the story of psychology prologue. psychological science is born wilhelm wundt and psychology’s...
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The Story of Psychology
Prologue
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Psychological Science is Born
Wilhelm Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of the mind” by conducting
experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This work is considered the birth of psychology as we know it
today.
Wundt’s student, Edward Titchner, introduced structuralism at Cornell University. He wanted to discover
the structural elements of the mind, so he trained people in introspection
(looking inward) and reporting elements of their experiences.
Generally speaking, the structuralists focused on inner
sensations, images and feelings.W
un
dt (1
832-1
92
0)Wundt (1832-1920)
Titchner (1867-1927)
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Psychological Science is Born
American philosopher William James looked at the evolved functions of our thoughts and
feelings.
James believed that thinking, like smelling and seeing, developed because it was adaptive. He studied how mental and behavioral processes function and enable us to adapt, survive, and
flourish. This approach to psychology is called functionalism.
James was better known for teaching at Harvard and for writing Principles of
Psychology (1890), the first psychology textbook, a task that took him 12 years to
complete.
Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first female president.
Margaret Floy Washburn was the first female psychology Ph.D., the second female APA president, and a distinguished writer (The
Animal Mind)Ja
mes (1
842-1
910)
Mary C
alk
ins
Mary Whiton Calkins and William James
Margaret Floy Washburn
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Psychological Science DevelopsThose involved in the birth of
psychology, dubbed “Magellans of the mind,” developed from
more established fields. Many, like Wundt, were physiologists.
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his followers
emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.
Psychology originated in many disciplines and countries. It
was, until the 1920s, defined as the science of mental life.
Fre
ud
(1856
-1939)
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
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Psychological Science DevelopsBehaviorists
Watson and later Skinner dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior.”
The behaviorists emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology.
John Watson (1878-1958) B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
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Psychological Science Develops
Humanistic PsychologyThe humanists thought behaviorism’s focus on learned behaviors was too mechanistic and that psychoanalysis
focused too much on the meaning of childhood memories.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
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Maslow and Rogers emphasized current
environmental influences on our
growth potential and our need for love and
acceptance.
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Thinking Critically
With Psychological Science
Chapter 1
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The Biology of
Mind
Chapter 2
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Consciousness and the Two Track
MindChapter 3
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Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness?
1.Social Influence Theory: Hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role.
2.Divided Consciousness Theory: Hypnosis is a special state of dissociated (divided) consciousness (Hilgard, 1986, 1992).
(Hilgard, 1992)
Hilgard felt that hypnotic dissociation was a vivid form of everyday mind splits – similar to doodling while listening to a
lecture.
For example, if someone lowered their hand into an ice bath, the hypnosis
dissociated the sensation of pain from the emotional suffering that defines their experience of pain…the water
feels cold but not painful.
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Nature, Nurture,
and Human Diversit
y
Chapter 4
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Howard GardnerHoward Gardner (1998)
concludes that parents and peers are complementary.
– Parents are more important when it comes to education, discipline, responsibility, orderliness, charitableness, and ways of interacting with authority figures
– Peers are more important for learning cooperation, finding the road to popularity, inventing styles of interaction among people the same age
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Developing
Through the Life
Span
Chapter 5
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The Competent Newborn – William James
Presumed that newborns experience a blooming, buzzing confusion.
Until the 1960s, few people disagreed.
Then, researchers found out that newborns know a lot if you know how to ask. You must capitalize on what babies can do…gaze, suck, turn their heads
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Typical Age Range
Description of Stage
Developmental Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety
About 2 to 6 years
About 7 to 11 years
About 12 through adulthood
PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development
Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
•Conservation •Mathematical transformations
Formal operationalAbstract reasoning
•Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
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Origins of AttachmentFor years, researchers reasoned that infants became attached to
those who satisfied their need for nourishment.
An accidental finding overturned this explanation showing that
comfort and safety were highly important.
Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even
while feeding from the nourishing wire mother.
Harlow (1971) showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers not
because of nourishment, but because of bodily contact.
Harlo
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Imprinting is the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.
Konrad Lorenz and his ducklings (1937)
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Attachment DifferencesSensitive responsive
mothers, who noticed what their babies were doing and
responded appropriately, had infants who exhibited
secure attachment.
Insensitive, unresponsive mothers who attended to
their babies when they felt like doing it and ignored them
at other times had infants who often became insecurely
attached.
Mary Ainsworth (1979)
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Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to
children and adolescents, such as
“Should a person steal medicine to save a
loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral
development.
AP
Ph
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/ Dave
Martin
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Kohlberg’s 3 Basic Levels of Moral Thinking
1. Preconventional Morality: Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward.
2. Conventional Morality: By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake.
3. Postconventional Morality: Affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles.
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Sensation and
Perception
Chapter 6
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Opponent Process Theory
Hering proposed that we process four primary colors combined in pairs of red-green, blue-
yellow, and black-white.
Cones
RetinalGanglion
Cells
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Perceptual Interpretation
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) maintained that knowledge comes from our inborn ways of organizing
sensory experiences.
How important is experience in shaping our perceptual
interpretation?
John Locke (1632-1704) argued that we learn to
perceive the world through our experiences.
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Learning
Chapter 7
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BehaviorismJohn B. Watson viewed psychology as an objective science based on observable behavior. This new
science was called behaviorism.
Watson also urged colleagues to discard the reference to inner
thoughts and motives.
Although there is contemporary agreement that psychology
should be an objective study, behaviorism is not universally
accepted by all schools of thought today.
John B. Watson (1878 – 1958)
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Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B.F.
Skinner.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto
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Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physician and
neurophysiologist.
He was the first Russian to win the Nobel Prize
(1904).
He studied digestive secretions and spent the last three decades of his
life running novel experiments on learning.
Like Watson after him, he had a disdain for
“mentalistic concepts” such as consciousness.
Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)
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Biological Predispositions
John Garcia
Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be
long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive
CS (taste) led to conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not.
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Operant & Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
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Operant & Classical Conditioning
2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
3. To distinguish classical from operant conditioning, we can ask “is the organism learning associations between events it does not control (classical conditioning), or is it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events (operant conditioning)?”
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Biological PredispositionBiological constraints
predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that
operantly conditioned animals drift towards
their biologically predisposed instinctive
behaviors (e.g. pigs pushing an object with their nose instead of
picking them up). They called this instinctive
drift.Marian Breland Bailey
Ph
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Baile
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Bandura's ExperimentsBandura's Bobo doll
study (1961) indicated that
individuals (children) learn
through imitating others who receive
rewards and punishments.
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Memory
Chapter 8
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RehearsalEffortful learning usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
http://ww
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Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)
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Motivated ForgettingMotivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories (e.g. Myers chocolate chip cookie example).
Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Repression was central to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and has become widely accepted (9 in 10 university students believe in it [Brown et al, 1996]); however, increasing numbers of memory researchers think repression rarely, if ever, occurs.
Sigmund Freud
Culver Pictures
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Constructed MemoriesLoftus’ research shows that if false
memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell
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Thinking and
Language
Chapter 9
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Explaining Language Development
Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985)
believed that language development may be
explained on the basis of learning principles such as association,
imitation, and reinforcement.
Babies learn to talk in many of the same ways that animals learn to peck keys and press bars (Skinner, 1985).
B.F. Skinner
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Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and
suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through
learning principles, and thus most of it is
inborn.
Explaining Language Development
Noam Chomsky
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Intelligence
Chapter 10
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General IntelligenceCharles Spearman developed
the idea that general intelligence (g) exists.
General intelligence (g) is the idea that we have one intelligence that underlies
specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on
an intelligence test.
Spearman helped develop factor analysis, a statistical
procedure that identifies clusters of related items.
Athleticism, like intelligence, is many thingsCharles Spearman (1863 – 1945)
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Howard GardnerGardner
proposes eight types of
intelligences and speculates about
a ninth one — existential
intelligence.Existential
intelligence is the ability to
think about the question of life,
death and existence.Howard Gardner
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Robert SternbergSternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences (a
triarctic theory of intelligence) rather than
eight.
1. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.
2. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
Robert Sternberg
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Alfred BinetAlfred Binet and his colleague Théodore
Simon practiced a more modern form of
intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system.
The goal became measuring each child’s
mental age – the level of performance associated
with a certain chronological age.Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911)
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Lewis TermanIn the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s
test for American school children by adding some items and extending the
upper end of the test. The new test was named the Stanford-Binet Test.
Terman promoted widespread use of intelligence testing even sympathizing
with the ideas of eugenics, the 19th Century idea that only smart and fit
people should reproduce.
The U.S. engaged in the world’s first mass administration of intelligence tests
testing arriving immigrants and army recruits (WWI).
Eventually, Terman (and others) came to realize that test scores reflected not only
innate ability but also education and culture.
Lewis Terman
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William SternThe formula for Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) was introduced by William Stern. Average score was 100. The test worked for children,
but not for adults.
Most current intelligence tests, including the Stanford-Binet, no
longer compute IQ, although the term still lingers in everyday vocabulary as
a shorthand expression for intelligence test scores.William Stern
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David WechslerWechsler developed
what is the most widley used
intelligence test, the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children (WISC), an
intelligence test for school-aged children.
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Motivation and Work
Chapter 11
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A Hierarchy of MotivesAbraham Maslow
(1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs
like breathing, thirst, and hunger come
before psychological needs such as
achievement, self-esteem, and the need
for recognition.
(1908-1970)
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Introduction – Ancel Keys
Creator of the Army – K rations.
Did an experiment with 36 conscientious objectors to
the war (people who did not want to serve but who
wanted to do something to contribute to the war
effort).
Fed them just enough to maintain their initial weight and then cut their food level
in half for six months.Ancel Keys (1904 – 2004)
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Emotions, Stress,
and Health
Chapter 12
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James-Lange TheoryWilliam James and
Carl Lange proposed an idea that was
diametrically opposed to the common-sense
view. The James-Lange Theory proposes that
physiological activity precedes the
emotional experience.
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Cannon-Bard TheoryWalter Cannon and
Phillip Bard questioned the James-Lange
Theory and proposed that an emotion-
triggering stimulus and the body's arousal take place simultaneously.
Physiological response and experienced
emotions are separate.
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Two-Factor TheoryStanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
proposed yet another theory which suggests
our physiology and cognitions create
emotions. Emotions have two factors–
physical arousal and cognitive label.
An emotional experience requires a
conscious interpretation of the
arousal.
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The Schachter Singer Experiment (1962)
• 184 University of Minnesota Introduction to Psychology students were told they were getting a shot of vitamin C to do a test on vitamin C and eyesight. They were broken down into four groups:1. An informed group was told it would make their hearts race
and bodies tremble.2. A misinformed group was told it would make them numb.3. An uninformed group was not told anything about the shot.4. A control group which received a a neutral injection (saline
solution). Like the third group, this group was uninformed.• They were then taken to a waiting room with other
experimentees (really members of the experiment’s staff) who behaved in one of two ways:
1. Behaved euphorically, shooting the paper from a “questionnaire” at the trashcans, making paper airplanes, etc.
2. Behaved angrily, becoming more and more annoyed at the “questionnaire.”
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Schachter Singer Experiment Continued
• Results:
1. Subjects who were informed (group 1) or who had received the neutral shot (group 4) looked on in mild amusement at both the euphoric and angry actions of others.
2. Subjects who were misinformed (group 2) or uninformed (group 3) joined in with the euphoric and angry behavior.
• Conclusions:1. Internal components of emotion affect a person differently
depending on his or her interpretation or perception of the social situation.
2. When people cannot explain their physical reactions, they take cues from their physical environment.
3. When people knew that their hearts were beating faster, they did not feel particularly euphoric or angry.
4. Finally, this shows that internal changes are important (or the neutral group would have acted same way as those from the misinformed groups).
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Personality
Chapter 13
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Psychoanalytic PerspectiveFreud was a brilliant student
who had a great memory and a drive to study. He attended
medical school at the University of Vienna and began a private clinical
practice.
In his clinical practice, Freud encountered patients
suffering from nervous disorders. Their complaints could not be explained in terms of purely physical
causes.
Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of
personality, which included the unconscious mind,
psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms.
Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)
Culver Pictures
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The Neo-FreudiansLike Freud, Adler
believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and
not sexual.
Adler, who overcame childhood illnesses and
accidents, believed that a child struggles with an inferiority
complex during growth and strives for superiority and power.Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
National L
ibrary of Medicine
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The Neo-FreudiansLike Adler, Horney
believed in the social aspects of childhood
growth and development. She believed childhood anxiety, caused by the
dependent child’s sense of helplessness, triggers our desire for love and
security.
She countered Freud’s assumption that women
have weak superegos and suffer from “penis envy.”
She also attempted to balance the bias she
detected in the masculine view of psychology.
Karen Horney (HORN-eye) (1885-1952)
The B
ettmann A
rchive/ Corbis
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The Neo-FreudiansJung believed in the
collective unconscious, which contained a common reservoir of images derived from our
species’ past. This is why many cultures
share certain myths and images such as the
mother being a symbol of nurturance.
Carl Jung (Yoong) (1875-1961)
Archive of the H
istory of Am
erican Psychology/ University of A
kron
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests
through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
Lew
Merrim
/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
The story includes the event shown in the picture, preceding events, emotions and thoughts of those portrayed, and the outcome of the event shown. The story content and structure are thought to reveal
the subject's attitudes, inner conflicts, and views.
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Rorschach Inkblot TestThe most widely used projective test uses a set of
10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner
feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
Lew
Merrim
/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
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Humanistic PerspectiveBy the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with
Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists.
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers(1902-1987)
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The Trait PerspectiveA trait is an individual’s unique
constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways
of behaving. Each person is uniquely made up of traits.
After meeting with Freud, Gordon Allport came to define personality in terms of identifiable behavior patterns and was concerned less with explaining individual traits
than with describing them.
Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother Kathleen Briggs attempted to sort people
according to Jung’s personality types using 126 questions. This is
called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
Examples of Traits
HonestDependable
MoodyImpulsive
Gordon Allport (1897 –1967)
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Exploring TraitsEach personality is
uniquely made up of multiple traits.
Allport & Odbert (1936), identified
almost 18,000 words representing traits.
One way to condense the immense list of personality traits is
through factor analysis, a statistical
approach used to describe and relate personality traits.
Cattell used this approach to develop a 16 Personality Factor
(16PF) inventory.
Raymond Cattell(1905-1998)
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Social-Cognitive PerspectiveBandura (1986, 2001, 2005)
proposed the social-cognitive perspective. This personality
theory emphasizes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their
social context.We learn many of our
behaviors either through conditioning or by observing
others and modeling our behaviors after theirs (the
social part).
They also emphasize the importance of mental
processes…what we think about our situations affects our behavior (the cognitive
part).Albert Bandura
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Positive Psychology and Humanistic Psychology
Positive psychology, such as humanistic psychology, attempts to foster human fulfillment.
Positive psychology seeks positive emotions which include satisfaction with the past, present, and optimism for the future.
Positive character, focuses on exploring and enhancing
Martin Seligman
Courtesy of M
artin E.P. Seligm
an, PhD D
irector, Positive Psychology C
enter/ University of Pennsylvania
creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom
and spirituality, Finally, positive social
groups including healthy families, communal
neighborhoods, effective schools, socially responsible
media, and civil dialogue.
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Psychological
Disorders
Chapter 14
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Therapy
Chapter 15
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Psychoanalysis: Methods
Dissatisfied with hypnosis, Freud developed the method of free association to unravel the unconscious mind and
its conflicts.The patient lies on a couch and speaks about whatever
comes to his or her mind while the psychoanalyst sits out of the patient’s line of vision. Their job is to not
interrupt, listen, and remain objective. Here’s an example of psychoanalysis in the 1940s.
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Psychodynamic TherapyInfluenced by Freud, in a face-to-face setting (counter
Freud), psychodynamic therapists understand symptoms and themes across important relationships in a patient’s life.
Interpersonal psychotherapy, a variation of psychodynamic therapy, is effective in treating depression. It
focuses on symptom relief here and now, not an overall personality change.
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Client-Centered TherapyDeveloped by Carl Rogers, client-centered therapy is a
form of humanistic therapy.
The therapist listens to the needs of the patient in an accepting and non-judgmental way, addressing problems in
a productive way and building his or her self-esteem.
The therapist engages in active listening and echoes, restates, and clarifies the patient’s thinking,
acknowledging expressed feelings.
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A clip of Rogers describing his
therapy:
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Beck’s Therapy for DepressionAaron Beck (1979) suggests that
depressed patients believe that they can never be happy (thinking) and thus associate minor failings (e.g.
failing a test [event]) in life as major causes for their depression.
We often think in words. Consequently, getting people to
change what they say to themselves is an effective way to change their
thinking.
Donald Meichenbaum (1977, 1985) introduced stress inoculation
training which trained people to restructure their thinking in
stressful situations. Example:
“Relax, the exam may be hard, but it will be hard for everyone else too. I studied harder than most people.
Besides, I don’t need a perfect score to get a good grade.”
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Social Psycholog
y
Chapter 16
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Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations
Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a
tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s
behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s
disposition.
A teacher may wonder if a child’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality (a dispositional
attribution) or a reaction to stress or abuse (a situational
attribution).
Dispositions are enduring personality traits. So, if Joe is a
quiet, shy, and introverted child, he is likely to be like that in a number
of situations.
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Fritz Heider
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Role Playing Affects Attitudes
When people adopt a new role (e.g. college student, new job, marriage), they strive to follow
the social prescriptions.Zimbardo (1972) assigned the
roles of guards and prisoners to random students and found that guards and prisoners developed role- appropriate attitudes. So
disturbing were the findings that he had to discontinue a two week
experiment after six days (10:17).
Similar situations have played out in the real world (e.g. Abu Ghraib Prison); however, it’s important to note that some
people succumb to the situation and others do not.
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Group Pressure & ConformitySuggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our
behavior or thinking toward some group standard.
To study conformity, Solomon Asch (1955) performed a test using lines and five cohorts to see if someone would conform
with the group and join them in giving the wrong answer.
This experiment was done with thousands of college students and
more than one third of them answered incorrectly to go along
with the group (1:57).
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ObediencePeople comply to social pressures. How
would they respond to outright command?
Stanley Milgram designed a study that investigates the effects of authority on
obedience.
Stanley Milgram(1933-1984)
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