective means full of light. See the example below:
An illuminated sign flashed on and off
Usually, this word is used together with words related with sign and light. In the
Middle Ages, there was an expression, an illuminated manuscript or an
illuminated book. It means that a kind of handmade book or manuscript in the
Middle Ages, whose pages are decorated with gold paint and other bright colors.
b. Incandescent
The word incandescent means white, glowing or luminous with intense
heat (Webster, 1993:586). This word is taken from Latin incandescere in 1794
The stem from this word is candescent. Candescent is an adjective means glowing
or dazzling as if from great heat (Webster, 1993:165). (Webster, 1993:586). See
the example below:
The incandescent lamp helps people to see in the darkness.
This word usually used together with words related with light. The meaning of an
incandescent lamp is an electric lamp in which a filament gives off light when
heated to incandescence by an electric current (Webster, 1993:586).
31
c. Infamous
The meaning from infamous is having reputation of the worst kind
(Webster, 1993:597). This word is taken from Latin infamis in the fourteenth
century (Webster, 1993:597). The stem from this word is famous. Famous is an
adjective means widely known. See the expression below:
an infamous killer
Usually, this word is used to say that someone is famous because of his or her bad
habit. In other words, we can say that someone who is infamous is famous in the
negative way. Therefore, this word is used together with words that have negative
meaning, while the word famous is used together with the words that have
positive meaning.
d. Inflammable
This words means easily to be inflamed, excited, or anger. The word
inflammable is taken from the Latin word inflammare in 1605 (Webster,
1993:598). The stem from this word is flammable. Flammable is an adjective
means to flame, can be set on fire, or can be easily ignited and of burning quickly.
(Webster, 1993:442). See the following example:
Petrol is highly inflammable.
The meaning from the sentence above is that petrol is something that can be burn
very easily. Usually, this word uses with the words that relates with something
that is combustible.
32
e. Ingenious
This word means showing or calling for intelligence, aptitude, or
discernment. This word is synonymous with the word clever. The word ingenious
taken from Middle English ingenyous in the fifteenth century (Webster,
1993:600). The stem from this word is genius. Genius is a noun, means a very
high level of intelligence, mental skill, or ability, which only a few people have
(Longman, 2003: 671). See the expression below:
an ingenious device
The meaning from the phrase above is that the device works well and the result of
clever thinking and new ideas. Moreover, this word usually used together with the
words related with a method or ways.
f. Invaluable
The meaning from invaluable is valuable beyond estimation. This word is
originated from Latin invalor in 1576 (Webster, 1993:615). The stem from this
word is valuable. Valuable is an adjective means having monetary value or worth
a good price (Webster, 1993:1305). See the expression below:
An invaluable Monalisa painting
The meaning from the phrase above is that the Monalisa painting is very valuable.
This word usually collocates with high value.
33
g. Impassioned
The word impassioned means filled with passion or zeal, showing great
warmth or intensity of feeling. This word is originated from Latin impassionarre
in sixteenth century (Webster, 1993:581). The stem from this word is passioned.
Passioned is an adjective means emotion (Webster, 1993:849). See the example
below:
She appeared on television to make an impassioned plea for help
The meaning from the sentence above is that the woman asks a help with a strong
emotion. Usually, this word collocate with words related with strong emotion and
feeling.
h. Incomparable
The meaning from this word extremely good, beautiful and much better
than others (Longman, 2003: 823). This word originated from Latin
incomparabilis in the fifteenth century (Webster, 1993:588). The stem from this
word is comparable. Comparable is an adjective means being equally important,
good, bad etc (Longman, 2003: 309). See the example below:
an incomparable view of San Marco
The meaning from the sentence above is that the San Marco view is very
beautiful. Usually, this word is used to say the superiority of a thing. In other
words, this word use is the alternate to say a thing is the best of all.
34
i. Innumerable
The meaning from the word innumerable is very many or too many to be
counted (Longman, 2003: 838). The stem from this word is numerable.
Numerable is means capable of being counted (Webster, 1993:797). This word is
taken from Latin innumerabilis in the fourteenth century. See the following
example:
She has served on innumerable committees.
The meaning from the sentence above is that the lady has served many
committees before. This adjective usually related with numbers. Moreover, this
word has similar characteristics with incalculable.
2. The Morphophonological Processes
In this section, the writer will answer the second problem formulation. In
order to answer the problem, the writer will describe all of the phonetic
transcriptions from the data, so that it will be much easier for both writer and
reader to notice the morphophonological processes that happen in the data. Each
of the data will analyze once only. It means that the writer will not analyze the
same data twice though it is taken from different dictionaries.
a. illuminated = in- + luminated
[I’lu:mIneIt d ] = [In] + [’lu:mIneIt d]
35
b. incandescent = in- +candescent
[,Inkæn’des nt] = [In] + [kæn’des nt]
c. infamous = in- + famous
[’Inf m s] = [In] + [’fe1m s]
d. inflammable = in- + flammable
[In’flam b l] = [In] + [’flam b l]
e. ingenious = in- + genius
[In’dЗ i:ni s ] = [In] + [’dЗ i:ni s]
f. invaluable = in- + valuable
[In’vælju b l] = [In] + [’vælju b l]
g. impassioned = in- + passioned
[Im’pæ nd] = [In]+ [’pæ n]
h. incomparable = in- + comparable
[In’k mp r b l] = [In] + [’k mp r b l]
i. innumerable = in- + numerable
[I’nju:m r b l] = [In] + [’nju:m r b l]
36
From the explanation above, we know that the most common
morphophonological process that occurs in the data is the assimilation process. An
assimilation process is a phonological process where a phone becomes similar
with the nearby phone. The purpose from this process is to ease a speaker in
pronouncing a word. This is the most common phonological process that can be
found in all human languages. The assimilation process that occurs in the data is
categorized into regressive assimilation. It is called regressive assimilation
because it assimilation process goes backward. See the following example:
illuminated = in- + luminated
[I’lu:mIneIt d ] = [In] + [’lu:mIneIt d]
In the example above, the nasal sound [n] is assimilated into a liquid
stop sound [l]. There are two important aspects in the regressive assimilation
process that is assimilated sound and conditioning sound. The assimilated sound is
the sound that changes due to the assimilation process, while the conditioning
sound is the sound the causes the assimilation process. In the word illuminated,
the nasal sound [n] becomes the assimilated sound and the liquid stop sound [l]
becomes the conditioning sound.
However besides the regressive assimilation, we can also find other
processes, such as vowel change and stress shift that occur in infamous. See the
explanation below:
37
infamous = in- + famous
[’Inf m s] = [In] + [’fe1m s]
In the word infamous the stress is shifting from the penultimate position
into anti – penultimate position. Moreover, the front middle tense vowel [ei] is
change into the centre middle lax vowel [ ]. From this finding, it is proven that
the attachment from the prefix in- not always result in assimilation process
because we can also have other processes such as vowel change and stress shift.
B. The Common Characteristics of the Data
In this section, the writer will analyze the characteristics from the data of
the research. The writer will try to analyze the positive meaning that happens in
the attachment of the prefix in- by using their similarity.
Normally, the attachment of a negative prefix in- to an adjective will
cause a negation. However, in this research, the writer found ten words that are
different from the others. The attachment of the prefix in- does not negate the
meaning from the stem.
If we see from their affixation processes, most of the data use the
combination between prefix in- and suffix –able. From the nine words, there are
four words that use the combination of prefix in- and suffix -able. The four words
are inflammable, invaluable, incomparable, and innumerable. Some of them are
also having the same tree diagram. See the following tree diagram from the data:
38
invaluable (adj)
in- valuable (adj)
value (noun) -able
The prefix in- is the firstly taken from the word invaluable. This separation does
not change the class from the word. The word valuable is also categorized into
adjective. After that, the suffix –able is the next affix to be taken. This separation
changes the class from the word valuable that is categorized into adjective into
value that is categorized into noun category. The meaning of the word value is the
monetary worth of something (Webster, 1993:1305).
The affixation processes in the word illuminated are more complex than
the others because we can use two different tree diagrams to represent the
meaning from this word. See the picture of the tree diagram below:
illuminated (adj)
illuminate(verb) -ed
illumine(verb) -ate
in- lumen (noun)
In the tree diagram above, the first affix to be taken is the suffix –ed.
This process changes the class of word because the word illuminate is categorized
39
into verb. After that, the suffix –ate is the next affix to be taken. Since the word
illumine is a verb, this process does not change the word class. For the last
process, prefix in- is the last affix to be taken. This process changes the class of
word because the word lumen is a noun. Lumen is taken from New Latin word,
lumen in 1873. It means light (Webster, 1993:1305). However, we can also have a
different tree diagram in order to represent the affixation processes in the word
illuminated. See the picture from the tree diagram below.
illuminated (adj)
in- luminated (verb)
luminate (verb) -ed
lumen (noun) -ate
In the tree diagram above, the first affix to be taken is prefix in-. This
process changes the word class because the word luminated is a verb. After that,
the next affix to be taken is the suffix –ed. This process does not change the word
class because the word luminate is a verb. The last process is separating the last
affix that is suffix –ate. This process changes the word class because the word
lumen is a noun.
If we compare the first and the second tree diagram we will know that
the second tree diagram can not be used to represent the meaning of the word
40
illuminated. According to the second tree diagram, the meaning of the word
illuminated is not supplied or brightens with light. The first tree diagram
represents illuminated means supplied or brightens with light.
A similar phenomenon happens in the word inflammable. See the picture
of the tree diagram below:
inflammable (adj)
in- flammable (adj)
flame (verb) -able
For the first tree diagram, prefix in- is the first affix that is taken from
the word inflammable. This separation does not change the class from the word.
The word flammable is also categorized into adjective. After that, the suffix –able
is the next affix to be taken. This separation changes the class from the word
flammable that is categorized into adjective into flame that is categorized into verb
category.
In the second tree diagram, suffix -able is the first affix that is taken
from the word inflammable. This separation changes the class from the word. The
word inflame is categorized into verb. the meaning of the word inflame is to burst
into flame (Webster, 1993: 598)After that, the prefix –in is the next affix to be
taken. This separation changes the class from the word inflame because the stem
from this word flame is categorized into noun category. See the tree diagram
below:
41
inflammable (adj)
inflame (adj) -able
in- flame (noun)
If we see the meaning from the word inflammable, the second tree
diagram is the most suitable tree diagram to describe the meaning of the word.
The first tree diagram represents the meaning that the meaning of the word
inflammable is something that can not be burn or something that is non-
combustible. The second tree diagram represents the meaning that the meaning of
the word inflammable is something that is very easy to be burn. If we look at their
etymology, we will notice that actually they are two different words. Inflammable
was taken from Medieval Latin, inflammabilis, in 1605. Flammable is taken from
Latin, flammare, in 1813. Both of the words were taken from different time and
different word. From the explanation, we can conclude that the word inflammable
is not the result from the affixation process between negative prefix in- and the
word flammable because the word inflammable is much older than the word
flammable. The word inflammable is the result from the attachment of suffix –
able and the word inflame.
42
Next discussion is about the word impassioned. The affixation process in
the word infamous is similar with the second tree diagram from the word
inflammable. See the picture of the tree diagram below:
impassioned (adj)
impassion (adj) -ed
in- passion (noun)
In the tree diagram above, the first affix to be separated is suffix –ed.
This process does not changes the word class because the word impassion is an
adjectives. The next affix to be taken is prefix in-. This process changes the word
class because the word passion is categorized into noun.
Similar affixation process also happens in the word infamous. See the
tree diagram below:
infamous (adj)
in- famous (adj)
fame (noun) -ous
First, prefix in- is the firstly taken prefix. The affixation process itself
does not change the class from the word infamous because the word famous also
43
categorized into adjective. After that, the word famous can be broken again into
smaller element. It can be broken into the combination between the free
morpheme fame that can be categorized into noun category and the bound
morpheme –ous. The meaning from the word fame i s popular acclaim or
renowned (Webster, 1993:419).
The Latin word formation in the word infamous can be seen from the
meaning shift. The way the negative prefix in- negate the meaning of the stem is a
bit different than the others. If we use the negative English formation, the meaning
from the word infamous should be not popular. However, the meaning of the
word infamous is similar with the word famous. The different is that people that is
infamous is popular because of their bad habit, while people that is famous is
popular because of their good habit.
Based on their base we can classify the tree diagram into three types.
The three tree diagrams are tree diagram with adjective as their base, tree diagram
with verb as their base, tree diagram with noun as their base. See the following
example of the three tree diagrams:
1. diagram with verb as their bases
incalculable (adj)
in- calculable (adj)
calculate (verb) -able
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2. diagram with adjective as their base
incandescent
in- candescent (adjective)
3. diagram with noun as their base
infamous (adj)
in- famous (adj)
fame (noun) -ous
The most common tree diagram is the third tree diagram. There are six
words that use the tree diagram with noun as their base. The six words are
illuminated, impassioned, infamous, inflammable, innumerable, and invaluable.
The next thing to be analyzed is their semantic properties. The writer
will use componential analysis in order to analyze their common semantic
properties. See the following componential analysis from the data:
1. illuminated = +bright, -animate.
2. incandescent = +bright, +animate, -animate.
3. infamous = + popular, +animate, +bad.
4. inflammable = +combustible, +animate, +inanimate.
5. ingenious = +new, +smart, +animate, +inanimate.
6. invaluable = +many, -animate.
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7. impassioned = +human, +strong, +animate.
8. innumerable = +many, +animate.
9. incomparable = -animate, +good.
If we see from their semantic properties, the most common semantic
characteristics from the data are +animate. There are 6 words that have +animate
as their characteristics. The six words are incandescent, infamous, inflammable,
ingenious, impassioned, and innumerable.
Nevertheless, the cause that makes them to have positive meaning is still
confusing. For the next step, the writer will give a brief explanation about the
positive meaning in the data.
The next thing to be discussed is their positive meaning. Word like
innnumerable makes perfect sense. If something is very many and is beyond our
means to count, then it is innumerable. It also happens with invaluable. The
meaning from both of the words changes into very numerous or very valuable. We
are able to count something that is innumerable if we want to. However, we will
need a very long time to be able to know the amount from the thing that we count.
The phenomenon in the word invaluable also happens in the word priceless. This
word has exactly the same meaning with the word invaluable. It seems that the
function of prefix in- will be different if it is attached to a word with certain
meaning, especially with words that are related with calculation, light, or heat.
The case that happens in the word infamous is another different problem.
The problem happened because of the influence of Latin. Probably, this word is
influenced by the Latin infamis (without reputation). This influence causes a
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meaning shift in the word infamous. The meaning is shifting from famous of
being good into famous for being bad.
From the explanation above, we know that it is important for us to know
the history of a word before we analyze their affixation process. It is very
important because although both of the words are similar it is possible that both of
them were taken from different time and different words. If the two words were
taken from different time and different words it means that they are two different
words. We can see the example of this problem in the word inflammable.
Some people considered that inflammable is the antonym from
flammable. This is a mistake. Both of the words have the same meaning. Although
having the same meaning, they are two different words. The word inflammable
usually refers to the very combustible material while the word flammable refer to
the combustible material. The antonym for the inflammable i s non-flammable.
Non-flammable also become the antonym for the word flammable.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
After presenting the analysis in the previous chapter, the writer will give
the conclusion in order to answer the problems of this research. The first problem
is the adjectives that are attached to prefix in- with positive meaning although the
meaning of its stem is positive. There are at least nine adjectives which are
attached to the prefix in- without negating the meaning of the stem. The nine
adjectives are illuminated, impassioned, incandescent, incomparable, infamous,
inflammable, ingenious, innumerable and invaluable.
Most of them have the same characteristics. If we see from the
morphological point of view, they are all of free morphemes and bound
morphemes. Most of them use the combination of the prefix in- and the suffix –
able. Among the nine words, there are six words that use noun as their base the
six words are illuminated, impassioned, infamous, inflammable, innumerable, and
invaluable.
From their semantic properties, we can also find a similarity. Most of
them have the same semantic property that is +animate. They are incandescent,
infamous, ingenious, impassioned, and innumerable.
The most common morphophonemic process that can be found in this
phenomenon is the regressive assimilation process, as in the word illuminated,
impassioned, and innumerable.
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illuminated = in- + luminated
[I’lu:mIneIt d ] = [In] + [’lu:mIneIt d]
impassioned = in- + passioned
[Im’pæ nd] = [In] + [’pæ n]
Besides the regressive assimilation process, there are also others
morphophonemic processes, such as stress shift and vowel change. The example
of these two morphophonemic processes can be seen in the word infamous.
infamous = in- + famous
[’Inf m s ] = [In] + [’feIm s ]
It is very possible that the cause of this phenomenon is the word origin,
because as we know English has borrowed a lot foreign words into their
dictionary, such as French, Latin, German, and others foreign languages.
Therefore, it is important for us to find the etymology from a word, because from
the etymology we can see their development as an English word. The
development of English as a language gives considerable influences to the
occurrence of this phenomenon. One of the examples can be seen in the word
infamous the meaning of this word is almost the same as the word famous. A
person who is infamous is still popular. They are popular for being bad or evil
while a person that is famous is popular because of their good reputation. The
meaning from the word infamous is influenced by the Latin word formation.
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We have to be very careful when we try to define the meaning of a word.
Normally, the attachment of prefix in- to adjectives can negate the meaning of its
stem. However, we have to be careful because we can also find exception for
some words. In this research, the writer found ten words that are attached to prefix
in- with positive meaning although the meaning of its stem is positive. Consulting
a dictionary is the best way for us to know the meaning of a word.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Bram, Barly. A Study of the Forms, Functions, and Meanings of the Latin Prefixes
com-, in-, and sub-. Undergraduate Thesis. Yogyakarta: IKIP Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta, 1988.
Bybee, Joan. L. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form.
Philadelphia: John Benjamin’s Publishing Company, 1985. Carstairs, Andrew – McCarty. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburg:
Edinburg University Press Ltd, 2002. Dzuganova, B. Negative Affixes in Medical English. Comenius University <http:
www.bmj.sk/2006/10708-13.pdf> (Monday 17 September 2007). Dozier, Evan Marie. Semantics on Words
<http://www.angelfire.com/tn/semantics/words.html> (30 August 2007). Frawley, William Linguistics Semantics. Hillsdale: Lawrence Earlbaune
Associates, Publishers Hillsdale, 1992 Katamba, Francis. Morphology. London: Macmillan Press, 1993. Lyons, John. Linguistics Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Edinburg: Pearson Education
Limited, 2003. McMahon, April. An Introduction to English Phonology. Edinburg: Edinburg
University Press Ltd, 2002 Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary: Tenth Edition. Massachusetts:
Merriam Webster Incorporated, 1993. O’grady, William, Michael Dobrovolsky, Francis Katamba. Contemporary
Linguistics: An Introduction. London: Longman Limited, 1996. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum. A University Grammar of English. Harlow:
Longman Group Limited, 1973. Syzmanek, Bogdan. Introduction to Morphological Analysis. Warszawa:
Panstwowe Wydawinctwo Naukowe, 1989. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. London: Oxford University Press,
1966. 50
APPENDICES
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
1. Illuminated
a. Lit up by lights: An illuminated sign flashed on and off.
b. Illuminated manuscript/book a book of a type produced by hand in the
Middle Ages, whose pages are decorated with gold paint and other bright
colours. (Longman, 2003:809)
2. Impassioned
Full of strong feeling and emotion: S he appeared on television to make an
impassioned plea for help. (Longman, 2003:813)
3. Incandescent
a. Very angry: The prince was said to be incandescent with rage.
b. A very bright light when heated: the invention of the incandescent light
(technical producing).
c. Very bright: incandescent flowers (literary). (Longman, 2003:820)
4. Incomparable
Extremely good, beautiful etc, and much better than others: an incomparable view
of San Marco. (Longman, 2003:823).
5. Infamous
Well known for being bad or evil: An infamous killer. (Longman, 2003:831).
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6. Ingenious
a. An ingenious plan, idea, or object works well and is the result of clever
thinking and new ideas: An ingenious device
b. Someone who is ingenious is very good at inventing things or at thinking
of new ideas. (Longman, 2003:831).
7. Innumerable
Very many or too many to be counted: She's served on innumerable committees.
(Longman, 2003:838).
8. Invaluable.
Extremely useful. (Longman, 2003:856).
The Oxford Dictionary of Etymology
1. Illuminate
Light up, give light to (XVI). Decorate with colour (XVIII). (Oxford, 1966: 462)
2. Impassion
Inflame with passion (XVI). (Oxford, 1966: 463).
3. Incandescent
Glowing with heat (XVIII). (Oxford, 1966: 463).
4. Infamous
Ill repute. (Oxford, 1966: 472).
5. Ingenious
High intellectual capacity (XV). Skilful in invention (XVI) (Oxford, 1966: 475).