the steps in linguistics research

8/12/2019 The Steps in Linguistics Research

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11 ResearchMethods

Prof. TIAN Bing

Shaanxi Normal

University


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Fig. 0 A Birds-Eye-View of Applied Linguistic Studies

I. overview & history

An Introduction Traditional Thoughts of Education Foreign Language Education (Pedagogical) Lexicography

II. Lg Description

Language Descriptions Language Corpora. Stylistics. Discourse Analysis. vs CA

III. Cognitive & Social

Language Acquisition: L1 vs L2 Language, Thou ght, and Culture. Language and Gender. Language and Politics. World Englishes.

IV. Methods and Testing

Research Methods Language Test ing.

V. Learning

Second Language Learning. Individual Differences in Second

Language Learning.

Social Influ ences on LanguageLearning.

VI. Teaching

Fashions in Language TeachingMethodology.

Computer Assisted Langua geLearning

Language Teacher Education. The Practice of LSP Bilingual Education.


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1. Research Methods for Applied Linguistics:Scope, Characteristics, and Standards

1 The Scope of Applied Linguistics Research

2 Characteristics of Applied Linguistics Research

3 Standards for Sound Applied LinguisticsResearch

4 Ethical considerations


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1.1 Defining applied linguistics

research 1 Definitions that listed the types of research (e.g., An investigation of

a particular topic, or problem, through a document search and/or

empirical study (the conducting of experiments) and analysis and

Investigation through the reading of literature, experimentationand/or any other type of data gathering . . .)

2 Definitions that listed the topics of research (e.g., In its widest

sense, to seek new ways to improve language education and

intercultural communication training and Searching for information

on how students process information, internalize data and retain itfor communicative purposes.)


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3 Definitions that covered the purpose of research (e.g., The search

for information that will help practitioners (in this case, teachers) better

carry out their jobs . . . and Systematic study of language issues

and use in order to improve delivery of services to our students.) 4 Definitions that enumerated the steps in the process of research

(e.g., Working toward truth, proving theories, trying out new

approaches and then compiling results, analyzing results and

sharing with colleagues and Stating a hypothesis; gathering data;

testing the hypothesis; relating the conclusions to issues at hand.)


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any systematic and principled inquiry in

applied linguistics.


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2 Characteristics of Applied

Linguistics Research Applied linguistics research can be described from many different

perspectives including at least

(1) the contextual factors involved in applied linguistics research,

(2) van Liers parameters of educational research design, (3) Grotjahns data collection methods, data types, and data

analysis procedures,

(4) other sets of research characteristics, and

(5) the qualquant continuum.


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2.1 Contextual factors in applied

linguistics research 1 International and national contexts. International and national

organizations and governmental bodies support a fair amount of

applied linguistics research. Since they control the money, their

political priorities tend to influence who will do such research andhow.

2 Professional contexts. Within applied linguistics, the types of

research that are popular at any given time vary; for a few years,

interest in one type of research may increase at the expense of

another, then interest may be rekindled for that latter type. In other

words, even research can have its trends and fads.


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3 Institutional contexts. Institutional contexts in applied linguistics

research can refer to everything from entire school districts, toindividual language programs, or even to very specific individual

tutoring situations. Within these institutional contexts a number of

factors can influence the type and quality of research: the size of

the institution, availability of resources to support research,

institutional policies and priorities, the institutions past experienceswith researchers, and even the personalities of the various

administrators and teachers involved.

4 Local contexts. Local contexts refer to the specific

circumstances in which the research will take place. The context

may be a classroom, laboratory, private home, Internet bulletin

board, or even a coffee shop. A number of factors in the local context

may turn out to be important to the success or failure of a research

study:


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(a) physical context (e.g., class size, layout of the school, etc.),

(b) time context (e.g., minutes per class, classes per day, etc.),

(c) social context (e.g., language backgrounds, ethnic mix of the

students, etc.), (d) pedagogical context (e.g., teaching methods used, preferred

learning styles of the students and teachers, etc.),

(e) psychological context (e.g., comfort level of participants with

regard to research studies, etc.).


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5 Personal contexts. Individual researchers have certain

preconceptions about the aspects of applied linguistics that ought to be

researched, the form that research should take, and their role in the

research process. Such preconceptions and preferences arise fromindividual differences in abilities, personalities, motivations, priorities,

training, etc. and may influence the types of research a particular

individual or group will be interested in doing.


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2.2 Van Liers parameters of educational

research design As shown in Figure 19.4 (from van Lier, 1988) research can also be

described in terms of an intervention axis (i.e., degree of

intervention, from intervention to non-intervention) and a selectivity

axis (i.e., selectivity of focus, from highly selective to non-selective). For example, on the intervention axis, research can take the form

of a formal experimental design with a randomly assigned treatment

and control groups, which would be an intervention study, or it can take

the form of a series of informal classroom observations, which

would be more in the direction of a non-intervention study. On the

selectivity axis, research can be highly selective in focus (e.g.,

obligatory use of the definite article by immigrant Chinese

adolescent men from Guangdong province), or non-selective (e.g., all

language related behaviors observed of all participants in a population

of students).


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The selectivity and intervention axes also create what van Lier

calls four territories:

1 controlling, in which the researcher conducts a carefully planned

experiment restricted both in participants and content focus; 2 measuring, in which intervention is minimal but the data focus

is highly restricted;

3 asking/doing, in which the researcher might intervene to ask

participants to talk about what they are thinking;

4 watching, in which the researcher just observes with bothintervention and selectivity kept to a minimum.


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2.3 Grotjahns data collection methods,

data types, and data analysis procedures According to Grotjahn (1987), research can be classified in terms

of data collection methods (i.e., experimental vs. non-

experimental), data types (i.e., qualitative vs. quantitative), and

data analysis procedures (statistical vs. interpretive).


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2.4 Other sets of research

characteristics 2.4.1 Time orientation Another way to classify research is according to time orientation, or the

amount of time invested in gathering data. Along those lines,

studies are sometimes classified as either cross-sectional or

longitudinal (e.g., see Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991).

Cross-sectional studies are those conducted over a short period of

time, often with a relatively large number of participants. For instance,

a study might gather language proficiency data (using a test),

motivation data (using a questionnaire), and personal informationdata (on the same questionnaire) from 300 students in a one-shot

cross-sectional study.


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In contrast, longitudinal studies are typically carried out over a

relatively long period of time, often with a small number of participants.

For example, a study might dedicate five years to following five

students of varying backgrounds, making careful observations oftheir language proficiency growth, their motivation to learn

languages, their personal characteristics, etc.


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Other ways of describing the time orientation have recently

surfaced like prolonged engagement (observations and

involvement with a group of people over a long period of time),

persistent observations (frequent observations over that long periodof time), and the cyclical nature (data collection, analysis,

interpretation, followed by further data collection, analysis,

interpretation, etc.) of longitudinal studies in the exploratory-

interpretative tradition (see especially, Davis, 1995, pp. 4445).


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2.4.2 Theory generation

Studies can also differ in terms of theory generation, which can

take two forms: hypothesis forming and hypothesis testing.

Hypothesis forming research may begin with some very general

framing questions, but will typically have no hypotheses to startwith. In such a study, the researcher will make every effort to

keep an open mind and form hypotheses about what is going on

only after a great many observations of various sorts.

The resulting hypotheses are typically considered part of the

interpretation, and the researcher often goes back to theparticipants to ask them if the hypotheses are reasonable (in a

process called member checking). One of the great strengths often

cited for qualitative research is its potential for forming new

hypotheses.


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In contrast, hypothesis testing research begins with a set of

research questions and hypotheses. Sometimes the hypotheses

are stated; more often they are implicit in the research questions.

The statistical analyses in such studies are designed to formally

test the probability that the hypotheses are true and typically

include some form of probability statement, like p < 0.01, which

indicates that there is less than a one percent probability that the

observed difference (or relationship) is a chance fluctuation.

One of the strengths often cited for quantitative research is its

potential for hypothesis testing.


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2.4.3 Variable description

Similarly, variable description can take two forms in applied linguistics

research: variable definition and variable operationalization.

In variable definition research, the researcher attempts to begin with

no preconceived notions of what the important variables in thestudy will be, or how they will be defined.

As the study progresses, the process of discovering and describing

variables serves to gradually define them.


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In variable operationalization research, the researcher clearly

outlines the variables of interest from the outset (particularly the

dependent, independent, and moderator variables) and explains how

each one was operationalized, that is, how each one was observed or

measured and quantified.

For instance the variable Japanese language proficiency might be

operationalized a scores on a particular Japanese proficiency test,

or the variable nationality might be operationalized as 1 for

Chinese, 2 for Japanese, and 3 for Korean based on asking each

of the participants what passport they hold, etc.


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2.4.4 Researcher perspective

The researchers perspective is sometimes described as either

emic or etic. Researchers adopting the emicperspective make every

effort to understand the point of view of the participants and to examine

how the interpretations drawn from the research relate to those

views through practices such as member checking (getting the

participants reactions to the interpretations drawn from the research).

Researchers assuming the etic perspective take an outsiders

view during the data gathering process, often attempting to be as

objective as possible (for more on the emic/etic distinction, see Davis,

1995, p. 433).


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2.5 The qualquant continuum

2.5.1 The qualitative versus quantitative dichotomy

Reichardt and Cook (1979, p. 10) summarize the differences between

qualitative and quantitative research as shown in Table 19.2. Notice

that the column on the left in Table 19.2 is labeled Qualitativeparadigm and that the column to the on the right is labeled

Quantitative paradigm, with each column containing adjectives

and adjectival phrases describing each paradigm.

A number of these distinctions are uncontroversial and make eminent

sense; for example, the fact that the qualitative paradigm advocatesqualitative methods and the quantitative paradigm advocates

quantitative methods and the fact that the qualitative paradigm is

typically naturalistic where the quantitative paradigm would more

accurately be characterized as controlled.


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However, I disagree with other distinctions, especially those that begin

with un-. Uncontrolled observation and ungeneralizable both

seem to me to be unfair characterizations of qualitative research.

The observations in qualitative research are often well planned andstructured in their own ways, as in a well-designed interview

schedule, a classroom observation checklist, or a carefully planned

discourse coding scheme.

Ungrounded appears to me to be an equally unfair characterization of

quantitative research because such research is sometimes quiteexploratory. I would also argue that the use of the terms subjective

and objective has become outdated partly because the two terms have

become highly loaded over the years (Porter, 1998) and partly

because those loaded meanings do not accurately characterize the

two types of research.


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2.5.2 General problems with the qualitative

versus quantitative dichotomy Such a qualitative versus quantitative approach also has a number of

general problems:

1 Dichotomizing qualitative versus quantitative research leaves out

altogether secondary research types like literature reviews. 2 It treats as monolithic at least seven very distinct qualitative

research techniques (case study research; introspection research;

discourse analysis research; interactional analysis research;

classroom observation research; interviews; and questionnaires).

3 It represents as monolithic at least ten qualitative researchtraditions that come from a variety of other fields like

anthropology and theology (see Table 19.3, adapted slightly from

Lazaraton, 1995, p. 460).


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4 It presents as monolithic at least six very different quantitative

research techniques (interviews; questionnaires; descriptive;

exploratory; quasiexperimental; and experimental).

5 It ignores the way survey research, including interviews andquestionnaires, is both qualitative and quantitative.

6 It ignores the ways researchers often combine qualitative and

quantitative research techniques (as shown above in the

Grotjahns analysis in Table 19.1).

7 It confuses research methods (interpretive, survey, andstatistical) and research techniques (like those listed in the second

and fourth points above).


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2.5.3 The qualquant interactive continuum

Perhaps a more constructive and accurate approach would be to view

qualitative and quantitative research as a matter of degrees, a

continuum, rather than a clear-cut dichotomy like the one shown in

Table 19.2. As Newman and Benz (1998) put it, All behavioral

research is made up of a combination of qualitative and quantitative

constructs (p. 9). They advocate the notion of a qualquant research

continuum, as opposed to a dichotomy, and insist that the continuum

be considered interactive.


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Figure 19.5 shows how 12 research characteristics can be

combined to create an almost infinite number of possible

interrelationships and thus to describe a wide variety of different

research types.

the steps in linguistics research

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