Lorraine JonesPennsylvania State University

Inequality In Higher Education 2

Inequality In Higher Education In America

“Indeed, the United States is vigorously promoting democracy abroad. Yet, what is happening to democracy at home”?(Bennett, 2006).

American Higher Education System began in 1636 as Christian ministries of colonial college of liberal college in arts and science. Their goal was to school the unchristian on the Christian faith so they can be well versed on scriptures (Peirce, B., 1778-1831. (1833). According to Roger Geiger, there are three essential principals; ethics, metaphysics, and science (Altbach, P. G.,et al. (2011). Students had to be proficient in Latin and Greek (Altbach, P. G.,et al. (2011). The principle of ethics was rooted in the belief to some how educated the ignorant. The first two years were dedicated to concentrating on language and logic (Altbach, P. G., et al (2011). Between 1636-1740 three British colonial college Harvard, William and Mary, and Yale College were started in partnership of each of their churches. The curriculum requirements were to model those of the English curricular (Peirce, B., 1778-1831. (1833). Although all three colleges were similar in some aspects of a college education, each of these colleges was unique in their focuses. Harvard graduates were mainly placed in ministry while William and Mary mission was to make their students “piously educated in good Letters and Manners” (Geiger, R) Yale on the other hand, goal was to educate students to work in ministry as well as outside of ministry (Altbach, P. G., et al (2011). In 1695 Rev. Thomas Bray was sent from London to Maryland to teach Native Americans and African slaves and, convert them to (Bowden, H. W. (2000).

By 1776 American Higher Education shift its focus and curriculum from mainly ministry to more a world view on education beyond ministry (Altbach, P. G.,et al (2011). Students were pursuing careers in Law and other province secular work. Colleges were held in a very high regard and generally higher education was well respected (Altbach, P. G.,et al (2011). African American had limited educational opportunities. The limited informal school was performed by slave owners or funded by religious organizations.

From 1700 until the 1900’s Blacks had very limited education. Minorities in general were denied access to educational opportunities. As a result and with help of the Morrill Act minorities were able to establish Historical Black Colleges. Morrill Act was passed in 1862, as an incentive for college expansion and growth congress pass the Morrill Act that provided colleges with federally owned land to improve Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (Bok, D. (2013). Under an extension of the original land grant proposal Historically Black Colleges and Universities and colleges were funded.

Although not directed affiliated, the Morrill Act help women booster educational opportunities for women as well. Women colleges began to emerge in the 1800’s. These were institutions that were dedicated to educating women in liberal arts. Women college began in response to the growing need for teachers in higher education, shortage of women in the workforce following the Civil War and a strong desire of women wanting to be educated (Harwarth, I. et al , 1997).

Minorities still today through residual de facto segregation are forced to attend some of the worst schools in the country. Consequently, disadvantage students are left with very limited educational opportunity that lowers their ability to compete in the job market. Moreover, the risen cost of a college education in America has made it even challenging for white working and middle class families to afford college as well. The continuo The United States is a big proponent of speaking out on inequality but a seep look into the past history tells what is at the forefront of the heart of America. America’s income gap and access to educational opportunities for racial and ethnic groups in the U.S has spread dramatically over the past several decades in the United States more than any other country.

The Civil Rights Movement and Act made it illegal to overtly discriminate against someone because of the color of their skin. A number of other historically marginalized groups have access to rights to partake in American institutions and want equality(Bennett, 2006). Surprisingly, the more things change, the more they stay the same. America has become more open to cross-racial, gender and ethnic barriers. Nevertheless there has been a tremendous consistently growing gap between the rich and the poor. Income inequalities have increased more in the U.S than in France, Canada, Italy, and Germany (Bennett, 2006). Many minorities still experience inequality when it comes to equity in education. African American and Hispanics are still underrepresented on college campuses across the country. Only 16% of African American and 13 % Hispanics currently hold higher education degrees, compared to 27% of whites (Jones, 2015). According to the 2012 Bureau of Labor Statistics, the unemployment rate for African American was almost doubled the amount compared to whites (2012). Less than a third of African Americans and Hispanics families reside in middle-class neighborhoods compared to 60% of white families (Jones, 2015). The majorities of African American and Hispanic families are forced to reside in segregated overcrowded communities infested with crime and have the worst schools in the country (Jones, 2015).

Education in American has been separate and unequal.

Governance In Education Equity

The United States has a long pervasive history of legislation and constitutional violations that has hindered people of color from upward mobility and educational attainment and success. One of the earliest cases of inequality in education was the Supreme Court Case of Sweatt v Painter. Sweatt was an African American man that was denied access to University of Texas law because it was an all white school and by law. African Americans were prohibited from attending schools with white students (Sweatt v Painter). Sweatt filed suit and the University of Texas agreed to build a separate school for African American students. The court held that separate is inherently unequal and ruled that he be allowed to attend the law school. In 1954 the famous Brown v Board of Education finally ruled that Whites and African Americans can attend school together after several decades of being separated (Brown v Board of Education).

Unfortunately, there are still schools that are segregated by de facto segregation. Although it is not against the law, neighborhoods are separated by race and social economical status. Consequently, low income families live in neighborhood with handicap school systems (Cashin, 2014).

Unlike most countries, the U.S. does not have a national system. Board of Trustee and the appointed President governs colleges and Universities. Presidents are hired and fired by Board of Trustees (Bok, D. (2013).

There is a clear distinction between governance and management. Governance mostly refers to how higher education system is plans and establishes its policies (Johnstone, D. B., & Marcucci, P. N. (2010). Manage deals with the day to day operations of Higher Education institutions( Johnstone, D. B., & Marcucci, P. N. (2010).

When Higher Education was originally introduced in America by the colonies, the full authority was within the church and its denominations. Today there is a clear separation between the church and the state.

The Size and Structure of US Higher Education

Today the United States has over 1685 public and over 2,667 private institutions. These private (majority non-profit) schools are some of the most renowned institutions in the world (Johnstone, D. B., & Marcucci, P. N. (2010).

The US Higher Education system is strongly influenced by the British and German colonies that settled in the U.S. after the American Revolutionary War. The foundational principles are based in the value of limited government and Christian faith (Peter D. Eckel and Jacqueline E. King). The colleges began as liberal arts colleges that focused on three essential principals; ethics, metaphysics, and science (Altbach, P. G., et al (2011).

Cost for college

College tuition in the U.S goes up about 8% each year (Samuels, R., & Project Muse. (2013). According to the College Board, the median cost of college for the 2014–2015 school year was $31,231. Private institutions cost was about $9,139 for state residents at public colleges, and $22,958 for out-of-state students attending public universities (Bok, D. (2013).

Economic System

The current economy is a driving force for the educational system and there is a high demand for high quality education. The U.S economic structure is viewed by most as a capitalist but essentially it is a mixed economy (Woodbury, D. (2007).

Primary Education

Education is a main area where racial disparity persists in the United States. In the early part of the eighteenth century African American and whites attended schools together were educated together(Spiller, J. (2009). After the war and the early part of the 19th century Ku Klux Klan' and other white collaborators limited blacks' educational and economic opportunities (Spiller, J. (2009). Education is the U.S. is very individualistic in nature.

Primary education is governed by localities unlike other countries, where education is managed by a national system (Marshall, R. A. (1962). States are legally responsible for primary education however, they only regulate the construction of the physical building, qualifications of the teachers and may mandate what courses should be taught (Marshall, R. A. (1962).

Primary education began as a way for the people of Christian faith to teach their children how to read the bible. Parents were lacking in their responsibility to teach their children how to read their bible. Public supported school began in the localities in the 17th century. Teachers were expected to teach the religious ideals. Most governance of schools are done by the localities, states and little federal involvement. The federal government role is very limited in education in the U.S. The Department of Education under the federal government is really a resource for States to refer to. The federal government provides lunch programs for students in public schools (Marshall, R. A. (1962).

In 2014, public elementary and secondary schools cost about $619 billion dollars last year. This year is estimated to cost $12,281 (National Census of Education Statistic 2014). Approximately 1.3 million children were enrolled in public prekindergarten and 3.7 were enrolled in kindergarten (National Census of Education Statistic 2014).

In 2014 there were about 48.9 million students enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools in the U.S. schools. Preschools students through eight graders made up about thirty five million percent of the population. An additional five million were enrolled in private institutions (National Census of Education Statistic 2014). Of the student enrolled, in public schools white students make up 24.8 million of the population. African American will make up 7.7 million, and 12.8 million will be Hispanic and 2.6 million will be Asian/Pacific Islander students (National Census of Education Statistic 2014). White students make up less than 50% of the population. It is projected that the amount of white students will decrease as enrollment for Hispanics and Asian/Pacific Islanders continue to grow through 2023(National Census of Education Statistic 2014). African American preschool children make of only eighteen percent of student that attend preschool however forty eight percent of those preschool children are suspended from preschool compared to forty three percent of white preschool children enrolled and twenty six percent result in out of school suspension (U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights 2014).

From 1990 up until 2007 test scores for African American and White students in the fourth and eight grade around the county were higher than previous years (Bryant, 2015).

Secondary Education

In 2014 there were 14.7 million 9 through 12 grade students enrolled in public schools and 5 million enrolled in private schools (National Census of Education Statistic 2014). Of that 14.7 million, 4.1 million will be 9 grade high school students. Over 3.3 million students graduate from high school in 2014. Three million were from public schools and the rest were from private high schools (National Census of Education Statistic 2014).

High school dropout for whites, blacks, and Hispanics students between the ages of 16-24 years old were 10.9 and has had a decrease to 6.6 between 2000-2012(National Census of Education Statistic 2014).

College preparedness is one of the greatest concerns for students of color. There is a great amount of racial disparities between students of color and white high school students. This disparity is also apparent in low income and first generation students(Bryant, 2015). African American lack of academic attainment is usual associated with environmental and cultural disparities that influence their school performance. At the same time, a great deal of attention needs to be geared toward schools systems in highly minority populated areas(Bryant, 2015). There are three criteria’s that should be a focus on in terms of preparing students for college: coursework availability, quality and seasoned teachers, regular contact to guidance counselors(Bryant, 2015). A great deal of attention must also be given to the environment factors such families social economic status and stability, community poverty and how they influence a child education as well(Bryant, 2015). Moreover, being able to comprehend how well crafted policies and practices can be implemented to enhance college readiness. Research information on policy and practice needs to be at the forefront of high school reform negotiations to help policy makers understand what students need to be successful and fully prepared for college.

It is critical for student success that high school students have access to rigorous coursework with qualified teacher to ensure their readiness for college. Exposing student to advance classes such as Algebra I, geometry, Algebra II, calculus, biology, chemistry, and physics , enhances their critical thinking skills and are more likely to flourish in college((Bryant, 2015). Unfortunately, most improvised schools in poverty stricken communities do not offer advance courses. Furthermore, Often, teacher have low expectations for African American students and consequently African American students are not tracked early on in school to participate in such courses if they are offered(Bryant, 2015). Although African American students are 16% of the population, only 8% are tracked in calculus. In general only 9% are tracked for advance courses and out of that only 4% are granted qualifying scores on advance placement test(Bryant, 2015).

In 2014 there were 3.1 million full-time teachers and the teacher student ratio was 16.0 (National Census of Education Statistic 2014). These teacher were spread out in 13,600 public school districts and 98,300 public schools, 5,700 charter schools and 30,900 private schools(National Census of Education Statistic 2014). Research studies show that quality teachers is one of the most important factors to student success (Bryant 2015) . Eighty percent of teacher that teach in predominately African American schools are uncertified and African American student are four times more likely than whites to be in such settings(Bryant) . Consequently, this mismatch in teaching results in African American students having lower academic achievement in school (Bryant 2015). Unfortunately for many African American students who complete high school do not enroll in college. Those that do choose to attend are unprepared for college coursework and have to take remedial coursework. Most students that take remedial classes tend to drop out prior to completion (Bryant 2015).

College and University Education

In 2012 there were 66.2 students who attended college directly after high school. Of those enrolled 71.3 %were females and 61.3 % were males. In 2014 21.0 million students enrolled in United States institutions. This was an increase of 5.7 million from 2000(National Census of Education Statistic 2014). Females made up the majority enrolled in college with a total of 12.0 million students with males coming in at 9.0 enrollees. More students were enrolled full time (13.0 million) than on part time (8.0 million) basis.

Today the United States has over 1685 public and over 2,667 private institutions. These private (majority non-profit) schools are some of the most renowned institutions in the world. The U.S also have college the are open admission and certificate granting Some institutions also offer non-degree open admission and certificate offering schools as well(Johnstone, D. B., & Marcucci, P. N. (2010).

Being able to obtain a college degree is seen as a pivotal way to decrease the likelihood of poverty and close the economical gap between minorities and whites in the United States (Bryant, 2015) There has been a slow increase of African American and Hispanic students enrolled in Higher Education. Between 2000-2012 African American students increase from 11.7% to 14.9 %, Hispanics 9.9% to 15.0 %. In addition, African American students 18-24 years rose from 30.5 % in 2000 to 36.4 % in 2012, Hispanics respectfully 21.7% to 37.5% (National Census of Education Statistic 2014). It is imperative that students obtain a college degree in order to become competitive in todays job market. Unfortunately, many African American youth graduate from high school ill-equipped for the demands of college. It is predicted by 2050 the minorities will become the majorities and with this shift and lack of educational opportunities, this will have a tremendous negative effect on the American labor market and economy(Bryant, 2015).

School counselors play a critical roll in assisting student and their families with the college education process. There is a strong correlation between student’s parents educational level and the child ability to attend college. Students that parents did not attend college are less likely to enroll in college as well. African American parents are less limey to have attended college and may need help with the application, admission, financial aide and other things to help their child be successful in college.

Research on racial inequalities in education for African Americans has real implications for public policy at the federal, state, and local levels. Studies on the effects of policy are needed to make sure public policies are responsive to students of color. when formulating policies close attention should be given to school finance reforms, School, district, and teacher training and policies , equal access to rigorous, college-prep courses, parental engagement policies and practices to meet student and family needs, college and Universities financial aid policies(Bryant 2015).

Cost Of Higher Education

The cost of Higher Education can be challenging to manage for the average middle class families. For low income families it may appear as almost impossible. In 2008 the cost for a four year education at a public University was over $207.5 billion which did not include the 40 billion in auxiliary and hospitals(April, U. (2010). The per student cost for full time enrolled student was $26,062 for public and $43,619 for private (April, U. (2010). This cost continue to rise. Moreover, most public universities only receive 18% of their operating cost throughout tuition and fees. Private not for profit receive 36% and for profit receives 88% (April, U. (2010).The cost in general in the U.S is higher cost than most other countries (April, U. (2010). Nevertheless, parents are expected to pay the price for undergraduate degrees. Congress has a list of what parents are expected to be able to afford. This is called the Expected Family Contribution-EFC. Based on these calculations, students are granted need based Pell grant funding. Most families must take out loans to pay for college.

TRIO PROGRAM

The TRIO program is a federally funded college initiative that encourages and helps students from underprivileged communities successfully gain a college degree. There are over 790.000 low- income, first generation, and disabled students in the program that received direct services. There are over 2,800 TRIO programs nationwide. Students from sixth grade all the way through college graduation can receive tutoring, advising, mentor financial counseling and a variety of other supportive services to ensure educational opportunities and success. TRIO also supports training for program directors and staff members (Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

To address the pervasive societal discrimination issues in America’s educational system, President Lyndon Johnson began TRIO as part of The Educational Opportunity Act in 1964. The programs begin as a trial program and were originally only one program called Upward Bound as part of the Presidents initiative to fight against poverty. Through the Higher Education Act in 1965 several other sister programs were built; Talent Search and Special Services for Disadvantaged Students hence the “trio” (Council for Opportunities in Education 2015). By 1968 TRIO had piloted several other sister programs that included Talent search and Student Support Services (previously called Special Services for Disadvantaged Students) and this would complete the “trio”. By the late1990’s TRIO had become nine programs and was seen as a very pivotal program to give educational opportunities to veterans, displaced workers, and low disadvantage students all over the country. The programs that were added included Educational Opportunity Centers and Veterans Upward Bound (1972), Training Programs for Federal TRIO programs (1976), the Ronald E. McNair Post-baccalaureate Achievement Program (1986), Upward Bound Math/Science in 1990, and TRIO Dissemination Partnership (1998) (Council for Opportunities in Education 2015)

Ronald E. McNair Post baccalaureate Achievement

This initiative was chosen in honor of Ronald E. McNair, the African American Astronaut who was killed in the 1986 space shuttle accident. McNair program is to assist disadvantage minority undergraduate and Doctoral students that seek a career in college teaching(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015). McNair provides mentorship and research experience for students with over 201 projects worldwide and over five thousand four hundred participants.(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

Student Support Services

This program is designed to assist 947 colleges all over the nation serve economically challenged students retention in college until the completion of baccalaureate degrees(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015). The program also assist student increase their GPA and aide students with disabilities and provide tutoring, advising and remedial instruction. From freshmen to senior year, most scholars on average GPA increased from 2.3 to 2.6(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

Talent Search

There are over 363,00 students enrolled in Talent Search and over 79% were received offers for postsecondary educational schools. This program is designed as an early intervention for first generation low-income primary and secondary students. The program helps educate parents on their educational opportunities and choices(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

Upward Bound

The Upward Bound program is geared toward training youth for college readiness. Members of this program obtain education in literature, arithmetic, composition, science during varies locations and times; weekends, after-school, on college campuses and during the non-traditional summer months (Council for Opportunities in Education 2015). Over 91.2 percent of the participants that stay with the program for three years or more attend postsecondary education right after High School (Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

Upward Bound Math-Science

This program is designed to encourage and sharpen skill proficiencies for low-income families in the math and sciences. In addition, these students become competent in technology English, foreign language and are instructed on building better study habits (Council for Opportunities in Education 2015). Upward Bound have over 117 projects and over 85.5 % of students enrolled go straight to college after high school completion(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015). .

Veterans Upward Bound

This program for veterans is a highly rigorous short-term program to enhance the basic skills of military veterans for effective transition to postsecondary schooling. Military veterans develop a skill set to navigate through several state and local organizations and secure resources such as Veterans Administration and Veterans associations assistance(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

TRIO serves individuals and families who are first generation college students and/or income is below the federal poverty by 80%. Over seven thousand of the students have disabilities and six thousand are United States veterans (Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

Globally Achievement Gaps

In order for America to be globally competitive and encourage a vibrant economy and workforce, America must ensure excellence in education and invest in the educational equity and success of all students in the nation(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

Although there are significant amount of poverty-stricken student that are extremely gifted and capable of being graduates of elite Universities, very few attend higher education institutions. Only 47% of extremely gifted low-income students attend college. Income disparities continue to hinder student’s college attainment for high school seniors. Over eighty one percent of high school seniors of wealthy families immediately attend college compared to thirty eight percent of poor families. Furthermore, wealthy families attain bachelor degrees twice as fast as low-income students in spite of the fact seventy seven percent comparatively, are not as skilled to attend college as low-income students(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

TRIO grant funding is accessible to over one thousand educational institutions and organizations in the United States, the Caribbean and Pacific Islands(Council for Opportunities in Education 2015).

In 2014, the overall amount of financial distribution was $828,616,131. The program facilitated over 2,787 projects with over 759,094 participants. This number does not reflect training for TRIO (The Department Of Education 2015).

More research in these areas are need to help minority students in the future.

Being able to obtain a college degree is seen as a pivotal way to decrease the likelihood of poverty and close the economical gap between minorities and whites in the United States (Bryant, 2015). To address the pervasive societal discrimination issues in America’s educational system, President Lyndon Johnson began TRIO as part of The Educational Opportunity Act in 1964. The cost of Higher Education can be challenging to manage for the average middle class families. For low-income families it may appear as almost impossible.

There is a great amount of racial disparities. Students of color in the United States lag behind in innovation, technology and their continue to be a going concern about preparedness for college for students of color. Especially for low income and first generation students(Bryant, 2015). By 2020, it is estimated that two thirds of jobs will require college experience, with 30 percent of those jobs requiring at least a bachelor’s degree and 36 percent of jobs requiring at least some college or an associate degree (Carnevale, Smith & Strohl, 2013). More students must attend and complete college to keep pace with this employer demand. However, many African American young people graduate high school unprepared for the rigors of college. As the demographics of the United States shift and a majority of our nation’s students are children of color, their failure in school and lack of preparation for postsecondary opportunities have significant implications for the American labor market and economy (Bryant 2015). Programs such as TRIO will continue to help these students advance and be competitive in the global market.

Inequality In Higher Education 15

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