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The Sourcebook of Listening Research: Methodology and Measures
The Sourcebook of Listening Research: Methodology and Measures
Edited by
Debra L. Worthington
and
Graham D. Bodie
This edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Debra L. Worthington and Graham D. Bodie to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Worthington, Debra L., editor. | Bodie, Graham D., editor.Title: The sourcebook of listening research : methodology and measures / edited by Debra L. Worthington and Graham D. Bodie.Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2017015025 (print) | LCCN 2017027033 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119102939 (epdf) | ISBN 9781119102960 (epub) | ISBN 9781119103073 (cloth)Subjects: LCSH: Listening. | Listening comprehension.Classification: LCC BF323.L5 (ebook) | LCC BF323.L5 S68 2017 (print) | DDC 153.7/33–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017015025
Cover image: © helenecanada/GettyimagesCover design: Wiley
Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Notes on Contributors xiPreface xxii
Section One Decisions for the Measurement of Listening 1
Chapter 1 Defining Listening: A Historical, Theoretical, and Pragmatic Assessment 3Debra L. Worthington and Graham D. Bodie
Section Two Methodological Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities in Listening Research 19
Chapter 2 Measuring Listening 21Graham D. Bodie and Debra L. Worthington
Chapter 3 Qualitative Approaches and Listening Research 45Barbara Cook Overton
Chapter 4 Modeling and Measuring Cognitive Components of Listening 70Debra L. Worthington
Chapter 5 Measuring Affective Components of Listening 97Graham D. Bodie and Susanne M. Jones
Chapter 6 Measuring Behavioral Components of Listening 123Graham D. Bodie
Section Three Measurement Profiles 151
Profile 1 The Academic Listening Self-rating Questionnaire (ALSA) 153Vahid Aryadoust and Christine C. M. Goh
Profile 2 Active - Empathic Listening Scale (AELS) 161Shaughan A. Keaton
Contents
Contentsvi
Profile 3 Active Listening Attitude Scale (ALAS) 167Brock Bybee and Jonathon Frost
Profile 4 Active Listening Observation Scale (ALOS) 174Andrea J. Vickery
Profile 5 Affectionate Communication Scale (TAS) (Trait-Given & Trait-Received) 180Kory Floyd and Mark Alan Generous
Profile 6 Affectionate Communication Index (ACI) 186Kory Floyd and Lisa J. van Raalte
Profile 7 Attributional Complexity Scale (ACS) 191Michael Navarro
Profile 8 Audio Message Complexity: Audio Content Change (Acc) and Audio Information Introduced (Aii) 198Robert F. Potter and Annie Lang
Profile 9 Communicative Adaptability Scale (CAS) 204Gwen A. Hullman
Profile 10 Communication Competency Assessment Instrument (CCAI) 212Phil Backlund
Profile 11 Communication Functions Questionnaire (CFQ-30) 217Graham D. Bodie
Profile 12 Conversational Listening Span (CLS) 224Debra L. Worthington and Courtney Edwards
Profile 13 Conversational Sensitivity Scale (CSS) 232Debra L. Worthington
Profile 14 The Couples Helping Exercise 239Andrew C. High, Jenny L. Crowley, and Emily M. Buehler
Profile 15 Doctors’ Interpersonal Skills Questionnaire (DISQ) 246Helen Meldrum
Profile 16 Effective Listening and Interactive Communication Scale (ELICS) 252Gillian King and Michelle Servais
Profile 17 Empathic Accuracy: Standard Stimulus Paradigm (EA-SSP) 259Vivian Ta and William Ickes
Contents vii
Profile 18 Empathic Accuracy: Unstructured Dyadic Interaction Paradigm (EA-UDIP) 265Vivian Ta and William Ickes
Profile 19 Facilitating Listening Scale (FLS) 272Avraham N. Kluger and Osnat Bouskila-Yam
Profile 20 Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) 281Carly M. Danielson and Susanne M. Jones
Profile 21 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 290Iballa Burunat and Elvira Brattico
Profile 22 Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) 299Christopher C. Gearhart
Profile 23 HURIER Listening Profile 306Margarete Imhof
Profile 24 Informational Reception Apprehension Test (IRAT) 313Shaughan A. Keaton
Profile 25 Interaction Involvement Scale (IIS) 319Debra L. Worthington
Profile 26 Feffer’s Interpersonal Decentering 327Molly S. Tucker and Sharon Rae Jenkins
Profile 27 Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) 334Christopher T. Belser
Profile 28 Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) 340Shaughan A. Keaton
Profile 29 Language Style Matching (LSM) 348Kaitlin Cannava
Profile 30 Leader-Member Exchange 7 Questionnaire (LMX-7) 354Lisa K. Hanasono
Profile 31 Listenability Style Guide (LSG) 361Graham D. Bodie
Profile 32 Listening Concepts Inventory (LCI and LCI-R) 372Debra L. Worthington
Contentsviii
Profile 33 Listening Fidelity (LF) 379Margarete Imhof
Profile 34 Listening Practices Feedback Report (LPFR) 387Debra L. Worthington
Profile 35 Listening Span Tests 394Margarete Imhof
Profile 36 Listening Styles Profile-Revised (LSP-R) 402Graham D. Bodie and Debra L. Worthington
Profile 37 Medical Communication Competence Scale (MCCS) 410Danielle Blanch-Hartigan
Profile 38 Memory for Conversation 419Jonathon Frost and Brock Bybee
Profile 39 Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) 430Christine C. M. Goh
Profile 40 Metacognitive Listening Strategies Instrument (MLSI) 438Laura A. Janusik
Profile 41 Microanalysis of Face-to-Face Dialogue (MFD) 445Janet Bavelas, Jennifer Gerwing, Sara Healing, and Christine Tomori
Profile 42 Multidimensional Evaluation of Enacted Social Support (MEESS) 453Daena J. Goldsmith and Abbey Griscom
Profile 43 Multitasking While Listening 458Jonathon Frost and Brock Bybee
Profile 44 Narrative Believability Scale (NBS-12) 465Graham D. Bodie
Profile 45 Narrative Engagement Measure (NEM) 469Jenny L. Crowley and Jennifer A. Jackl
Profile 46 Weinstein Noise Sensitivity Scale (WNSS) 475Debra L. Worthington
Profile 47 Nonverbal Immediacy Measures 482Jane B. Teel
Profile 48 Normative Message Processing Scale (NMPS) 496R. Kelly Aune and Rodney A. Reynolds
Contents ix
Profile 49 Ordinary Conversation Scale (OCS) 504Brian Lakey and Travis Sain
Profile 50 Organizational Listening Survey (OLS) 509Laura A. Janusik
Profile 51 Perceived Partner Responsiveness Scale (PPRS) 516Harry T. Reis, Dev Crasta, Ronald D. Rogge, Michael R. Maniaci, and Cheryl L. Carmichael
Profile 52 Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS) 522Laura A. Janusik
Profile 53 Rational-Experiential Inventory–40 (REI-40) 530Shaughan A. Keaton
Profile 54 Relational Framing 537Denise Haunani Solomon and Sara K. Salmon
Profile 55 Rhetorical Sensitivity Scale (RHETSEN) 545Shaughan A. Keaton
Profile 56 Role Category Questionnaire (RCQ) 552Andrea J. Vickery
Profile 57 Self-Perceived Listening Competence Scale (SPLCS) 560Margarete Imhof
Profile 58 Talkaholic Scale (Compulsive Communication Scale) (TAS) 566Debra L. Worthington
Profile 59 Team Listening Environment (TLE) 573Michelle K. Johnston and Kendra Reed
Profile 60 Time Studies 578Graham D. Bodie
Profile 61 The Listening Test of the Internet-Based Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL iBT) 592Vahid Aryadoust
Profile 62 Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (VAS) 599Timothy R. Levine
Profile 63 Taxonomy of Verbal Response Modes (VRM) 605William B. Stiles
Contentsx
Profile 64 Watson-Barker Listening Test (WBLT) 612Debra L. Worthington
Profile 65 Willingness to Listen (WTL) 617Andrea J. Vickery
Index 624
xi
Vahid Aryadoust (PhD, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore) is assistant professor at the National Institute of Education of Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. His research focuses on the application of structural equation modeling, data mining, latent trait models, and complexity. He has been a frequent presenter in international conferences and has published papers in educational journals including Language Testing, Language Assessment Quarterly, Assessing Writing, International Journal of Testing, International Journal of Listening, Educational Psychology, and Educational Assessment.
R. Kelly Aune (PhD, University of Arizona) is professor and chair of the Department of Communicology, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, where he teaches message processing, verbal and nonverbal communication, and research methods. His research is in message processing and natural language processing. He looks at inference making and implicature in conversations, and the evolution of idiosyncratic communication across dyads and groups. Dr. Aune also examines how the cooperative nature of communication can lead to misunderstandings and deception.
Phil Backlund (PhD, University of Denver) has taught communication studies courses at Central Washington University since 1979. He is and has been active in the National Communication Association, publishing, and international teaching.
Janet Beavin Bavelas was educated at Stanford (BA, psychology; MA, communication research; PhD, psychology) and has spent her academic career at the University of Victoria, where she is currently an active emeritus professor of psychology. She has coauthored Pragmatics of Human Communication (1967) and Equivocal Communication (1990) as well as over 90 journal articles or book chapters. Bavelas and her research team conduct experiments on the unique features of face‐to‐face dialogue, specifically the integration of words and co‐speech acts (hand and facial gestures, and gaze) and the moment‐by‐moment collaboration between speakers and addressees. Microanalysis of face‐to‐face dialogue (MFD) developed out of this program of research. More recently, the team have been applying this method and their findings to dialogues outside the lab: in psychotherapy, medicine, parent–infant interaction, and computer‐mediated interaction. Academic honors include fellowships in the Royal Society of Canada, the International Communication Association, and the Canadian Psychological Association.
Notes on Contributors
Notes on Contributorsxii
Christopher T. Belser (PhD, University of Central Florida) is a graduate of the Counselor Education and Supervision program at the University of Central Florida. He is a graduate teaching associate and research assistant on a federally funded research project seeking to increase undergraduate participation in science, technology, e ngineering, and mathematics (STEM). His primary areas of research and scholarship are career development, STEM engagement, and school counselor training and practice.
Danielle Blanch‐Hartigan (PhD, Northeastern University; MPH, Harvard School of Public Health) is assistant professor of health studies in the Department of Natural and Applied Sciences at Bentley University. Her interdisciplinary research in psychology and public health aims to improve the patient healthcare experience and foster patient‐centered care through better communication. Her research explores healthcare providers’ ability to accurately recognize patients’ verbal and nonverbal cues of emotion and pain, as well as the patient‐centered care experience of cancer survivors. Danielle has published over 30 articles in peer‐reviewed journals, including Patient Education and Counseling, Health Communication, Journal of Clinical Oncology, and Basic and Applied Social Psychology.
Graham D. Bodie (PhD, Purdue University), formerly Professor of Communication Studies at Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College, is now on faculty in the Meek School of Journalism and New Media at The University of Mississippi. His research on listening and the social cognitive underpinnings of human communicative behavior has been published in Human Communication Research, Communi cation Monographs, Communication Research, Communication Yearbook, and the International Journal of Listening, among other outlets. Graham’s research has been funded by the Louisiana Board of Regents and the National Science Foundation, and he regularly appears in local and national media outlets on issues relevant to listening in close relationships.
Osnat Bouskila‐Yam (MA, Hebrew University) is a doctoral candidate at the School of Business at Ben‐Gurion University of the Negev, under the supervision of Prof. Nurit Zaidman. Her doctoral research addresses “Listening in Teams Operating in the High Tech Industry and Its Effect on Knowledge Transfer.” Osnat is the founder and CEO of Osnat Bouskila‐Yam Ltd.—Management Consultancy and Organizational Development. She lectures at The Interdisciplinary Center, Hertzelia, in the Psychology School (BA) and the Organizational Behavior & Development program (MA).
Elvira Brattico (PhD, University of Helsinki) worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the EU‐funded research project “Tuning the Brain for Music” (2007–2009). From 2009 to 2013, she directed the Aesthetics module of the Finnish Centre of Excellence in Interdisciplinary Music Research. In 2011, she became head of the Neuroaesthetics of Music Group at the University of Helsinki. She is currently a full professor of neuroscience, music, and aesthetics at the Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Denmark, and co‐director of the Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), a center of excellence of the Danish National Research Foundation. Her main interests cover the neural processing of perceptual and emotional features in music, and their intra‐ and interindividual variations.
Notes on Contributors xiii
Emily M. Buehler (MA, Wake Forest University) is a doctoral student and teaching assistant in the Department of Communication Studies at the University of Iowa. Her research explores interpersonal communication processes as they operate in c omputer‐mediated environments. She is particularly interested in investigating supportive communication processes online. Emily has presented her research at the annual conferences of both the National Communication Association and the Central States Communication Association. Emily teaches relational communication, interpersonal communication, and privacy management courses.
Iballa Burunat (MA, University of Jyväskylä) has a background in systematic musicology and cognitive neuroscience of music. She is currently a postdoctoral researcher funded by the Academy of Finland project “Dynamics of Music Cognition.” Her research focuses on how music training modulates the brain dynamics of music listening in naturalistic conditions. Recent publications examine the reliability of naturalistic functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and the functional symmetry of brain responses to music listening.
Brock Bybee (MA, Southern Utah University) is a faculty member in the Department of Professional Sales at Weber State University, and is completing his doctorate in Interpersonal Communication from Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College. His research interests are centered on interpersonal communication deficiencies and conflicts associated with the growing influence of social media.
Kaitlin Cannava (PhD, Louisiana State University A&M) is a visiting assistant professor at Xavier University. With a background in communication studies, psychology, and linguistics, she has conducted interdisciplinary research on multiple facets of language and conversation using a range of methods from computerized textual analysis software programs to discourse analysis. Her main interests are linguistic measures of repetition, coordination, and alignment.
Cheryl L. Carmichael (PhD, University of Rochester) earned her doctorate in social‐ personality psychology and is assistant professor of psychology at Brooklyn College. Her research aims to better understand the ways in which social interactions between close relationship partners influence health and well‐being.
Dev Crasta (MA, clinical psychology, Carnegie Mellon University) is a PhD student in clinical psychology at the University of Rochester and a National Science Foundation (NSF) Graduate Research Fellow. His research aims to improve accessibility of family therapy to underserved populations. His translational approach combines basic research into how neighborhood contexts impact relationships with clinical research investigating accessible online tools.
Jenny L. Crowley (PhD, University of Iowa) is an assistant professor at the University of Tennessee. Her research interests revolve around the experience and social support of stigmatized identities. In particular, her research examines how features of communication contribute to perceptions of stigma as well as how supportive communication facilitates coping with stigma. Her research has been published in Communication Theory, Communication Research, and the Journal of Family Communication.
Notes on Contributorsxiv
Carly M. Danielson (MA, University of Nevada, Las Vegas) is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. Her research focuses on bullied students’ coping processes and supportive communication, as well as bullying bystander interventions. She has published research in Health Communication and the Journal of Health Communication.
Courtney Edwards (MA, Auburn University) is a media specialist with Auburn Global, Auburn University’s pathway program for international students. She has previously taught in the School of Communication and Journalism, and her research interests include public relations, social media, and intercultural communication.
Kory Floyd (PhD, University of Arizona) is professor of communication at the University of Arizona. His research focuses on the communication of affection in personal relationships and on the interplay between interpersonal interaction and physical health. He has authored 14 books and more than 100 journal articles and book chapters on the topics of affection, psychophysiology, family communication, nonverbal behavior, and health. He is a former editor of Journal of Family Communication and Communication Monographs.
Jonathon Frost (MA, Auburn University) is a doctoral candidate in interpersonal communication and a teaching assistant at Louisiana State University A&M. His research interests include message interpretation, computer‐mediated communication, communication across the lifespan, and signal detection.
Christopher C. Gearhart (PhD, Louisiana State University A&M) is an assistant professor in the Department of Communication Studies at Tarleton State University in Stephenville, Texas. Recent articles have been published in Western Journal of Communication, the International Journal of Listening, and Communication Reports.
Mark Alan Generous (PhD, Arizona State University) is assistant professor of communication studies at Saint Mary’s College of California. His research focuses on the effects of interpersonal communication processes on relationship development and dissolution within a variety of relational contexts, including romantic relationships, casual‐sex relationships, families, and student–teacher bonds. He has published several book chapters and articles in journals such as Journal of Family Communication, Communication Reports, Death Studies, and Journal of Social Work in End‐of‐Life & Palliative Care.
Jennifer Gerwing (PhD, Psychology, University of Victoria, Canada) uses microanalysis in both lab experiments and applied settings. Her research focuses primarily on the effects of face‐to‐face dialogue on hand and facial gestures. She applies microanalysis in hospital settings, including her present position as a senior researcher at the Health Services Research Center at Akershus University Hospital, Oslo, Norway. She is particularly interested in multimodality, specifically the semantic role that hand and facial gestures play in clinical interactions and how these modalities integrate with speech to present essential information.
Christine C. M. Goh (PhD, Lancaster University) is a professor of linguistics and language education and holds a concurrent appointment as Dean of the Graduate Studies
Notes on Contributors xv
and Professional Learning at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. She contributes actively to academic and professional discussions on the teaching and assessment of listening and speaking, and has a strong interest in the role of metacognition in language development and use. She has researched and published extensively in these areas over the past 20 years.
Daena J. Goldsmith (PhD, University of Washington) is a professor of rhetoric and media studies at Lewis & Clark College. She studies how we enact identities and relationships in everyday interactions, including conversations between spouses or partners, advice giving among friends and family, and storytelling face‐to‐face and online. Her two books and many of her recent articles focus on how couples or families talk about illness or disability.
Abbey Griscom (B.A., Lewis & Clark) has research interests in the areas of rhetoric, media studies and gender studies.
Lisa K. Hanasono (PhD, Purdue University) is an assistant professor in the School of Media and Communication at Bowling Green State University. Her research examines how people communicate and cope with discrimination in interpersonal, organizational, intercultural, and computer‐mediated contexts. She also examines how supportive communication, community building, and institutional change can help targets of discrimination. Her work has been published in journals such as Human Communication Research, the Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, Communication Research, and Sex Roles.
Sara Healing’s (BA, hons., MSc, Psychology, University of Victoria, Canada) honors t hesis addressed the effects of two different lines of questioning about the same task. For her MSc thesis, she developed a microanalysis that identified the unique i nformation that an individual patient can contribute to oncology consultations. Her primary research interests are using microanalysis to study face‐to‐face dialogue, and publications have addressed hand and facial gestures and bad‐news delivery. As part of International Microanalysis Associates, she teaches international professional w orkshops on microanalysis and communication research.
Andrew C. High (PhD, The Pennsylvania State University) is an assistant professor in the Department of Communication Studies at the University of Iowa. His research interests focus on the interconnections between supportive communication and computer‐mediated communication. In particular, his research investigates whether and how different channels or features of computer‐mediated communication influence the processes of seeking, providing, and receiving support. His recent research has been published in outlets such as Human Communication Research, Communication Monographs, Communication Research, and Computers in Human Behavior.
Gwen A. Hullman (PhD, Kent State University) is associate professor and Chair of the Department of Communication Studies at the University of Nevada, Reno. She teaches courses in interpersonal communication, conflict resolution, alternative dispute r esolution, listening, and research methods. Her research interests include mediation,
Notes on Contributorsxvi
message planning, cognitive aspects of interpersonal communication, and conversational goals. She has been a volunteer mediator for the past 7 years and is a member of the Nevada Dispute Resolution Coalition.
William Ickes (PhD, University of Texas at Arlington) is Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of Texas at Arlington. He is the editor of Empathic Accuracy (1997) and the coeditor (with Jean Decety) of the Social Neuroscience of Empathy (2009). He is the author of Everyday Mind Reading: Understanding What Other People Think and Feel (2003) and Strangers in a Strange Lab: How Personality Shapes Our Initial Encounters With Others (2009). His research on empathic accuracy has been recognized by three international research awards. His book Strangers in a Strange Lab received the International Association for Relationship Research Book Award in 2012.
Margarete Imhof (PhD, University of Bamberg) is a professor of psychology in education at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany. Her primary research interest is in listening in educational contexts, such as instruction and teacher training. She has published in the International Journal of Listening and the Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, among others. She won the Nichols Award for her paper “What Makes a Good Listener?” She served as the president of the International Listening Association (2007–2008) and has been the editor of the International Journal of Listening since 2012.
Jennifer A. Jackl (PhD, University of Iowa) is a visiting assistant professor at Roanoke College. She studies the communication of narratives within the context of interpersonal and family relationships. Her current research focuses on the content of and communicative processes surrounding (not) telling untellable tales and how these stories impact the ways in which individuals make sense of their identity, cope with challenges, and make meaning of their life and relationships.
Laura A. Janusik (PhD, University of Maryland; MBA, Rockhurst University), associate professor and the McGee Chair of Communication, Rockhurst University, has received top paper awards from divisions of the National Communication Association, International Listening Association (ILA), and Central States Communication Association. She is a recipient of the Nichols Award and the Brennar Award, presented for scholarly achievement by the ILA and Rockhurst University, respectively. Her research interests include listening cognition, listening metacognitions, pedagogy, and intercultural listening. She is a past president of the ILA and is published nationally and internationally.
Sharon Rae Jenkins (PhD, Boston University), a professor of clinical psychology at the University of North Texas, specializes in personality assessment in the context of c ulture. She has a PhD in personality psychology from Boston University and a postdoctoral certificate in clinical psychology from the California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley/Alameda (CSPPB/A). She was a National Institute of Mental Health postdoctoral fellow, and was an assistant research psychologist at the University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Human Development. She has taught at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and at CSPP‐B/A. She recently edited the Handbook of Clinical Scoring Systems for Thematic Apperceptive Techniques (Erlbaum, 2008).
Notes on Contributors xvii
Michelle K. Johnston (PhD, Louisiana State University A&M) is a Chase Minority Entrepreneurship Professor of Management at Loyola University New Orleans. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in leadership and strategic communication and has published numerous articles in listening, particularly focused on listening environments. Her work can be found in the Journal of Business Research, Journal of Business Communication, and International Journal of Listening.
Susanne M. Jones (PhD, Arizona State University) is an associate professor of communication studies at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. Her research focuses on the influence of verbal and nonverbal supportive communication on cognition and emotion regulation. Her research has appeared in Communication Monographs, Communication Research, and Human Communication Research; in interdisciplinary journals, such as Mindfulness; and in several edited volumes.
Shaughan A. Keaton (PhD, Louisiana State University A&M) is an assistant professor of communication studies at Young Harris College in Young Harris, Georgia. His research specializes in listener goals and communicator styles, intergenerational and intercultural communication, and social psychology and sport communication. Publications feature an edited volume, The Influence of Communication in Physiology and Health.
Gillian King (PhD, University of Western Ontario) is senior scientist at Bloorview Research Institute in Toronto, Canada, with an appointment in the Department of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy at the University of Toronto. She holds the Canada Research Chair in Optimal Care for Children with Disabilities. Her research interests concern the psychosocial aspects of pediatric services, including child and parent wellness, the participation of children with disabilities, client engagement, models of service delivery, service providers’ expertise, and interprofessional practice.
Avraham N. Kluger (PhD, Stevens Institute of Technology) is a professor of organizational behavior at the School of Business at the Hebrew University. His research on the detrimental effects of feedback on performance won him awards both from the Organizational Behavior division of the Academy of Management and from the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Currently, he is focusing on employing meta‐analytic techniques on listening‐related research, including forces that may interfere with listening (loss of dominance, secondhand trauma, and avoidance‐attachment style). He is also working to identify and develop tools to teach effective‐listening practices.
Brian Lakey (PhD, Indiana University) is a professor of psychology at Grand Valley State University. Trained as a clinical psychologist, he has devoted his career to understanding basic mechanisms in social support that can be used to develop more effective i nterventions. He is the author of relational regulation theory with Ed Orehek.
Annie Lang (PhD, University of Wisconsin–Madison) is a Distinguished Professor of Communication Science in the Media School at Indiana University. Her research focuses on the dynamic cognitive processing of mediated messages. She is a past editor of Media Psychology, fellow of the International Communication Association (ICA), and recipient of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) Under‐40 Award and the ICA Career Productivity Award.
Notes on Contributorsxviii
Timothy R. Levine (PhD, Michigan State University) is a Distinguished Professor and Chair of Communication Studies at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and Global Professor of Communication and Media at Korea University, Seoul, South Korea. Research areas include interpersonal communication, persuasion and social influence, cross‐cultural communication, and social scientific research methods. Levine has p ublished more than 100 refereed articles related to communication, and he is an internationally recognized leader in deception research. He is the author or coauthor of information manipulation theory, truth default theory, the veracity effect, the probing effect, and the Park–Levine probability model. His research on deception has been funded by the National Science Foundation, US Department of Defense, and FBI.
Michael R. Maniaci (PhD, University of Rochester) received his PhD in social‐personality psychology and is currently assistant professor of psychology at Florida Atlantic University. His research focuses on interpersonal attraction and the formation and maintenance of close relationships.
Helen Meldrum (EdD., Clark University) is an associate professor of psychology in the Program in Health Sciences and Industry, Department of Natural and Applied Sciences at Bentley University. Prior to coming to Bentley, she was associate professor of communication and psychology at Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences. Most of her research has focused on human relations in healthcare settings.
Michael Navarro (MA, Louisiana State University A&M) is a doctoral student in the Department of Communication Studies at LSU A&M. His research centers on team communication and leadership roles in competitive video games, as well as the philosophical foundations for the study of computer‐mediated communication.
Barbara Cook Overton (PhD, Louisiana State University A&M) is an assistant professor in the Department of Languages and Communication at Southeastern Louisiana University. Her research interests include emergency room communication, electronic medical records systems, organizational change, communication and aging, ageism and health outcomes, persuasion, mass media, public health campaigns, pharmaceutical advertising, sexual health, patient education, and patient–provider interactions.
Robert F. Potter (PhD, Indiana University) is professor of communication s cience at The Media School at the University of Indiana. His research focuses on the impact of auditory elements on information processing of media; advanced communication science research methods, including psychophysiological and neuroscience measures as indicators of cognitive and emotional responses to media; and the concept of advertising clutter and its influence on information processing. His research has been published in Media Psychology, Communication Research, Cognition and Emotion, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising Research, and Journal of Management Information Systems.
Kendra Reed (PhD, University of Nebraska–Lincoln) is an associate professor of management and the Barry and Teresa LeBlanc Professor in Business Ethics at Loyola University New Orleans. Her research and teaching interests focus on factors impacting employee performance, including climate, efficacy, values, and change, with articles published in the Journal of Business Research, Journal of Managerial Issues, Journal of
Notes on Contributors xix
Leadership Studies, and Journal of Business Communication. Prior to an academic career, she spent 7 years working in the human resource management profession.
Harry T. Reis (PhD, New York York University) earned his doctorate in social‐personality psychology and has taught at the University of Rochester since 1974. He has published more than 200 empirical articles and chapters. Among many honors, he is recipient of the Distinguished Research Career Award from the International Association for Relationship Research and from the Society for Personality and Social Psychology.
Rodney A. Reynolds (PhD, Michigan State University) is the accreditation liaison officer (ALO) and director of educational effectiveness and institutional research at California Lutheran University. His research publications center on message creation and processing. He has a number of publications on communication measurement issues and instruments.
Ronald D. Rogge (PhD, UCLA) received his PhD in clinical psychology. He is an associate professor at the University of Rochester, where he studies factors that contribute to marital discord and breakup. He is a co‐developer of the Compassionate and Accepting Relationships through Empathy (CARE) program.
Travis Sain (MA, Southern Illinois University) is a PhD student in clinical psychology at Southern Illinois University. His research examines the efficacy of computer‐based Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) interventions.
Sara K. Salmon (MA, The Pennsylvania State University) supports nonprofit agencies through philanthropic giving in the Greater Los Angeles Area. Her research focuses on sexual disclosures in intimate relationships.
Michelle Servais (PhD, University of Western Ontario) is a researcher, educator, and knowledge exchange professional on the Thames Valley Children’s Centre’s Quality Management Team, which focuses on enhancing service delivery and the development of professional expertise. Michelle coaches clinicians to develop their research capacity and to use evidence to inform their daily practices. Research interests include family‐centered care, relationship‐centered practice, solution‐focused coaching, interdisciplinary collaboration and learning, clinical listening, professional development and educational interventions, and measure development.
Denise Haunani Solomon (PhD, Northwestern University), a liberal arts research professor of communication arts and sciences at The Pennsylvania State University, researches communication experiences in personal relationships, such as support and conflict, which promote or erode well‐being. She and her colleagues developed the relational turbulence model to describe how transitions in relationships complicate emotions, cognitions, and communication. Her work examines how transitions in romantic r elationships promote relationship qualities that polarize reactions to both ordinary and extraordinary experiences. She and Jennifer Theiss coauthored Interpersonal Communication: Putting Theory Into Practice.
William B. Stiles (PhD, University of California, Los Angeles) is professor emeritus of psychology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, and adjunct professor of psychology at
Notes on Contributorsxx
Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina. He received his PhD from UCLA in 1972, has been president of Division 29 (Psychotherapy) of the American Psychological Association and of the Society for Psychotherapy Research, and has served as editor of Psychotherapy Research and Person‐Centered and Experiential Psychotherapies. He has published more than 300 journal articles and book chapters, most dealing with psychotherapy, verbal interaction, and research methods (http://www.users.miamioh.edu/stileswb/).
Vivian Ta (MSc, University of Texas at Arlington) is a PhD candidate in experimental psychology at the University of Texas at Arlington, a fellow in the National Science Foundation’s Louis Stokes Alliances for Minority Participation (LSAMP) Bridge to the Doctorate program, and has received recognition for her research from various psychological associations. Her research focuses on investigating the role of latent semantic similarity in face‐to‐face and computermediated communication. Other research interests include close relationships, personality, online dating, and discourse analysis.
Jane B. Teel (PhD, Auburn University) is an assistant clinical professor in the Department of Educational Foundations, Leadership, and Technology at Auburn University. Her research focuses on nonverbal communication, organizational communication, leadership, learning styles, videoconferencing, and blended learning.
Christine Tomori’s (MSc, University of Victoria, Canada) honors thesis used microanalysis to compare the communication patterns of therapists using two different approaches. Her MSc thesis developed the Patient‐Centred Assessment of Symptoms and Activities (P‐CASA). As part of Victoria Microanalysis Associates, Tomori has developed and taught international professional workshops on microanalysis and contemporary communication research for practitioners, including psychotherapists, coaches, and physicians. She is currently the principal of Tomori Solutions, Ltd. (http://www.tomorisolutions.com), which provides research, project management, and professional development within the fields of healthcare administration and communicative processes in applied settings (workplace, health, and social services).
Molly S. Tucker (MS, University of North Texas) is a doctoral student in the Clinical Psychology program at the University of North Texas. Research interests include the value of romantic relationships, and the physiological and psychological consequences of relationship dissolution. Publications have focused on maternal self‐efficacy in Mexican women, parenting among Latino immigrant families, the impact of home visiting programs, and the relationship between perspective taking and marital satisfaction.
Lisa J. van Raalte (PhD, Arizona State University) is assistant professor of communication studies at Sam Houston State University. Her research focuses on how communication in close personal relationships influences one’s psychological health, physiological health, and relational health. Lisa is an interpersonal communication scholar with expertise in quantitative methodology and analysis. Using survey and experimental design, her research interests focus on romantic relationships such as friends‐with‐b enefits relationships and exclusive committed romantic relationships.
Notes on Contributors xxi
Andrea J. Vickery (PhD, Louisiana State University A&M) is presently on faculty at University of Richmond in the department of Rhetoric and Communication Studies. Her teaching and research interests include interpersonal communication, research methods, supportive communication, and close relationships.
Debra L. Worthington (PhD, University of Kansas), professor of communication at Auburn University, has published numerous articles in the fields of listening and legal communication. She is lead author of Listening: Processes, Functions, and Competency. Her research has been recognized by the American Society of Trial Consultants, the Burton Foundation, the European Communication Research and Education Association, the International Listening Association (ILA), and the National Communication Association. She is a past president of the International Listening Association.
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Listening is a multidisciplinary field. The methods and measures profiled in this book were developed and continue to be employed by scholars in a variety of fields, among them: communication, education, psychology, linguistics, management, health, and neuroscience. The multidisciplinary nature of the field has resulted in a variety of methodological and theoretical approaches and a range of definitions. As you’ll see in Chapter 1, listening has been defined in myriad ways, and models of listening utilize a number of distinct terms and concepts, proposing that listening consists of anywhere between three to more than a dozen separate processes (see Wolvin, 1989). Such diver-sity presents benefits and challenges—it has revealed the complex nature of listening, allowing researchers and practitioners more and better ways to improve this important life skill; at the same time, it has resulted in a rather fragmented field.
Although we do not advocate a one‐size‐fits‐all approach to defining (or measuring) listening, there are distinct advantages to working within a limited number of concep-tual boundaries. For one, profound differences regarding central conceptual matters can threaten the potential for scientific coherence and stymie progress. As a result, the vision of a unified field of listening becomes blurry at best—and imperceptible at worst. In 2008, we, along with Margarete Imhof and Lynn Cooper, were invited to coauthor a review for the International Journal of Listening. In that article, we asked, “What would a unified field of listening look like?” Among the goals outlined in that article were to begin establishing a common language for the field as well as to identify important areas of research in need of further development (Bodie, Worthington, Imhof, & Cooper, 2008). This book furthers our original goals in three important ways: (a) It provides a history of the field to help novice scholars understand its current state, (b) it begins to establish a common language (or, better, a set of common languages) for the field, and (c) it outlines the strengths and weaknesses of common (and not‐so‐common) methodological approaches to the study of listening.
Throughout our discussions and the process of editing the Sourcebook, our vision was simple: to provide a comprehensive, go‐to resource for listening researchers, practitioners, and students. Although there are similar resources available for scholars of nonverbal communication (Manusov, 2004) and family communication (Turner & West, 2006), as well as more general material for those interested in self‐report measures of communica-tion (Rubin, Rubin, Graham, Perse, & Seibold, 2009), listening scholars are left to comb the pages of journals in search of ways to operationalize key listening constructs. We hope this book brings organization to what may seem at first like a daunting and arduous task of thinking through conceptual and operational decisions. This book was not written to sit pristinely on a library or office shelf. We hope that it will become a well‐used, dog‐eared,
Preface
Preface xxiii
and highlighted (or underlined, as your preference may be) e ssential resource for those new to the field and for the well‐established listening scholar. If so, then our goal of writing the first comprehensive sourcebook of listening measures and measurement will have become a reality.
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to everyone who directly or indirectly helped bring this Sourcebook to fruition. We thank our reviewers for their insights, our contributors for their knowledge and expertise, and the Wiley team for their help bring-ing our ideas to the page.
Finally, we thank our colleagues and students for helping us to think more creatively about measuring listening and about novel ways to conceptualize its role in daily life. Most of all, thanks to our families for putting up with the fact that we do not always practice what we preach—and for their patience as we try to become the kind of listeners they deserve.
Debra L. WorthingtonGraham D. Bodie
References
Bodie, G. D., Worthington, D. L., Imhof, M., & Cooper, L. (2008). What would a unified field of listening look like? A proposal linking past perspectives and future endeavors. International Journal of Listening, 22, 103–122. doi: 10.1080/10904010802174867
Manusov, V. (Ed.). (2004). The sourcebook of nonverbal measures: Going beyond words. New York: Psychology Press.
Rubin, R. B., Rubin, A. M., Graham, E. E., Perse, E. M., & Seibold, D. R. (Eds.). (2009). Communication Research Measures II: A sourcebook. New York: Routledge.
Turner, L. H., & West, R. (Eds.). (2006). The family communication sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Wolvin, A. D. (1989). Models of the listening process. In C. W. Roberts & K. W. Watson (Eds.), Intrapersonal communication processes: Original essays (pp. 508–527). New Orleans, LA: SPECTRA.
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The Sourcebook of Listening Research: Methodology and Measures, First Edition. Edited by Debra L. Worthington and Graham D. Bodie. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Section One
Decisions for the Measurement of Listening
If you come to this book for ready‐made solutions for your research questions about listening, it will likely disappoint. Instead, we compiled this Sourcebook to be a valuable resource, something you can pick up to help guide decisions regarding how to study listening. The research process is full of decisions, big and small. This book seeks to provide, in a readily available and accessible format, a discussion of the important decisions you will make when studying listening.
This section includes one chapter that provides a brief history of the field of listening; addresses a primary conceptual issue, namely, how to define listening; discusses various theoretical frameworks that help situate scholarship; and provides an overview of the book.
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The Sourcebook of Listening Research: Methodology and Measures, First Edition. Edited by Debra L. Worthington and Graham D. Bodie. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1
This chapter provides a brief historical background to illustrate how the history of listening research has affected the conceptualization and measurement of listening as well as how this skill has been taught. Like all history, we write this one from a par-ticular perspective. Both of us have doctorates in communication studies and have spent most of our academic careers in this discipline. We have both been heavily involved in both the International Listening Association (ILA), a scholarly society devoted to the teaching, practice, and research of listening, and the National Communication Association, the largest academic organization for the advancement of communication research and practice. Thus, even aside from space limitations, our review is necessarily partial and incomplete. Our purpose here is not to provide a full history of the field, but to provide enough of a background so that readers can understand the development of measurement practices that have shaped our under-standing of listening.
We first trace the research as it advanced an expanding definition of listening, directing you to profiles of measures contained in Section Three of this volume when appropriate. We then outline the growing recognition that taking listening seriously requires constructing and empirically testing theories of its essential components and consequential roles for individual and relational health and well‐being. We conclude with an overview of the book.
Listening: Distinctions and Definitions
Whereas “to listen” is rooted in terms that connote attention and silent obedience, “to hear” has more to do with the perception of sound and the faculties of the ear (see Lipari, 2010; and the response by Bodie & Crick, 2014). This distinction often helps separate the focus of work by audiologists who study the physiological components of hearing from those, like communication scholars, who study the individual and relational components of listening.
In this latter work, listening is recognized as a multidimensional construct that consists of complex (a) affective processes, such as being motivated to attend to others; (b) behavioral processes, such as responding with verbal and nonverbal feedback; and (c) cognitive processes, such as attending to, understanding, receiving, and interpreting content and relational messages (Halone, Cunconan, Coakley, & Wolvin, 1998). As seen
Defining Listening: A Historical, Theoretical, and Pragmatic AssessmentDebra L. Worthington and Graham D. Bodie
Debra L. Worthington and Graham D. Bodie4
in Table 1.1, scholars often stress one of these three categories, although examples do exist that synthesize all three (e.g., ILA; Steil, Barker, & Watson, 1983).
Affective components of listening include how individuals think about listening and their motivation and enjoyment of the activity. Individuals’ views about listening and their (often idiosyncratic) barriers to attending to others can have profound effects on
Table 1.1 Sample of Listening Definitions.
Author Year Definition
Tucker 1925 An analysis of the impressions resulting from concentration where an effort of will is required
Rankin 1926 The ability to understand spoken languageNichols 1948 The comprehension of expository materials presented orally in a
classroom situationBarbe & Meyers 1954 The process of reacting to, interpreting, and relating the spoken
language in terms of past experiences and a future course of actionBrown & Carlson 1955 The aural assimilation of spoken symbols in a face‐to‐face
speaker–audience situation, with both oral and visual cues presentBarbara 1957 A definite, usually voluntary, effort to apprehend acousticallySpearritt 1962 The active process involved in attaching meaning to soundsBarker 1971 The selective process of attending to, hearing, understanding, and
remembering aural symbolsWeaver 1972 A process that takes place when a human organism receives oral
data; the selection and retention of aurally received dataKelly 1975 A rather definite and deliberative ability to hear information, to
analyze it, to recall it at a later time, and to draw conclusions from itSteil et al. 1983 Consists of four connected activities – sensing, interpreting,
evaluating, and respondingWolff et al. 1983 A unitary‐receptive communication process of hearing and
selecting, assimilating and organizing, and retaining and covertly responding to aural and nonverbal stimuli
Wolvin & Coakley
1988 The process of receiving, attending to, and assigning meaning to aural stimuli
Brownell 1994 An overt behavior that conceptualizes the teaching and training process
ILA 1996 The process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages
Cooper 1997 Listening competency means behavior that is appropriate and effective. Appropriateness means that the content is understood, and effectiveness deals with the achievement of interactive goals.
de Ruyter & Wetzels
2000 (As perceived by customers) A set of interrelated activities, including apparent attentiveness, nonverbal behaviors, verbal behavior, perceived attitudes, memory, and behavioral responses.
Bostrom 2011 The acquisition, process, and retention of information in the interpersonal context
Source: Glenn (1989) and Wolvin and Coakley (1988).