the struggle for the american curriculum
DESCRIPTION
The Struggle for the American Curriculum. Curriculum Ferment 1900-Present. A New Vision of Schooling. 1800-1830 The monitorial method Teachers monitored or tutored students Idiosyncratic The Lancastrian system A course of study Units of work Textbooks McGuffy readers - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
The Struggle for the American Curriculum
Curriculum Ferment 1900-Present
![Page 2: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
A New Vision of Schooling• 1800-1830
– The monitorial method• Teachers monitored or tutored students
– Idiosyncratic– The Lancastrian system
• A course of study– Units of work
– Textbooks• McGuffy readers• Blueback spellers
![Page 3: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Standardization• The Lancastrian system led to a
common (standardized) course of study
• Textbooks gave teachers a “default” course of study
• Grades and grade levels– William Harvey Wells- Chicago
Superintendent of schools (1856-1864)
![Page 4: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Social Transformation• Social Change resulted in a
radically altered vision of the role of schooling– The standardizing effect of the
“Printed Word”• The penny press• Mass distribution of books
– Utopian and Muckraking novels – Railroads
• Travel broke down aspects of provincialism
• Industrialization – the factory system– Immigration– The Panic of 1893
Edward Bellamy- author of “Looking Backward”
![Page 5: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
The “Status Quo”1890
• The Doctrine of Mental Discipline– Plato’s Theory of Forms
• The world of ideas (forms) leads to perfect Truth and Good. It is eternal
• The material world is imperfect and constantly changing
– Certain subjects had the ability to strengthen• Memory, Reasoning, Will power,
Imagination, Character– Metaphor- the mind is like a
muscle- it needs the right kind of exercise.
Christian Wolff
![Page 6: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
1828 Report to the Yale Faculty
• A defense of the traditional curriculum– Jeremiah Day & James K.
Kingsley• Two Main Functions of Education
– “Discipline of the Mind”• The ability to think
– “Furniture of the Mind”• Knowledge
• Discipline of the Mind is most important
James Kingsley
![Page 7: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Mental Discipline Curriculum• The Classics
– Greek– Latin– Great Literature– The Trivium
• Grammar, rhetoric, logic– The Quadrivium
ArithmeticGeometryAstronomyMusic
![Page 8: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Instruction• Recitation
– Verbal memorization• Skill drills
– Problem sets– translation
• Strict Discipline– Necessary for a disciplined mind
![Page 9: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Reform• Theoretical problems
–Why was the classic curriculum necessary for “mental exercise”?
• Professional Educators–The National Education Association
![Page 10: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
The Struggle for the American Curriculum
• The Humanists– The Curriculum should reflect our Western
Cultural Heritage• The Social Efficiency Educators
– The curriculum should produce an efficient, smoothly running society
• The Developmentalists– The Curriculum should be based upon the
natural order of the development of the child• The Social Meliorists
– The curriculum should bring about social change
![Page 11: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Humanists/Mental Disciplinarians
• "Guardians" of ancient tradition tied to the power of reason and the finest elements of Western cultural heritage.
• Humanists sought to reinterpret and preserve "revered" traditions and values in a rapidly changing society.
• Charles W. Eliot– President of Harvard
![Page 12: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
William Torrey Harris• Basic function of the school
is for the development of reason
• He sought to preserve the humanist ideal by incorporating into the curriculum the finest elements of Western civilization
• The “five windows of the soul” – arithmetic and mathematics– geography – history – Grammar– literature and art
![Page 13: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
The High School Curriculum
• The NEA Committee of ten– Lead By Charles Eliot (President of
Harvard)• Believed in “Modern Liberal
Arts”• A curriculum that was “College
Prep”• A curriculum that was “Life
Prep”– Four courses of study were
recommended but there was not distinction between college and life preparation
![Page 14: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Joseph Mayer RiceRice undertook a survey of the public schools in1892. He published a series of muckraking articles in the magazine The Forum in 1892 and collected into the book “The Public School System of the United States”. His criticism mobilized parents against the corrupt politicians who, in practicing graft and patronage, had allowed many public schools to fall into lamentable disrepair.,"It is indeed incomprehensible ," he wrote, "that so many loving mothers … are willing, without hesitation, to resign the fate of their little ones to the tender mercies of ward politicians, who in many instances have no scruples in placing the children in class-rooms the atmosphere of which is not fit for human beings to breathe, and in charge of teachers who treat them with a degree of severity that borders on barbarism.”
![Page 15: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Efficiency and Social Control• America at the turn of the
century– President Teddy Roosevelt,
in his address to the Governors at the White House in 1910, prophetically remarked that "The conservation of our national resources is only preliminary to the larger question of national efficiency.”
– Becoming more “efficient” became a national obsession
![Page 16: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Social Control• One reason for the desire for efficiency
was based upon a fear of social chaos.– Immigration brought about a thinly
disguised racism• Edward Ross Social Control
–“Society is always in the presence of the enemy”- i.e. the docile Slav, the street Arab, or the quiescent Hindoo.
– Industrialization unchecked would corrupt the finer instincts of Americanism
![Page 17: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
The Cult of Efficiency• Frederick Winslow
Taylor and the Scientific Management movement
• Taylor devised a system for getting greater productivity from human labor
![Page 18: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
The Cult of Efficiency• For Taylor, there was
always one best method for doing any particular job.
• This method could be determined only through scientific study
![Page 19: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
The Cult of Efficiency• Taylor believed that men
was innately lazy and would always do less work than they were capable of unless they were strictly monitored
• Effective management was necessary to bring about efficiency
![Page 20: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
The Principles of Scientific Management
• Time and motion studies must determine the elements of each man’s work– (eliminate all false, slow, and
useless movements)• Workers must be selected and trained
to do their job in the most efficient manner– (test them to see who is fastest
with fewest errors)• There must be an equal division of
work throughout the system – (division of labor insures quick and
efficient training)• Management and workmen must work
together with common goals in mind– Workmen are paid to “do” not to
think
![Page 21: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
The Principles of Scientific Management
• The most important role for management was to:– Analyze– Plan and– Control the whole
manufacturing process in minute detail
![Page 22: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Education and EfficiencySchool efficiency experts advocated programs of study that prepared individuals specifically and directly for the role that they would play as adult members of the social order. To go beyond what someone had to know in order to perform that role successfully was simply wasteful. Social utility became the supreme criterion against which the value of school studies was measured...
![Page 23: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Social Efficiency Movement • John Franklin Bobbitt• David Sneeden• Elwood C. Cubberley• Leonard Ayres• School Survey Movement
– The Boise Study
![Page 24: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Administrative “Trust”
• Housed in Education Departments in Colleges and Universities
• Teachers College at Columbia University was the center for Administrative training on the East Coast
• Stanford College of Education was the center on the West coast
![Page 25: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Elwood P. Cubberly• Cubberly was the
first Dean of the College of Education at Stanford.
• He wrote the curriculum and the textbooks that became the standard for preparing public school administrators
• By the 1930’s, thousands of Superintendents and Principal had been trained by Cubberly.
• He was a leader of the “School Survey” movement
![Page 26: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Franklin BobbittProponent of platoon system developed by Superintendent Willard Wirt in Gary, Indiana. Bobbitt saw students as "raw materials" that need to be trained for future roles that they will perform in society they "should not be taught what they will never use”. That was waste. In order to reduce waste, educators had to institute a process of scientific measurement leading to a prediction as to one's future role in life. That prediction would then become the basis of a differentiated curriculum“"The elimination of waste in education" (1912);
![Page 27: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
David SneddenWorked "to enlarge the scope of vocational education & to create socially efficient curriculum". Curricula built around specific needs of future jobs with objectives of teaching what was need to function in the future role. Viewed Junior High School as a time when differences in student abilities become apparent, therefore requiring differentiated curricula.
![Page 28: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Leonard Ayres Laggards in our schools (1909) Studied effects of retardation in schools (retardation = atypical progression through grades) Findings: "retardation represented a great loss in efficiency" this was because the 'college-repertory' curriculum that had held sway from so long needed to be replaced by a curriculum attuned to the needs of a new population and a new industrial order". He develops the Index of Efficiency for determining the productivity/efficiency of schools.
![Page 29: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Charles S Meek
![Page 30: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Boise in 1908
![Page 31: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Boise 1919
![Page 32: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Steunenberg Assassination
![Page 33: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Trial of the Century
Prosecution Team
Defense Team
![Page 34: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
National Media Attention
![Page 35: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Boise Boosterism
![Page 36: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
709 Thatcher
![Page 37: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Tourtellotte and HummelPlans for Boise High
![Page 38: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Boise High - East Wing
![Page 39: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Boise High Main and East Wing
![Page 40: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
First Survey 1908
Dr. George Strayer – Teachers College
![Page 41: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Second Survey 1913
Dr. E. C. Elliot – University of Montana
![Page 42: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
A “Practical” Curriculum
![Page 43: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
A “Practical” Curriculum
![Page 44: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
George D. Strayer
![Page 45: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Jessie Sears
![Page 46: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
1919 Boise Survey
![Page 47: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Efficient organization
![Page 48: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Efficient organization
![Page 49: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
More Male Administrators
![Page 50: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Standardized Tests
![Page 51: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Spelling Results by School
![Page 52: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Retardation and “laggards”
![Page 53: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Eugenics
![Page 54: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Racial Purity
![Page 55: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
I.Q. Testing
![Page 56: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Science and the Measurement of Man
• Edward Thorndike– He was a student
of William James– Whatever exists,
exists in some amount and can be measured.
![Page 57: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Science and the Measurement of Man
• Phrenology
• Franz Joseph Gall– 1758-1828
![Page 58: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Phrenology• The brain is the organ
of the mind.• The mind is composed
of multiple distinct, innate faculties.
• Because they are distinct, each faculty must have a separate seat or "organ" in the brain.
![Page 59: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Phrenology• The size of an
organ, other things being equal, is a measure of its power.
• The shape of the brain is determined by the development of the various organs.
![Page 60: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Phrenology• As the skull takes
its shape from the brain, the surface of the skull can be read as an accurate index of psychological aptitudes and tendencies
![Page 61: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Phrenology• Pseudo-Science
–Racial bias–Cultural bias
• Combined with Eugenics–A dangerous
combination
![Page 62: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Eugenics• The social philosophy that the human
race can be improved by encouraging human reproduction of the best people and traits and reduction of the reproduction of reproduction of the least desirable people and traits
![Page 63: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Eugenics
![Page 64: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Eugenics
![Page 65: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Eugenics
![Page 66: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Eugenics
![Page 67: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Eugenics In 1918, Idaho passed its first sterilization law, which applied only to institutionalized persons: “to prevent the procreation of the feeble-minded, insane, epileptic, moral degenerates, sexual perverts, who may be inmates of institutions maintained by public expense, by authorizing and providing for the sterilization of persons with inferior hereditary potentialities” The act was vetoed by Governor D.R. Davis in 1919, who doubted its scientific merit. In 1925, another act was passed that did not limit sterilization to those in institutions, and its was compulsory. The1925 law also created a State Eugenics Board.
![Page 68: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Eugenics Sterilizations may be performed on any person who is "feeble-minded, insane, epileptic, an habitual criminal, a moral degenerate, or a sexual pervert” if reproduction by such individuals would produce a child "having an inherited tendency to feeble-mindedness, insanity, epilepsy, criminality, or degeneracy, or who would probably become a social menace or ward of the state”.
![Page 69: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Eugenics
Sterilizations began in 1932 and continued until 1963. 66% were declared “Mentally Deficient”.
![Page 70: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Measuring Intelligence• Alfred Binet
– Asked by the French Ministry of Education to devise a way to identify children who needed special education
– He devised a series of tasks and a scale to assess those tasks
![Page 71: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Louis TermanCreated the “Stanford Benet” IQ test based upon IQ testing done in WWI.In 1923, created a series of “Achievement” tests for specific subject areas taught in public high schools. By the 1970s these become the tool for measuring school performance
![Page 72: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
H.H. GoddardH.H. Goddard, said in his
book Human Efficiency (1920) that government schooling was about "the perfect organization of the hive."
He said standardized testing was a way to make lower classes recognize their own inferiority. Idiots, Imbeciles, Morons
Like wearing a dunce cap, it would discourage them from breeding and having ambition.
![Page 73: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
I.Q. Testing WWI
![Page 74: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
I. Q. testing WWI• There were two
forms of the test administered to the soldiers– Form “A” Alpha
for those who were literate
– Form “B” Beta for those who were illiterate
![Page 75: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Example Questions on the Alpha Test
• 1. Crisco is a: • A) patent medicine,• B) disinfectant, • C) toothpaste, • D) food product
• 2. Washington is to Adams as first is to . . .
• 3. Christy Mathewson is famous as a: • A) writer, • B) artist, • C) baseball player, • D) comedian.
![Page 76: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Beta Test• On this
section, test takers were asked, “What is missing?– Notice the
cultural bias for many of the questions.
![Page 77: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
What were the results?• The average mental
age of White adults was 13– This was the upper
range for “moron” according to Goddard
• The average MA for Southern/Eastern Europeans was 11
• The average MA for Black men was 10.4
![Page 78: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Domination of Administrative Progressives
• Structure of Schooling– Schooling broken into specialized parts
• Kindergarten• Elementary• Junior high• High school• Vocational education• College• Graduate or professional school
![Page 79: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
Domination of Administrative Progressives
• Hierarchy of authority established
• Administrative power is extended– Power over budgets– Curricular control– Teacher evaluation- hiring and
firing– Workplace conditions
• Teacher response– Compliance– Establishment of unions
• NEA
– Emma Flagg Young– Margaret Haley in Chicago
![Page 80: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Domination of Administrative Progressives
• Social differentiation• Tracking by social/economic
class– I.Q. and other standardized testing
• Behavioral Psychology dominates
• Schools operate as bureaucracies– Administrators
• Central• School
– Teachers» Support Staff
B. F. Skinner
![Page 81: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
Child-Study Movement/Developmentalists • Curriculum should allow for the natural order of
development of the child. • Scientific data important with respect to different
stages of child and adolescent development and also to nature of learning.
• General agreement among the developmentalists was that schools thwarted the child's basic need for activity by treating children as passive receptacles and presenting them with a program of studies that ran contrary to their natural tendencies and predilections
![Page 82: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
G. Stanley Hall• Schools are in need of drastic reform
in order to bring their program of studies in line with scientific findings about the nature of child life
• The contents of children's minds (1883)– The child recapitulates in his or her
individual development the stages that the whole human race traversed throughout the course of history (ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny)
• Play until the age of eight• Read myths and legends during the
“savage” stage.– “The guardians of the young, should strive
first of all to keep out of nature's way, and to prevent harm, and merit the proud title of defenders of the happiness and rights of children.”
![Page 83: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
Child-Study Movement William Heard Kilpatrick
• Foundations of Method (1925) – The Project Method- “Education [should] be
considered as life itself and not as a mere preparation for later living.”
– The child was the key to revitalized curriculum – Curriculum planning starts with life... with
subject matter brought in only incidentally as it bears on real problems
– Learning is synonymous with purposeful activity
![Page 84: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
Social Melorists • Individuals have a moral
responsibility to work for social justice
• Schools are a major force for social change and social justice.
• Schools were the vehicles to create a new social vision and to empower the young
![Page 85: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
Lester Frank Ward
Dynamic Sociology 1913
![Page 86: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
Social Meliorists• Schools are a major force for
social change and social justice. Schools were the vehicles to create a new social vision.
• George Counts– Response to Sumner-“The Absurd
Effort to Make the World Over”(1884) with “Dare the School Build a New Social Order?” (1932)
• Harold O. Rugg– Social Reconstructionism
• Boyd Bode– Progressive Education Association
![Page 87: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
George S. Counts - Social Meliorist
• Dare the School Build a New Social Order?– He was among the first to reflect on the
undercurrent of uneasiness about American society during the 1930’s and connect it to American schools
– He argued that the American school system preserved and maintained the existing social order
• Counts challenged schools to meet the social issues of the day
![Page 88: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
John Dewey• Dewey tried to
synthesize the positions of the four interest groups
• Humanists• Developmentalists• Scientific Efficiency
Educators• Social Meliorists
![Page 89: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
Dewey began as a philosopher/psychologist/sociologi
st• Pragmatism/
Instrumentalism– Philosophy must be useful– Psychology must be about
the individual and the social– Sociology must be used to
improve social institutions
![Page 90: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
Dewey’s Problem-Solving Approach
• Avoid “Either-Or” positions
• Always consider the consequences of a decision
• Experiment – The scientific method
• Identify the problem• Create an hypothesis• Gather evidence• Experiment• Accept/reject/revise
hypothesis
![Page 91: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
Purpose of Education• What is the “problem”?
– Industrial organization has replaced the home and the neighborhood
• Schools must change to provide learning that is:– Real– Immediate– Able to initiate children into
the social world• Create a miniature
community
![Page 92: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
Criticism of Humanist Curriculum
• He rejected the idea that the interests of the child should be subordinated to future “rewards”
• He rejected Harris’s “five windows to the soul” because:– They didn’t address human
experience in a unified way- they were formal, artificial, separated
– They were presented as “given” and “finished”
![Page 93: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
Criticisms of Developmentalists• The Culture-Epochs
model was too simplistic• The curriculum was
imposed in the same way as the humanist curriculum
![Page 94: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
Criticisms of Scientific Management
• The school is not a factory producing a product
• Not all children learn in the same way at the same time
• Bureaucratic processes are dehumanizing
![Page 95: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
Criticisms of Social Meliorism• Schools are not just an
institution for “social engineering”
• There are aspects of the current social order that should be retained
![Page 96: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
The Dewey School• A “Laboratory” school• “Occupations”
– Evolution of basic social activities
• Growing food• Constructing shelter• Making clothing
– Traditional subjects taught by “doing” not telling
• Harmonize individual and social ends
![Page 97: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
The Dewey School• A “Laboratory” school• “Occupations”
– Evolution of basic social activities
• Growing food• Constructing shelter• Making clothing
– Traditional subjects taught by “doing” not telling
• Harmonize individual and social ends
![Page 98: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
The Dewey School• A “Laboratory” school• “Occupations”
– Evolution of basic social activities
• Growing food• Constructing shelter• Making clothing
– Traditional subjects taught by “doing” not telling
• Harmonize individual and social ends
![Page 99: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
Colonel Francis Parker
Applied Dewey’s principles to a create a Progressive school in Chicago.Dewey sent his own children to Parker’s school
![Page 100: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Pockets of Progressivism• New York 1920-1940
– The Activity program • An experimental program involving 69
elementary schools and over 70,000 students
– Child centered– Flexible scheduling– Activity or project based curriculum– Freedom for teachers to determine instruction
– Dalton Plan• High school
– Individualized learning programs
![Page 101: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
Pockets of Progressivism• Denver 1920-1940• The eight year study
– Experimental design• Core curriculum (areas of living)
– Personal living– Immediate personal/social relationships– Social/Civic relationships– Economic relationships
• Integrated, project-based – Teachers controlled the curriculum
![Page 102: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
The 1950s-1960s• Post World War II saw a growing
criticism of American Education• Sputnik (1957) gave evidence that
Russia was doing a superior job of educating it’s youth.
• Cold War implications
![Page 103: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
1950’sHumanists after Sputnik
(Soviet satellite launched in 1957)
• Curriculum reform projects are from academic departments in major universities.
• The attempt to replace the academic subject as the basic building block of the curriculum was brought to abrupt end
• Longstanding emphasis on local efforts at curriculum change replaced by pattern of centrally controlled curriculum revision.
• “Back to Basics” movement
![Page 104: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
The 1950s-1960s
• Arthur Bestor– “Educational Wastelands”
• Rudolf Flesch– Why Johnny Can’t Read
• Admiral Hyman Rickover– Education and Freedom
![Page 105: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
The 1950s-1960s• Admiral Hyman Rickover
– Education and FreedomDewey's insistence on making the child's
interest the determining factor in planning curricula has led to substitution of know-how subjects for solid learning and to the widespread tendency of schools to instruct pupils in the minutiae of daily life--how to set a table correctly, how to budget one's income, how to use cameras, telephones, and consumer credit--the list is endless.
Add to this that Dewey insisted the schoolroom must mirror the community and you find classrooms cluttered with cardboard boxes, children learning arithmetic by keeping store, and education stuck in the concrete and unable to carry the child from there to abstract concepts and ideas. Our young people are therefore deprived of the tremendous intellectual heritage of Western civilization which no child can possibly discover by himself; he must be led to it."
![Page 106: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
Influence of the Federal Government
• 1954- Brown vs. the Board of Education- Topeka, Kansas– Rejection of the “separate but equal”
clause• 1958- National Defense Education
Act– Federal funds to improve science, math,
foreign language instruction• 1965- Elementary and Secondary
Education Act– Johnson’s “War on Poverty” (Title 1)
![Page 107: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
Advocates of “Child-Centered” Progressive Education
• A.S. Neil (Summerhill)• Joseph Featherstone• John Holt• James Herndon• Jonathan Kozol• Herbert Kohl• Vito Perrone• Deborah Meier• Alfie Kohn
![Page 108: The Struggle for the American Curriculum](https://reader036.vdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022062323/5681663f550346895dd9a900/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
TodayDoes Progressive Education
Exist?• Pockets on the margins• Hybrids
– Cooperative learning– Project based education– Middle School model
• James Beane• Current research from Cognitive and
Developmental Psychology• School “Choice” models
– Charter schools– Alternative schools