the slave laws

8/17/2019 The Slave Laws

1/11

Pu n i s h m e n t o f

slaves

The Control and

Treatment o f

Slaves

Slavery and the law

Between 1665 and 1833 the slave population of the

Caribbean

rose f r o m under 50 000 to well over

1 100 000. Around t h e middle o f this period in

1770, a year fo r which reasonably accurate f igures

are

available, some 950 000 slaves were distributed

a m o n g

t h e

possessions

o f f ive

European powers:

in

A s

be

a n d

Total

population

Slaves

Bri t i s h

French

Dutch

Spanish

Danish

500 000

430 000

90000

144 000

20000

428 000

379 000

75000

50000

18000

E verywhere, except i n t h e Spanish islands, slaves

f o r m e d

t h e bulk o f t h e population, a n d every-

where their lives were governed

by

stringent legal

codes.

The

relatively small white populations were only

too well aware that their societies depended entire-

ly o n f o rce d labour, a n d could only survive

through

the

operation

of

repressive laws. White

domination was based on power. This operated at

a n institutional level, over t h e legal a n d economic

aspects

o f

slavery,

as

well

as

over

t h e

slaves them-

selves.

A n y honour o r esteem attached to being a

31


2/11

slave-owner arose only f r o m the po wer that he

cou ld exercise over th e bodies o f his slaves, an d t h is

h a d t o b e sanctioned by slave laws. Such laws

m e a n t t h a t w h it e m e n a n d wo m en co u ld ex erc ise

intimate

power

through punishment,

t o r t u r e

and

c o n t r o l

of all a

s lave s ph ysical n eeds.

In

d r a w i n g

u p a n d

en fo rc ing such laws

t h e

s lave-owners

i n t h e

Caribbean, l ike

those in t h e

rest

o f t h e New

World,

crea ted t hei r

o wn

version

o f

s lavery. They invented

f r o m

s c ra tch a l l t he ideo lo gica l an d legal u n derpin -

n in gs o f a to t a l ly new s lave system .

In t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y about 90 per c e n t o f

a ll s laves wo rk ed . Only t h e inv a l ids, very yo u n g

children and the i n f ir m , who made up the other

10

p er cen t were ex em pt . Th e vast m ajo r i ty wo rk ed

on plantations. There, when

they

were not h a v i n g

t o c a r r y o u t h a r d m a n u a l l a b o u r , t h e y w e r e s u b -

jected t o , o r t h r e a t en e d w i th ,

f l o gging

a n d mutila-

t i o n f o r a w id e a n d c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s in g v a r i e t y o f

offences . S la v e w o m e n w er e a b u s e d b y w h i t e m e n ,

a n d

all - m e n , w o m e n and children - w e r e m o r e or

less a b a n d o n e d

t o u n d e r- n o u r i sh m e n t a n d

disease.

The non-plantation slaves, the logwood cu t ters in

C e n t r a l A m e ri ca , a n d t h o s e in places like t h e

B a h a m a s, t h e Cayman Is lands, Anguilla, Barbuda

a n d t h e G r e n a d i n e s , h a d s l ight ly bet ter l ives b u t

were still subject to very sim ilar slave codes. Those

c o d es r a n v e r y m u c h t o a p a t t e r n , r e ga r d l e s s o f t h e

nationality o f those wh o operated them, b u t t h o s e

e n f o r c e d

i n t h e

Br i t i sh i sl a n d s w e re u n d o u b t e d l y

the most

severe.

Slave laws and codes in the British

Caribbean

A l t h o u g h s l a v e r y w a s n o t a c o n d i t i o n r e c o g n i s e d

u n d e r E n g l is h la w t h e r e w a s

l i t t le

o r n o

o p p o s i t i o n

in E n g l a n d b e f o r e t h e 1780s, t o e i t h e r t h e

slave

t r a d e o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f sl a v e ry i n t h e Car ib b e an

colonies. A s a result, the l ife of a slave in suc h a

c o l o n y w a s d o m i n a t e d b y l a ws d r a w n u p b y t h e

local Assembly,

most

o f whose m e m b e r s were

slave-owners. Th ese were m en c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y

with t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f p r o p e r t y a n d t h e c o n t r o l o f

a n u n w i l l i n g w o r k f o r c e , fu l ly a w a r e t h a t s u c h a

sys tem co u ld n o t su rvive wi tho u t a repressive legal

code.

To such m en , s laves were chat t els , priva te posses-

sions like animals o r f u r n i t u r e a c q u i r e d b y p u r -

chase o r i n h e r i t a n c e . A s a f u n d a m e n t a l p ri n c i pl e o f

English l aw was th e security o f property, allowing

an o wn er to do wh a t h e lik ed with h is po ssess io ns ,

Inspecting slaves

32

this

«

• ~ - w n e

l u s t i

I t

;i u

w a s

prop

debt.

i n h e i

u n d e

prott

giver

until

allow

regar

man;

exist

wore

men

t o t l

e i t h g

rian

state

rigic

wan

Si

t h e :

com

b o t h

righ

a im

1

thei

< b r u

Ead

mar

m a>

whi

cop

and

in t

clai.

and

ei th

T

eves

dor

ro

A m

the


3/11

this

t ook th e s lave ou t o f t h e law s ju r i sdic t ion . Th e

o w n e r

o f a c h a i r c o u l d d e s t r o y i t if he w a n t e d t o ,

j u s t a s he c o u l d s l a u g h t e r a cow he m igh t possess .

I t therefore

f o l lowed th a t

h o w h e

t rea ted

h is

slaves

w a s en t i re ly

h i s own

a f fa i r . Slaves were privat e

property

an d, like an im als , cou ld be so ld to m ee t

d e b t s o r disposed o f in accordan ce wi th th e laws o f

inheri tance o f real es ta te . Th is def i n i t i on o f slaves

und er B r i t i sh Wes t In dian la w d e n i e d t h e m a n y

protec tion u n der E n gl i sh law. S lave-own ers were

given

wide

discretion in

e n f o r c i n g

control, a n d

u n t i l

late

i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e slave codes

allowed

t h e m t o d o v e r y m u c h a s t h e y li ke d w it h

regard to

every aspect

o f

their slaves

lives.

A m o n g

m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s,

t h e l a w

i g n o r e d c o m p le t el y

t h e

existence o f

f a m i ly

t i es, gave n o p ro t ec t io n to

women

again s t ov erwork, sexu a l abu se ,

or ill

t r e a t -

m e n t d u r i n g p r eg n a n c y , a n d l a id d o w n n o l im it s

t o t h e pu n i sh m e n t s t h a t c o u ld b e i n f l i c t e d o n

either

m a le s o r fem a les. I n t h e w o r d s o f o n e h i s t o -

r i a n o f slave

society,

The

slave laws legitim ized

a

s t a t e o f wa r b e t w e e n b l a c k s a n d wh i tes , san c t i f i ed

r i g i d s e g r e g a t i o n , a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d a n early

warning

system again st slave

revolts.

Such laws began to be passed i n t h e m iddle o f

th e

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

By

1661 Barbados

h a d a

com p rehensive s l ave code . Al th ou gh th i s accorded

b o th

m a s te rs a n d slaves

c a re fu l ly

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

rights a n d

o b l i g a t i o n s ,

it

left

t h e

m a s t e r s w i t h

a l mos t t o t a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r

t h e

life

a n d

d e a t h

o f

their slaves. Th e code saw slaves as

heathenish

an d

bru t ish , a n d

u n f i t

t o be govern ed by En gl ish law.

E a c h s l a v e - o w n e r was r e q u i r e d to act as a police-

m a n

t o

su ppress

a n y

h u m a n i t a r i a n f ee lin g s

h e

m ay h ave h ad, an d to deal wi th h i s s laves wi th a

whip

c o n s t a n t l y t o h a n d . T h e B a r b a d o s c o d e w a s

copied by th e Ja m aican A ssem bly th ree years l a ter ,

an d

l a t er f o r m e d

t h e

basis

o f a l l t he

o t h e r s e n a c t e d

i n t h e B r i t i s h C a r i b b e a n . P u n i t i v e a n d coercive

clauses f o r m e d

a

m a j o r pa r t

o f all the

slave codes,

an d very

l i t t l e a t ten t ion was paid to t h e

welfare

o f

either m en o r w o m e n .

Th e effect o f t h e

laws

was to

deprive

t h e

slaves

o f

even th e

sm allest

an d most

i n con sequ en t i a l

o f free-

do ms, a n d a t t h e s a m e t im e t o r e st r ic t t h e ir o w n e r s

from g r a n t i n g e v en t h e s l i g h t e s t c o n c e s s i o n .

A m o n g t h e m o st i m p o r ta n t

common f e a t u r e s

o f

th e

slave

codes were laws designed

t o

p r o h i b i t

a n d

Ow ne r s

wi th

n ew

a c q u i si t io n s

s u p p re ss u n a u t h o r i se d m o v e m e n t

a n d t h e

con gre-

gation of

large

numbers.

Slaves were

also banned

f r o m

possess in g weapon s , h orses an d m u les, f rom

s o u n d i n g h o r n s

o r

b e a t in g d r u m s ,

a n d

f r o m

t h e

practice of secret ri tuals. Special slave-trial courts

c o u l d di sp en s e s u m m a r y jus t ice , b u t s la v e - o w n e r s

were given very wide discretion

in

p u n i s h i n g t h e i r

slaves. T h e c o u r t s u s u a l l y d e a l t w i t h s l a v e s w h o

were recap tu red a f te r r u n n i n g a wa y, o r w h o w e re

a c c u s ed o f c r im e s s u c h a s t h e f t . P u n i s h m e n t f o r

a c t u a l o r t h r e a t e n e d v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t a n y w h i t e

person

was

very severe.

A l t h o u g h t h e v a r i o u s s l a v e c o d e s r a n t o a

p a t t e r n ,

they

a ll c o n t a i n e d i n d i v i d u a l p r o v i si o n s

re f lec t ing

t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e so c i e t y i n w h i ch

t h e y w e r e d r a w n u p . I n t h e B a h a m a s sl av e s c o u l d

b e f logged fo r se l l i n g su ch th i n gs a s l i q u o r , eggs,

f r u i t o r vege tables , o r i f f o u n d g a m b li n g. In

B e r m u d a t h e y w er e

n o t

allowed

t o

w e a r b r i g h t

c l o t h e s o r o r n a m e n t s , n o r even t o c a r r y a stick

u n l e s s

.they

were decrepi t

o r

l a m e .

A

M o n t s e r r a t

A ct of 1693 permitted any white man to

kill

a slave

w h o w a s

cau gh t s teal i n g p rovis ion s ,

an d i f a

slave

s to le an y th in g o f valu e h e or sh e was l i able to be

flogged a n d

h a v e

both

ears

cu t

o f f . U n d e r

a n A c t

passed in the Virgin Islands in 1783, i f a slave


4/11

struck

or

opposed

any

white person

the

punish-

m e n t

w a s n o t

only f logging

bu t

having

t h e

nose slit

a n d any member cu t off. Such provisions f o r

m u t i la t i o n were commonplace. T h e penal code

developed in Jamaica was the most savage of them

all, and attempts to modify it were constantly

t h w a r t e d

by the power of the planters in the

legisla ture.

cut into f o u r pieces. Or he could simply be b u r n t

to death, which in J a m a i c a in 1740 w as laid down

a s t h e

punishment that

a slave

would

i n c u r fo r

s t r i k i n g a white person. Al l o f these methods o f

capital punishment were

i n use in

Europe d u r i n g

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but not

as

a

punishment

fo r

such minor c r im e s

a s

r u n n i n g

away from

work,

o r f o r

hitt ing another person.

Punishments

T h e punishments dealt out both by the courts and

by individual slave-owners were

very

severe. Their

a im

was to

deter

a n d

humiliate,

n o t t o

make

t h e

punishment fit the

crime .

The way that

owners

ruled their slaves varied

f r o m

owner to owner, and

f r o m one society to the next, but there were

common

fea t u res .

The most important and most

common form o f punishment w a s

f logging,

a n d

personal coercion using the whip must be seen as

the denning characteristic of slavery. On any plan-

t a t i o n , f loggings were totally unchecked b y a n y

ou t s i d e authority. Brutality a n d sadism could b e

f o u n d anywhere. Severe f loggings were o f t e n

accompanied

by

some form

of

mutilation. Less

severe whippings and beatings were frequently

carried out in conjunction with making those

b e i n g punished commit humiliating o r disgusting

acts. For urban slaves not only the whip, but struc-

tures such as the stocks and the pillory which were

f o u n d

in every

town,

were ever-present reminders

o f

what awaited those who failed to work hard or

show proper respect.

The death penalty was awarded for what would

now be considered relatively minor

offences.

An

e x t re m e example

o f

this

was a

Barbados

l aw of

1688,

which made

the t h e f t of

items worth more

than 12 pence punishable b y death. T h e penalty

was carried out in a number of barbarous ways, all

designed

to

prolong

the

agony involved

as

long

as

possible, and to present other slaves with the

clearest demonstration

o f t h e

power their owners

h e l d

over their lives.

A

slave could

be

hanged,

o r

beaten

to

death while lashed

to a

cart-wheel,

or he

could

be hung up in an iron cage until he died

f r o m

hunger a n d thirst. Alternatively h e could b e

h a n g e d until

h e w a s

near

t o

death,

a n d

then

revived

in order t o b e disembowelled

b e f o r e

being

Manumission

Whether

a

slave could

be given h is

f reedo m

o r n o t

w a s entirely dependent o n h i s owner. T h e m a n u -

m i ss io n laws were more stringent than i n t h e

French

or

Spanish possessions,

and

owners

were

reluctant to give freedom, a s a large su m h a d t o b e

deposited a t t h e local vestry t o ensure t h e newly

freed m a n o r woman d id n o t become a burden o n

t h e parish. A

f igure

similar t o that o f t h e £100

which

was

required

in St

Vincent

in

1767

wa s

common. In Jamaica, by a law passed in 1717,

manumitted slaves were required n o t only t o carry

w r i t t e n proof o f their f re e d o m , a precious d o c u -

m e n t

which

a l l t h e

newly

freed

needed,

b u t t o

wear

an identification badge. T h e manumission o f slaves

t oo o l d a n d

feeble

to work was illegal, bu t i t d id

t a k e place, a n d w a s o n e reason w h y t h e vestry

depos i ts

were required. By law, owners

were

required to maintain their slaves when too old to

work.

It was only in the manumission content of slave

la w that f e m a le slaves were in a more f av o urab le

position than males. This came about

b e c a u s e o f

t h e

unions formed with white men.

A

slave

w o m a n

who had had a long-standing relationship

with

such a m a n sometimes benefited under h is will

b y

b e i n g

given h er f r ee d o m , bu t more usually it was

t h e

children

o f

such

a

union

wh o

were freed.

Th e

number o f women wh o gained their

f reedom

in

this way was small, and very much restricted t o

those who had had particularly privileged

house-

hold positions, o r w h o were themselves light-

s k i n n e d

mulattoes.

A s t h e

eighteenth

c e n t u r y

progressed, more such women, regardless o f t h e

colour

o f their skin, received manumission o r

beques ts , as did their children. This so upset white

society in J a m a i ca that in 1762 a law was passed o

prevent sums o f more than £2000 being left t o

34


5/11

m u l a t t o c h i ld re n .

All in

all, un t i l well in to

th e

nineteenth

centu ry, wom en were twice as likely to

b e m a n u m i t t ed a s m en

were.

a r r i a g e and divorce

A l t h o u g h t h e re was no legal form o f m a r r ia g e fo r

s l a v e s before 1789 this does

n o t

m e an t h a t m a r -

r i a g e s d id no t

take

place before t ha t da te . From th e

e a r l i e s t days

o f

s lavery, m ari ta l

a n d

f a m i ly l in ks

w e r e valued by the slaves. This wa s recognised by

t h e

planters,

wh o soon sa w t h a t i f the p l a n t a t ion s

w e r e

t o be run ef f ic ien t ly they needed t o b u y

w o m e n

in p rop or t ion t o m e n . Th e slave m arriages

w h i c h

t hen t oo k place, u sing t h e f o r m o f c e re m o n y

o r

agreem ent b rou g h t with

them

f r om A f r ic a ,

did

n o t

co r re sp on d t o a n y t h in g w i t h w h ich t h e

p l a n t e r s

were fam il ia r . Marr iage

in

E u r o p e

was

v e r y m u ch

concerned

with

t he t ransfer of weal th

a n d property,

and in

European society divorce

wa s

v e r y rare. A m o n g A f ri ca n s i t was no m o r e t h a n

c o m m o n sense to end an u nsa t is fac to ry re la t ion -

s h i p with

a

sim ple divorce ri te such

as

t ha t which

c a m e to be used by th e slaves in Jam aica. Th is

involved th e

c u t t i n g

in

h a l f

o f a

cotta

t he pad

u sed

f o r carrying head loads,

a s a

s ym b o l

o f t h e

sever-

a n c e of m u tu al affection . Such a ri te also reflected

o n

t h e i n d e pe n d en c e , a u t o n o m y an d rela t ive

equality

o f African w o m e n w it h men - all of which

w e r e

m issing f rom whi te soc ie ty. Un for tun a te ly,

b e c a u s e

slaves

d id no t

m a rr y

in

c h u r c h ,

a n d

divorce

was so u n co m m o n in Eu ropean soc iety , th e

whites

considered s lave un ions to be i m m o ra l a s

w e l l as shallow an d u n s t a b le .

e l i g i o n

U n l i k e t h e

Ca thol ic c lergy

i n t h e

Span ish

a n d

French C a r ibbe a n

wh o

were

officially

c o m m i t t e d

t o con vert i n g slaves to C h r i st i a n i t y f rom th e begin-

ning,

t h e

Anglican

C h u r c h

t o o k

n o

interest

i n t h e

s l a v e s

o f t h e B r i t i sh C a r ibbe a n u n t i l t he f ina l

decades

of slavery. In the early days som e slaves in

Jamaica, Barbados a n d o n e o r two o f t h e Leeward

Islands c a m e i n t o c on t a c t w it h C h r i st i a n i t y ei t h e r

t h rough

working a longside Ca thol ic servan ts ,

or as

.

a result o f t he

activities

o f

Quakers.

Th e

a t t e m p t s

b y Qu akers in these islands to convert slaves m et

with grea t hos t i l i ty f rom the s lave-owners, and

their

m e et in g - h o u s es

were

a ll

c losed do wn long

before t h e e n d o f t h e se v e n t e e n t h c e n t u ry .

Af ter

t h a t n o in terest was taken b y a n y o n e i n t h e sp ir i t u -

al

welfare

o f t h e

slaves u n t i l a r o u n d

th e

m iddle

o f

t h e next cen tu ry.

A ll n on - C h r i s t ia n beliefs and practices were out-

lawed under

t h e

slave codes,

b u t t h e

slaves were

able

t o

adapt

a n d

disguise

t h e

ways they wor-

sh ipped. Many

o f t h e

dances

a n d

c e r em o n i e s

which

t h e

whi tes t hough t t heir s laves took par t

in

m e re ly t o a m u se t h e m selv es o f ten h ad considerable

religious significance.

C h r i s t i a n i t y wa s b r o u g h t t o t h e slaves i n t h e

eighteenth century, f irst of all by lay people, both

black

a n d

wh ite. These ranged from

t he od d

p io u s

plan ter or whi te a r t isan to free b lacks who had a l l

in s om e way been inspired by a religious revival i n

Britain. The firs t f u l l - t im e m ission ar ies , belonging

t o t h e Moravian C h u r c h , a rrived in J a m a ica in

1 754

a n d t h e

Leeward Islands

two

years later. They

were soon followed b y t h e Methodists an d Baptists.

All had to

establish

a

r igh t

to

preach

t o t h e

slaves

in

t h e face o f eno rm ou s hos t i li ty. Th is t hey even tu a l ly

did,

b u t

m a in ly t h rou g h p re a c h in g t h a t o be d ie n c e

a n d

docili ty were prim e virtu es,

a n d

t h a t

a ll

ea r th ly

efforts

needed to be directed towards achieving an

i m m o r t a l

afterlife.

By t h e b e g in n i n g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

perh a ps

25 per

cen t

of all

slaves

h ad

been convert-

ed. Th is t hen s t i r red t h e A n g l i c a n C h u r c h i n t o

som e sor t o f ac t ion . Th is was no t very grea t , as t he

C h u rc h

considered t h e

slaves

h a d n o morals. In t h e

eyes

o f t he An glican c lergy the fact t h a t m a n y sla v e

couples lived together a n d p rod u c e d c h i ld re n ,

w i t h ou t h a v in g be e n m a r r ie d in a c h u r c h b y a

p r ie st , m a d e th e m f o rn ic a t o rs

w h o

w e re u n w or t h y

o f

m u c h c o n s i d er a t io n . T a k in g i n t o a c c o u n t

t h e

n u m b e r s

w h o h a d

a l ready joined

t h e

N o n c o n f o r m i st C h u r c h e s , t h i s left t h e A n g l ic a n

C h u rc h w i t h on ly a l im i te d n u m be r o f sla v es t h e y

cou ld m ake any rea l e ffort t o conver t .

Education

O t h e r

t n a n

b e i n g t a u g h t h o w t o c a r ry o u t t h e

labour- required o f

t h e m ,

slaves were denied

a n y e d u c a t ion w h a t soe v e r. T h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f

35


6/11

s lave-own ers were opposed t o a n y s u g g e s t i o n t h a t

th e i r s laves m igh t

be

t a u g h t

t o

read

a n d

wri te .

It

w a s n o t u n t i l t he f i r s t m iss ion ar ies ar r ived i n t h e

Caribbean in the middle of the e igh teen th century

t h a t s la v es r e ce iv e d i n s t r u c t i o n i n a n y t h i n g o t h e r

t h a n how to w o r k .

It t o o k a l o n g t i m e f o r t h e m i ss io n a r i es t o o v e r -

c o m e the o p p o s i t i o n of the s l ave-own ers to t h e i r

i n s t r u c t i n g

slaves

i n t h e d o c t r i n e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .

By t h e t im e th ey h ad been gen eral ly accep ted, Bible

readin g,

wh ich h a d b e c o m e a widespread h abi t in

Bri ta in

d u e t o a

r e l ig i o u s re v i v a l, f o r m e d

a n

important aspect

of

m ission ary ac tivi ty. Th is

led to

t h e

m i ss i o n a r i e s b e c o m i n g i n v o l v ed ,

t o t h e

d is m a y

o f s l ave-own ers , in t e a c h i n g s l a v e s h o w t o r e a d .

W h e r e l a w s

d i d n o t

a l ready exis t fo rb iddin g

t h e

t e a c h i n g

o f

slaves

t o

read

a nd wr i te ,

t h ey were soon

passed,

as h appen ed i n Barbados i n 1797. An Ac t

passed

t h a t y e a r m a d e i t t h e d u t y o f e v e ry A n g li ca n

priest to try to

convert

the

slaves,

but made it

illegal

t o t e a c h t h e m r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g . In

D e m e r a r a t w e n t y y e a rs la t e r the Reveren d Joh n

S m i t h o f th e L o n d o n M i s s io n a r y S o c ie t y w a s

w a r n e d b y t h e G o v e r n o r o f t h e c o l o n y t h a t h e

w o u l d b e b a n i s h e d i f h e a t t e m p t e d t o t e a c h a n y

slave t o read.

In spi te o f su ch l aws, som e s laves di d m a n a ge to

becom e li tera te ,

o r a t

least able

t o

read,

a n d

p r o -

b a b ly m o r e

women

than m en . This was because of

t h e

i n t i m a t e re la t io n s h i ps s o m e f e m a l e slaves

h a d

w it h w h i te m e n ,

a n d

b ec a u s e m o r e w o m e n t h a n

m e n w e r e e m p lo y e d a s d o m e s t ic s i n s i t u a t i o n s

w h e r e t h e o p p o r t u n i t ie s t o l e a r n w e r e g r ea t e r . O n e

s u c h w a s

N a n n y G r i g ,

a

slave

o n a n

e s t a t e

in

B a r b a d o s wh o, becau se sh e cou ld read, wa s par t ly

responsible

for

s t a r t i n g

an insurrection there in

1816 (see Ch ap te r 5) . However, r igh t u p u n t i l t h e

end of slavery, there was no official

attempt

a n y -

w h e r e to give t h e slaves even t h e m o s t e le m e n t a r y

e d u c a t i o n .

Forces of law and o rder

With s laves form in g

the

bu lk

of the population, the

slave-owners everywhere l ived in

fear

o f a n u p r i s -

ing or

revolt,

and

securi ty

was a prime

c o n c e r n .

T h i s w a s p r o v i d e d in a n u m b e r o f w a y s.

A ll

a b l e - b o d i e d w h i t e m a l e s w e r e re q u i r e d t o

e n r o l in t h e M i li t ia , a n d t u r n o u t r e g u l a r l y f o r t h e

dri l ls and

p a r a d e s w h i c h w e r e i n t e n d e d

t o

p rep a re

t h e m

fo r

m i li t a ry duties.

T h e

various Mili t ia

laws

a n d r e g u l a t i o n s w er e ra r e l y o b s e r v e d in f u l l . T h e

m o r e

prominent

c i t i zen s u su al ly re fu sed

to

serve

except a s o f f icers, a n d t h e p l a n t e r s re s en t e d

allow-

i n g th e i r wh i te em ployees t im e

o ff

t o t r a i n . In m o s t

i s l a n d s t h i s r e s u l t e d in a M i l i t i a w h i c h w a s t o p -

h e a v y w i t h c a p t a i n s a n d c o l o n e l s , g r o s s l y

u n d e r-

m a n n e d a n d p o o r l y t r a i n e d . A s t i m e w en t b y, i n

s o m e is la n d s c o l o u r e d s

an d

even

free

blacks

were

brought into the

Militia,

but

o n l y

to

m a k e

up

n u m b e r s and to do the m o s t h u m d r u m t ask s.

G a r r i s o n s o f r e g u l a r B r i t i sh t r o o p s b e g a n t o be

s t a t io n e d i n J a m a i c a , B a r b a d o s a n d t h e

Leeward

I sl a n d s f r o m l a t e i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

These

p r o v id e d t h e s la v e - o w n i n g c o m m u n i t ie s wi th

a d d ed r e a s s u r a n c e . T h a t t h e y m u s t a l so h a v e acted

as a deterrent to any s lave uprising was d em o n -

s t r a t e d in B a r b a d o s in 1692 a n d i n A n t i g u a in

1736,

where

conspiracies took p lace

as

s o o n

a s

t h e i r g a r r i s o n s w e r e w i t h d r a w n . B r i t i s h

t r o o p s

played a n a c t i v e p a r t i n p u t t i n g do w n t h e

i nsur re c-

t i o n

in

B a r b a d o s

in

1816.

In

a d d i t io n t o t h e r e g u l a r t r o o p s a n d m i li t ia m e n

providin g secu r i ty f r o m both i n t e r n a l a n d external

t h r e a t s ,

t h e

wh i tes a l so depen ded

o n

c o n s t a b l e s

to

help exercise control over the s laves, particularly

t h o s e w h o l i v e d i n t h e t o w n s . U r b a n s l a v e s were

em ployed in l ess res t r i c ted ways th an th ose o n t h e

p la n t a t i o n s , a n d h a d m o r e f r e ed o m o f m o v e m e n t.

T h e y w o r k e d

n o t

o n l y

a s

d o m e s t ic s ,

a r t i sans ,

b o a t m e n a n d f i sh e r m e n , b u t i n a w i d e r a n g e o f

o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h

t h e

re ta i l

an d

distributive trades.

A s s u ch t h e y m o v ed a r o u n d a

great

deal , a n d were general ly f a r l es s a m e n a b l e t o

discipline

f ro m t h e i r o w n e r s t h a n p l a n t a t io n

w o r k e r s . C o n s t a b l e s w e r e a p p o i n t e d

t o p rovide

grea ter con t ro l . Th ese pa t ro l led

t h e

s treets, check-

i n g o n t h e slaves activities, and a t n i g h t

e n fo rce d

a

c u r f e w s y s t e m . L a t e r i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y

places o f c o r r e c t i o n , c a l l e d w o r k h o u s e s , were

es tabl i sh ed

i n t h e

m a in t o w n s.

In

t h e s e , u r b a n

s laves cau gh t breakin g any o f t he n u m e r o u s laws ?

w h i c h b o u n d t h e i r lives c o u l d

b e

d e t a i n e d

a n d

punished. T h e

con s tables a l so ac ted

as

freelance

slave

w h i p pe r s ,

w h o

w o u l d

f log any

slave

for a

f e e .

36


7/11

T h e y

were called J u m p e rs in Barbados. Their

s e r v i c e s were of ten

used by o w n e r s wh o did n o t

w a n t

th eir

erran t slaves sent

t o t he

w o r k h o u s e .

Other

f o rm s o f

slave control

Throughou t t h e co l o n i e s u n w r i t t e n

laws

b r o u g h t

a b o u t pat terns of

b e h a v i o u r

w h i ch m a d e the slave-

owners

control over their slaves even stronger.

Everywhere

c u s t o m was j u s t as i m p o r t a n t a s the

la w in

s haping

th e

lives

o f t h e

slaves.

Th e

deter-

m i n e d efforts

o f t h e whites to m ake blacks feel

racially

inferior served

to

st rengthen t he ir dom ina-

t i o n

It was ins t i l led into slaves that all whi te

people,

n o m a t t er h o w lowly o r u n co u t h , w e r e

a b o v e n on -whites everywhere,

and as

t im e went

by

t h e division o f society by co l o u r b eca m e m o r e an d

more p r o n o u n c e d.

Slaves were denied an y recognition o r symbol o f

achievement ,

a n d a black skin wa s a u t o m a t ic a ll y

equated

with slavery

an d

social inferiority.

African

c u l t u r e wa s

always described

as

being inferior,

w h i l e Afr ican c u s t o m s w e re r i di cu l e d an d s u p-

pressed. A t t h e sam e t im e European values,

systems

a n d

cu l tu re were presented

as

being super-

i o r . C o n s t a n t e f forts were

m a d e

t o

u n d e r m i n e

t h e

blacks self-worth a nd to foster dependence o n

whites.

Even C h r i s t i a n i t y

w as

used

t o

p r o m o t e b la c k

subm issiveness, and to t ry to persuade slaves that

their

con di tion

wa s

o rdained

as

par t

o f t h e

n a t u r a l

w a y

o f

life

fo r black people. Th e Scr iptures

were

censored

an d

in terpreted

to

this end,

a n d

religious

instruc tion

was

designed

to

encou rage meekness

a n d accep tance.

Slaves

w e r e t a u gh t t h a t

God was

opposed t o inso lence and bad behaviour , and t h a t

slavery was a d iv in e pu n i s h m e n t fo r pas t condu ct .

Pro-slavery

alliances

I n p laces wh ere t h ey were grea t ly ou tn u m bered,

th e w h i t es f o u n d

it

expedient

t o

enter into alliances

with free

n o n - w h i t e g r o u ps in o rder to increase

their

con t ro l over

t h e

slaves. These were

t h e

social

groups wh o

s tood

to

benef i t

f ro m t h e

co n t i n u e d

existence

o f a subservient an d well-controlled slave

c o m m u n i t y .

A s

well

as the free co loureds a n d t h e

free

blacks they also included Maroon bands and

A m e ri n d ia n s .

T h e

n a t u r e

o f t h e

re la t ionship be tween

t h e

whites an d these groups depended very m u ch o n

ho w heavily t he whi tes were ou tn u m bered by t he

slaves. I n t h e m iddle o f t h e e i gh t e e n t h ce n t u r y in

Jam aica , where the ra t io was ten to on e , t he

coloureds were granted significant civil rights in

re turn

fo r

their loyalty,

a n d

i n de pe n de n t M a r o o n

com m u ni t ies (see Ch apter

5)

were allowed

to

rem ain

in

existence

in

re t urn

fo r

their help

in

h u n t i n g do wn r u n a w a y slaves. W h e r e t h e ra t io o f

blacks

t o

whites

was no t so

u n e ve n ,

a s in

Barbados

where i t was abou t f o u r t o one , such l iberal

relat ions were

n o t

con sidered essent ial . This

did

n o t p r e v e n t t h e

free

coloured c o m m u n i t y f r o m

giving the Barbados whites their fu l l suppor t in

t i m e s

o f em ergency such as, for i ns t ance , in 1816

when coloured m i li t iam en were con spicuou s

in

he lping to pu t down t he s lave insur rec t ion o f t ha t

year.

Free

blacks, if no t so welcom e as m ilit iam en,

were used as slave-hunters and constables. Many

h a d t o

take th ese jobs beca u se th ey were un able

t o

f ind any o ther em ploym ent , an d such work offered

the on ly alternat ive to s tarvat ion . Early in th e eigh-

t e e n t h

c e n t u r y A m e r in d i a n t r a c ke r s

f ro m t h e

Moskito Coast o f Cen tral Am erica were used to

h u n t down runaway slaves

in

Jam aica. Towards

th e

e n d o f t h e

s a m e c e n t u r y S o u t h A m e ri ca n

Am erindian s were used in t he sam e way in t h e

G u i a n a s .

T h e u s e o f t h e free

blacks

a n d

A m e r in d i a n s i n t h is way was by n o m e a n s i n t en d -

ed to give ei ther group addit ional s tatus o r an

en t ry

i n t o

th e world o f the whites. Rath er it can b e

seen b o t h a s a m ea n s o f ge t t i n g u n p l ea s a n t jo b s

d o n e

o n t h e

cheap,

a n d o f

di sco u r a g in g n o n -

whites f rom seeking

a

co m m o n cau s e u n de r w h i ch

t h e y

cou ld un i te agains t

t h e

whites.

Amelioration

Th e

slave codes were

a ll

revised m an y t im es, with

ch an ges i n th e law on ly taking place i n response to

econom ic condi t ions

an d

outside pressures.

A ll

such changes only m ade

th e

life

o f the

slaves wo rse.

It was

n e a r l y

t h e e n d o f t h e

e i gh t e e n t h ce n t u r y

37


8/11

befo re

t h e

distress caused

b y t h e

co n s t a n t m u t i la -

t io n a n d m u r d e r o f fel low h u m a n b ein g s c o m -

pelled the local legisla tures reluctantly t o pass Acts

r e s t r a i n i n g t he powers of s lave-owners , and to

m a k e t h e

m u r d e r

o f a

slave

a

capi ta l

o f fence . A t t h e

s a me

time

am eliorative laws,

designed to better the

g e n e r a l condi t ion of the s laves , were in t roduced.

A ll c a m e a b ou t b e c a u s e o f t h e g r ow i n g t h r e a t ,

as t h e p l a n te r s saw i t , of abol i t ion o f t h e slave

t r a d e , a c c o m p a n ie d b y u n c e r t a i n ec o n o m ic c o n -

ditions

and a price rise in slaves brought about

by war.

F r o m

t he 1780s on wards individu a l colon ies

am ended th ei r l aws to i m p ro v e the m aterial exist-

ence o f slaves, t o r ed u c e m or t a l ity , a n d t o p r om o te

a h e a lt h y n a t u r a l i n c re a se a m o n g t h e m . M a n y o f

t h e n e w la w s w e re i n t e n d e d t o p r o te c t p r e g n a n t

w o m e n , e n c o u r a g e m o t h e r h o o d a n d p r o m o t e

stable unions by o f f e ri n g

cash incentives

to slave

p a r e n t s .

Fines were also laid down f o r whi tes wh o

i n ter fered

w it h m a r r ie d f e m a l e slaves.

O th e r r e f o r m i n g la w s fo l low e d . In 1787 An t igua

passed

a n A c t which al lowed slaves t h e r igh t t o t r i a l

by

j u r y in serious cases. The 1792

Consolidated

Slave

Ac t o f

J a m a i ca im p o s ed

a f i n e o f

£100

fo r

a n y o n e

f o u n d gu i l ty o f m u t i la t i n g o r d i sm e m b e r-

in g a slave. Four years later the legislature of the

B a h a m a s passed laws which regula ted the

m i n i m u m a m o u n t

o f

f o o d

a n d

c l o t h i n g w h i ch

h a d

to b e

given

to t h e

slaves, laid down

t h e

m a x i m u m

a m o u n t o f p u n i sh m e n t w h i ch c o u l d b e i n f l ic t e d ,

and gave them the right to m a r ry . In 1798 a similar

Slave A m e li o r a t io n Ac t was passed i n t h e Leeward

Is l an ds . Th e

Barbados legis la tu re delayed even

lo nger i n pass ing such an A c t , and a law

which laid

d ow n

a f ine of £15 for the

m u r d e r

o f a

slave

wa s

not repea led un t i l

1805.

T h e A m e l io r a t i o n

La ws,

a l though widely wel-

com ed by th e s laves , i n the end m ade th ei r lives

o n l y m a r g in a l l y b e t t er . T h e s t r ic t e n f o r c e m e n t o f

t h e slave laws wa s cons idered essen t ia l t o t h e

efficient r u n n i n g

o f a

p l a n t a t i o n e co n o m y ,

a n d

o w n e r s con t inu ed to exerc ise absolu te con t rol o ver

t h e i r

h u m a n p r o p er t y u n t il t h e very las t years o f

slavery. Although owners no longer legally had the

p ow e r

o f life a n d

dea th over th ei r s laves, m an y

considered this

a n

u n f a i r i n t e r f er e n c e w i th p r op e r -

ty r igh ts . They cou ld no t accept that killing a slave

h a d

b e co m e

a

capi ta l o f fe nce ,

an d i t was

s till po ssi-

ble

t o ge t

a w ay w i t h m u r d e r .

In 1810 a p l a n t e r in N e v i s n a m e d E d w a r d

H u g g i n s m a r c h e d t w e n t y o f h i s s laves t o t h e

m a r k et - p la c e i n C h a r le s t o w n , a n d h a d t h e m

flogged

by two

f reelance whippers

in the

presence

o f h is two sons. O n e slave received 36 5 lashes, a n d

a n o t h e r 29 2 lashes. O n e f e m a l e died a n d several

o t h e r s la v es w e re b a d ly m u t i l a t e d . H u g g i n s wa s

b r o u g h t t o t r ial , b u t a s

fellow

p la n t e r s m a d e u p t h e

j u r y

he was acquitted.

F ive m agis t ra tes

who had

b e e n p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e f loggin g were depr ived o f

t h e i r

offices. T h e

case caused such

a n

u p r oa r , b o t h

in

t he Wes t Indies and in Br i ta in ,

that

w h e n i n

1811 a p l a n te r i n To r to la was accused o f m u r d e ri n g

a slave,

t h e

G o v e r n o r - i n - C h i e f

o f t h e

Leeward

Islands s tepped i n to see j u s t i c e d on e . T h e

p la n te r ,

A r th u r H od g e , wa s n o t o r i o u s f o r t h e i l l t r ea t m e n t

o f his slaves, and had probably caused several

d e a t h s .

He was

t r i e d

i n t h e

p resence

o f t h e

G o v e r n o r ,

Hugh El l io t ,

f o r o n e

p a r t i c u l a r l y g rue -

s o m e m u r d er . T h e j u r y , m a d e u p o f h i s fellow

p l a n t e r s , r e l u c t a n t l y a n d a f t e r t w el v e h o u r s o f

deliberation

f o u n d him guilty, but r ec o m m e n de d

h i m t o Ell iot f o r m e rc y . T h e G o v e r n o r refused,

procla im ed m ar t ia l law,

a n d

o rdered Hodge

t o b e

executed.

He was

h a n g ed

a few

days la ter , becom -

in g

th e f i rst

W est Indian s lave-owner

to

lose

h is

l i f e

fo r

h a v i n g t a ke n t h a t o f a slave.

Slave

codes in the n o n -B r it i sh C a r ibbe a n

Th e E u r op e a n p e r c e p t i on o f b lacks as an in fer ior

race can be

seen

in al l the

slave codes used

i n t h e

Caribbean, regardless o f h o w a n d w h e r e t h e y were

drawn

u p.

H ow e v er , t h e r e w e r e i m p or t a n t differ-

ences, both in t h e i r c on te n t a n d s t r u c t u r e , an d i n

t h e w a y t hey were conceived. T h e S p a n i s h a n d

F r e n c h

c od e s , u n l i ke t h os e

o f t h e

B r i t i s h ,

were

d r a w n u p a n d enacted i n Europe and were sim ilar

to each o ther . Both t r ied t o disguise racism a n d

th e

exploi ta t ion o f slaves b y c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n pa ter-

n a l is m ,

a n d b y

s u g g e st i n g t h a t

i f t h e

slaves were

ob e d i e n t

a n d

a c c e p te d t h e i r c on d i t i on t h i s

somehow legitimised the s lave-owners rights.

Each

a t t em p t e d

t o

b a l a n c e

t h e

n e e d

f o r

repression

w i th p r o te c t i on , an d m a d e it p l a i n t h a t th e

owners I

were en t i t led to exploi t their s laves in r e t u r n fo r

38


9/11

g u a r d i n g i n s t r u c t i n g a n d g u id in g t h e m . T h e

D u t c h a n d D an ish s lave codes resem bled t h e

F r e n c h m o re t h a n e it h e r t h e British o r Spanish , bu t

b o t h

c o n c e n t r a t ed

o n

s u ppr e s s i o n r a t h e r t h a n p r o -

t e c t i o n of the

slaves.

The

Spanish

ode

T h e Spanish

h a d a

s lave code

fo r

t h e i r E u r o pe a n

territories

befo re

they acquired possessions i n t h e

N e w

World

an d

t h ey s im ply t rans fer red this code

t o t h e I ndies . I t was drawn u p i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y an d was called L as

Siete Partidas.

Th e

basic dif ference be tween t h e Spanish s lave

c o d e a n d o t he r s lave laws wa s t h a t t h e S pa n i s h

acknowledged

t ha t s lavery

w as

c o n t r a r y

to

n a t u r a l

j u s t i c e

an d t h a t i t was an evil, b u t a necessary evil

f o r t h e e c o n o m i c d ev e lo p m e n t o f t h e co lonies .

T h i s a dm i s si o n ca u s e d e n d l es s t r o u b l e i n t h e

Spanish co l o n i e s , as it im pl ied that f reedom was

t h e n a t u r a l s ta te o f m a n a n d gave t h e slaves their

justification

fo r

r e v o l t i n g .

Th e f i rst

slave revolt

was

recorded in Hispanio la as early as 1522, a n d t h e r e -

a f t e r t h e r e was a s teady stream o f revolts i n Span ish

terri tories. Th e a u t h o r i t i e s r eco gn i se d t h e r i gh t o f

s l a v e s t o s e ek t h e i r f r e edo m , so t h e y t r ied t o

remove

t h e

da n ge r

o f

revolt

by

o t h e r m e a n s t h a n

repressive

legislat ion .

Charles I a t t e m p t ed to e n f o r c e a r a t io o f t h r e e to

on e o r

f o u r

t o o n e o f slaves t o f r ee m e n . He also

tried

t o en fo rce a m in im u m p r o po r t i o n o f f e m a l e

slaves

a n d , by e n c o u r a g i n g m a r r ia g e , to c rea te a

settled

f ami ly

life

f o r t h e

slaves

an d

m a k e t h e m le ss

inclined to revolt . Th e Span ish slave laws prom ot -

e d m o re

h u m a n e tr ea t m e n t fo r slaves an d led to a

f a r larger p r o p o r t i o n o f free blacks an d m u l a t t o e s.

F o r

e x a m p l e, in P u e r t o R i c o b y t h e e n d o f t h e

eigh teen t h c e n t u r y f ree c o lo u r e ds o u t n u m b e r ed

slaves,

a nd in

C u b a t h e y w e r e n e a r l y e q u a l

in

n u m b e r s .

A slave co u l d a ppe a l t o t h e co u r t s a ga i n s t il l

t r e a t m e n t . H e

co u l d pu r ch a s e

h is

f re ed o m w it h o u t

th e c o n s e n t o f h i s o w n e r m e r el y by r e pa y i n g h is

p urcha se pr ice , if n e ce s s a r y b y pe r iodic repay-

m e n t s . Th e slave h a d a r i g h t t o h i s prov is ion

g r o u n d with

t h e

c o n s e n t

o f h i s

o w n e r .

H e h a d

th e r igh t t o m a r r ia g e w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f h i s

owner.

T h e m a s te r h a d t o i n s t r u c t t h e slave i n t h e

Chris t ian f a i t h and to se t as ide cer t a in days for

t h is pu rpose . S laves ha d to b e given Su ndays and

Holy Days

free

f r o m w o r k . Th e m a s t e r h a d t o

provide clo th ing

a n d

f o o d ,

a n d

care

f o r t h e

slave

i n h i s o r h e r o ld age. T h e o w n e r co u l d n o t kill

h is slave or i l l-t reat h im to th e p o i n t o f su f fe r ing.

Specifically, h e

co u l d

n o t

o v e r w o r k

o r

u n d e r f e e d

h is

slaves.

Finally t he Spanish code required a l l j u dges to

promote

l i b e r t y b e ca u s e l i b e r t y w a s n a t u r a l . I n

Spanish possessions, consequent ly, the slaves could

f i n d t h e

co u r t s

o n

their side. This could never

b e

the case in the Brit ish islands.

T he

F re n c h Code

T h e

c o n t r o l

a n d

t r ea t m e n t

o f

slaves

i n t h e

French

Car ibbean

was

laid d ow n

i n t h e

Code

Noir

(Black

C od e ) ,

which was drawn up in France in 1685. I t

rem ained in force unt i l 1804, when i t was replaced

by the

Code

Napoleon t h e

basis

f o r t h e

F rench legal

s y ste m .

T h e Code

Noir

w a s m e a n t t o b e s t r ic t l y

a ppl ie d , b u t i n p r a c t i ce t h e m i lde r m e a s u r e s

am on g i t s sixty ar t ic les were dis regarded, an d

m a n y m o d i f ic a t i o n s we re made d u r i n g t h e e i g h -

t e e n t h ce n t u r y . I t s p r o v is io n s ca n b e s u m m a r i se d

as follows:

1 All slaves to be bapt ised.

2 S laves no t t o be worked on Sun days or Holy

Days.

3 Slave m arr iage to be enc ou raged. Th e owner s

co n s en t m u s t b e gi ve n .

4

S e xu a l i n t e r co u r s e b e t w ee n m a s t e r a n d h i s

slave

t o b e p u n i s h e d b y t h e c o n f i s c a t i o n o f t h e

slave.

If

b e tw ee n a n o t h e r

m a n a n d t h e

slave,

a f i ne

to b e

im posed. Chi ldren

o f

s u c h u n i o n s w o u l d t a ke

t h e s t a t us o f t h e mother.

5

R a t i o n s a n d c lo t h e s t o b e pr o v i de d . O l d a n d

sick slaves

to be fed and

m a i n t a in e d .

6 S la v es t o b e f o r b i dde n t o o w n pr o pe r t y a n d

any thing t hey acquired to be long to t he i r owners .

7 P r o m i se s, co n t r a c t s a n d gifts m a de by

slaves

to

be

n u l l

a n d

void.

8 Slaves

t o be forbidden to se l l sugar , o r any

o th e r - p r od u c e ,

w i t h o u t t h e i r o w n e r s per m i ss io n .

9 D ea th pen al ty to be in f l ic ted for s t r ik ing m as ter

or m istress, and in som e cases an y

free

pe rson.

39


10/11

An an t i - s lavery pr in t o f t h e ea r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

10

A b s en t e e is m o f o n e m o n t h t o be p u n i sh e d by

c u t t i n g

o f f e a rs a n d b r a n d i n g o n t h e s h o u l de r .

A b s e n t t wo t im e s i n o n e m o n t h t o b e p u n i sh e d b y

c u t t i n g o f f t h e

b u t t o c k

a n d

b r a n d i n g

t h e

o t h e r

s h o u l d er . A b s e n t t h r e e t i m e s

i n o n e

m o n th

t o b e

p u n i s h e d b y d e a t h .

11

Own er to be com pen sa ted i f s lave execu ted on

own er s

o wn

d e n u n c i a t i o n .

12

T o r t u r e

and mutilation to be prohibited

u n d e r p e n a l ty

o f c o n f i sc a t i o n o f t h e

slave.

13

Slaves

to be

regarded

as movable property,

an d l iable to be so ld apar t f ro m th e res t o f t h e i r

fam ily.

14 Th e p lan t a t ion an d th e slaves to be regarded

as

o n e .

15

Own ers

an d

drivers

t o

t rea t slaves h u m an ely.

16

O w n e r s

to

h a v e

th e

r i g h t

to

free

a

slave

a f ter

twenty years service.

17

M a n u m i t t e d sla v es t o h a v e t h e s a m e r ig h t s a s

free

pe rson s .

T h u s ,

in t h e o r y, t h e Code

N o i r wa s

m o re

h u m a n e

t h a n B r i t is h la w . F o r e x a m p le , C h r i s t i a n i ty ,

m a r r ia g e , m a n u m i s s i o n a n d h u m a n e t r e a t m e n t

were expressly order ed. R a t i o n s

a n d

c l o t h i n g w e r e

precisely f ixed. M u t i l a t i o n wa s expressly fo rbid-

den .

H o w ev e r, p u n i s h m e n t s w e r e e q u a l ly h a r s h ,

a n d

in

m a n y o t h e r w a ys F r e n c h l a ws w e r e s i m i la r

o

those i n t h e

British colonies, a l t h o u g h

t h e

slaves

w er e n o t s o m u c h a t t h e m e r cy o f t h e i r owner

becau se

th e

ru les

o f

t re a t m e n t w er e m o r e clearly

presc r ibed.

The

Dutch

and

Danish Codes

Th e

legal provisions designed

t o

c o n t r o l

t h e s l a v e s

in the D u tch C aribbean possess ion s were drawn u p

-

by t he

D u t c h W e st I n d i a C o m p a n y ( se e B ook

1,

c h a p t e r 6). T h e s e w e r e i n t e n d e d t o s u p p r e s s t h e

s laves , bu t a t t he s a m e t i m e t o s h o w t h a t th e

owners

ations

1

howeve

were

so

laws we

result tl

the

c r u e

I n t h <

slave

co

t h e

slave

vidual o

passed a

this was

c o n f l i c t

slaves

fo

protect 1

resolved

local law

blacks to

Conclu

Slavery t

greater o

p a r t i c u l a

laws devi

the time

a n d n o t t


11/11

an e

i t y

ent

ere

id-

nd

to

/es

ler

rly

o w n e r s had social, religious and educational oblig-

ations towards them.

As in the

French colonies,

however,

the laws concerning these obligations

were soon largely unobserved, while the policing

laws were expanded and rigidly enforced. As a

resul t the Dutch acquired the reputation of being

the cruellest of all the European slave-owners.

In the Danish islands the sole purpose of the

slave code

was to

maintain order.

The

welfare

of

th e

slaves

was left

entirely

to t h e

discretion

o f

indi-

vidual owners until 1755, when

the

Danish Crown

passed an Act laying down their responsibilities. As

this was intended to

f o r m

the basis for local laws, a

confl ic t then arose between

the

need

to

repress

the

slaves

for security reasons, and the requirement to

protect them

as

human beings.

The

conflict

was

resolved

by concentrating on repression, and the

local laws became ever more severe

as the

ratio

of

blacks

to

whites increased.

onclusion

Slavery

throughout

the

Caribbean

was

brutal

to a

greater or lesser degree, but the British form was

par t icu la r ly

f e ro c io us .

Th e essential f u n c t io n o f t h e

laws devised in the British possessions, throughout

th e time slavery existed, was to control the

slaves

and not to

promote their welfare.

The

treatment

of

the slaves that resulted was characterised

f r om

the

beginning

by

explicit race prejudice.

The slave-owners control depended on an

ability

to

combine

the

rest

of the

whites with

the

coloured

and

free black sections

of

society

in

defence

o f t h e slave regime. A s long a s these groups

believed that universal freedom for blacks would

be harmful to their interests they were willing to

support each other.

In

this

way

anti-black racism

w a s institutionalised, barriers were erected

between

blacks,

coloureds and whites, and slaves

were reduced to the lowest levels of social status

and material wellbeing. Not all the owners were

inherently inhumane like Arthur Hodge

and

Edward

Huggins,

but all

considered

it was

neces-

sary to suppress their slaves to protect their inter-

ests. All slave-owners worked to make their

slaves

submissive

and

deferential.

Had Britain followed Spain and France in allow-

ing the law and religion to provide some

ameliora-

tion

of the

condition

of

slavery,

the

British slave

codes might well have been less severe. But

both

the state and the Anglican Church remained indif-

feren t ,

and

preferred

to

stand aloof until

the

very

last years of slavery. Unchecked in this way, the

British

approach to slave control, and its accompa-

nying race prejudice, eventually spread to the

French, Dutch and Danish possessions throughout

the

Caribbean.

r

es

JP

1,

ic

ic

41

the slave laws

Documents