TheS hapeof

S ufferingA Study of

Dependent Co-ar is ing

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyD eGraff)

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PREFACE

This book started as a handful of readings from the Pali Canon that I haveused to teach dependent co-arising at various centers in the United States. Iplanned to turn the readings into a brief study guide, but the project quicklygrew in size as I came to realize how much explanation the readings needed inorder to be useful and clear.

I was especially struck by the need for apt analogies to explain howdependent co-arising works as an explanation both for the arising of dukkha —stress, or suffering — and for the fact that dukkha can be ended through a pathof practice. The two most prominent analogies offered by the post-canonicalBuddhist tradition — depicting dependent co-arising as a wheel or as a circle ofmirrors — are inadequate to this task. The wheel is too deterministic in itsimplications; the circle of mirrors, too static. Thus I felt the need to searchelsewhere for appropriate analogies, and I came across two.

The first analogy is in the Pali Canon itself, where the Buddha comparescausality as a whole — and dependent co-arising in particular — to the processof eating. Eating entails suffering because it requires hunger and yet cannot putan end to hunger, which the Buddha described as the foremost illness (Dhp203). However, the path of practice to the end of suffering depends on eatingboth physical and mental food.

The second analogy was inspired by another canonical image, comparing theeffects of dependent co-arising to a tangled skein. This image inspired me tolook for parallels in modern scientific studies of tangled skeins, i.e., complexnonlinear systems, such as the weather, the behavior of financial markets, andthe forces interacting within physical structures, such as bridges. Studies ofthese systems have helped to explain how complex systems can behave inunexpected ways, containing the seeds for a radical reconfiguring of theirbehavior — as when the factors of dependent co-arising can be converted to apath to the end of suffering — and for their total collapse — as when the pathleads to a goal totally undefined in causal terms.

I want to make it clear that in using this latter analogy I am not trying toequate Buddhist teachings with the science of complex nonlinear systems or toengage in pseudo-science. Fashions in science change so rapidly that we do theBuddha’s teachings no favor by trying to “prove” them in light of current

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scientific theories. I am simply pointing out similarities as a way of helping tomake those teachings intelligible in modern terms. The study of complexnonlinear systems is one of the few modern bodies of knowledge that haveworked out a vocabulary for the patterns of behavior described in Buddhistexplanations of causality, and so it seems a natural source to draw on, both todescribe those patterns and to point out some of their less obvious implications.

In doing so, I realize that I run the risk of alienating non-scientists who feelintimidated by scientific terminology, as well as scientists who resent theapplication of terminology from their disciplines to “non-scientific” fields. Toboth groups I can say only that the terms in and of themselves are not“scientific.” Much of our current everyday terminology for explaining causalrelations is derived from the science of the eighteenth century; I expect that itwill only be a matter of time before the terminology of more recent science willpercolate into everyday language. Ultimately, of course, science will never beable to prove or disprove the truth of the Buddha’s claims. That proof can befound only within the awareness of the person who puts those claims to thetest in the way the Buddha recommended: by developing the factors of thenoble eightfold path.

One final point: This is a book primarily about dukkha, but as you may havealready noticed, I do not translate this word in a consistent way. “Suffering” is atraditional equivalent, but it has many weaknesses; “stress” is an equivalent Itend to prefer — it can apply to many subtle levels of dukkha that “suffering”misses, and it helps to de-romanticize the issue — but it has its weaknesses aswell. In particular, it is too mild to convey the more blatant and overwhelmingforms that dukkha can take. Thus, where it seems appropriate, I have alternatedbetween the two renderings, and have also combined them as a phrase,suffering and stress. I hope that this will not prove confusing.

I would like to express my gratitude for those who have helped in the writingof this book. This includes all those who have taken the courses I have taught onthis topic at the Sati Center for Buddhist Studies in Redwood City, California, atNew York Insight, in New York City, at Laguna Beach, California, and atBellingham, Washington. Your questions have helped sharpen the presentationhere in many important ways. I would also like to thank those who have lookedover the manuscript and offered suggestions for improvements. In addition tothe monks here at the monastery, this includes Peter Doobinin, Gil Fronsdal, BokLim Kim, Nathaniel Osgood, and Michael Zoll. Ruby Grad has kindly provided theindex. Any mistakes, of course, are my own responsibility.

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Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu

DECEMBER 2008

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INTRODUCTION

“Onlystress,andthecessationofstress. ”Dukkha — the experience of stress, pain, suffering — is not a simple thing.

As the Buddha once observed, we respond to its complexity in two ways:

§1.“Andwhatistheresultofstress?Therearesomecasesinwhichapersonovercomewithpain,hismindexhausted,grieves,mourns,laments,beatshisbreast,andbecomesbewildered.Oroneovercomewithpain,hismindexhausted,comestosearchoutside,‘Whoknowsawayortwotostopthispain?’Itellyou,monks,thatstressresultseitherinbewildermentorinsearch.”—AN6:63

The problem is that the bewilderment often guides the search, leading tomore suffering and stress. To resolve this dilemma, the Buddha devoted his life,after his Awakening, to showing a reliable way to the end of stress. Insummarizing the whole of his teaching, he said:

§2.“Bothformerlyandnow,itisonlystressthatIdescribe,andthecessationofstress.”—SN22:86

These were the issues he taught for 45 years. In some cases, he would givea succinct explanation of stress and its cessation. In others, he would explainthem in more detail. His most detailed explanation is called dependent co-arising — paṭicca samuppāda. This detailed summary of the causal factorsleading up to stress shows why the experience of suffering and stress can be sobewildering, for the interaction among these factors can be very complex. Thebody of this book is devoted to explaining these factors and their interactions, toshow how they can provide focus to a path of practice leading to the ending ofstress. But first, here is a list of these factors, enough to give a general sense ofthe shape of dependent co-arising, and to show how unwieldy it can seem. Thefactors will be explained in more detail in the body of the book. Here they arenumbered starting with the most fundamental factor, ignorance, for ignoranceis the most strategic factor in causing the other factors to contribute to stress.

1. Ignorance: not seeing things in terms of the four noble truths of stress, its

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origination, its cessation, and the path to its cessation.2. Fabrication: the process of intentionally shaping states of body and mind.

These processes are of three sorts:a. Bodily fabrication: the in-and-out breathb. Verbal fabrication: directed thought and evaluationc. Mental fabrication: feeling (feeling tones of pleasure, pain, or neither

pleasure nor pain) and perception (the mental labels applied to theobjects of the senses for the purpose of memory and recognition).

3. Consciousness at the six sense media: the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body,and intellect.

4. Name-and-form: mental and physical phenomena.Mental phenomena include:

FeelingPerceptionIntentionContactAttention

Physical phenomena include:Earth (solidity)Water (liquidity)Wind (energy and motion)Fire (warmth)

5. The six internal sense media: the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, andintellect.

6. Contact at the six sense media. (Contact happens when a sense organmeets with a sense object — for example, the eye meets with a form —conditioning an act of consciousness at that sense organ. The meeting ofall three — the sense organ, the object, and the act of consciousness —counts as contact.)

7. Feeling based on contact at the six sense media.8. Craving for the objects of the six sense media. This craving can focus on

any of the six sense media, and can take any of three forms:a. Sensuality-craving (craving for sensual plans and resolves).b. Becoming-craving (craving to assume an identity in a world of

experience)c. Non-becoming-craving (craving for the end of an identity in a world of

experience).

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9. Clinging — passion and delight — focused on the five aggregates of form,feeling, perception, fabrication, and consciousness. This clinging can takeany of four forms:a. Sensuality-clingingb. View-clingingc. Habit-and-practice-clingingd. Doctrine-of-self-clinging

10. Becoming on any of three levels:a. The level of sensualityb. The level of formc. The level of formlessness

11. Birth: the actual assumption of an identity on any of these three levels.12. The aging-and-death of that identity, with its attendant sorrow,

lamentation, pain, distress, and despair.

Even a cursory glance over these twelve factors will show two of the majorways in which dependent co-arising is an unwieldy topic: (1) The factors seemto fit in different contexts and (2) many of the sub-factors are repeated atseemingly random intervals in the list.

In terms of context, some of the factors seem more psychological, referringto events within the mind in the present moment, whereas others seem morecosmological, referring to events over the course of a lifetime, and even manylifetimes. And in the centuries after the Buddha’s passing, there have beenmany attempts to make the list less unwieldy by fitting all the factors into asingle interpretation, as referring either to events occurring right now or over along course of time.

There have even been attempts to — literally — impose a shape on the listas a whole. That shape is a circle, and there are two primary ways in which thecircle has been described. The first — an idea proposed in medieval India — isas a wheel, with the sorrow, etc., of aging-and-death leading to more ignoranceand so on to another round of suffering and stress. The second circle —proposed in medieval China — is a circle of mirrors surrounding a lamp, witheach mirror reflecting not only the light directly from the lamp, but also thelamplight reflected from other mirrors.

In Chapters One and Two we will discuss the formal reasons for why thesesimplified images are inadequate as depictions of dependent co-arising. Buthere we will offer a thought-experiment to show how they are also inadequate

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for depicting an everyday, concrete example of how people suffer.For the sake of this experiment, assume that you are walking to your

parents’ home on a Friday evening after a long day’s work. The upcomingweekend is a holiday, and your parents are hosting a dinner for your extendedfamily. Your uncle will be at the dinner, and this fact has you upset: He has longbeen an alcoholic and has been very abusive to you and your mother ever sinceyou were a child. The factors of dependent co-arising — inserted in thediscussion as numbers drawn from the above list — can be applied in threetime frames to show different ways in which you might create suffering andstress around this event.

In each of these examples, assume (1) that you are operating in ignorance —i.e., you are not thinking in terms of the four noble truths, and instead arelooking at your situation in light of your personal narratives about the familysituation and your own place in it.

As you walk to the door of your parents’ house, thinking about thesituation (2b — verbal fabrication), you pull up memories of things youruncle has done in the past (2c — mental fabrication). This provokesanger, causing your breathing to become labored and tight (2a — bodilyfabrication). This makes you uncomfortable (2c — mental fabrication),and you are aware of how uncomfortable you feel (3 — consciousness).Hormones are released into your bloodstream (4f through 4i — form).Without being fully aware that you are making a choice, you choose (4c— intention) to focus (4e — attention) on the perception (4b) of howtrapped you feel in this situation. Your consciousness of this idea (5 and 6— mental contact) feels oppressive (7 — feeling). You want to find a wayout (8 — craving). At this point, you can think of a number of roles youcould play in the upcoming dinner (9d and 10 — clinging and becoming).You might refuse to speak with your uncle, you might try to be asunobtrusive as possible to get through the dinner without incident, or youmight be more aggressive and confront your uncle about his behavior.You mentally take on one of these roles (11 — birth), but unless you keepyour imaginary role actively in mind, it falls away as soon as you think ofit (12 — aging and death). So you keep thinking about it, evaluating howyour parents will react to it, how you will feel about it, and so on (2b —verbal fabrication). Although the stress of step (12) in this case is notgreat, the fact that your role has to be kept in mind and repeatedly

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evaluated is stressful, and you can go through many sequences of stressin this way in the course of a few moments.

You have been walking to your parents’ house with the above thoughtsin mind (2 through 4), already in a state of stress and unhappyanticipation. You knock on the door, and your uncle answers (5 and 6)with a drink in his hand. Regardless of what he says, you feel oppressedby his presence (7) and wish you were someplace else (8c). Your mothermakes it obvious that she does not want a scene at the dinner, so you gothrough the evening playing the role of the dutiful child (9c, 10a, 11).Alternatively, you could decide that you must nevertheless confront youruncle (again, 9c, 10, and 11). Either way, you find the role hard tomaintain and so you break out of the role at the end of the dinner (12). Inthis way, the entire evening counts as a sequence of stress.

Instead of dropping the role you have taken on, you assume it for therest of your life — for instance, as the passive, dutiful son or daughter, asthe reformer who tries to cure your uncle of alcoholism, or as theavenger, seeking retributive justice for the many hardships you and yourmother have had to endure. To maintain this role, you have to cling toviews (9b) about how you should behave (9c) and the sort of person youare or should be (9d). You keep producing (10) and assuming (11) thisidentity until it becomes impossible to do so any further (12). In this way,a full sequence of dependent co-arising could cover an entire lifetime. Ifyou continue craving to maintain this identity (8b) even as you die, it willlead you to cling (9) to opportunities for rebirth (10 and 11) as theyappear at the moment of death, and the full sequence of dependent co-arising could then cover more than one lifetime, leading to furthersuffering and stress on into the indefinite future.

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As these scenarios show, there is no single, definitive time frame for theways in which dependent co-arising can produce suffering and stress. A singlesequence can last a mere moment or many years. However, even the longestsequence, to continue functioning, requires repeated loops of momentarysequences, as one maintains an identity through thinking about it (2b) and

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intentionally attending to whatever factors are needed to maintain it (4c and4e). Thus, even though we may speak of a single sequence crossing overlifetimes, that sequence doesn’t yield stress only as it ends in aging-and-death,for it is maintained by myriads of momentary sequences that produce repeatedstress at varying levels — sometimes more, sometimes less — all along theway.

To further complicate this picture, the factors within the sequence can feedback into one another before completing a full sequence. This is the meaning ofthe specific factors and sub-factors that occur in different positions within thesequence. Feeling, for instance, appears in at least four factors of the list(counting the suffering in factor 12 as a feeling as well). Consciousness,appears twice, as does perception. In each of these cases, a later appearance ofthe factor, instead of leading directly to the factor following it in the list, can betreated once more in the role it plays in an earlier appearance. (This factaccounts for the way in which the mind can spin through many cycles ofthought before coming up with a definite decision to take action on a matter.)For example, a feeling of pain appearing in (7), instead of inevitably leadingstraight to craving, could be treated as a type of mental fabrication (2c) or as anevent under name (4a). If, as a mental fabrication, it is subjected to furtherignorance, that would simply compound the stress in the subsequent cyclethrough the causal change. A similar result would occur if, as an event undername, it is subjected to further inappropriate attention (4e), which is equivalentto ignorance. In terms of Scenario A, this would correspond to the point atwhich you feel oppressed at the prospect of going to the dinner. If you keepfocusing on this feeling in an ignorant or inappropriate way, you simplycompound the stress of your situation, enflaming the sense of oppression untilit becomes unmanageable.

However, if the feeling in (7) is treated with knowledge as a type of mentalfabrication (2c) or with appropriate attention (4e) — another synonym forknowledge — as an instance of name, that would redirect the sequence in askillful way, reducing the amount of suffering and stress produced. Forexample, if — when you start feeling oppressed at the prospect of theupcoming dinner — you reflect on the fact that your labored breathing iscausing unnecessary stress, you can stop to adjust your breathing so that itfeels more refreshed (2a). You can think about the situation in different ways,seeing the dinner as an opportunity to develop skillful qualities of the path, suchas right resolve and right speech (2b). You can remember the positive things

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that your uncle has done in the past, and your own personal need to think in thatway (2c). You can make up your mind to do or say whatever seems most skillfulin the situation (4c). In this way, you can defuse the sense of oppression andabort the particular sufferings it would have caused.

In this way, although the reappearance of feeling at different points independent co-arising has the potential for compounding the problem of stressand suffering, it also opens the opportunity for a particular sequence ofsuffering to be alleviated. The fact that a long sequence of dependent co-arisingrequires the repeated occurrence of many short sequences — full or partial —similarly offers the opportunity for unraveling it at any time, simply byunraveling any one of the short sequences.

For these reasons, it is best not to view dependent co-arising as a circle, forsuch a simplistic image does not do justice to the many different time framessimultaneously at work in the production of suffering. Nor does it do justice tothe ways in which the complexity of dependent co-arising provides an openingfor suffering to be brought to an end. A better image would be to viewdependent co-arising as a complex interplay of many feedback loops that, ifapproached with ignorance, can produce compounded suffering or, ifapproached with knowledge, create repeated opportunities to redirect thesequence and dampen the experience of suffering or stress.

Of course, the untrained mind is changeable. Having once dealt with feelingin a knowledgeable way, it can revert to ignorance at any moment. However,the Buddha’s discovery on the night of his Awakening is that it is possible totrain the mind in such a way that its tendency to ignorance can be eliminatedonce and for all. And a common theme in the strategies he employed in thistraining is that ignorance can be overcome by developing sustained knowledgeof any of the factors of dependent co-arising. Here again, the complexity ofdependent co-arising plays an important role in allowing this strategy to work.These points form the underlying theme for this book.

Chapter One explores the formal reasons for why the wheel image used todescribe dependent co-arising is inadequate for understanding the problem ofsuffering and stress. This chapter also points out the practical advantagesoffered by the complexity of dependent co-arising, in that the complex interplayof its lines of causality means that the causal process as a whole can beunraveled by developing knowledge focused on any one of its factors.

Chapter Two explores the inadequacies of the circle of mirrors image by

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examining an underlying image that the Buddha himself used to describedependent co-arising: the image of feeding. While the circle of mirrors suggestsa harmlessly beautiful and static vision of dependent co-arising, the image offeeding reveals the inherent instability of dependent co-arising and thedesirability of putting an end to the process. This chapter also explores thetheme of feeding with reference to the way this theme was viewed in classicalIndian thought, and discusses the Buddha’s strategic use of physical and mentalfeeding to lead the mind to a point where it no longer needs to feed. In otherwords, the causal process — as exemplified by feeding — can be convertedfrom one that produces suffering to one that brings suffering to an end.

Chapter Three explores the practical aspects of points made in Chapters Oneand Two. On the one hand, it shows how specific practices in the Buddhist pathare meant to bring knowledge to bear on specific factors of dependent co-arising. On the other, it shows how specific factors in dependent co-arising —particularly, fabrication and name-and-form — can be shaped into tools for usein the path to the end of suffering and stress. Once they have performed theirfunctions as tools, these factors can be contemplated so as to abandon anyremaining passion for them.

The upshot of this chapter is that a person aiming to put an end to sufferingdoes not need to know all the ins and outs of dependent co-arising, because thepractice can be completed by focusing on any one of its component factors.Once that one factor is understood, that understanding will spread to the otherfactors as well. Still, an appreciation of the complexity of dependent co-arisinghelps to explain why this is so. At the same time, a knowledge of its variousfactors gives a sense of the full range from which a focal point can be chosen,and an understanding of the practices the Buddha recommended with regard toeach focal point assists in gaining the practical benefit this knowledge isintended to give.

Thus this book. The material is presented as a collection of readings from thediscourses of the Pali Canon — our earliest record of the Buddha’s teachings —interlaced with discussions to bring out their most salient points. I have notattempted a complete discussion of all the relevant topics, for that would havecreated a book too complex to be of use. Instead, I have provided thediscussions as food for further thought. Training the mind to feed itself in thisway is an important step in using the teachings on dependent co-arising toattain their intended goal.

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CHAPTER ONE

“Atangledskein”Dependent co-arising — paṭicca samuppāda — is the Buddha’s most

complete analysis of the conditions leading to suffering, together with theconditions leading to suffering’s end. A passage in the Canon states thatthis was the topic he contemplated on emerging from his first week ofmeditation after his Awakening.

§3.Ihaveheardthatononeoccasion,whentheBlessedOnewasnewlyAwakened—stayingatUruvelabythebanksoftheNerañjarāRiverintheshadeoftheBodhitree,thetreeofAwakening—hesatintheshadeoftheBodhitreeforsevendaysinonesession,sensitivetotheblissofrelease.Attheendofsevendays,afteremergingfromthatconcentration,inthethirdwatchofthenight,hegavecloseattentiontodependentco-arisinginforwardandreverseorder,thus:

Whenthisis,thatis.Fromthearisingofthiscomesthearisingofthat.Whenthisisn’t,thatisn’t.Fromthecessationofthiscomesthecessationofthat.

Inotherwords:Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications.Fromfabricationsasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.Fromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-and-form.Fromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomethesixsensemedia.Fromthesixsensemediaasarequisiteconditioncomescontact.Fromcontactasarequisiteconditioncomesfeeling.Fromfeelingasarequisiteconditioncomescraving.Fromcravingasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging/sustenance.Fromclinging/sustenanceasarequisiteconditioncomesbecoming.Frombecomingasarequisiteconditioncomesbirth.Frombirthasarequisitecondition,thenaging-and-death,sorrow,

lamentation,pain,distress,anddespaircomeintoplay.Suchistheoriginationofthisentiremassofstressandsuffering.

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Nowfromtheremainderlessfadingandcessationofthatveryignorancecomesthecessationoffabrications.Fromthecessationoffabricationscomesthecessationofconsciousness.Fromthecessationofconsciousnesscomesthecessationofname-and-form.Fromthecessationofname-and-formcomesthecessationofthesixsensemedia.Fromthecessationofthesixsensemediacomesthecessationofcontact.Fromthecessationofcontactcomesthecessationoffeeling.Fromthecessationoffeelingcomesthecessationofcraving.Fromthecessationofcravingcomesthecessationofclinging/sustenance.Fromthecessationofclinging/sustenancecomesthecessationofbecoming.Fromthecessationofbecomingcomesthecessationofbirth.Fromthecessationofbirth,thenaging-and-death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespairallcease.Suchisthecessationofthisentiremassofstressandsuffering.—Ud1:3

Another passage states that even the first stage of Awakening —stream entry — involves a fourfold insight into any one of the factors ofdependent co-arising: knowing the factor, knowing how the origination ofits requisite condition leads to its origination, knowing how the cessationof its requisite condition leads to its cessation, and knowing the path ofpractice leading to its cessation. Here, for example, is how the passagetreats the factor of fabrication:

§4.“Whichfabrications?Thesethreefabrications:bodilyfabrications,verbalfabrications,mentalfabrications.Thesearecalledfabrications.Fromtheoriginationofignorancecomestheoriginationoffabrications.Fromthecessationofignorancecomesthecessationoffabrications.Andpreciselythisnobleeightfoldpathisthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationoffabrications:rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.

“Andwhenadiscipleofthenobleonesdiscernstherequisiteconditioninthisway,discernstheoriginationoftherequisiteconditioninthisway,discernsthecessationoftherequisiteconditioninthisway,discernsthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationoftheconditioninthisway,heiscalledadiscipleofthenobleoneswhois‘oneconsummateinview,’‘oneconsummateinvision,’‘onewhohascometothistrueDhamma,’‘onewhoseesthistrueDhamma,’‘oneendowedwiththeknowledgeofoneintraining,’‘oneendowedwiththeclearknowingofoneintraining,’‘onewhohasattainedthestreamofDhamma,’‘anobleoneofpenetratingdiscernment,’‘onewhostandssquarelyinthedoorofthedeathless.’”—SN12:27

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This is why Ven. Sāriputta equated vision of the Dhamma with vision ofdependent co-arising:

§5.Ven.Sāriputta:“Now,theBlessedOnehassaid,‘Whoeverseesdependentco-arisingseestheDhamma;whoeverseestheDhammaseesdependentco-arising.’”—M N28

For anyone who aims at Awakening to the Dhamma that providesrelease from suffering and stress, these facts can prove daunting.Dependent co-arising is an extremely complex topic, so complex that theBuddha compared its effects to tangles and knots:

§6.Ven.Ānanda:It’samazing,lord,it’sastounding,howdeepthisdependentco-arisingis,andhowdeepitsappearance,andyettomeitseemsasclearasclearcanbe.

TheBuddha:Don’tsaythat,Ānanda.Don’tsaythat.Deepisthisdependentco-arising,anddeepitsappearance.It’sbecauseofnotunderstandingandnotpenetratingthisDhammathatthisgenerationislikeatangledskein,aknottedballofstring,likemattedrushesandreeds,anddoesnotgobeyondthecycleoftheplanesofdeprivation,woe,andbaddestinations.—DN15

However, the complexity of dependent co-arising does not have to actas a deterrent to the practice. Many of the aspects of dependent co-arising that are most useful to know for the purpose of putting an end tosuffering appear right on the surface. In fact, they are so obvious thatthey are often overlooked. And even the complexity of dependent co-arising, although it may be initially confusing, is actually an aid in bringingsuffering to an end. So it’s good to look both for the obvious features ofthe process and for the ways in which the complexity is actually a friendin disguise.

First, the obvious features:• When the conditions give rise to one another, they lead to

suffering. Unlike later Buddhist teachers, the Buddha did not see theinterconnectedness of conditions as something to celebrate. He saw thatit inevitably leads to stress, suffering, and pain. This is because:

• The causal system is essentially unstable. Nothing caused can bepermanent, for there are no permanent causes. Any happiness based on

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impermanent causes will have to be impermanent as well. When a causepasses away, its effect will — either immediately or over time — passaway, too. This point may seem obvious, but it is a sharp break from thecausal teachings of other philosophies in the Buddha’s time, and from anyphilosophy in which impermanent events owe their existence to atimeless, permanent cause or emanate from a metaphysical ground ofbeing. For example, the Upaniṣads — Indian religious texts that predatedthe Buddha — proposed many explanations for how the visible worldcame into being, and although the explanations differ in their details, theyall follow a pattern in which Being, as an abstract, timeless principle,gives rise to a series of other powers and principles that in turn producethe world we experience. Theories of this sort cannot adequately explainhow a permanent cause can lead to an impermanent effect. They alsogive no practical guidance on how undesirable effects can be alleviated.

Because dependent co-arising begins with unstable causes, anyhappiness produced by the causal process will have to be unstable,inconstant, and unreliable. This is the downside of dependent co-arising.The Buddha conveyed this point by likening the causal process to the actof eating; effects feed off their causes. Inter-being is inter-eating.Although we may think that the suffering inherent in feeding is primarilyfelt by those forced into the role of food, the Buddha points out that it’salso stressful for those who need to feed. Their continued survival isuncertain, requiring that they continually look for new sources ofnutriment.

However, the instability of dependent co-arising has its upside as well.To put an end to an effect, you simply have to put an end to its cause.This means that:

• The suffering caused by this system can be ended. The Buddha’ssolution to the problem of suffering was not to accept suffering as aninevitable part of life. It was to find the causes of suffering and to bringthem to total cessation, so that suffering could be brought to totalcessation as well.

• The causal system follows a pattern. It is possible to point to acause for each factor in dependent co-arising, and the particularrelationship between each cause and effect holds true over time. It is notdependent on the vagaries of time, culture, or place. Unlike some thinkers

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who state that each moment is so radically new that lessons learnedfrom the past obscure it, the Buddha saw that knowledge of dependentco-arising can fruitfully be applied to every moment of suffering. Thusdependent co-arising provides a precise body of knowledge that can beapplied to the problem of suffering in all times and all places.

• The factors most important in leading to stress and suffering occurprior to sensory contact. This means that suffering is not causedprimarily by unpleasant sensory contact; it is caused by the attitudes andviews that are brought to any sensory contact, pleasant or not. Thisfurther means that the crucial causes for stress and suffering areinternal, and thus not dependent on outside circumstances. They aresubject to one’s knowledge and will. In this way, the quest for the end ofsuffering is primarily an internal matter of training the mind.

• Ignorance is the primary cause of suffering; knowledge is theprimary factor leading to its cessation. As passage §14 shows,ignorance here means not seeing events in terms of the four noble truths:stress, its origination, its cessation, and the path of practice leading to itscessation. These four noble truths are best understood, not as a body offacts about stress, but as categories for framing any and all experiencesin a way that allows you to diagnose and cure the problem of stress.Instead of looking at an experience, for instance, in terms of self or other,of what your true nature is, or of what you like and dislike, you look at itin terms of where there’s stress, what’s causing it, and how to put an endto the cause. Once you can divide the territory of experience in this way,you realize that each of these categories is an activity. The word “stress”may be a noun, but the experience of stress is shaped by your intentions.It’s something you do. The same holds true with the other truths, too.Seeing this, you can work on perfecting the skill appropriate for eachactivity. The skill with regard to stress is to comprehend it to the pointwhere you have no more passion, aversion, or delusion toward doing it.To perfect this skill, you also have to abandon the cause of stress, torealize its cessation, and to develop the path to its cessation. Once youhave fully mastered these skills, you have developed the knowledge thatputs a total end to the ignorance underlying all the other factors independent co-arising.

• All the factors of dependent co-arising are processes and eventsthat are immediately present in one’s awareness. There is no need to

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search outside of your immediate present awareness for any hiddencauses underlying these factors. Every factor is right here to be observed.Even the factor of becoming — the sense of identity within a world ofexperience fashioned from the data of the senses — is a process, a senseof being that comes from doing and that can be observed to change asyour intentional actions change.

The ability to see all of these factors simply as processes and events,without any reference to the question of whether there is anythingunderlying them, is an important skill in learning how to see them interms of the four noble truths. This point is emphasized in many passageswhere the Buddha refuses to entertain the question of whether there aresubstances or agents — such as a world outside or a self or soul inside— underlying the direct experience of the factors of dependent co-arising.

For example, he refuses to entertain such questions as, “Who feels?”or “Who clings?” “Whose is the aging-and-death?” (Or, “The aging-and-death of what?)” or “The birth/rebirth of what?” because such questionslead inevitably to related questions of how to define the “who” or “what”being affirmed or denied, a process that leads further and further awayfrom a direct vision of the processes of suffering and stress asprocesses, in and of themselves, as they occur.

§7.TheBuddha:“Fromthesixsensemediaasarequisiteconditioncomescontact.’”

Ven.Moliyaphagguna:“Lord,whomakescontact?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Idon’tsay‘makescontact.’IfI

weretosay‘makescontact,’then‘Whomakescontact?’wouldbeavalidquestion.ButIdon’tsaythat.WhenIdon’tsaythat,thevalidquestionis‘Fromwhatasarequisiteconditioncomescontact?’Andthevalidansweris,‘Fromthesixsensemediaasarequisiteconditioncomescontact.Fromcontactasarequisiteconditioncomesfeeling.’”

“Lord,whofeels?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Idon’tsay‘feels.’IfIwereto

say‘feels,’then‘Whofeels?’wouldbeavalidquestion.ButIdon’tsaythat.WhenIdon’tsaythat,thevalidquestionis‘Fromwhatasarequisiteconditioncomesfeeling?’Andthevalidansweris,‘Fromcontactasarequisiteconditioncomes

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feeling.Fromfeelingasarequisiteconditioncomescraving.’”“Lord,whocraves?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Idon’tsay‘craves.’IfIwereto

say‘craves,’then‘Whocraves?’wouldbeavalidquestion.ButIdon’tsaythat.WhenIdon’tsaythat,thevalidquestionis‘Fromwhatasarequisiteconditioncomescraving?’Andthevalidansweris,‘Fromfeelingasarequisiteconditioncomescraving.Fromcravingasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging/sustenance.’”

“Lord,whoclings?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Idon’tsay‘clings.’IfIwereto

say‘clings,’then‘Whoclings?’wouldbeavalidquestion.ButIdon’tsaythat.WhenIdon’tsaythat,thevalidquestionis‘Fromwhatasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging?’Andthevalidansweris,‘Fromcravingasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging.Fromclingingasarequisiteconditioncomesbecoming.Frombecomingasarequisiteconditioncomesbirth.Frombirthasarequisitecondition,thenaginganddeath,sorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespaircomeintoplay.Suchistheoriginationofthisentiremassofstressandsuffering.”—SN12:12

§8.TheBlessedOnesaid,“Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications….Frombirthasarequisitecondition,thenaging-and-death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespaircomeintoplay.Suchistheoriginationofthisentiremassofstressandsuffering.”

Whenthiswassaid,acertainmonksaidtotheBlessedOne:“Whichistheaging-and-death,lord,andwhoseistheaging-and-death?”

“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Ifoneweretoask,‘Whichistheaging-and-death,andwhoseistheaging-and-death?’andifoneweretosay,‘Aging-and-deathisonething,andtheaging-and-deathissomething/someoneelse’s,’bothofthemwouldhavethesamemeaning,eventhoughtheirwordswoulddiffer.It’snotthecasethatwhenoneisoftheviewthatthesoulisthesameasthebodythereistheleadingoftheholylife.Andit’snotthecasethatwhenoneisoftheviewthatthesoulisonethingandthebodyanotherthereistheleadingoftheholylife.Avoidingthesetwoextremes,theTathāgatateachestheDhammaviathemiddle:Frombirthasarequisiteconditioncomesaging-and-death.”

“Whichisthebirth,lord,andwhoseisthebirth?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Frombecomingasarequisite

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conditioncomesbirth.”“Whichisthebecoming,lord,andwhoseisthebecoming?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromclingingasarequisite

conditioncomesbecoming.”“Whichistheclinging,lord,andwhoseistheclinging?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromcravingasarequisite

conditioncomesclinging.”“Whichisthecraving,lord,andwhoseisthecraving?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromfeelingasarequisite

conditioncomescraving.”“Whichisthefeeling,lord,andwhoseisthefeeling?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromcontactasarequisite

conditioncomesfeeling.”“Whichisthecontact,lord,andwhoseisthecontact?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromthesixsensemediaasa

requisiteconditioncomescontact.”“Whicharethesixsensemedia,lord,andwhosearethesixsensemedia?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromname-and-formasa

requisiteconditioncomethesixsensemedia.”“Whichisthename-and-form,lord,andwhoseisthename-and-form?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromconsciousnessasa

requisiteconditioncomesname-and-form.”“Whichistheconsciousness,lord,andwhoseistheconsciousness?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid….“Fromfabricationsasa

requisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.”“Whicharethefabrications,lord,andwhosearethefabrications?”“Notavalidquestion,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Ifoneweretoask,‘Whichare

thefabrications,andwhosearethefabrications?’andifoneweretosay,‘Fabricationsareonething,andthefabricationsaresomething/someoneelse’s,’bothofthemwouldhavethesamemeaning,eventhoughtheirwordswoulddiffer.It’snotthecasethatwhenoneisoftheviewthatthesoulisthesameasthebodythereistheleadingoftheholylife.Andit’snotthecasethatwhenoneisoftheviewthatthesoulisonethingandthebodyanotherthereistheleadingoftheholylife.Avoidingthesetwoextremes,theTathāgatateachestheDhammaviathemiddle:Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications.

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“Nowfromtheremainderlessfadingandcessationofthatveryignorance,allofthesewrithingsandwrigglingsandwigglings—‘Whichistheaging-and-death,andwhoseistheaging-and-death?’or‘Aging-and-deathareonething,andthisaging-and-deatharesomething/someoneelse’s’or‘Thesoulisthesameasthebody,’or‘Thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother’—areabandoned,theirrootdestroyed,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofexistence,notdestinedforfuturearising.

“Fromtheremainderlessfadingandcessationofthatveryignorance,allofthesewrithingsandwrigglingsandwigglings—‘Whichisthebirth….Whichisthebecoming….Whichistheclinging….Whichisthecraving….Whichisthefeeling….Whichisthecontact….Whicharethesixsensemedia….Whichisthename-and-form….Whichistheconsciousness….Whicharethefabrications,andwhosearethefabrications?’or‘Fabricationsareonething,andthesefabricationsaresomething/someoneelse’s’or‘Thesoulisthesameasthebody,’or‘Thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother’—areabandoned,theirrootdestroyed,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofexistence,notdestinedforfuturearising.”—SN12:35

The ability to remain focused on the processes of dependent co-arisingalso works at cross-purposes with any attempt to posit the existence ornonexistence, the oneness or the plurality, of the cosmos as a whole.

§9.ThenabrāhmancosmologistwenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,exchangedcourteousgreetingswithhim.Afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetingsandcourtesies,hesattooneside.Ashewassittingthere,hesaidtotheBlessedOne,“Now,then,MasterGotama,doeseverythingexist?”

“‘Everythingexists’istheseniorformofcosmology,brāhman.”“Then,MasterGotama,doeseverythingnotexist?”“‘Everythingdoesnotexist’isthesecondformofcosmology,brāhman.”“TheniseverythingaOneness?”“‘EverythingisaOneness’isthethirdformofcosmology,brāhman.”“Theniseverythingaplurality?”“‘Everythingisapluralityisthefourthformofcosmology,brāhman.Avoidingthesetwoextremes,theTathāgatateachestheDhammaviathe

middle:Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications….”—SN12:48

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§10.“Byandlarge,Kaccāyana,thisworldissupportedby/takesasitsobjectapolarity,thatofexistenceandnon-existence.Butwhenoneseestheoriginationoftheworldwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,‘non-existence’withreferencetotheworlddoesnotoccurtoone.Whenoneseesthecessationoftheworldwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,‘existence’withreferencetotheworlddoesnotoccurtoone.

“Byandlarge,Kaccāyana,thisworldisinbondagetoattachments,clingings/sustenances,andbiases.Butonesuchasthisdoesnotgetinvolvedwithorclingtotheseattachments,clingings,fixationsofawareness,biases,orobsessions;norisheresolvedon‘myself.’Hehasnouncertaintyordoubtthatmerestress,whenarising,isarising;stress,whenpassingaway,ispassingaway.Inthis,hisknowledgeisindependentofothers.It’stothisextent,Kaccāyana,thatthereisrightview.”—SN12:15

The ability to remain focused on the processes of dependent co-arisingalso requires abandoning any questions of who is the agent behind theprocess or the subject experiencing the process. To overcome ignorance,there has to be an exclusive focus on the process as a causal process, inand of itself, as it is actually happening.

§11.ThenacertainbrāhmanwenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,exchangedcourteousgreetingswithhim.Afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetingsandcourtesies,hesattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne:“Whatnow,MasterGotama?Istheonewhoactsthesameonewhoexperiences(theresultsoftheact)?”

“(Tosay,)brāhman,‘Theonewhoactsisthesameonewhoexperiences,’isoneextreme.”

“Then,MasterGotama,istheonewhoactssomeoneotherthantheonewhoexperiences?”

“(Tosay,)brāhman,‘Theonewhoactsissomeoneotherthantheonewhoexperiences,’isthesecondextreme.Avoidingbothoftheseextremes,theTathāgatateachestheDhammaviathemiddle:

“Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications….”—SN12:46

§12.“Whateverbrāhmansandcontemplatives,teachersofkamma,whodeclarethatpleasureandpainareself-made,eventhatisdependentoncontact.Whateverbrāhmansandcontemplatives,teachersofkamma,whodeclarethatpleasureandpainareother-made…self-madeandother-made…neitherself-

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madenorother-made,butarisespontaneously,eventhatisdependentoncontact.

“Thatanybrāhmansandcontemplatives—teachersofkammawhodeclarethatpleasureandpainareself-made—wouldbesensitivetopleasureandpainotherwisethanthroughcontact,thatisn’tpossible.Thatanybrāhmansandcontemplatives—teachersofkammawhodeclarethatpleasureandpainareother-made…self-madeandother-made…neitherself-madenorother-made,butarisespontaneously—wouldbesensitivetopleasureandpainotherwisethanthroughcontact,thatisn’tpossible.

“Whenthereisabody,pleasureandpainariseinternallywithbodilyintentionasthecause;orwhenthereisspeech,pleasureandpainariseinternallywithverbalintentionasthecause;orwhenthereisintellect,pleasureandpainariseinternallywithintellectualintentionasthecause.

“Fromignoranceasarequisitecondition,theneitherofone’sownaccordonefabricatesthebodilyfabricationonaccountofwhichthatpleasureandpainariseinternally,orbecauseofothersonefabricatesthebodilyfabricationonaccountofwhichthatpleasureandpainariseinternally.Eitheralertonefabricatesthebodilyfabricationonaccountofwhichthatpleasureandpainariseinternally,orunalertonefabricatesthebodilyfabricationonaccountofwhichthatpleasureandpainariseinternally.[Similarlywithverbalandintellectualfabrications.]“Now,ignoranceisboundupinthesethings.Fromtheremainderlessfadingandcessationofthatveryignorance,therenolongerexists(thesenseof)thebodyonaccountofwhichthatpleasureandpaininternallyarise.Therenolongerexiststhespeech…theintellectonaccountofwhichthatpleasureandpaininternallyarise.Therenolongerexiststhefield,thesite,thedimension,ortheissueonaccountofwhichthatpleasureandpaininternallyarise.”—SN12:25

These, then, are some of the important features of dependent co-arising that are immediately apparent. The arising of conditions leads tosuffering and stress. The causal system is unstable but follows a pattern.The primary causes giving rise to suffering and stress occur prior tosensory contact. Ignorance — not seeing things in terms of the four nobletruths — is foremost among these primary causes. And the ability to seethings in terms of the four noble truths — which involves seeing thefactors of dependent co-arising simply as processes and eventsimmediately experienced — is the knowledge that puts an end toignorance and thus to all suffering and stress. What’s important to note isthat these features are not simply facts about suffering; they are also

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ways of viewing suffering that aid in bringing about its cessation. Theability to see dependent co-arising as dependent co-arising is a first stepin developing the clear knowledge that brings ignorance to an end.

* * *Complexity is another obvious feature of dependent co-arising. What is

less obvious is that this complexity is precisely the feature that allows forthe causal connections leading to suffering to become undone. Eventhough, as the Buddha noted, the many complexities of dependent co-arising have caused people to be entangled and trapped in the cycle ofsuffering, they actually explain why it is possible to unravel the chain offactors leading to suffering. To understand why, it is useful first tounderstand a few points about the nature of complexity as displayed innonlinear systems such as the weather, turbulence in air or liquids, therise and fall of animal populations or predators and prey, and the behaviorof physical structures, such as bridges. These systems are apt analoguesfor dependent co-arising in that — despite the fact that their behaviorsometimes seems chaotic — their behavior actually contains deep,regular patterns. Furthermore, in some cases, these patterns can beutilized so that the system will behave in a desired way.

In a nonlinear system, the behavior of the system as a whole is morethan the simple sum of the individual behavior of its component parts.When such a system is sufficiently large, and its members sufficientlyinterrelated, it can organize itself into new and complex patterns ofbehavior. The interrelations that underlie these patterns often take theform of feedback loops, which are patterns of the sort where A influencesB, B influences C, and C influences A. In a complex nonlinear system,these feedback loops interact with one another, causing further feedbackloops on larger and larger scales. These interactions can either amplifyany change occurring in them — causing “positive feedback” — or theycan dampen it — causing “negative feedback.” An example of a positivefeedback loop would be the one created by a speaker placed next to amicrophone feeding into it. The howl created by this loop simply growsstronger and stronger until the equipment can no longer handle it. Anexample of a negative feedback loop would be the action of a thermostatthat turns off a heater when the temperature in a room is too high, andturns it on again when it gets too low.

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Scientists studying nonlinear systems simply to observe andunderstand their internal dynamics tend to be interested in thedeterministic side of these systems: the fact that given a certain set ofparameter values, the systems will invariably behave in a certain way.However, doctors and engineers working with such systems tend to bemore interested in their non-deterministic side: the fact that theparameters affecting the system can be adjusted to certain values toachieve a desired effect. In this regard, the Buddha falls clearly into thesecond category: He taught dependent co-arising not simply for its ownsake, but to show how its factors can be manipulated to lead to the endof suffering. This is why he argued against strict determinism (AN 3:62)and why he often compared himself to a doctor, curing the illnesses ofthe mind (Iti 100; AN 3:22; AN 10:108).

Thus, in looking among complex nonlinear systems for useful parallelsfor dependent co-arising, it is important to focus on the areas where theirbehavior can be changed. And although not all complex nonlinear systemsdisplay the same behavior, many of them provide useful parallels of justthis sort. For instance:

• In some of these systems, the feedback loops are so persistentlyinterconnected that changes caused by a small feedback loop canaffect the system very quickly or over longer stretches of time.

• In some of these systems — called “scale free” or “scaleinvariant” — the behavior of their many intersecting feedback loopsfollows the same pattern on larger and smaller scales. These systemsare thus said to be “self-similar” across scale. For instance, in aMandelbrot set — the famous fractal set used to illustrate chaos theory— the “bug” shape of the set as a whole is found repeatedly as onezooms into the fractal at smaller and smaller spatial scales. Anotherexample is turbulence in water or gases, which can be fruitfully studiedon many different scales.

• When subject to different parameter values, the behavior of thesesystems can change radically, yielding different results, even thoughthey continue to follow the same underlying causal patterns. When theparameter values governing them approach certain threshold or tippingpoints, the behavior of some complex nonlinear systems can shift fromone “basin of attraction” to another, in which its behavior will exhibit a

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qualitatively different pattern. An example is water flowing through apipe, which will display a certain pattern of turbulence when subjected toone set of parameter values, such as the width of the pipe and the speedand pressure of the flow, and other patterns when the parameter valuesare increased or decreased to certain threshold levels. In systems suchas population dynamics or the behavior of financial markets, where thesepatterns of behavior can be either desirable or undesirable, certainparameter values can cause the feedback loops to form “vicious” cycles,where they make the overall behavior progressively more undesirable,while other parameter values can turn the same feedback loops into“virtuous” cycles, where they make the overall behavior progressivelymore desirable.

• When the crucial parameter values shift back and forth over athreshold or tipping point, the system can shift back and forth betweenthe corresponding basins of attraction.

• When settled in some sets of parameter values, these systems arestable — in other words, their internal feedback loops tend to reinforcethe stability of the system — but when settled in others, those samefeedback loops can drive the system toward collapse. A classic examplehere is the interactions among the structural elements of a bridge. Inmost situations, the elements are mutually stabilizing. But when thebridge is subjected to rhythmic pressures — as from wind, anearthquake, or a marching column of soldiers — those same structuralinteractions can amplify those disturbances. If the frequency of thedisturbances reaches a resonance point — determined by the frequenciesat which the whole bridge vibrates — the equations expressing thebridge’s response to the disturbances will contain a factor divided byzero. This, of course, produces an undefined result, which breaks thefeedback loops described by those equations. If the rhythmic pressure ispersistent enough to bring a crucial number of individual feedback loopsinto the resonance, their cascading effect can cause the whole bridge tocollapse.

These five characteristics are analogous to features of dependent co-arising that play an important role in the quest to reduce or put an end tosuffering:

• Because all the feedback loops in dependent co-arising interact in

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a persistent way, changes in a momentary sequence of dependent co-arising can have both immediate and long-lasting effects on the longersequences. For example, when an unskillful intention is replaced with askillful one, it can immediately lessen suffering, at the same timecreating conditions for more skillful intentions in the future. Similarly,when the causes leading to the rebirth of attachment in the mind aresevered, suffering is immediately ended; at the same time, the causesleading to future rebirth on the physical level are severed as well.

• Dependent co-arising can be observed at many scales. This meansthat lessons drawn from observing the world can be applied to the mind,and lessons drawn from observing the mind can be applied to one’sinteractions with the world. Lessons about the process of death andrebirth on the physical level, for example, can be gained from observingthe present-moment death and rebirth of attachments in the mind.

• Dependent co-arising can be influenced, without breaking thecausal patterns underlying the system, so that the factors of thesystem can function not as causes of suffering, but as factors of a pathleading to the end of suffering. The main parameter exerting thisinfluence is knowledge in terms of the four noble truths. Where thisknowledge is absent, the factors of dependent co-arising lead invariablyto suffering. Where it is present in varying degrees, it can turn the viciouscycle of suffering into a more virtuous cycle of the path. In particular, ifthe factor of fabrication is informed by knowledge, it can be graduallyfashioned into the central factor of the noble eightfold path: rightconcentration. Similarly, if the sub-factor of intention, under name, isinformed by appropriate attention — another sub-factor under name — itcan be gradually fashioned into all eight factors of the path.

• When ignorance of the four noble truths alternates withknowledge of those truths, the relationships within dependent co-arising will alternate between a pattern in which they producesuffering and one in which they put an end to suffering. Knowledge interms of the four noble truths is not an all-or-nothing affair. Each of thetruths has a task appropriate to it: Stress is to be comprehended, itsorigination abandoned, its cessation realized, and the path to its cessationdeveloped. Because these tasks need to be mastered as skills, theirmastery will follow the gradual path of any skill, growing by fits andstarts, with setbacks alternating with periods of progress.

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• When the skills appropriate to the noble eightfold path areconsistently and masterfully applied to dependent co-arising, they cancause the entire system of suffering and its causes to collapse. This isbecause this knowledge brings about a form of vision that inclines neitherto becoming nor to non-becoming. This mode of vision functions as aresonance in that it causes the many feedback loops connected withbecoming or non-becoming to become undefined. If applied consistentlyenough, this mode of vision can have a cascading effect, causing all thefeedback loops in dependent co-arising to become undefined, thusbringing about the collapse of the entire system.

The specific features of dependent co-arising as described in the PaliCanon show how these general principles operate in practice.

To begin with, the causal principle underlying the processes ofdependent co-arising is a complex principle, allowing for feedback loopsto develop, to interact persistently, and to intersect on different timescales. The principle is this:

§13.“[1]Whenthisis,thatis.“[2]Fromthearisingofthiscomesthearisingofthat.“[3]Whenthisisn’t,thatisn’t.“[4]Fromthecessationofthiscomesthecessationofthat.”—Ud1:3

This pattern is called this/that conditionality — idappaccayatā —because it describes the interaction of events that can be pointed to as“this” or “that” in immediate experience. It is best understood as theinteraction of two principles. The more obvious of the two, expressed in[2] and [4], connects events over time. The arising of A will, at some pointin time, cause the arising of B. The ceasing of A will, at some point intime, cause the ceasing of B. An example here would be the relationbetween a physical feeling of pleasure or pain and a complex emotion (or,to use the Buddhist technical term, saṅkhāra, a fabrication) based on thefeeling. There can be a lapse in time between the arising of the feelingand the arising of the emotion, just as there can be a lapse in timebetween their ceasing.

The second principle, expressed in [1] and [3], connects two events inthe present moment. When A is present, B exists. When A is absent, Bdoesn’t exist. This principle operates primarily on the level of subtle mind

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states persistently arising and passing away. An example would be theway in which the process of each moment of attachment’s aging-and-death occurs simultaneously with the process of its taking birth. TheBuddha stated that his ability to detect this level of causality was a“breakthrough of discernment” (SN 12:10; SN 12:65), which suggests howdifficult it is to perceive. Nevertheless, the principle can be readilyobserved in the relation between contact and feeling. When contact ispresent at any of the senses, a corresponding feeling tone immediatelycomes into being; when the contact is absent, the feeling tone isimmediately gone.

These two causal principles intersect, so that any particularexperience will be conditioned by both past and present events. Applied todependent co-arising, this fact means that events included in any onefactor of the list can be affected not only by past events in the factorsthat act as their conditions, but also by the persistent on-going,interacting presence of whole streams of events in those factors. Allfactors can be present at once, and even though two particular conditionsmay be separated by several steps in the list, they can be immediatelypresent to each other. Thus they can create the possibility for thefeedback loops to behave in unexpected ways. This is what allows for thecomplexity of dependent co-arising, and for the fact that it contains manyfeedback loops, operating on different time scales.

The feedback loops in dependent co-arising are most clearly shown inthe Buddha’s most complete analysis of its individual factors, althougheven this analysis does not show all the feedback loops that can bediscovered when the factors are pursued in greater detail. To illustratethe principle of feedback, the most important fact to note about thefollowing passage is the number of times feeling appears, both as afactor on its own and as a subfactor of fabrication and name-and-form.

Given that suffering is also a feeling, this means that the sufferingproduced by one sequence of influences can feed back into the system atseveral places. If it feeds back at the factor of feeling, it would simplycondition more craving. If it feeds back at the factor of fabrication, itcould be subjected to verbal fabrications (directed thought andevaluation) and even to the physical fabrication of the way one breathesaround them. If these fabrications are unskillful — applied with ignorance— they could lead to another sequence culminating in more suffering and

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stress. If skillful — applied with knowledge — they would dampen thetendency for this suffering to lead to more suffering in the present orfuture. If supremely skillful, they could cut the fabric of suffering onceand for all. If the feeling feeds back at the factor of name-and-form, itwould be subjected to an act of attention, which could be inappropriate,appropriate, or supremely appropriate, inciting unskillful, skillful, orsupremely skillful intentions, yielding a similar range of possibilities. Thefeeling that results directly from contact at the six senses could feedback into fabrication or name-and-form in similar ways. Thus the preciseway in which these factors could play through the system shows not onlythe complexity of the system, but also the precise way in which thesystem offers opportunities for amplifying suffering, mitigating suffering,or putting suffering to an end.

§14.“Nowwhichaging-and-death?Whateveraging,decrepitude,brokenness,graying,wrinkling,declineoflife-force,weakeningofthefacultiesofthevariousbeingsinthisorthatgroupofbeings,thatiscalledaging.Whateverdeceasing,passingaway,breakingup,disappearance,dying,death,completionoftime,break-upoftheaggregates,castingoffofthebody,interruptioninthelifefacultyofthevariousbeingsinthisorthatgroupofbeings,thatiscalleddeath.

“Andwhichbirth?Whateverbirth,takingbirth,descent,coming-to-be,coming-forth,appearanceofaggregates,andacquisitionofsensemediaofthevariousbeingsinthisorthatgroupofbeings,thatiscalledbirth.

“Andwhichbecoming?Thesethreebecomings:sensuality-becoming,form-becoming,andformless-becoming.Thisiscalledbecoming.

“Andwhichclinging/ sustenance?Thesefourclingings:sensuality-clinging,view-clinging,habit-and-practice-clinging,anddoctrine-of-self-clinging.Thisiscalledclinging.

“Andwhichcraving?Thesesixclassesofcraving:cravingforforms,cravingforsounds,cravingforaromas,cravingfortastes,cravingfortactilesensations,cravingforideas.Thisiscalledcraving.

“Andwhichfeeling?Thesesixclassesoffeeling:feelingbornfromeye-contact,feelingbornfromear-contact,feelingbornfromnose-contact,feelingbornfromtongue-contact,feelingbornfrombody-contact,feelingbornfromintellect-contact.Thisiscalledfeeling.

“Andwhichcontact?Thesesixclassesofcontact:eye-contact,ear-contact,

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nose-contact,tongue-contact,body-contact,intellect-contact.Thisiscalledcontact.

“Andwhichsixsensemedia?Thesesixsensemedia:theeye-medium,theear-medium,thenose-medium,thetongue-medium,thebody-medium,theintellect-medium.Thesearecalledthesixsensemedia.

“Andwhichname-and-form?Feeling,perception,intention,contact,andattention:Thisiscalledname.Thefourgreatelements[earth,water,wind,andfire]andtheformdependentonthefourgreatelements:Thisiscalledform.Thisnameandthisformarecalledname-and-form.

“Andwhichconsc iousness?Thesesixclassesofconsciousness:eye-consciousness,ear-consciousness,nose-consciousness,tongue-consciousness,body-consciousness,intellect-consciousness.Thisiscalledconsciousness.

“Andwhichfabrications?Thesethreefabrications:bodilyfabrications[in-and-outbreathing],verbalfabrications[directedthoughtandevaluation],mentalfabrications[feelingandperception].Thesearecalledfabrications.

“Andwhichignorance?Notknowingintermsofstress,notknowingintermsoftheoriginationofstress,notknowingintermsofthecessationofstress,notknowingintermsofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstress:Thisiscalledignorance.”—SN12:2

In addition to the feedback loops involving feeling, there are otherfeedback loops in dependent co-arising that are not explicitly shown inthe above passage. MN 18 shows that consciousness, in addition topreceding name-and-form, can also follow on the six sense media.Perception, in addition to its appearance in fabrications and name-and-form, can also follow on feeling and, as shown in § 110, form analternative locus for craving.

§15.“Dependentoneyeandforms,eye-consciousnessarises.Themeetingofthethreeiscontact.Withcontactasarequisitecondition,thereisfeeling.Whatonefeels,oneperceives[labelsinthemind].Whatoneperceives,onethinksabout.Whatonethinksabout,oneobjectifies.Basedonwhatapersonobjectifies,theperceptionsandcategoriesofobjectificationassailhim/herwithregardtopast,present,andfutureformscognizableviatheeye.[Similarlywiththeothersensemedia.]”—M N18

Thus the many interlocking feedback loops in dependent co-arising

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show clear parallels with complex, nonlinear systems. For practicalpurposes, this point is extremely important. Many later schools ofBuddhism depicted dependent co-arising as a circle or a wheel of causes,with the bewilderment caused by stress and suffering looping back intoignorance, thus setting up the conditions for another round of stress. Butany system described by a circle offers no pathways for deviating fromthe circle. When subjected to different parameter values, the sequencesof cause and effect simply go faster or slower around the circle butcannot leave it. A system with many feedback loops, however, does offeralternative pathways for intensifying or lessening the effects of thesystem by shifting it into alternative basins of attraction, in which itexhibits distinct modes of behavior. It also offers the possibility of usingdifferent parameter values to nudge the system from one basin ofattraction to another until it gets nudged consistently into a resonancewhere it comes to a point of collapse. (We will further explore the waysin which the factors of dependent co-arising can influence one another inthis way, thus acting as the path to the end of suffering, in Chapters Twoand Three.)

As we have already noted, the primary parameters that have thisinfluence on dependent co-arising are measured in terms of the presenceand absence of knowledge in terms of the four noble truths. This is whyignorance of the four noble truths is listed as the first factor in dependentco-arising. This is not because ignorance is an uncaused cause for thesystem (see §61), but because it is the factor that can be manipulatedinto a new set of parameter values that can cause the entire system tobreak down. This is why the standard description of the end of stressinvariably describes the ending of stress as a result of severing the firstlink, ignorance. Only then do the other conditions cease.

However, the feedback loops in dependent co-arising are so arrangedthat, in practice, the knowledge that puts an end to stress can be appliedto any one of the factors. When that factor is no longer conditioned byignorance at all, it reaches a resonance point. Its cessation, combinedwith the cessation of ignorance, can send ramifications through the entiresequence, bringing the entire sequence to cessation. When people speakof cutting dependent co-arising at one of its links — such as the linkbetween feeling and craving — what is actually happening is that fullknowledge with regard to that link has replaced ignorance with regard to

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that link. With the ceasing of ignorance, fabrications cease, and socessation cascades throughout the entire sequence.

The fact that the ending of ignorance can occur by developingknowledge in terms of the four noble truths with reference to any of thefactors of dependent co-arising is explored in great detail in twodiscourses: MN 9 and Sn 3:12. The ways in which these discourses makethis point can be illustrated by the way each approaches the factor offeeling.

§16.Ven.Sāriputta:“Whenadiscipleofthenobleonesdiscernsfeeling,theoriginationoffeeling,thecessationoffeeling,andthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationoffeeling,thenheisapersonofrightview,onewhoseviewismadestraight,whoisendowedwithverifiedconfidenceintheDhamma,andwhohasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”

“Andwhatisfeeling?Whatistheoriginationoffeeling?Whatisthecessationoffeeling?Whatisthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationoffeeling?

“Therearethesesixfeelings:feelingbornfromeye-contact,feelingbornfromear-contact,feelingbornfromnose-contact,feelingbornfromtongue-contact,feelingbornfrombody-contact,feelingbornfromintellect-contact.Thisiscalledfeeling.

“Fromtheoriginationofcontactcomestheoriginationoffeeling.Fromthecessationofcontactcomesthecessationoffeeling.Andthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationoffeelingisjustthisverynobleeightfoldpath:rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.

“Now,whenadiscipleofthenobleonesdiscernsfeeling,theoriginationoffeeling,thecessationoffeeling,andthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationoffeelinginthisway,when—havingentirelyabandonedpassion-obsession,havingabolishedaversion-obsession,havinguprootedtheview-and-conceitobsession‘Iam’;havingabandonedignoranceandgivenrisetoclearknowing—hehasputanendtosufferingandstressrightinthehere-and-now,itistothisextent,too,thatadiscipleofthenobleonesisapersonofrightview,onewhoseviewismadestraight,whoisendowedwithverifiedconfidenceintheDhamma,andwhohasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”—M N9

§17.“‘Whateverstresscomesintoplayisallfromfeelingasarequisitecondition’;thisisonecontemplation.‘Fromtheremainderlessfadingand

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cessationofthatveryfeeling,thereisnocomingintoplayofstress’;thisisasecondcontemplation.Foramonkrightlycontemplatingthisdualityinthisway—heedful,ardent,andresolute—oneoftwofruitscanbeexpected:eithergnosisrighthereandnow,or—iftherebeanyremnantofclinging/sustenance—non-return.”

ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Havingsaidthat,theOneWell-gone,theTeacher,saidfurther:

“Knowingthatwhateverisfelt—pleasure,pain,neitherpleasurenorpain,withinorwithout—isstressful,deceptive,dissolving,seeingitspassingawayateachcontact,

eachcontact,

heknowsitrightthere.Withjusttheendingoffeeling,thereisnostresscomingintoplay.”—Sn3:12

The knowledge described in MN 9 is more explicitly related to the fournoble truths than is the knowledge described in Sn 3:12, yet even thelatter knowledge implicitly follows the same basic pattern, seeing thearising of stress as coming from a cause, and the cessation of stress ascoming from the cessation of the cause. MN 9 simply provides greaterdetail in describing the path of practice leading to that cessation.

Sn 3:12 applies this analysis to seven of the factors of dependent co-arising: ignorance, fabrications, consciousness, contact, feeling, craving,and clinging. MN 9 applies this analysis to all twelve of the factors. Thismeans in practice that there is no need to know the entire sequence offactors in order to put an end to suffering and stress. A person merelyneeds to focus on a particular factor or relationship within the sequence— whichever is easiest to focus on — and to apply knowledge in terms of

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the four noble truths to that spot. This is why the Buddha, in teaching theway to the end of suffering and stress, did not have to explain the entiresequence every time to every student. He could focus simply onwhichever factor or set of factors was most transparent to the student,recommend a relevant meditative practice, and that would be enough forthe student to bring suffering to an end. This tactic will be explored infurther detail in Chapter Three, where different aspects of Buddhistpractice are listed under the factors of dependent co-arising to whichthey are most closely related.

The complexity of the feedback loops in dependent co-arising not onlyallowed the Buddha and his students to focus attention on particularfactors as appropriate to his audience. It also allowed them to explorefurther feedback loops within the loops, and alternative ways ofexpressing the sequence as a whole. For example, in DN 15 the Buddhaplays two changes on the basic sequence. On the “results” end of thesequence, he explores another way in which feeling can lead to suffering.On the “cause” end, he replaces the standard sequence of ignorance,fabrication, consciousness, and name-and-form with another pattern inwhich name-and-form and consciousness condition one another. Thislatter change is less radical than it may appear at first glance, becausename-and-form contains the sub-factor of attention. Inappropriateattention is a synonym for ignorance; appropriate attention is a synonymfor knowledge. Thus in both patterns, ignorance is the prime cause forstress, and knowledge is the prime cause for bringing stress to an end.

§18.“Ifoneisasked,‘Fromwhatrequisiteconditiondoesname-and-formcome?’oneshouldsay,‘Name-and-formcomesfromconsciousnessasitsrequisitecondition.’…

“Ifoneisasked,‘Fromwhatrequisiteconditiondoesconsciousnesscome?’oneshouldsay,‘Consciousnesscomesfromname-and-formasitsrequisitecondition.’

“Thus,Ānanda,fromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.Fromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-and-form.Fromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomescontact.Fromcontactasarequisiteconditioncomesfeeling.Fromfeelingasarequisiteconditioncomescraving.Fromcravingasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging.Fromclingingasarequisiteconditioncomesbecoming.Frombecomingasarequisite

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conditioncomesbirth.Frombirthasarequisitecondition,aging-and-death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespaircomeintoplay.Suchistheoriginationofthisentiremassofstress….

“Now,cravingisdependentonfeeling,seekingisdependentoncraving,acquisitionisdependentonseeking,ascertainmentisdependentonacquisition,desireandpassionisdependentonascertainment,attachmentisdependentondesireandpassion,possessivenessisdependentonattachment,stinginessisdependentonpossessiveness,defensivenessisdependentonstinginess,andbecauseofdefensiveness,dependentondefensiveness,variousevil,

unskillfulphenomenacomeintoplay:thetakingupofsticksandknives;conflicts,quarrels,anddisputes;accusations,divisivespeech,andlies….

Thus,Ānanda,thesetwophenomena[thechainofconditionsleadingfromcravingtobirth,aging,anddeath,andthechainofconditionsleadingfromcravingtoquarrels,etc.],asaduality,flowbackintooneplaceatfeeling….

“‘Fromconsc iousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-and-form.’Thusithasbeensaid.Andthisisthewaytounderstandhowfromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-and-form.Ifconsciousnesswerenottodescendintothemother’swomb,wouldname-and-formtakeshapeinthewomb?”

“No,lord.”“If,afterdescendingintothewomb,consciousnessweretodepart,would

name-and-formbeproducedforthisworld?”“No,lord.”“Iftheconsciousnessoftheyoungboyorgirlweretobecutoff,wouldname-

and-formripen,grow,andreachmaturity?”“No,lord.”“Thusthisisacause,thisisareason,thisisanorigination,thisisarequisite

conditionforname-and-form,i.e.,consciousness.“‘Fromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomesconsc iousness.’Thusit

hasbeensaid.Andthisisthewaytounderstandhowfromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.Ifconsciousnesswerenottogainafootholdinname-and-form,wouldacoming-into-playoftheoriginationofbirth,aging,death,andstressinthefuturebediscerned?”

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“No,lord.”“Thusthisisacause,thisisareason,thisisanorigination,thisisarequisite

conditionforconsciousness,i.e.,name-and-form.“Thisistheextenttowhichthereisbirth,aging,death,passingaway,and

rearising.Thisistheextenttowhichtherearemeansofdesignation,expression,anddelineation.Thisistheextenttowhichthedimensionofdiscernmentextends,theextenttowhichthecyclerevolvesforthemanifesting/discernibilityofthisworld,i.e.,name-and-formtogetherwithconsciousness.”—DN15

§19.OnoneoccasionVen.SāriputtaandVen.MahāKoṭṭhitawerestayingnearVārāṇasīintheDeerParkatIsipatana.Thenintheevening,arisingfromhisseclusion,Ven.MahāKoṭṭhitawenttoVen.Sāriputtaand,onarrival,exchangedcourteousgreetingswithhim.Afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetingsandcourtesies,hesattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtoVen.Sāriputta:“Nowtellme,Sāriputtamyfriend:Isaging-and-deathself-madeorother-madeorbothself-madeandother-made,or—withoutself-makingorother-making—doesitarisespontaneously?”

“It’snotthecase,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,thataging-and-deathisself-made,thatitisother-made,thatitisbothself-madeandother-made,orthat—withoutself-makingorother-making—itarisesspontaneously.However,frombirthasarequisiteconditioncomesaging-and-death.”

“Nowtellme,friendSāriputta,isbirth….isbecoming….isclinging/sustenance…iscraving….isfeeling….iscontact…arethesixsensemediaself-madeorother-madeorbothself-madeandother-made,or—withoutself-makingorother-making—dotheyarisespontaneously?”

“It’snotthecase,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,thatthesixsensemediaareself-made,thattheyareother-made,thattheyarebothself-madeandother-made,orthat—withoutself-makingorother-making—theyarisespontaneously.However,fromnameandformasarequisiteconditioncomethesixsensemedia.”

“Nowtellme,friendSāriputta,isname-and-formself-madeorother-madeorbothself-madeandother-made,or—withoutself-makingorother-making—doesitarisespontaneously?”

“It’snotthecase,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,thatname-and-formisself-made,thatitisother-made,thatitisbothself-madeandother-made,orthat—withoutself-makingorother-making—itarisesspontaneously.However,fromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-and-form.”

“Nowtellme,friendSāriputta,isconsciousnessself-madeorother-madeor

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bothself-madeandother-made,or—withoutself-makingorother-making-doesitarisespontaneously?”

“It’snotthecase,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,thatconsciousnessisself-made,thatitisother-made,thatitisbothself-madeandother-made,orthat—withoutself-makingorother-making—itarisesspontaneously.However,fromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.”

“Justnow,friendSāriputta,Iunderstoodyourstatementas,‘It’snotthecase,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,thatname-and-formisself-made,thatitisother-made,thatitisbothself-madeandother-made,orthat—withoutself-makingorother-making—itarisesspontaneously.However,fromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-and-form’ButthenIunderstoodyourstatementas,‘It’snotthecase,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,thatconsciousnessisself-made,thatitisother-made,thatitisbothself-madeandother-made,orthat—withoutself-makingorother-making—itarisesspontaneously.However,fromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.’Nowhowisthemeaningofthesestatementstobeunderstood?”

“Verywellthen,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,Iwillgiveyouananalogy,fortherearecaseswhereitisthroughtheuseofananalogythatintelligentpeoplecanunderstandthemeaningofwhatisbeingsaid.Itisasiftwosheavesofreedsweretostandleaningagainstoneanother.Inthesameway,fromname-and-formasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness,fromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-and-form.Fromnameandformasarequisiteconditioncomethesixsensemedia.Fromthesixsensemediaasarequisiteconditioncomescontact.Fromcontactasarequisiteconditioncomesfeeling.Fromfeelingasarequisiteconditioncomescraving.Fromcravingasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging/sustenance.Fromclinging/sustenanceasarequisiteconditioncomesbecoming.Frombecomingasarequisiteconditioncomesbirth.Frombirthasarequisitecondition,thenaging-and-death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespaircomeintoplay.Suchistheoriginationofthisentiremassofsufferingandstress.

“Ifoneweretopullawayoneofthosesheavesofreeds,theotherwouldfall;ifoneweretopullawaytheother,thefirstonewouldfall.Inthesameway,fromthecessationofname-and-formcomesthecessationofconsciousness,fromthecessationofconsciousnesscomesthecessationofname-and-form.Fromthecessationofname-and-formcomesthecessationofthesixsensemedia.Fromthecessationofthesixsensemediacomesthecessationofcontact.Fromthecessationofcontactcomesthecessationoffeeling.Fromthecessationoffeelingcomesthecessationofcraving.Fromthecessationofcravingcomesthecessation

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ofclinging/sustenance.Fromthecessationofclinging/sustenancecomesthecessationofbecoming.Fromthecessationofbecomingcomesthecessationofbirth.Fromthecessationofbirth,thenaging-and-death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespairallcease.Suchisthecessationofthisentiremassofsufferingandstress.”

“It’samazing,friendSāriputta.It’sastounding,friendSāriputta,howwellthatwassaidbyVen.Sāriputta.AndIrejoiceinVen.Sāriputta’sgoodstatementswithregardtothese36topics[thethreequalities—teaching,practice,andattainment—Ven.MahāKoṭṭhitaisabouttomentionwithregardtoeachfactorinthetwelve-factoredformulafordependentco-arising].IfamonkteachestheDhammaforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtoaging-and-death,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhoisaspeakerofDhamma.Ifhepracticesforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtoaging-and-death,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhopracticestheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhamma.If—throughdisenchantment,dispassion,cessation,andlackofclinging/sustenancewithregardtoaging-and-death—heisreleased,thenhedeservestobecalledamonkwhohasattainedUnbindinginthehere-and-now.

“IfamonkteachestheDhammaforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtobirth,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhoisaspeakerofDhamma.Ifhepracticesforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtobirth,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhopracticestheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhamma.If—throughdisenchantment,dispassion,cessation,andlackofclinging/sustenancewithregardtobirth—heisreleased,thenhedeservestobecalledamonkwhohasattainedUnbindinginthehere-and-now.

[Similarlywithbecoming,clinging/sustenance,craving,feeling,contact,thesixsensemedia,nameandform,andconsciousness.]

“IfamonkteachestheDhammaforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtofabrications,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhoisaspeakerofDhamma.Ifhepracticesforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtofabrications,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhopracticestheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhamma.If—throughdisenchantment,dispassion,cessation,andlackofclinging/sustenancewithregardtofabrications—heisreleased,thenhedeservestobecalledamonkwhohasattainedUnbindinginthehere-and-now.

“IfamonkteachestheDhammaforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtoignorance,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhoisa

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speakerofDhamma.Ifhepracticesforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtoignorance,hedeservestobecalledamonkwhopracticestheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhamma.If—throughdisenchantment,dispassion,cessation,andlackofclinging/sustenancewithregardtoignorance—heisreleased,thenhedeservestobecalledamonkwhohasattainedUnbindinginthehere-and-now.”—SN12:67

The primary constant throughout the various formulations ofdependent co-arising is that the knowledge applied to each factor — theknowledge leading to disenchantment, dispassion, and cessation —invariably follows the pattern of the four noble truths. Viewed in terms ofthe general pattern of complex nonlinear systems, this knowledgeinduces something like a resonance, a point at which a relationship withina system becomes undefined in terms of the forces constituting thesystem as a whole. The reason why this knowledge would function in thisway can be explained by a paradox found in the second noble truth.

§20.“Andthis,monks,isthenobletruthoftheoriginationofstress,thecravingthatmakesforrenewedbecoming—accompaniedbypassionanddelight,relishingnowhereandnowthere—i.e.,cravingforsensuality,cravingforbecoming,cravingfornon-becoming.”—SN56:11

The paradox here is that craving for non-becoming — the desire forthe ending of one’s identity in the world of one’s experience — is actuallya cause for further becoming. This is because craving combined withpassion and delight — a synonym for clinging — is a cause for becoming,regardless of whether it aims at building a new becoming out of the rawmaterial of what has come to be, or at destroying whatever becoming hascome to be. Iti 49 shows the way out of this impasse, which is to craveneither becoming nor non-becoming, but to simply have vision of whathas come to be as having come to be.

§21.“Overcomebytwoviewpoints,somehumananddivinebeingsadhere,otherhumananddivinebeingssliprightpast,whilethosewithvisionsee.“Andhowdosomeadhere?Humananddivinebeingsdelightinbecoming,enjoybecoming,aresatisfiedwithbecoming.WhentheDhammaisbeingtaughtforthesakeofthecessationofbecoming,theirmindsdonottaketoit,arenotcalmedbyit,donotsettleonit,orbecomeresolvedonit.Thisishowsome

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adhere.“Andhowdosomesliprightpast?Some,feelinghorrified,humiliated,and

disgustedwiththatverybecoming,delightinnon-becoming;‘Whenthisself,atthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,perishesandisdestroyed,anddoesnotexistafterdeath,thatispeaceful,thatisexquisite,thatissufficiency!’Thisishowsomesliprightpast.

“Andhowdothosewithvisionsee?Thereisthecasewhereamonkseeswhat’scometobeaswhat’scometobe.Seeingthis,hepracticesfordisenchantmentwithwhat’scometobe,dispassionforwhat’scometobe,andthecessationofwhat’scometobe.Thisishowthosewithvisionsee….

Those,havingseenwhat’scometobe

aswhat’scometobe,andwhat’sgonebeyond

what’scometobe,arereleasedinline

withwhat’scometobe,throughtheexhaustionofcravingforbecoming.Ifthey’vecomprehendedwhat’scometobe—

andarefreefromcravingforbecomingandnot-,

withthenon-becomingofwhat’scometobe—

monkscometonorenewedbecoming.—Iti49

In other words, the ability to put an end to stress depends not onviews, but on a type of vision that sees things simply as they arise,without trying to make a world or a self out of them, and without trying todestroy them. Knowledge in terms of the four noble truths leads to thissort of vision in several steps. To begin with, it divides experience intofour useful categories for understanding stress. Then it recommendstasks appropriate for mastering each category as a skill: stress is to becomprehended to the point of dispassion, its cause abandoned, itscessation realized, and the path to its cessation developed. Theknowledge gained while following these tasks takes advantage of theopportunity to convert the factors of dependent co-arising into factors ofthe path, thus inducing a new pattern for their behavior.

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The pattern of dependent co-arising places this knowledge at twostrategic points, replacing ignorance on the one hand, and convertinginappropriate attention to appropriate attention on the other. Thesefactors are immediately adjacent to the factors responsible for theelement of choice: fabrication in the first instance, and intention (asattention’s co-sub-factor under name) in the second. Thus thisknowledge is in an excellent place to convert unskillful potentials intoskillful ones with an immediate effect for reducing suffering and stress.

When the tasks appropriate to the four truths are fully mastered asskills, they arrive at a point where there is nothing further to be done,nothing further to develop, nothing further to abandon, nothing further tocomprehend. The factors responsible for choice thus have nothing tochoose from. The ability to see this situation as it has arisen inducesdispassion for any and all types of craving and clinging, whether for thecauses of stress or for the path to its cessation. This combination ofknowledge and dispassion fully replaces ignorance, thus preventingfabrication from functioning; it also induces a supremely appropriate formof attention, thus preventing intention from functioning as well. Thewhole fabric of dependent co-arising then begins to unravel, revealingtotal Unbinding. Which is why — as the Buddha noted in his first sermon— the complete knowledge and vision of the four noble truths as theyhave come to be constitutes full Awakening.

§22.“Visionarose,insightarose,discernmentarose,knowledgearose,illuminationarosewithinmewithregardtothingsneverheardbefore:‘Thisisthenobletruthofstress’….‘Thisnobletruthofstressistobecomprehended’….‘Thisnobletruthofstresshasbeencomprehended.’

“Visionarose,insightarose,discernmentarose,knowledgearose,illuminationarosewithinmewithregardtothingsneverheardbefore:‘Thisisthenobletruthoftheoriginationofstress’….‘Thisnobletruthoftheoriginationofstressistobeabandoned’….‘Thisnobletruthoftheoriginationofstresshasbeenabandoned.’

“Visionarose,insightarose,discernmentarose,knowledgearose,illuminationarosewithinmewithregardtothingsneverheardbefore:‘Thisisthenobletruthofthecessationofstress’….‘Thisnobletruthofthecessationofstressistobedirectlyrealized’….‘Thisnobletruthofthecessationofstresshasbeendirectlyrealized.’

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“Visionarose,insightarose,discernmentarose,knowledgearose,illuminationarosewithinmewithregardtothingsneverheardbefore:‘Thisisthenobletruthofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstress’….‘Thisnobletruthofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstressistobedeveloped’….‘Thisnobletruthofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstresshasbeendeveloped.’

“And,monks,aslongasthis—mythree-round,twelve-permutationknowledgeandvisionconcerningthesefournobletruthsastheyhavecometobe—wasnotpure,Ididnotclaimtohavedirectlyawakenedtotherightself-awakeningunexcelledinthecosmoswithitsdevas,Māras,andBrahmās,withitscontemplativesandpriests,itsroyaltyandcommonfolk.Butassoonasthis—mythree-round,twelve-permutationknowledgeandvisionconcerningthesefournobletruthsastheyhavecometobe—wastrulypure,thenIdidclaimtohavedirectlyawakenedtotherightself-awakeningunexcelledinthecosmoswithitsdevas,Māras,andBrahmās,withitscontemplativesandpriests,itsroyaltyandcommonfolk.Knowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘Unprovokedismyrelease.Thisisthelastbirth.Thereisnownorenewedbecoming.’”—SN56:11

As one is no longer obsessed either with building the raw materials ofthe aggregates into a state of becoming or with destroying them, one isno longer defined in terms of any of the factors of dependent co-arising.

§23.ThenVen.RādhawenttotheBlessedOneandonarrival,havingboweddowntohim,sattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne:“‘Abeing,’lord.‘Abeing,’it’ssaid.Towhatextentisonesaidtobe‘abeing’?”

“Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforform,Rādha:Whenoneiscaughtup[satta]there,tiedup[visatta]there,oneissaidtobe‘abeing[satta].’

“Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforfeeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness,Rādha;Whenoneiscaughtupthere,tiedupthere,oneissaidtobe‘abeing.’”—SN23:2

§24.“Ifonestaysobsessedwithform,that’swhatoneismeasured/limitedby.Whateveroneismeasuredby,that’showoneisclassified.

“Ifonestaysobsessedwithfeeling…obsessedwithperception…“Ifonestaysobsessedwithfabrications…“Ifonestaysobsessedwithconsciousness,that’swhatoneismeasured/limited

by.Whateveroneismeasuredby,that’showoneisclassified.

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“Butifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithform,monk,that’snotwhatoneismeasured/limitedby.Whateveroneisn’tmeasuredby,that’snothowoneisclassified.

“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithfeeling….“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithperception….“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithfabrications….“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithconsciousness,that’snotwhatoneis

measured/limitedby.Whateveroneisn’tmeasuredby,that’snothowoneisclassified.”—SN22:36

In this way, one is freed from the system. However, as stated before,this freedom is found not by defying the causal relationships underlyingthe system, but by consistently changing the system’s parameter values.This is accomplished by consistently applying knowledge to the systemas it is immediately experienced. This is where the principle of self-similarity across different scales comes into play. Several discoursespoint out that dependent co-arising explains not only the origination ofsuffering, but also the origination of the cosmos (SN 12:44). The factorsof dependent co-arising — and in particular, the factor of intention — canoperate not only in the immediate present, but also over enormous timescales of many eons.

§25.“Monks,don’tbeafraidofactsofmerit.Thisisanotherwayofsayingwhatisblissful,desirable,pleasing,endearing,charming—i.e.,actsofmerit.Iamcognizantthat,havinglongperformedactsofmerit,Ilongexperienceddesirable,pleasing,endearing,charmingresults.Havingdevelopedamindofgoodwillforsevenyears,thenforseveneonsofcontractionandexpansionIdidn’treturntothisworld.Whenevertheeonwascontracting,IwenttotherealmofStreamingRadiance.Whenevertheeonwasexpanding,IreappearedinanemptyBrahmā-abode.ThereIwastheGreatBrahmā,theConquerorUnconquered,All-seeing,WielderofPower.Thenforthirty-sixtimesIwasSakka,rulerofthegods.FormanyhundredsoftimesIwasaking,awheel-turningemperor,arighteouskingofDhamma,conquerorofthefourcornersoftheearth,maintainingstablecontroloverthecountryside,endowedwiththeseventreasures—tosaynothingofthetimesIwasalocalking.Thethoughtoccurredtome:‘Ofwhatactionofmineisthisthefruit,ofwhatactiontheresult,thatInowhavesuchgreatpowerandmight?’Thenthethoughtoccurredtome:‘Thisisthefruitofmythree[typesof]action,theresultofthreetypesof

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action,thatInowhavesuchgreatpowerandmight:i.e.,generosity,self-control,andrestraint.’”—Iti22

Although the Buddha would occasionally explain the workings ofintention on the cosmic scale in this way (see, for instance, DN 1, DN 26,and DN 27), there is no need to examine the entire cosmos to master theprocesses of dependent co-arising. Because these processes operate inthe same way on the micro level as they do on the macro level, one canexamine them and master them completely through one’s immediateexperience in the here-and-now.

§26.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasstayingnearSavatthī,inJeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika'smonastery.ThenRohitassa,thesonofadeva,inthefarextremeofthenight,hisextremeradiancelightinguptheentiretyofJeta’sGrove,wenttotheBlessedOne.Onarrival,havingboweddowntotheBlessedOne,hestoodtooneside.AshewasstandingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne,“Isitpossible,lord,bytraveling,toknoworseeorreachafarendofthecosmoswhereonedoesn’ttakebirth,age,die,passawayorreappear?”

“Itellyou,friend,thatitisn’tpossiblebytravelingtoknoworseeorreachafarendofthecosmoswhereonedoesn’ttakebirth,age,die,passaway,orreappear.”

“Itisamazing,lord,andawesome,howwellthathasbeensaidbytheBlessedOne….OnceIwasaseernamedRohitassa,astudentofBhoja,apowerfulskywalker.Myspeedwasasfastasthatofastrongarcher—welltrained,apracticedhand,apracticedsharpshooter—shootingalightarrowacrosstheshadowofapalmyratree.Mystridestretchedasfarastheeastseaisfromthewest.Tome,endowedwithsuchspeed,suchastride,therecamethedesire,‘Iwillgotravelingtotheendofthecosmos.’I—withaone-hundredyearlife,aone-hundredyearspan—spentonehundredyearstraveling—apartfromthetimespentoneating,drinking,chewingandtasting,urinatinganddefecating,andsleepingtofightoffweariness—butwithoutreachingtheendofthecosmosIdiedalongtheway.Soitisamazing,lord,andawesome,howwellthathasbeensaidbytheBlessedOne,‘Itellyou,friend,thatitisn’tpossiblebytravelingtoknoworseeorreachafarendofthecosmoswhereonedoesn’ttakebirth,age,die,passaway,orreappear.’”

[Whenthiswassaid,theBlessedOneresponded:]“Itellyou,friend,thatitisn’tpossiblebytravelingtoknoworseeorreachafarendofthecosmoswhereonedoesn’ttakebirth,age,die,passaway,orreappear.Butatthesametime,Itell

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youthatthereisnomakinganendofsufferingandstresswithoutreachingtheendofthecosmos.Yetitisjustwithinthisfathom-longbody,withitsperceptionandintellect,thatIdeclarethatthereisthecosmos,theoriginationofthecosmos,thecessationofthecosmos,andthepathofpracticeleadingtothecessationofthecosmos.”

It’snottobereachedbytraveling,theendofthecosmos—

regardless.Andit’snotwithoutreaching

theendofthecosmosthatthereisreleasefromsufferingandstress.

So,truly,thewiseone,anexpertwithregardtothecosmos,aknoweroftheendofthecosmos,havingfulfilledtheholylife,

calmed,knowingthecosmos’end,

doesn’tlongforthiscosmosorforanyother.—AN4:45

In fact, when the Buddha uses the term “world” or “cosmos” (loka), hisprimary meaning is the cosmos as experienced in terms of the six senses.As with the other factors of dependent co-arising, there is no need tostudy the cosmos “out there” behind our experience of the senses. It isenough simply to understand the cosmos as directly experienced for thatexperience to be brought to an end.

§27.ThenacertainmonkwenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,havingboweddowntohim,sattooneside.Ashewassittingthere,hesaidtotheBlessedOne:“‘Thecosmos,thecosmos[loka],’itissaid.Inwhatrespectdoestheword‘cosmos’apply?

“Insofarasitdisintegrates[lujjati],monk,itiscalledthe‘cosmos.’Nowwhatdisintegrates?Theeyedisintegrates.Formsdisintegrate.Eye-consciousnessdisintegrates.Eye-contactdisintegrates.Andwhateverthereisthatarisesindependenceoneye-contact—experiencedaspleasure,painorneither-pleasure-nor-pain—thattoodisintegrates.

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“Theeardisintegrates.Soundsdisintegrate….“Thenosedisintegrates.Aromasdisintegrate….“Thetonguedisintegrates.Tastesdisintegrate….“Thebodydisintegrates.Tactilesensationsdisintegrate….“Theintellectdisintegrates.Ideasdisintegrate.Intellect-consciousnessdisintegrates.Intellect-contactdisintegrates.Andwhateverthereisthatarises

independenceonintellect-contact—experiencedaspleasure,painorneither-

pleasure-nor-pain—thattoodisintegrates.“Insofarasitdisintegrates,itiscalledthe‘cosmos.’”—SN35:82

* * *The concept of the cessation of the experience of the cosmos naturally

sparks the question, “What then is left?” This question, however,assumes the dimensions of space and time — something existing inspace after a certain point in time — but because these dimensions donot apply beyond the experience of space and time, the question isinvalid.

§28.Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“Withtheremainderlessdispassion-cessationofthesixcontact-mediaisthereanythingelse?”

Ven.Sāriputta:“Don’tsaythat,myfriend.”Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“Withtheremainderlessdispassion-cessationofthesix

contact-media,istherenotanythingelse?”Ven.Sāriputta:“Don’tsaythat,myfriend.”Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“…isitthecasethattherebothisandisnotanything

else?”Ven.Sāriputta:“Don’tsaythat,myfriend.”Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“…isitthecasethatthereneitherisnorisnotanything

else?”Ven.Sāriputta:“Don’tsaythat,myfriend.”Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“Beingasked…ifthereisanythingelse,yousay,‘Don’t

saythat,myfriend’.Beingasked…ifthereisnotanythingelse…iftherebothisandisnotanythingelse…ifthereneitherisnorisnotanythingelse,yousay,

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‘Don’tsaythat,myfriend.’Now,howisthemeaningofthisstatementtobeunderstood?”

Ven.Sāriputta:“Saying,‘…isthereanythingelse?’…‘…istherenotanythingelse?‘…‘…isitthecasethattherebothisandisnotanythingelse?‘…‘…isitthecasethatthereneitherisnorisnotanythingelse?’oneisobjectifyingnonobjectification.Howeverfarthesixcontact-mediago,thatishowfarobjectificationgoes.Howeverfarobjectificationgoes,thatishowfarthesixcontact-mediago.Withtheremainderlessdispassion/cessationofthesixcontactmedia,therecomestobethecessation,theallayingofobjectification.”—AN4:173

The allaying of objectification is experienced by a type ofconsciousness that — because it lies beyond the dimensions of space andtime — is not classified as sensory consciousness under the fiveaggregates.

§29.“‘Havingdirectlyknowntheall[thesixsensemediaandtheirobjects]astheall,andhavingdirectlyknowntheextentofwhathasnotbeenexperiencedthroughtheallnessoftheall,Iwasn’ttheall,Iwasn’tintheall,Iwasn’tcomingforthfromtheall,Iwasn’t“Theallismine.”Ididn’taffirmtheall….

“‘Consciousnesswithoutsurface,withoutend,

luminousallaround,

hasnotbeenexperiencedthroughtheearthnessofearth…theliquidityofliquid…thefierinessoffire…thewindinessofwind…thebeing-nessofbeings…thedeva-nessofdevas…thePajāpati-nessofPajāpati…thebrahmā-nessofBrahmā…theradiant-nessoftheradiant(devas)…thebeautifulblack-nessofthebeautifulblack(devas)…thesky-fruit-nessofthesky-fruit(devas)…theconqueror-nessoftheconqueror…theallnessoftheall.’”—M N49

As we have seen, a basic feature of the Buddha’s teachings oncausality is that if x arises because y arises, it will cease when y ceases.Thus, for instance, the Buddha was harshly critical of any attempts todepict sensory consciousness, which arises and passes away based onconditions, as existing independently of those conditions.

§30.“Isittrue,Sāti,thatthisevilviewhasariseninyou?—‘AsIunderstand

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theDhammataughtbytheBlessedOne,itisjustthisconsciousnessthatrunsandwanderson[frombirthtobirth],notanother.’”

“Exactlyso,lord.AsIunderstandtheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOne,itisjustthisconsciousnessthatrunsandwanderson,notanother.”

“Whichconsciousness,Sāti,isthat?”“Thisspeaker,thisknower,lord,thatissensitivehereandtheretothe

ripeningofgoodandevilactions.”“Andtowhom,worthlessman,doyouunderstandmetohavetaughtthe

Dhammalikethat?Haven’tI,inmanyways,saidofdependentlyco-arisenconsciousness,‘Apartfromarequisitecondition,thereisnocoming-into-playofconsciousness’?Butyou,throughyourownpoorgrasp,notonlymisrepresentmebutalsodigyourselfup(bytheroot)andproducemuchdemerit.Thatwillbeforyourlong-termharmandsuffering.”—M N38

But because consciousness without surface — unlike dependently co-arisen sensory consciousness — exists outside of time, it does not arise.Because it is known independently of the six sense media, it will notcease when they do. This consciousness provides no footing for any ofthe causal factors — personal or cosmic — that would lead to anyfurther suffering or stress.

§31.“ThenthemonkattainedtosuchastateofconcentrationthatthewayleadingtothegodsoftheretinueofBrahmāappearedinhiscenteredmind.SoheapproachedthegodsoftheretinueofBrahmāand,onarrival,askedthem,‘Friends,wheredothesefourgreatelements—theearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty—ceasewithoutremainder?’“Whenthiswassaid,thegodsoftheretinueofBrahmāsaidtothemonk,‘Wealsodon’tknowwherethefourgreatelements…ceasewithoutremainder.ButthereisBrahmā,theGreatBrahmā,theConquerorUnconquered,theAll-Seeing,WielderofPower,SovereignLord,Maker,Creator,Chief,AppointerandRuler,FatherofAllThatHaveBeenandShallBe.Heishigherandmoresublimethanwe.Heshouldknowwherethefourgreatelements…ceasewithoutremainder.’“‘Butwhere,friends,istheGreatBrahmānow?’

“‘Monk,wealsodon’tknowwhereBrahmāisorinwhatwayBrahmāis.Butwhensignsappear,lightshinesforth,andaradianceappears,Brahmāwillappear.ForthesearetheportentsofBrahmā’sappearance:lightshinesforthandaradianceappears.’

“ThenitwasnotlongbeforetheGreatBrahmāappeared.“Sothemonk

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approachedtheGreatBrahmāand,onarrival,said,‘Friend,wheredothesefourgreatelements—theearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty—ceasewithoutremainder?’

“Whenthiswassaid,theGreatBrahmāsaidtothemonk,‘I,monk,amBrahmā,theGreatBrahmā,theConquerorUnconquered,theAll-Seeing,WielderofPower,SovereignLord,Maker,Creator,Chief,AppointerandRuler,FatherofAllThatHaveBeenandShallBe.’

Asecondtime,themonksaidtotheGreatBrahmā,‘Friend,Ididn’taskyouifyouwereBrahmā,theGreatBrahmā,theConquerorUnconquered,theAll-Seeing,WielderofPower,SovereignLord,Maker,Creator,Chief,AppointerandRuler,FatherofAllThatHaveBeenandShallBe.Iaskedyouwherethesefourgreatelements—theearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty—ceasewithoutremainder.’

“Asecondtime,theGreatBrahmāsaidtothemonk,‘I,monk,amBrahmā,theGreatBrahmā,theConquerorUnconquered,theAll-Seeing,WielderofPower,SovereignLord,Maker,Creator,Chief,AppointerandRuler,FatherofAllThatHaveBeenandShallBe.’

“Athirdtime,themonksaidtotheGreatBrahmā,‘Friend,Ididn’taskyouifyouwereBrahmā,theGreatBrahmā,theConquerorUnconquered,theAll-Seeing,WielderofPower,SovereignLord,Maker,Creator,Chief,AppointerandRuler,FatherofAllThatHaveBeenandShallBe.Iaskedyouwherethesefourgreatelements—theearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty—ceasewithoutremainder.’

“ThentheGreatBrahmā,takingthemonkbythearmandleadinghimofftooneside,saidtohim,‘ThesegodsoftheretinueofBrahmābelieve,“ThereisnothingthattheGreatBrahmādoesnotknow.ThereisnothingthattheGreatBrahmādoesnotsee.ThereisnothingofwhichtheGreatBrahmāisunaware.ThereisnothingthattheGreatBrahmāhasnotrealized.”ThatiswhyIdidnotsayintheirpresencethatI,too,don’tknowwherethefourgreatelements…ceasewithoutremainder.Soyouhaveactedwrongly,actedincorrectly,inbypassingtheBlessedOneinsearchofananswertothisquestionelsewhere.GorightbacktotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,askhimthisquestion.Howeverheanswersit,youshouldtakeittoheart.’

“Then—justasastrongmanmightextendhisflexedarmorflexhisextendedarm—themonkdisappearedfromtheBrahmāworldandimmediatelyappearedinfrontofme.Havingboweddowntome,hesattooneside.Ashewassittingtherehesaidtome,‘Venerablesir,wheredothesefourgreatelements—theearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty—

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ceasewithoutremainder?’“Whenthiswassaid,Isaidtohim,‘Once,monk,somesea-faringmerchants

tookashore-sightingbirdandsetsailintheirship.Whentheycouldnotseetheshore,theyreleasedtheshore-sightingbird.Itflewtotheeast,south,west,north,straightup,andtoalltheintermediatepointsofthecompass.Ifitsawtheshoreinanydirection,itflewthere.Ifitdidnotseetheshoreinanydirection,itreturnedrightbacktotheship.Inthesameway,monk,havinggoneasfarastheBrahmāworldinsearchofananswertoyourquestion,youhavecomerightbacktomypresence.

“‘Yourquestionshouldnotbephrasedinthisway:Wheredothesefourgreatelements—theearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty—ceasewithoutremainder?Instead,itshouldbephrasedlikethis:

“‘Wheredowater,earth,fire,andwindhavenofooting?

Wherearelongandshort,coarseandfine,fairandfoul,nameandform

broughttoanend?

“‘Andtheanswertothatis:

“‘Consciousnesswithoutsurface,withoutend,

luminousallaround:Herewater,earth,fire,andwind

havenofooting.Here

longandshortcoarseandfinefairandfoulnameandform

areallbroughttoanend.Withthecessationofconsciousness

eachisherebroughttoanend.’”—DN11

Having experienced this type of consciousness at the time ofAwakening, the arahant may return to the experience of sensory

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consciousness if he/she still has the kammic potential to continue living.In doing so, he/she continues to create further kamma by producingfurther intentions. However, because the mind is now free of the cravingand clinging associated with greed, aversion, and delusion, thoseintentions lead to no further becoming.

§32.“Justaswhenseedsarenotbroken,notrotten,notdamagedbywindandheat,capableofsprouting,well-buried,plantedinwell-preparedsoil,andamanwouldburnthemwithfireand,burningthemwithfire,wouldmakethemintofineashes.Havingmadethemintofineashes,hewouldwinnowthembeforeahighwindorwashthemawayinaswift-flowingstream.Thoseseedswouldthusbedestroyedattheroot,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.

“Inthesameway,anyactionperformedwithnon-greed—bornofnongreed,causedbynon-greed,originatingfromnon-greed:Whengreedisgone,thatactionisthusabandoned,itsrootdestroyed,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.“Anyactionperformedwithnon-aversion…

“Anyactionperformedwithnon-delusion—bornofnon-delusion,causedbynon-delusion,originatingfromnon-delusion:Whendelusionisgone,thatactionisthusabandoned,itsrootdestroyed,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.”—AN3:34

One of the reasons why the arahant’s intentions are free of craving,clinging, or becoming is because his/her experience of the senses is nowradically different. No longer aflame with the fires of greed, aversion, anddelusion, it is like a fire that has ceased to burn, but with a few embersstill glowing. At the moment of death, however, the arahant is entirelyfreed from the stress of conditioned consciousness, like a fire sothoroughly out that all its embers have totally cooled.

§33.“Monks,therearethesetwoformsoftheUnbindingproperty.Whichtwo?TheUnbindingpropertywithfuelremaining,andtheUnbindingpropertywithnofuelremaining.

“AndwhatistheUnbindingpropertywithfuelremaining?Thereisthecasewhereamonkisanarahantwhoseeffluentshaveended,whohasreachedfulfillment,finishedthetask,laiddowntheburden,attainedthetruegoal,endedthefetterofbecoming,andisreleasedthroughrightgnosis.Hisfivesense

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facultiesstillremainand,owingtotheirbeingintact,heiscognizantoftheagreeableandthedisagreeable,andissensitivetopleasureandpain.Hisendingofpassion,aversion,anddelusionistermedtheUnbindingpropertywithfuelremaining.

“AndwhatistheUnbindingpropertywithnofuelremaining?Thereisthecasewhereamonkisanarahantwhoseeffluentshaveended,whohasreachedfulfillment,finishedthetask,laiddowntheburden,attainedthetruegoal,endedthefetterofbecoming,andisreleasedthroughrightgnosis.Forhim,allthatissensed,beingunrelished,willgrowcoldrighthere.ThisistermedtheUnbindingpropertywithnofuelremaining.”

Thesetwoproclaimedbytheonewithvision,

Unbindingproperties,theoneindependent,theonewhoisSuch:

oneproperty,hereinthislifewithfuelremaining

fromthedestructionoftheguidetobecoming,

andthatwithnofuelremaining,afterthislife,

inwhichallbecomingtotallyceases.

Thosewhoknowthisunfabricatedstate,theirmindsreleasedthroughthedestruction

oftheguidetobecoming,they,attainingtheTeaching’score,

pleasedwithending,haveabandonedallbecoming:

they,theSuch.—Iti4 4

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CHAPTER TWO

“Abandonfood,havingreliedonfood”To understand an abstract teaching, it is often useful to focus on the

analogies with which it is explained. This gives not only a concretereference point to make the teachings intelligible, but also an idea of theinitial insight that led to the teaching to begin with. Abstractions comefrom concrete experience, and the analogies with which they areexplained often provide a hint as to what those initial experiences were.This in turn gives an indication of how the teachings can be bestunderstood and where best applied.

This point is especially important in understanding dependent co-arising, for over the centuries the Buddhist tradition has changed theanalogies and images with which this teaching is explained. We havealready noted that medieval Indian Buddhists interpreted dependent co-arising as a circular wheel, distorting the complexity of the originalteaching in many important ways. Another distortion has been thetendency, first articulated in medieval China, to depict the inter-relationsof the factors of dependent co-arising through another image of a circle:light reflecting from mirrors arranged in a circle around a lamp. Eachmirror contains not only a reflection of the lamp, but also the reflectionsof the other mirrors in the circle. Although this image conveys an idea ofthe complex interplay of conditions in dependent co-arising, it isessentially static, as the pattern of light never changes. In fact, in theoriginal formulation of this image, it is not meant to change. The causalinterplay is meant to be seen as innocent and even beautiful, somethingto be celebrated and admired, and never to end.

The Buddha, however, depicted the interplay of conditions independent co-arising in another light entirely. When introducing the topicof causality to young novices, he illustrated it with the act of eating, aprocess that is inherently stressful not only for those fed upon, but alsofor those who, through the disease of hunger (Dhp 203), keep needing tofeed.

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§34.“Whatisone?Allbeingssubsistonnutriment.”—Khp4

In making this statement, the Buddha was drawing on a long traditionof speculation on the topic of food that dated back to early Vedic times inIndia and continued to excite new theories in the Upaniṣads that werecomposed around his own time. This speculation was prompted by thefact that the Vedic ritual — in which animals were slaughtered andoffered into the fire — was meant as an offering of food to the gods andto one’s dead ancestors, as well as a stock-piling of food for one’s ownfuture use in the life after death.

As the Upaniṣadic seers contemplated the deeper meaning of thisritual, they focused on the importance of food for all life. This became theunderlying image for all of their thinking. In this, they differed radicallyfrom modern Western philosophy, whose underlying image is the act ofseeing an object. Of the physical senses, the visual sense requires themost active participation of the brain to interpret its sensory data. Theeye simply provides patches of colors, while the brain has to point it indifferent directions, focus it at different depths, and then interpret thecolor patches, together with the movements of the eye muscles, toperceive objects in three dimensional space. Thus the primary questionsthat arise in this context are: How much can we trust our interpretationsof reality “out there”, and how can we best test them? These are thequestions that have provoked most philosophical thought in the Westerntradition for many centuries.

The central activity that provoked the thought of the Upaniṣadic seers,however, was the act of ingesting food. The essential questions in thiscontext are: Given that we know we have to eat in order to survive, howdo we distinguish what is good to eat from what is bad to eat? And howdo we insure a continuing source of good food? This line of thinkingprovides the paradigm for a more general contemplation of how to find abasis for true happiness, and how that basis for happiness can bemaintained.

Although the different Upaniṣadic seers explored this topic in differentways, a summary of some of their conclusions shows the general drift oftheir speculation.

In the original emanation of the cosmos, Being gave rise to fire, whichgave rise to water, which gave rise to food. Only then were individual

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beings able to come into existence (ChU VI.2.4). Food was thus the eldestamong beings (TU II.2.1): in some cases identified as a god (BAU III.9.8;ChU I.11.9), in others identified with Brahman, the great cosmic principleitself (TU III.2.1). Some thinkers stated the food was one’s true self (MaiUVI.11- 13).

Upaniṣadic thought is marked by a strong tendency to internalize theVedic ritual, claiming that knowledge of the inner meaning of the ritual orof the true nature of Brahman and the self can provide rewards similar to— or better than — the physical performance of the ritual. This sametendency appears in Upaniṣadic thought about food. The reward ofunderstanding the esoteric meaning of the Sama Veda, for example, isample food in this life and the next (ChU I.13.4). Knowledge of the truenature of the self supplies one with food in all possible worlds (ChUV.18.1). One attains immortality through the ability to keep producing foodin this way again and again (BAU I.5.2).

The basic assumption of this speculation is that one’s continuedsurvival as a being is an unquestioned good. The ability to produce andconsume an unlimited supply of food is an even greater good. Thus thismode of speculation conceives of a cosmos created with the expresspurpose of providing food. The act of eating is given value as anexpression of the way things were meant to be.

The most succinct expression of these ideas is stated in TaittirīyaUpaniṣad II.2.1, a passage that bears comparing with the passage fromKhp 4, quoted above: “From food, indeed, are produced those creaturesthat dwell on earth. Furthermore, solely through food do they live, andthen also into it they pass at the end.” Because food is sometimesequated with Brahman and sometimes with the self, the pattern of thisimage parallels the larger pattern of most Upaniṣadic thought, that theself comes from Brahman, eventually returns to Brahman, and issustained by Brahman in the interim. In fact, this larger pattern mayderive from the more concrete experience of food and feeding as depictedin this passage.

Although the Buddha drew on the image of feeding to illustrate histeachings, he made a number of changes on the theme. The mostimportant was that he called into question the desirability of engaging inthe act of feeding for eternity. He agreed that the attainment of an

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ultimate happiness was the ultimate goal of all human thought andendeavor, but because he had found a happiness that was totallyunconditioned, attained only through abandoning his identity as a “being”of any sort — either as self or Brahman — he was able to look past thesupposed goodness of the act of eating to see the suffering and stressthat it inevitably involved. One of the marks of nibbana as a superior goalwas that it freed one from the need to feed, at the same time freeingother beings from being subject to one’s feeding. Because one’sattachment to food derives from one’s attachment to one’s identity as abeing, he would often find ways of calling that identity into question andencouraging his followers to do their best to abandon it.

§35.ThenVen.RādhawenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,havingboweddowntohimsattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne:“‘Abeing,’lord.‘Abeing,’it’ssaid.Towhatextentisonesaidtobe‘abeing’?”

“Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforform,Rādha,whenoneiscaughtup[satta]there,tiedup[visatta]there,oneissaidtobe‘abeing[satta].’“Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforfeeling…perception…fabrications…

“Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforconsciousness,Rādha,whenoneiscaughtupthere,tiedupthere,oneissaidtobe‘abeing.’

“Justaswhenboysorgirlsareplayingwithlittlesandcastles[literally,'dirthouses'],aslongastheyarenotfreefrompassion,desire,love,thirst,fever,andcravingforthoselittlesandcastles,that’showlongtheyhavefunwiththosesandcastles,enjoythem,treasurethem,feelpossessiveofthem.Butwhentheybecomefreefrompassion,desire,love,thirst,fever,andcravingforthoselittlesandcastles,thentheysmashthem,scatterthem,demolishthemwiththeirhandsorfeetandmakethemunfitforplay.

“Inthesameway,Rādha,youtooshouldsmash,scatter,anddemolishform,andmakeitunfitforplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforform.

“Youshouldsmash,scatter,anddemolishfeeling,andmakeitunfitforplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforfeeling.

“Youshouldsmash,scatter,anddemolishperception,andmakeitunfitforplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforperception.

“Youshouldsmash,scatter,anddemolishfabrications,andmakethemunfitforplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforfabrications.

“Youshouldsmash,scatter,anddemolishconsciousnessandmakeitunfitforplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforconsciousness,becausetheendingof

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craving,Rādha,isUnbinding.”—SN23:2

This analysis applies not only to the sense of individual, separate self,but also to the idea of a cosmic self.

§36.“Monks,whereaselforwhatbelongstoselfarenotpinneddownasatruthorreality,thentheview-position—‘Thiscosmosistheself.AfterdeaththisIwillbeconstant,permanent,eternal,notsubjecttochange.Iwillstayjustlikethatforaneternity’—isn’titutterlyandcompletelyafool’steaching?”—M N22

The way to abandon one’s attachment for the raw material of anysense of identity is to follow the same process explored in Chapter One,learning to look at it in terms of the four noble truths, training oneself tosee the origination of one’s identity as based on a type of food ornutriment, and then trying to induce a sense of disenchantment both forthe identity and for the food. Because the Pali term for disenchantment— nibbida — can also mean disgust, revulsion, or distaste, the process ofabandoning attachment is thus similar to the process of overcoming anaddiction to a particular type of food.

§37.Ven.Sāriputta[speakingtotheBuddha]:“Oneseeswithrightdiscernment,lord,that‘thishascomeintobeing.’Seeingwithrightdiscernmentthat‘thishascomeintobeing,’onepracticesfordisenchantmentwith,fordispassiontoward,forthecessationofwhathascomeintobeing.Oneseeswithrightdiscernmentthat‘ithascomeintobeingfromthisnutriment.’Seeingwithrightdiscernmentthat‘ithascomeintobeingfromthisnutriment,’onepracticesfordisenchantmentwith,fordispassiontoward,forthecessationofthenutrimentbywhichithascomeintobeing.Oneseeswithrightdiscernmentthat‘fromthecessationofthisnutriment,whathascomeintobeingissubjecttocessation.’Seeingwithrightdiscernmentthat‘fromthecessationofthisnutriment,whathascomeintobeingissubjecttocessation,’onepracticesfordisenchantmentwith,fordispassiontoward,forthecessationofwhatissubjecttocessation.Thisishowoneisalearner.

“Andhow,lord,isoneapersonwhohasfathomedtheDhamma?“Oneseeswithrightdiscernment,lord,that‘thishascomeintobeing.’Seeing

withrightdiscernmentthat‘thishascomeintobeing,’oneis—throughdisenchantment,dispassion,cessation,throughlackofclinging/sustenance—releasedfromwhathascomeintobeing.Oneseeswithrightdiscernmentthat‘it

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hascomeintobeingfromthisnutriment.’Seeingwithrightdiscernmentthat‘ithascomeintobeingfromthisnutriment,’oneis—throughdisenchantment,dispassion,cessation,throughlackofclinging/sustenance—releasedfromthenutrimentbywhichithascomeintobeing.Oneseeswithrightdiscernmentthat‘fromthecessationofthisnutriment,whathascomeintobeingissubjecttocessation.’Seeingwithrightdiscernmentthat‘fromthecessationofthisnutriment,whathascomeintobeingissubjecttocessation,’oneis—throughdisenchantment,dispassion,cessation,throughlackofclinging/sustenance—releasedfromwhatissubjecttocessation.ThisishowoneisapersonwhohasfathomedtheDhamma.”—SN12:31

Both MN 9 and Sn 3:12 show that when the pattern of the four nobletruths is applied to the topic of nutriment, it brings the same results aswhen applied to any of the factors of dependent co-arising.

§38.“‘Whateverstresscomesintoplayisallfromnutrimentasarequisitecondition’:thisisonecontemplation.‘Fromtheremainderlessfadingandcessationofthatverynutriment,thereisnocomingintoplayofstress’:thisisasecondcontemplation.Foramonkrightlycontemplatingthisdualityinthisway—heedful,ardent,andresolute—oneoftwofruitscanbeexpected:eithergnosisrighthereandnow,or—iftherebeanyremnantofclinging/sustenance—nonreturn.”

ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Havingsaidthat,theOneWell-gone,theTeacher,saidfurther:

“Anystressthatcomesintoplayisallfromnutriment

asarequisitecondition.

Withthecessationofnutriment,thereisnostresscomingintoplay.

Knowingthisdrawback—thatstresscomesfromnutriment

asarequisitecondition—

comprehendingallnutriment,independentofallnutriment,rightlyseeing

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freedomfromdiseasethroughthetotalendingofeffluents,

judiciouslyassociating,ajudge,

he,anattainer-of-wisdom,goesbeyondjudgment,

beyondclassification.”—Sn3:12

MN 9 expands on this point in two important ways. 1) “Nutriment”covers not only physical food for the body, but also three kinds of “food”for the growth of sensory consciousness into states of becoming: contactat the senses; the intentions that lead one to engage in contact at thesenses and then proliferate on that contact; and consciousness of allthese processes. 2) In listing craving as a condition for nutriment, MN 9places nutriment in the position normally held by clinging in the standarddescription of dependent co-arising, immediately after craving. Thisposition is connected to several facts. To begin with, the Pali word forcraving, taṇha, also means thirst; the Pali word for clinging, upādāna, alsomeans sustenance — both the act of taking sustenance and thenutriment that provides sustenance. Thus thirst leads to the act ofclinging to nutriment. As §40 points out, any passion and delight — anyclinging — for nutriment underlies the growth of consciousness; as §113points out, consciousness acts as the seed for becoming. Thus, by placingnutriment in the same position as clinging, MN 9 is simply providing moredetail on the way in which nutriment, clinging, and consciousness act asconditions for becoming. Only when the mind is freed from craving andclinging is it freed from its tendency to feed. And only then is it freed fromthe need to keep producing the becoming that leads to suffering andstress.

§39.“Andwhatisnutriment?Whatistheoriginationofnutriment?Whatisthecessationofnutriment?Whatisthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofnutriment?

“Therearethesefournutrimentsforthemaintenanceofbeingswhohavecomeintobeingorforthesupportofthoseinsearchofaplacetobeborn.Whichfour?Physicalfood,grossorrefined,contactasthesecond,intellectualintentionthethird,andconsciousnessthefourth.Fromtheoriginationof

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cravingcomestheoriginationofnutriment.Fromthecessationofcravingcomesthecessationofnutriment.Andthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofnutrimentisjustthisverynobleeightfoldpath:rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.

“Now,whenadiscipleofthenobleonesdiscernsnutriment,theoriginationofnutriment,thecessationofnutriment,andthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofnutrimentinthisway,when—havingentirelyabandonedpassion-obsession,havingabolishedaversion-obsession,havinguprootedtheview-and-conceitobsession‘Iam’;havingabandonedignoranceandgivenrisetoclearknowing—hehasputanendtosufferingandstressrightinthehere-and-now,itistothisextent,too,thatadiscipleofthenobleonesisapersonofrightview,onewhoseviewismadestraight,whoisendowedwithverifiedconfidenceintheDhamma,andwhohasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”—M N9

§40.“Wherethereispassion,delight,andcravingforthenutrimentofphysicalfood,consciousnesslandsthereandincreases.Whereconsciousnesslandsandincreases,thereisthealightingofname-and-form.Wherethereisthealightingofname-and-form,thereisthegrowthoffabrications.Wherethereisthegrowthoffabrications,thereistheproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture.Wherethereistheproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture,thereisfuturebirth,aging,anddeath,together,Itellyou,withsorrow,affliction,anddespair.“Wherethereispassion,delight,andcravingforthenutrimentofcontact….“Wherethereispassion,delight,andcravingforthenutrimentofintellectualintention….

“Wherethereispassion,delight,andcravingforthenutrimentofconsciousness,consciousnesslandsthereandincreases.Whereconsciousnesslandsandincreases,thereisthealightingofname-and-form.Wherethereisthealightingofname-and-form,thereisthegrowthoffabrications.Wherethereisthegrowthoffabrications,thereistheproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture.Wherethereistheproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture,thereisfuturebirth,aging,anddeath,together,Itellyou,withsorrow,affliction,anddespair.

“Justas—whenthereisdye,lac,yelloworpiment,indigo,orcrimson—adyerorpainterwouldpaintthepictureofawomanoraman,completeinallitsparts,onawell-polishedpanelorwall,oronapieceofcloth,inthesameway,wherethereispassion,delight,andcravingforthenutrimentofphysicalfood…contact…intellectualintention…consciousness,consciousnesslandsthereand

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increases.Whereconsciousnesslandsandincreases,thereisthealightingofname-and-form.Wherethereisthealightingofname-and-form,thereisthegrowthoffabrications.Wherethereisthegrowthoffabrications,thereistheproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture.Wherethereistheproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture,thereisfuturebirth,aging,anddeath,together,Itellyou,withsorrow,affliction,anddespair.

“Wherethereisnopassionforthenutrimentofphysicalfood,wherethereisnodelight,nocraving,thenconsciousnessdoesnotlandthereorincrease.Whereconsciousnessdoesnotlandorincrease,thereisnoalightingofname-and-form.Wherethereisnoalightingofname-and-form,thereisnogrowthoffabrications.Wherethereisnogrowthoffabrications,thereisnoproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture.Wherethereisnoproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture,thereisnofuturebirth,aging,anddeath.That,Itellyou,hasnosorrow,affliction,ordespair.

“Wherethereisnopassionforthenutrimentofcontact….“Wherethereisnopassionforthenutrimentofintellectualintention….“Wherethereisnopassionforthenutrimentofconsciousness,wherethereisnodelight,nocraving,thenconsciousnessdoesnotlandthereorincrease.Whereconsciousnessdoesnotlandorincrease,thereisnoalightingofname-and-form.Wherethereisnoalightingofname-and-form,thereisnogrowthoffabrications.Wherethereisnogrowthoffabrications,thereisnoproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture.Wherethereisnoproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture,thereisnofuturebirth,aging,anddeath.That,Itellyou,hasnosorrow,affliction,ordespair.

“Justasiftherewerearoofedhouseoraroofedhallhavingwindowsonthenorth,thesouth,ortheeast.Whenthesunrises,andarayhasenteredbywayofthewindow,wheredoesitland?”

“Onthewesternwall,lord.”“Andifthereisnowesternwall,wheredoesitland?”“Ontheground,lord.”“Andifthereisnoground,wheredoesitland?”“Onthewater,lord.”“Andifthereisnowater,wheredoesitland?”“Itdoesn’tland,lord.”“Inthesameway,wherethereisnopassionforthenutrimentofphysical

food…contact…intellectualintention…consciousness,wherethereisnodelight,nocraving,thenconsciousnessdoesnotlandthereorincrease.Whereconsciousnessdoesnotlandorincrease,thereisnoalightingofname-and-form.Wherethereisnoalightingofname-and-form,thereisnogrowthoffabrications.

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Wherethereisnogrowthoffabrications,thereisnoproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture.Wherethereisnoproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture,thereisnofuturebirth,aging,anddeath.That,Itellyou,hasnosorrow,affliction,ordespair.”—SN12:6 4

This freedom can be attained only by developing a form of knowledgethat induces a strong sense of disenchantment/revulsion/disgust/distastefor the four nutriments. To induce perceptions that would help in thisendeavor, the Buddha gave some graphic analogies for what it means tofeed.

§41.“Therearethesefournutrimentsforthemaintenanceofbeingswhohavecomeintobeingorforthesupportofthoseinsearchofaplacetobeborn.Whichfour?Physicalfood,grossorrefined;contactasthesecond,intellectualintentionthethird,andconsciousnessthefourth.Thesearethefournutrimentsforthemaintenanceofbeingswhohavecomeintobeingorforthesupportofthoseinsearchofaplacetobeborn.

“Andhowisphysicalfoodtoberegarded?Supposeacouple,husbandandwife,takingmeagerprovisions,weretotravelthroughadesert.Withthemwouldbetheironlybabyson,dearandappealing.Thenthemeagerprovisionsofthecouplegoingthroughthedesertwouldbeusedupanddepletedwhiletherewasstillastretchofthedesertyettobecrossed.Thethoughtwouldoccurtothem,‘Ourmeagerprovisionsareusedupanddepletedwhilethereisstillastretchofthisdesertyettobecrossed.Whatifweweretokillthisonlybabysonofours,dearandappealing,andmakedriedmeatandjerky.Thatway—chewingonthefleshofourson—atleastthetwoofuswouldmakeitthroughthisdesert.Otherwise,allthreeofuswouldperish.’Sotheywouldkilltheironlybabyson,lovedandendearing,andmakedriedmeatandjerky.Chewingonthefleshoftheirson,theywouldmakeitthroughthedesert.Whileeatingthefleshoftheironlyson,theywouldbeattheirbreasts,(crying,)‘Wherehaveyougone,ouronlybabyson?Wherehaveyougone,ouronlybabyson?’Nowwhatdoyouthink,monks,wouldthatcoupleeatthatfoodplayfullyorforintoxication,orforputtingonbulk,orforbeautification?”

“No,lord.”“Wouldn’ttheyeatthatfoodsimplyforthesakeofmakingitthroughthat

desert?”“Yes,lord.”“Inthesameway,Itellyou,isthenutrimentofphysicalfoodtoberegarded.

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Whenphysicalfoodiscomprehended,passionforthefivestringsofsensualityiscomprehended.Whenpassionforthefivestringsofsensualityiscomprehended,thereisnofetterboundbywhichadiscipleofthenobleoneswouldcomebackagaintothisworld.

“Andhowisthenutrimentofcontacttoberegarded?Supposeaflayedcowweretostandleaningagainstawall.Thecreatureslivinginthewallwouldchewonit.Ifitweretostandleaningagainstatree,thecreatureslivinginthetreewouldchewonit.Ifitweretostandexposedtowater,thecreatureslivinginthewaterwouldchewonit.Ifitweretostandexposedtotheair,thecreatureslivingintheairwouldchewonit.Forwherevertheflayedcowweretostandexposed,thecreatureslivingtherewouldchewonit.Inthesameway,Itellyou,isthenutrimentofcontacttoberegarded.Whenthenutrimentofcontactiscomprehended,thethreefeelings[pleasure,pain,neitherpleasurenorpain]arecomprehended.Whenthethreefeelingsarecomprehended,Itellyou,thereisnothingfurtherforadiscipleofthenobleonestodo.

“Andhowisthenutrimentofintellectualintentiontoberegarded?Supposetherewereapitofglowingembers,deeperthanaman’sheight,fullofembersthatwereneitherflamingnorsmoking,andamanweretocomealong—lovinglife,hatingdeath,lovingpleasure,abhorringpain—andtwostrongmen,havinggrabbedhimbythearms,weretodraghimtothepitofembers.Togetfarawaywouldbethatman’sintention,farawaywouldbehiswish,farawaywouldbehisaspiration.Whyisthat?Becausehewouldrealize,‘IfIfallintothispitofglowingembers,Iwillmeetwithdeathfromthatcause,orwithdeath-likepain.’Inthesameway,Itellyou,isthenutrimentofintellectualintentiontoberegarded.Whenthenutrimentofintellectualintentioniscomprehended,thethreeformsofcraving[forsensuality,forbecoming,andfornon-becoming]arecomprehended.Whenthethreeformsofcravingarecomprehended,Itellyou,thereisnothingfurtherforadiscipleofthenobleonestodo.

“Andhowisthenutrimentofconsciousnesstoberegarded?Supposethat,havingarrestedathief,acriminal,theyweretoshowhimtotheking:‘Thisisathief,acriminalforyou,yourmajesty.Imposeonhimwhateverpunishmentyoulike.’Sothekingwouldsay,‘Go,men,andshoothiminthemorningwithahundredspears.’Sotheywouldshoothiminthemorningwithahundredspears.Thenthekingwouldsayatnoon,‘Men,howisthatman?’‘Stillalive,yourmajesty.’Sothekingwouldsay,‘Go,men,andshoothimatnoonwithahundredspears.’Sotheywouldshoothimatnoonwithahundredspears.Thenthekingwouldsayintheevening,‘Men,howisthatman?’‘Stillalive,yourmajesty.’Sothekingwouldsay,‘Go,men,andshoothimintheeveningwitha

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hundredspears.’Sotheywouldshoothimintheeveningwithahundredspears.Nowwhatdoyouthink,monks:Wouldthatman,beingshotwiththreehundredspearsaday,experiencepainanddistressfromthatcause?”

“Evenifheweretobeshotwithonlyonespear,lord,hewouldexperiencepainanddistressfromthatcause,tosaynothingofthreehundredspears.”

“Inthesameway,Itellyou,monks,isthenutrimentofconsciousnesstoberegarded.Whenthenutrimentofconsciousnessiscomprehended,nameandformarecomprehended.Whennameandformarecomprehended,Itellyou,thereisnothingfurtherforadiscipleofthenobleonestodo.”—SN12:63

As the image of the flayed cow in the above passage suggests, one ofthe most disconcerting aspects of feeding is that the things the mind triesto take for nourishment end up chewing on it — or even chewing it up.

§42.“Thusaninstructeddiscipleofthenobleonesreflectsinthisway,‘Iamnowbeingchewedupbyform.ButinthepastIwasalsochewedupbyforminthesamewayIamnowbeingchewedupbypresentform.AndifIdelightinfutureform,theninthefutureIwillbechewedupbyforminthesamewayIamnowbeingchewedupbypresentform.’Havingreflectedinthisway,hebecomesindifferenttopastform,doesnotdelightinfutureform,andispracticingforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtopresentform.

“[Hereflects]‘Iamnowbeingchewedupbyfeeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness.ButinthepastIwasalsochewedupbyconsciousnessinthesamewayIamnowbeingchewedupbypresentconsciousness.AndifIdelightinfutureconsciousness,theninthefutureIwillbechewedupbyconsciousnessinthesamewayIamnowbeingchewedupbypresentconsciousness.’Havingreflectedinthisway,hebecomesindifferenttopastconsciousness,doesnotdelightinfutureconsciousness,andispracticingforthesakeofdisenchantment,dispassion,andcessationwithregardtopresentconsciousness.”—SN22:70

Although the path of practice aims ultimately at going beyond the needfor nutriment, it cannot be accomplished by starving oneself of physicalfood.

§43.“Ithought:‘SupposeIweretopracticegoingaltogetherwithoutfood.’Thendevascametomeandsaid,‘Dearsir,pleasedon’tpracticegoingaltogetherwithoutfood.Ifyougoaltogetherwithoutfood,we’llinfusedivinenourishment

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inthroughyourpores,andyouwillsurviveonthat.’Ithought,‘IfIweretoclaimtobecompletelyfastingwhilethesedevasareinfusingdivinenourishmentinthroughmypores,Iwouldbelying.’SoIdismissedthem,saying,‘Enough.’

“Ithought,‘SupposeIweretotakeonlyalittlefoodatatime,onlyahandfulatatimeofbeansoup,lentilsoup,vetchsoup,orpeasoup.’SoItookonlyalittlefoodatatime,onlyahandfulatatimeofbeansoup,lentilsoup,vetchsoup,orpeasoup.Mybodybecameextremelyemaciated.Simplyfrommyeatingsolittle,mylimbsbecamelikethejointedsegmentsofvinestemsorbamboo….Mybacksidebecamelikeacamel’shoof….Myspinestoodoutlikeastringofbeads….Myribsjuttedoutlikethejuttingraftersofanold,run-downbarn….Thegleamofmyeyesappearedtobesunkdeepinmyeyesocketslikethegleamofwaterdeepinawell….Myscalpshriveledandwitheredlikeagreenbittergourd,shriveledandwitheredintheheatandthewind….TheskinofmybellybecamesostucktomyspinethatwhenIthoughtoftouchingmybelly,Igrabbedholdofmyspineaswell;andwhenIthoughtoftouchingmyspine,Igrabbedholdoftheskinofmybellyaswell….IfIurinatedordefecated,Ifelloveronmyfacerightthere….Simplyfrommyeatingsolittle,ifItriedtoeasemybodybyrubbingmylimbswithmyhands,thehair—rottedatitsroots—fellfrommybodyasIrubbed,simplyfromeatingsolittle.

“Peopleonseeingmewouldsay,‘Gotamathecontemplativeisblack.Otherpeoplewouldsay,‘Gotamathecontemplativeisn’tblack,he’sbrown.’Otherswouldsay,‘Gotamathecontemplativeisneitherblacknorbrown,he’sgolden-skinned.Somuchhadtheclear,brightcolorofmyskindeteriorated,simplyfromeatingsolittle.

“Ithought,‘Whateverpriestsorcontemplativesinthepasthavefeltpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetotheirstriving,thisistheutmost.Nonehavebeengreaterthanthis.Whateverpriestsorcontemplativesinthefuturewillfeelpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetotheirstriving,thisistheutmost.Nonewillbegreaterthanthis.Whateverpriestsorcontemplativesinthepresentarefeelingpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetotheirstriving,thisistheutmost.Noneisgreaterthanthis.ButwiththisrackingpracticeofausteritiesIhaven’tattainedanysuperiorhumanstate,anydistinctioninknowledgeorvisionworthyofthenobleones.CouldtherebeanotherpathtoAwakening?’“Ithought,‘Irecallonce,whenmyfathertheSakyanwasworking,andIwassittinginthecoolshadeofarose-appletree,then—quitewithdrawnfromsensuality,withdrawnfromunskillfulmentalqualities—Ienteredandremainedinthefirstjhāna,raptureandpleasurebornfromwithdrawal,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.CouldthatbethepathtoAwakening?’Thenfollowingonthat

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memorycametherealization,‘ThatisthepathtoAwakening.’Ithought,‘SowhyamIafraidofthatpleasurethathasnothingtodowithsensuality,nothingtodowithunskillfulmentalqualities?’Ithought,‘Iamnolongerafraidofthatpleasurethathasnothingtodowithsensuality,nothingtodowithunskillfulmentalqualities,butthatpleasureisnoteasytoachievewithabodysoextremelyemaciated.SupposeIweretotakesomesolidfood,somericeandporridge.’SoItooksomesolidfood,somericeandporridge.Nowfivemonkshadbeenattendingonme,thinking,‘IfGotama,ourcontemplative,achievessomehigherstate,hewilltellus.’Butwhentheysawmetakingsomesolidfood—somericeandporridge—theyweredisgustedandleftme,thinking,‘Gotamathecontemplativeislivingluxuriously.Hehasabandonedhisexertionandisbackslidingintoabundance.’

“SowhenIhadtakensolidfoodandregainedstrength,then—quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulmentalqualities—Ienteredandremainedinthefirstjhāna,raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Butthepleasantfeelingthataroseinthiswaydidnotinvademymindorremain.Withthestillingofdirectedthoughtsandevaluations,Ienteredandremainedinthesecondjhāna,raptureandpleasurebornofconcentration,unificationofawarenessfreefromdirectedthoughtandevaluation/internalassurance.Butthepleasantfeelingthataroseinthiswaydidnotinvademymindorremain.WiththefadingofraptureIremainedequanimous,mindful,andalert,andsensedpleasurewiththebody.Ienteredandremainedinthethirdjhāna,ofwhichtheNobleOnesdeclare,‘Equanimousandmindful,hehasapleasantabiding.’Butthepleasantfeelingthataroseinthiswaydidnotinvademymindorremain.Withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain—aswiththeearlierdisappearanceofjoysanddistresses—Ienteredandremainedinthefourthjhāna,purityofequanimityandmindfulness,neitherpleasurenorpain.Butthepleasantfeelingthataroseinthiswaydidnotinvademymindorremain.”—M N36

Thus one must consume food in moderation to provide body and mindwith the strength needed to develop the path factor of rightconcentration. Monks and nuns are encouraged to contemplate andmonitor their consumption of food to prevent greed from abusing this factfor its own ends.

§44.Ven.Ānanda:“‘Thisbody,sister,comesintobeingthroughfood.Andyetitisbyrelyingonfoodthatfoodistobeabandoned.’Thusitwassaid.Andin

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referencetowhatwasitsaid?Thereisthecase,sister,whereamonk,consideringitthoughtfully,takesfood—notplayfully,norforintoxication,norforputtingonbulk,norforbeautification—butsimplyforthesurvivalandcontinuanceofthisbody,forendingitsafflictions,forthesupportoftheholylife,(thinking,)‘ThuswillIdestroyoldfeelings[ofhunger]andnotcreatenewfeelings[fromovereating].Iwillmaintainmyself,beblameless,andliveincomfort.’Then,atalatertime,heabandonsfood,havingreliedonfood.‘Thisbody,sister,comesintobeingthroughfood.Andyetitisbyrelyingonfoodthatfoodistobeabandoned.’Thusitwassaid,andinreferencetothiswasitsaid.”—AN4:159

The process of developing right concentration is a type of feeding —providing food for the mental qualities that foster concentration — whileat the same time starving any mental qualities that stand in its way.

§45.“Now,whatisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenmindfulnessasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofmindfulness…onceithasarisen?TherearementalqualitiesthatactasafootholdformindfulnessasafactorforAwakening[well-purifiedvirtueandviewsmadestraight].Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:ThisisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenmindfulnessasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofmindfulness…onceithasarisen.

“AndwhatisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenanalysisofqualitiesasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofanalysisofqualities…onceithasarisen?Therearementalqualitiesthatareskillfulandunskillful,blameworthyandblameless,grossandrefined,sidingwithdarknessandwithlight.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:ThisisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenanalysisofqualitiesasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofanalysisofqualities…onceithasarisen.

“AndwhatisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenpersistenceasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofpersistence…onceithasarisen?Thereisthepotentialforeffort,thepotentialforexertion,thepotentialforstriving.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:ThisisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenpersistenceasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofpersistence…onceithasarisen.

“AndwhatisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenraptureasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofrapture…onceithasarisen?TherearementalqualitiesthatactasafootholdforraptureasafactorforAwakening.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:Thisisthefoodforthearisingof

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unarisenraptureasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofrapture…onceithasarisen.

“AndwhatisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenserenityasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofserenity…onceithasarisen?Thereisphysicalserenityandthereismentalserenity.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:ThisisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenserenityasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofserenity…onceithasarisen.“AndwhatisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenconcentrationasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofconcentration…onceithasarisen?Therearethemesforcalm,themesfornon-distraction[thesearethefourframesofreference—§83].Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:ThisisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenconcentrationasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofconcentration…onceithasarisen.

“AndwhatisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenequanimityasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofequanimity…onceithasarisen?TherearementalqualitiesthatactasafootholdforequanimityasafactorforAwakening.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:ThisisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenequanimityasafactorforAwakening,orforthegrowthandincreaseofequanimity…onceithasarisen.

“Now,whatislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisensensualdesire,orforthegrowthandincreaseofsensualdesireonceithasarisen?Thereisthethemeofunattractiveness.Tofosterappropriateattentiontoit:Thisislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisensensualdesire,orforthegrowthandincreaseofsensualdesireonceithasarisen.

“Andwhatislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenillwill,orforthegrowthandincreaseofillwillonceithasarisen?Thereisthereleaseofthemind[throughgoodwill,compassion,appreciation,orequanimity].Tofosterappropriateattentiontothat:Thisislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenillwill,orforthegrowthandincreaseofillwillonceithasarisen.

“Andwhatislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenslothanddrowsiness,orforthegrowthandincreaseofslothanddrowsinessonceithasarisen?Thereisthepotentialforeffort,thepotentialforexertion,thepotentialforstriving.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:Thisislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenslothanddrowsiness,orforthegrowthandincreaseofslothanddrowsinessonceithasarisen.

“Andwhatislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenrestlessnessandanxiety,orforthegrowthandincreaseofrestlessnessandanxietyonceithasarisen?There

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isstillnessofawareness.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothat:Thisislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenrestlessnessandanxiety,orforthegrowthandincreaseofrestlessnessandanxietyonceithasarisen.

“Andwhatislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenuncertainty,orforthegrowthandincreaseofuncertaintyonceithasarisen?Therearementalqualitiesthatareskillfulandunskillful,blameworthyandblameless,grossandrefined,sidingwithdarknessandwithlight.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:Thisislackoffoodforthearisingofunarisenuncertainty,orforthegrowthandincreaseofuncertaintyonceithasarisen.”—SN46:51

As right concentration grows stronger, it becomes a type of food forthe mind.

§46.“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresofgrass,timberandwaterforthedelight,convenience,andcomfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthosewithout,inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulqualities,entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna—raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation—forhisowndelight,convenience,andcomfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.

“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresofriceandbarleyforthedelight,convenience,andcomfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthosewithout,inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,withthestillingofdirectedthoughtsandevaluations,entersandremainsinthesecondjhāna—raptureandpleasurebornofconcentration,unificationofawarenessfreefromdirectedthoughtandevaluation/internalassurance—forhisowndelight,convenience,andcomfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.

“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresofsesame,greengram,andotherbeansforthedelight,convenience,andcomfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthosewithout,inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,withthefadingofrapture,remainsequanimous,mindful,andalert,andsensespleasurewiththebody.Heentersandremainsinthethirdjhāna,ofwhichtheNobleOnesdeclare,‘Equanimousandmindful,hehasapleasantabiding,’forhisowndelight,convenience,andcomfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.

“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresoftonics—ghee,freshbutter,oil,honey,molasses,andsalt—forthedelight,convenience,andcomfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthosewithout,inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain,aswiththeearlier

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disappearanceofjoysanddistresses,entersandremainsinthefourthjhāna—purityofequanimityandmindfulness,neither-pleasure-nor-pain—forhisowndelight,convenience,andcomfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.”—AN7:63

§47.Howveryhappilywelive,wewhohavenothing.WewillfeedonraptureliketheRadiantdevas.—Dhp200

However, because jhāna is composed of aggregates, there comes apoint in the practice where one must stop using even jhāna as food forcontinued being, and instead develop disenchantment for it.

§48.“ForamonkpracticingtheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhamma,thisiswhataccordswiththeDhamma:thathekeepcultivatingdisenchantmentwithregardtoform,thathekeepcultivatingdisenchantmentwithregardtofeeling,thathekeepcultivatingdisenchantmentwithregardtoperception,thathekeepcultivatingdisenchantmentwithregardtofabrications,thathekeepcultivatingdisenchantmentwithregardtoconsciousness.Ashekeepscultivatingdisenchantmentwithregardtoform…feeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness,hecomprehendsform…feeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness.Ashecomprehendsform…feeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness,heistotallyreleasedfromform…feeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness.Heistotallyreleasedfromsorrows,lamentations,pains,distresses,anddespairs.Heistotallyreleased,Itellyou,fromsufferingandstress.”—SN22:39

§49.“Supposethatanarcherorarcher’sapprenticeweretopracticeonastrawmanormoundofclay,sothatafterawhilehewouldbecomeabletoshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,andtopiercegreatmasses.Inthesameway,thereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Heregardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness,asinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.Heturnshismindawayfromthosephenomena,andhavingdoneso,inclineshismindtothepropertyofdeathlessness:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—thepacificationofallfabrications,therelinquishingofallacquisitions,theendingofcraving,dispassion,cessation,

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Unbinding.’“Stayingrightthere,hereachestheendingoftheeffluents.Or,ifnot,then—

throughthisveryDhamma-passion,thisDhamma-delight,andfromthetotalwastingawayofthefirstfiveFetters[self-identityviews,graspingatpreceptsandpractices,uncertainty,sensualpassion,andirritation]—heisduetobereborn(inthePureAbodes),theretobetotallyunbound,neveragaintoreturnfromthatworld….

[Similarlywiththesecond,third,andfourthjhāna.]“….Supposethatanarcherorarcher'sapprenticeweretopracticeonastraw

manormoundofclay,sothatafterawhilehewouldbecomeabletoshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,andtopiercegreatmasses.Inthesameway,thereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace.Heregardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithfeeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness,asinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.Heturnshismindawayfromthosephenomena,andhavingdoneso,inclineshismindtothepropertyofdeathlessness:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—thepacificationofallfabrications,therelinquishingofallacquisitions,theendingofcraving,dispassion,cessation,Unbinding.’

“Stayingrightthere,hereachestheendingoftheeffluents.Or,ifnot,then—throughthisveryDhamma-passion,thisveryDhamma-delight,andfromthetotalwastingawayofthefirstfiveofthefetters—heisduetobereborn(inthePureAbodes),theretobetotallyunbound,neveragaintoreturnfromthatworld….”

[Similarlywiththedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousnessandthedimensionofnothingness.]—AN9:36

Perhaps to counteract the common fear that the release of nibbana isa type of starvation, Khp 6 depicts it as a form of consumption in whichone’s food is totally free — freely available, free from debt, and free fromsuffering.

§50.Thosewho,devoted,firm-minded,applythemselvestoGotama’smessage,onattainingtheirgoal,plungeintothedeathless,freelyeatingtheliberationthey’vegained.—Khp6

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However, verses in the Pali Canon more generally depict nibbana as adimension in which there is simply no more need for food of any kind.

§51.Withthestillingofconsciousness,themonkfreefromhungeristotallyunbound….

Whilethosewhocomprehendcontact,delightinginstillingthroughdiscernment,

they,bybreakingthroughcontact,freefromhunger,aretotallyunbound….

Seetheworld,togetherwithitsdevas:conceivingnot-selftobeself.Entrenchedinnameandform,theyconceivethat‘Thisistrue.’Inwhatevertermstheyconceiveititturnsintosomethingotherthanthat,

andthat’swhat’sfalseaboutit:changing,

it’sdeceptivebynature.UndeceptivebynatureisUnbinding:Thatthenobleonesknow

astrue.They,bybreakingthrough

tothetruth,freefromhunger,aretotallyunbound.—Sn3:12

§52.Nothoarding,havingcomprehendedfood,theirpasture—emptinessandfreedomwithoutsign:

theirtrail,likethatofbirdsthroughspace,

can’tbetraced.Effluentsended,independentofnutriment,

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theirpasture—emptinessandfreedomwithoutsign:

theirtrail,likethatofbirdsthroughspace,

can’tbetraced.—Dhp92-93

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CHAPTER THREE

“Allphenomenaareunworthyofattachment ”

The most important practical consequences of the discussion so farare these:

• The sequence of dependent co-arising can be unraveled only byreplacing ignorance with knowledge in terms of the four noble truths.

• The complexity of the sequence is such that knowledge can beeffectively developed with reference to any of its factors, at any point inthe sequence

• And although the ultimate goal of the practice is to go beyondcausality, the actual practice consists of using causality, converting thecausal factors of dependent co-arising to a new role. Instead of usingthem as factors to create suffering and stress, the meditator learns touse them as factors of the path.

This chapter explores these practical principles in further detail. Thefirst two principles, taken together, provide the framework for thechapter as a whole. Under each causal factor of dependent co-arising,beginning with ignorance, are listed practices aimed at developing clearknowledge around that factor, i.e., learning to see the factor not as partof one’s identity or as part of a larger world view, but simply as anaction/event in a sequence of causes and effects. The third principle willbecome clear in the course of the readings, which show that some of thefactors function in two roles. In the first role, they are objects of acontemplation that tries to develop knowledge and dispassion for them. Inthe second role, they are tools used to help in the contemplation.Perception is a prime example here. As one of the five aggregates,perception is an object contemplated by appropriate attention, which triesto develop dispassion for all five aggregates. As a mental fabrication,perception is used to develop the concentration needed to provide a basisfor contemplation. When applied to sensuality, under the factor ofclinging, or to the factors of becoming, birth, and aging-and-death,

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perception is used in such a way as to develop dispassion for thosefactors.

These dual roles reflect an important point about the path to the end ofstress. As we noted in Chapter One, the Buddha’s analysis of dependentco-arising is aimed at showing how the causal sequence leading tosuffering and stress can be brought to an end without having to defy thecausal patterns underlying the sequence. The path works by developingskillful versions of the factors contained in the sequence, even though allthe factors — whether skillful or not — must eventually be abandoned.Thus when a factor functions as a tool, it is being shaped and used in askillful way to help in the contemplation needed to abandon unskillfulqualities. When it has fulfilled this role, it then becomes the object ofcontemplation itself, so that in the final stages of the practice it isabandoned as well.

As you go through the following readings, take note of the many placesin which the factors of the noble eightfold path appear. As a form ofskillful kamma, the path as a whole appears in conjunction with thefactor of intention under name-and-form. Individual path factors,however, will also appear in conjunction with other factors of dependentco-arising. Right view, for instance, appears in conjunction withignorance; right resolve and right concentration, in conjunction withfabrication; and right mindfulness — all of the passages from DN 22 — inconjunction with ignorance, attention, form, the sense media, craving,feeling, and aging-and-death. A useful image for understanding thesemultiple relationships is that dependent co-arising forms the terrainthrough which the meditator must walk, while the path is the part of theterrain on which it is possible to walk.

Another useful exercise is to compare the practices listed here withthe standard description of the stages of practice found in DN 2. There thepractice is described in steps:

virtue (see, for example, §54, §61),restraint over the sense faculties (see §§102-104),mindfulness and alertness (see all the passages from DN 22),contentment (see §§120-121),abandoning the hindrances (see §45, §97),developing the jhānas (see §68, §§85-88), and

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mastering the cognitive skills based on jhāna, including the knowledgeof the end of mental effluents, full mastery of the four noble truths (see§22).

As the following discussion shows, all of these stages are intimatelyrelated to different factors in dependent co-arising, a fact that explainswhy they are essential elements in the path leading to the end ofsuffering and stress.

IGNORANCE

The knowledge that puts an end to ignorance starts with the ability tosee experience in terms of the four noble truths.

§53.“Nowthis,monks,isthenobletruthofstress:Birthisstressful,agingisstressful,deathisstressful;sorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespairarestressful;associationwiththeunbelovedisstressful,separationfromthelovedisstressful,notgettingwhatiswantedisstressful.Inshort,thefiveclingingaggregatesarestressful.

“Andthis,monks,isthenobletruthoftheoriginationofstress:thecravingthatmakesforfurtherbecoming,accompaniedbypassionanddelight,relishingnowhereandnowthere,i.e.,cravingforsensuality,cravingforbecoming,cravingfornon-becoming.

“Andthis,monks,isthenobletruthofthecessationofstress:theremainderlessfadingandcessation,renunciation,relinquishment,release,andlettinggoofthatverycraving.

“Andthis,monks,isthenobletruthofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstress:preciselythisnobleeightfoldpath:rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.”—SN56:11

§54.Ven.Sāriputta:“Andwhatisrightview?Knowledgewithreferencetostress,knowledgewithreferencetotheoriginationofstress,knowledgewithreferencetothecessationofstress,knowledgewithreferencetothewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstress;thisiscalledrightview.Andwhatisrightresolve?Resolveforrenunciation,resolveforfreedomfromillwill,resolveforharmlessness;thisiscalledrightresolve.“Andwhatisrightspeech?Abstainingfromlying,abstainingfromdivisivespeech,abstainingfromabusive

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speech,abstainingfromidlechatter;thisiscalledrightspeech.“Andwhatisrightaction?Abstainingfromtakinglife,abstainingfrom

stealing,abstainingfromsexualmisconduct;thisiscalledrightaction.“Andwhatisrightlivelihood?Thereisthecasewhereadiscipleofthenobleones,havingabandoneddishonestlivelihood,keepshislifegoingwithrightlivelihood;thisiscalledrightlivelihood.

“Andwhatisrighteffort?Thereisthecasewhereamonkgeneratesdesire,endeavors,arousespersistence,upholdsandexertshisintentforthesakeofthenon-arisingofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…forthesakeoftheabandoningofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen…forthesakeofthearisingofskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…(and)forthemaintenance,non-confusion,increase,plenitude,development,andculminationofskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen.Thisiscalledrighteffort.

“Andwhatisrightmindfulness?Thereisthecasewhereamonkremainsfocusedonthebodyinandofitself—ardent,alert,andmindful—puttingasidegreedanddistresswithreferencetotheworld.Heremainsfocusedonfeelingsinandofthemselves…themindinandofitself…mentalqualitiesinandofthemselves—ardent,alert,andmindful—puttingasidegreedanddistresswithreferencetotheworld.Thisiscalledrightmindfulness.

“Andwhatisrightconcentration?Thereisthecasewhereamonk—quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillful(mental)qualities—entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Withthestillingofdirectedthoughtsandevaluations,heentersandremainsinthesecondjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofconcentration,unificationofawarenessfreefromdirectedthoughtandevaluation/internalassurance.Withthefadingofraptureheremainsequanimous,mindful,andalert,andsensespleasurewiththebody.Heentersandremainsinthethirdjhāna,ofwhichthenobleonesdeclare,‘Equanimousandmindful,hehasapleasantabiding.’Withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain—aswiththeearlierdisappearanceofjoysanddistresses—heentersandremainsinthefourthjhāna:,[with]purityofequanimityandmindfulness,neitherpleasurenorpain.Thisiscalledrightconcentration.”—M N141

Each of the four noble truths involves a task, which means that theknowledge needed to put an end to ignorance is not only knowledge aboutsomething. It also includes the knowledge that comes as these tasks aremastered as skills. As with any skill, that mastery is gradual, and thus the

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knowledge is not an all-or-nothing affair. Instead, it grows incrementallyuntil the point of full mastery is reached.

§55.“‘Thisnobletruthofstressistobecomprehended’….‘Thisnobletruthoftheoriginationofstressistobeabandoned’….‘Thisnobletruthofthecessationofstressistobedirectlyexperienced’….‘Thisnobletruthofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstressistobedeveloped.’”—SN56:11

Right view begins with the ability to see the suffering inherent in one’sunskillful actions. At first it goes only that far, but with proper effort andmindfulness applied to developing right view, it gradually grows.

§56.Afoolwithasenseofhisfoolishnessis—atleasttothatextent—wise.—Dhp63

§57.“Onetriestoabandonwrongviewandtoenterintorightview;thisisone’srighteffort.Oneismindfultoabandonwrongviewandtoenterandremaininrightview;thisisone’srightmindfulness.Thusthesethreequalities—rightview,righteffort,andrightmindfulness—runandcirclearoundrightview.”—M N117

Right view matures with the realization that these efforts should beaimed at a knowledge that induces dispassion. This dispassion isdeveloped by viewing all events in the six sense fields as separate fromone oneself — so that one can observe them clearly — and separatefrom one another, as events in and of themselves, so as to see how theyinteract in a causal chain.

§58.ThenacertainmonkwenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,havingboweddowntohim,sattooneside.Ashewassittingthere,hesaidtotheBlessedOne:

“Lord,isthereanyonethingwithwhoseabandoninginamonkignoranceisabandonedandclearknowingarises?”

“Yes,monk,thereisonethingwithwhoseabandoninginamonkignoranceisabandonedandclearknowingarises.”

“Whatisthatonething?”“Ignorance,monk,istheonethingwithwhoseabandoninginamonk

ignoranceisabandonedandclearknowingarises.”

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“Buthowdoesamonkknow,howdoesamonksee,sothatignoranceisabandonedandclearknowingarises?”

“Thereisthecase,monk,whereamonkhasheard,‘Allphenomenaareunworthyofattachment.’Havingheardthatallphenomenaareunworthyofattachment,hedirectlyknowseveryphenomenon.Directlyknowingeveryphenomenon,hecomprehendseveryphenomenon.Comprehendingeveryphenomenon,heseesallthemesassomethingseparate.

“Heseestheeyeassomethingseparate.Heseesformsassomethingseparate.Heseeseye-consciousnessassomethingseparate.Heseeseye-contactassomethingseparate.Andwhateverarisesindependenceoneye-contact—experiencedeitheraspleasure,aspain,orasneither-pleasure-nor-pain—thattooheseesassomethingseparate.

“Heseestheearassomethingseparate….“Heseesthenoseassomethingseparate….“Heseesthetongueassomethingseparate….“Heseesthebodyassomethingseparate….“Heseestheintellectassomethingseparate.Heseesideasassomething

separate.Heseesintellect/consciousnessassomethingseparate.Heseesintellect/contactassomethingseparate.Andwhateverarisesindependenceonintellect/contact—experiencedeitheraspleasure,aspain,orasneither-pleasure-nor-pain—thattooheseesassomethingseparate.

“Thisishowamonkknows,thisishowamonksees,sothatignoranceisabandonedandclearknowingarises.”—SN35:80

An important part of seeing these things as something separate is toview them in and of themselves, without reference to how they relate toone’s sense of the world. This frame of reference is an essential aspectof right mindfulness.

§59.“Thisisthedirectpathforthepurificationofbeings,fortheovercomingofsorrowandlamentation,forthedisappearanceofpainanddistress,fortheattainmentoftherightmethod,andfortherealizationofUnbinding—inotherwords,thefourframesofreference.Whichfour?

“Thereisthecasewhereamonkremainsfocusedonthebodyinandofitself—ardent,alert,andmindful,puttingasidegreedanddistresswithreferencetotheworld.Heremainsfocusedonfeelings…mind…mentalqualitiesinandofthemselves—ardent,alert,andmindful,puttingasidegreedanddistresswith

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referencetotheworld.”—DN22

§60.“Furthermore,themonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefournobletruths.Andhowdoesheremainfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefournobletruths?Thereisthecasewherehediscerns,asithascometobe,that‘Thisisstress.Hediscerns,asithascometobe,that‘Thisistheoriginationofstress.Hediscerns,asithascometobe,that‘Thisisthecessationofstress.Hediscerns,asithascometobe,that‘Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofstress’….“Inthiswayheremainsfocusedinternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,orexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,orbothinternallyandexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves.Orheremainsfocusedonthephenomenonoforiginationwithregardtomentalqualities,onthephenomenonofpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities,oronthephenomenonoforiginationandpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities.Orhismindfulnessthat‘Therearementalqualities’ismaintainedtotheextentofknowledgeandremembrance.Andheremainsindependent,unsustainedby/notclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thisishowamonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefournobletruths.”—DN22

The ability to view events on this level, however, cannot occur in asocial vacuum. This is because the ignorance it is meant to replacedoesn’t occur in a social vacuum, either. As we mentioned in ChapterOne, even though ignorance is listed first among the factors of dependentco-arising, it is not an uncaused cause. Like the other factors, it has itsnutriment and conditions. Among its nutriments are a series of mentaland social factors that can be traced back to unwise friendship,associating with people of no integrity. Thus, to overcome ignorance, onemust be willing to develop wise friendship with those who can teach andembody the true Dhamma. This, in turn, helps to foster a willingness toact and speak in skillful ways. This willingness is necessary inovercoming ignorance, for if one’s actions are willfully unskillful, one willhave trouble admitting the suffering and stress they cause. This is whyright action, right speech, and right livelihood are essential factors in thepath.

§61.“Abeginningpointforignorance,(suchthatonemightsay),‘Beforethis,ignorancedidnotexist;thenitcameintoplay’,cannotbediscerned.This

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hasbeensaid.Nevertheless,itcanbediscerned,‘Ignorancecomesfromthiscondition.’AndItellyou,ignorancehasitsnutriment.Itisnotwithoutnutriment.Andwhatisthenutrimentforignorance?Thefivehindrances….Andwhatisthenutrimentforthefivehindrances?Thethreeformsofmisconduct….Andwhatisthenutrimentforthethreeformsofmisconduct?Lackofrestraintofthesenses….Andwhatisthenutrimentforlackofrestraintofthesenses?Lackofmindfulnessandalertness….Andwhatisthenutrimentforlackofmindfulnessandalertness?Inappropriateattention….Andwhatisthenutrimentforinappropriateattention?Lackofconviction….Andwhatisthenutrimentforlackofconviction?NothearingthetrueDhamma….AndwhatisthenutrimentfornothearingthetrueDhamma?Associatingwithpeopleofnointegrity[or:notassociatingwithpeopleofintegrity].”

“Justaswhenthegodspourraininheavydropsandcrashthunderontheuppermountains,thewater,flowingdownalongtheslopes,fillsthemountaincleftsandriftsandgullies.Whenthemountaincleftsandriftsandgulliesarefull,theyfillthelittleponds.Whenthelittlepondsarefull,theyfillthebiglakes…thelittlerivers…thebigrivers.Whenthebigriversarefull,theyfillthegreatocean,andthusisthegreatoceanfed,thusisitfilled.Inthesameway,whennotassociatingwithpeopleofnointegrityisbroughttofulfillment,itfulfills(theconditionsfor)nothearingthetrueDhamma…lackofconviction…inappropriateattention…lackofmindfulnessandalertness…lackofrestraintofthesenses…thethreeformsofmisconduct…thefivehindrances.Whenthefivehindrancesarebroughttofulfillment,theyfulfill(theconditionsfor)ignorance.Thusisignorancefed,thusisitbroughttofulfillment.

“Now,Itellyou,clearknowingandreleasehavetheirnutriment.Theyarenotwithoutnutriment.Andwhatistheirnutriment?ThesevenfactorsforAwakening….AndwhatisthenutrimentforthesevenfactorsforAwakening?Thefourframesofreference….Andwhatisthenutrimentforthefourframesofreference?Thethreeformsofrightconduct….Andwhatisthenutrimentforthethreeformsofrightconduct?Restraintofthesenses….Andwhatisthenutrimentforrestraintofthesenses?Mindfulnessandalertness….Andwhatisthenutrimentformindfulnessandalertness?Appropriateattention….Andwhatisthenutrimentforappropriateattention?Conviction….Andwhatisthenutrimentforconviction?HearingthetrueDhamma….AndwhatisthenutrimentforhearingthetrueDhamma?Associatingwithpeopleofintegrity….

“Justaswhenthegodspourraininheavydropsandcrashthunderontheuppermountains,thewater,flowingdownalongtheslopes,fillsthemountaincleftsandriftsandgullies…thelittleponds…thebiglakes…thelittlerivers…

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thebigrivers.Whenthebigriversarefull,theyfillthegreatocean,andthusisthegreatoceanfed,thusisitfilled.Inthesameway,whenassociatingwithpeopleofintegrityisbroughttofulfillment,itfulfills(theconditionsfor)hearingthetrueDhamma…conviction…appropriateattention…mindfulnessandalertness…restraintofthesenses…thethreeformsofrightconduct…thefourframesofreference…thesevenfactorsforAwakening.WhenthesevenfactorsforAwakeningarebroughttofulfillment,theyfulfill(theconditionsfor)clearknowingandrelease.Thusisclearknowingandreleasefed,thusisitbroughttofulfillment.”—AN10:6 1

Another way of analyzing the conditions leading to the end ofignorance focuses attention on what is essentially a change of heart.Instead of the common pattern of repeated suffering, in which the searchfor someone who knows the way out of stress keeps leading to thewrong “someone,” the experience of stress can also incite a search thatleads to the right person — someone of integrity who knows the truepath out of suffering — and to conviction in that person. In this way,ignorance can lie at the beginning of a sequence leading to the end ofignorance. In other words, ignorance leads to suffering, and suffering iswhat can bring the mind to a state where it is ready to undertake theBuddha’s path.

§62.“Monks,theendingofeffluentsisforonewhoknowsandsees,Itellyou,notforonewhodoesnotknowanddoesnotsee.Foronewhoknowswhatandseeswhatistheretheendingofeffluents?‘Suchisform,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance.Suchisfeeling,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance.Suchisperception,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance.Sucharefabrications,suchtheirorigination,suchtheirdisappearance.Suchisconsciousness,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance.’Theendingofeffluentsisforonewhoknowsinthiswayandseesinthisway.

“Theknowledgeofendinginthepresenceofendinghasitsprerequisite,Itellyou.Itisnotwithoutaprerequisite.Andwhatistheprerequisitefortheknowledgeofending?Release,itshouldbesaid.Releasehasitsprerequisite,Itellyou.Itisnotwithoutaprerequisite.Andwhatisitsprerequisite?Dispassion….Disenchantment….Knowledgeandvisionofthingsastheyhavecometobe….Concentration….Pleasure….Serenity….Rapture….Joy….Conviction….Stress….Birth….Becoming….Clinging….Craving….Feeling….Contact….Thesixsensemedia….Name-and-form….Consciousness….Fabrications….

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Fabricationshavetheirprerequisite,Itellyou.Theyarenotwithoutaprerequisite.Andwhatistheirprerequisite?Ignorance,itshouldbesaid….

“Justaswhenthegodspourraininheavydropsandcrashthunderontheuppermountains:Thewater,flowingdownalongtheslopes,fillsthemountaincleftsandriftsandgullies…thelittleponds…thebiglakes…thelittlerivers…thebigrivers.Whenthebigriversarefull,theyfillthegreatocean.Inthesameway:

fabricationshaveignoranceastheirprerequisite,consciousnesshasfabricationsasitsprerequisite,name-and-formhasconsciousnessastheirprerequisite,thesixsensemediahavename-and-formastheirprerequisite,contacthasthesixsensemediaasitsprerequisite,feelinghascontactasitsprerequisite,cravinghasfeelingasitsprerequisite,clinginghascravingasitsprerequisite,becominghasclingingasitsprerequisite,birthhasbecomingasitsprerequisite,stresshasbirthasitsprerequisite,convictionhasstressasitsprerequisite,joyhasconvictionasitsprerequisite,rapturehasjoyasitsprerequisite,serenityhasraptureasitsprerequisite,pleasurehasserenityasitsprerequisite,concentrationhaspleasureasitsprerequisite,knowledgeandvisionofthingsastheyhavecometobehasconcentrationas

itsprerequisite,disenchantmenthasknowledgeandvisionofthingsastheyhavecometobe

asitsprerequisite,dispassionhasdisenchantmentasitsprerequisite,releasehasdispassionasitsprerequisite,knowledgeofendinghasreleaseasitsprerequisite.”—SN12:23

The arising of conviction is thus a major turning point in the search foran end to suffering. The discourses define conviction in two ways. SN48:8 says that conviction can be seen in the four stream-entry factors,

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which SN 55:5 defines as follows:

§63.“Associationwithpeopleofintegrityisastream-entryfactor.ListeningtothetrueDhammaisastream-entryfactor.Appropriateattentionisastream-entryfactor.PracticeinaccordancewiththeDhammaisastream-entryfactor.”—SN55:5

In terms of this analysis, the arising of conviction covers many of thecauses for the arising of clear knowing mentioned in §61.

More commonly, though, the discourses define conviction asconviction in the Buddha’s Awakening.

§64.“Nowwhat,monks,isthefacultyofconviction?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,adiscipleofthenobleones,hasconviction,isconvincedoftheTathāgata’sAwakening,‘Indeed,theBlessedOneisworthyandrightlyself-awakened,consummateinknowledgeandconduct,well-gone,anexpertwithregardtothecosmos,unexcelledasatrainerforthosepeoplefittobetamed,theTeacherofdivineandhumanbeings,awakened,blessed.’This,monks,iscalledthefacultyofconviction.”—SN48:10

The implications of this form of conviction are that the Buddha foundthe end of suffering through his own efforts, and that the way to that goaldepends on developing qualities of mind that, in principle, any humanbeing can develop. Although this conviction does not provide a fullmeasure of clear knowing, it does count as a rudimentary form ofappropriate attention. Thus all of the analysis in §§61-64 intersect withthe standard formula of dependent co-arising at the sub-factor ofattention, under the factor of name-and-form. The change of heart thatleads to the arising of conviction involves a change of focus, as oneattends appropriately to the problem of stress and one’s potential abilityto bring it to cessation. As we will see below, under the discussion ofappropriate attention (§§94-97), this change of focus provides thenutriment for abandoning the causes of suffering and developing thefactors of the path in their place.

FABRICATIONS

Fabrication is the intentional process by which one shapes one’s

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experience. It is fundamental to conditioned experience, in that it takesthe kammic potentials for the aggregates of form, feeling, perception,fabrication, and sensory consciousness — which cover all of conditionedexperience — and shapes them into actual aggregates.

§65.“Andwhydoyoucallthem‘fabrications’?Becausetheyfabricatefabricatedthings,thustheyarecalled‘fabrications.’Whatdotheyfabricateasafabricatedthing?Forthesakeofform-ness,theyfabricateformasafabricatedthing.Forthesakeoffeeling-ness,theyfabricatefeelingasafabricatedthing.Forthesakeofperception-hood…Forthesakeoffabrication-hood…Forthesakeofconsciousness-hood,theyfabricateconsciousnessasafabricatedthing.Becausetheyfabricatefabricatedthings,theyarecalledfabrications.”—SN22:7 9

Fabrications are of three sorts.

§66.Visākha:Andwhat,lady,arebodilyfabrications,whatareverbalfabrications,whatarementalfabrications?

S isterDhammadinnā:In-and-outbreathingisbodily,boundupwiththebody,thereforeisitcalledabodilyfabrication.Havingdirectedone’sthoughtandevaluated(thematter),onebreaksintospeech.Thereforedirectedthoughtandevaluationarecalledverbalfabrications.Perceptionandfeelingaremental,boundupwiththemind.Thereforeperceptionandfeelingarecalledmentalfabrications.—M N4 4

Concentration based on mindfulness of breathing is the primarypractice for viewing all three sorts of fabrication in relation to oneanother, for it brings all three together in the immediate present. Thebreath itself is bodily fabrication. Mindfulness employs variousperceptions of the breath in order to stay focused on it and to producefeelings of pleasure in association with the breathing process, and whenthe first jhāna — or state of mental absorption — is reached in thecourse of this practice, it includes the verbal fabrications of directedthought and evaluation as well.

§67.“Thereisthecasewhereamonk,havinggonetothewilderness,totheshadeofatree,ortoanemptybuilding,sitsdownfoldinghislegscrosswise,holdinghisbodyerect,andsettingmindfulnesstothefore.Alwaysmindful,hebreathesin;mindfulhebreathesout.

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“[1]Breathinginlong,hediscerns,‘Iambreathinginlong’;orbreathingoutlong,hediscerns,‘Iambreathingoutlong.’[2]Orbreathinginshort,hediscerns,‘Iambreathinginshort’;orbreathingoutshort,hediscerns,‘Iambreathingoutshort.’[3]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinsensitivetotheentirebody.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutsensitivetotheentirebody.’[4]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheincalmingbodilyfabrication.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutcalmingbodilyfabrication.’

“[5]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinsensitivetorapture.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutsensitivetorapture.’[6]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinsensitivetopleasure.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutsensitivetopleasure.’[7]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinsensitivetomentalfabrication.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutsensitivetomentalfabrication.’[8]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheincalmingmentalfabrication.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutcalmingmentalfabrication.’

“[9]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinsensitivetothemind.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutsensitivetothemind.’[10]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheingladdeningthemind.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutgladdeningthemind.’[11]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinsteadyingthemind.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutsteadyingthemind.[12]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinreleasingthemind.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutreleasingthemind.’

“[13]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinfocusingoninconstancy.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutfocusingoninconstancy.’[14]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinfocusingondispassion[literally,fading].’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutfocusingondispassion.’[15]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinfocusingoncessation.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutfocusingoncessation.’[16]Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheinfocusingonrelinquishment.’Hetrainshimself,‘Iwillbreatheoutfocusingonrelinquishment.’”—M N118

§68.“Furthermore,quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulmentalqualities,heentersandremainsinthefirstjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Hepermeatesandpervades,suffusesandfillsthisverybodywiththeraptureandpleasurebornofseclusion.Justasifaskilledbathmanorbathman’sapprenticewouldpourbathpowderintoabrassbasinandkneadittogether,sprinklingitagainandagainwithwater,sothathisballofbathpowder—saturated,moisture-laden,permeatedwithinandwithout—wouldneverthelessnotdrip,evenso,themonkpermeates…thisverybodywiththeraptureandpleasureborn

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ofseclusion.Thereisnothingofhisentirebodyunpervadedbyraptureandpleasurebornofseclusion.Andasheremainsthusheedful,ardent,andresolute,anymemoriesandresolvesrelatedtothehouseholdlifeareabandoned,andwiththeirabandoninghismindgathersandsettlesinwardly,growsunifiedandcentered.”—M N119

Verbal fabrication, in addition to playing a role in right concentration,can also be converted into the path factor of right resolve, whichessentially covers forms of directed thought and evaluation that lead toand through the first jhāna, only to be transcended when entering thesecond jhāna.

§69.“Andwhatareunskillfulresolves?Beingresolvedonsensuality,onillwill,onviolence….Whatisthecauseofunskillfulresolves?…Theyaresaidtobeperception-caused….Whichperception?—forperceptionhasmanymodesandpermutations….Anysensuality-perception,illwill-perception,orviolence-perception,thatisthecauseofunskillfulresolves.Nowwheredounskillfulresolvesceasewithouttrace?…Thereisthecasewhereamonk,quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulmentalqualities,entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Thisiswhereunskillfulresolvesceasewithouttrace.Andwhatsortofpracticeisthepracticeleadingtothecessationofunskillfulresolves?Thereisthecasewhereamonkgeneratesdesire…forthesakeofthenonarisingofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…forthesakeoftheabandoningofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen…forthesakeofthearisingofskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…(and)forthe…developmentandculminationofskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen.Thissortofpracticeisthepracticeleadingtothecessationofunskillfulresolves.

“Andwhatareskillfulresolves?Beingresolvedonrenunciation[freedomfromsensuality],onnon-illwill,onnon-violence….Whatisthecauseofskillfulresolves?…Theyaresaidtobeperception-caused….Whichperception?—forperceptionhasmanymodesandpermutations….Anyrenunciation-perception,non-illwill-perception,ornon-violence-perception,thatisthecauseofskillfulresolves.Nowwheredoskillfulresolvesceasewithouttrace?…Thereisthecasewhereamonk,withthestillingofdirectedthoughtsandevaluations,entersandremainsinthesecondjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofconcentration,unificationofawarenessfreefromdirectedthoughtandevaluation—internalassurance.Thisiswhereskillfulresolvesceasewithouttrace.Andwhatsortof

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practiceisthepracticeleadingtothecessationofskillfulresolves?Thereisthecasewhereamonkgeneratesdesire…forthesakeofthenon-arisingofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…forthesakeoftheabandoningofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen…forthesakeofthearisingofskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…(and)forthe…developmentandculminationofskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen.Thissortofpracticeisthepracticeleadingtothecessationofskillfulresolves.”—M N78

Skillful resolves can be developed in line with a wide variety ofmeditation topics. A primary example is the development of the brahmavihāras: unlimited goodwill, unlimited compassion, unlimited appreciation,and unlimited equanimity.

§70.Think:Happy,atrest,mayallbeingsbehappyatheart.Whateverbeingstheremaybe,

weakorstrong,withoutexception,long,large,middling,short,subtle,blatant,seenandunseen,nearandfar,bornandseekingbirth:

Mayallbeingsbehappyatheart.Letnoonedeceiveanotherordespiseanyoneanywhere,orthroughangerorirritationwishforanothertosuffer.Asamotherwouldriskherlifetoprotectherchild,heronlychild,evensoshouldonecultivatealimitlessheartwithregardtoallbeings.Withgoodwillfortheentirecosmos,cultivatealimitlessheart:Above,below,andallaround,unobstructed,withouthostilityorhate.Whetherstanding,walking,sitting,orlyingdown,

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aslongasoneisalert,oneshouldberesolvedonthismindfulness.Thisiscalledasublimeabiding

hereandnow.—Khp9

§71.“Now,Kālāmas,onewhoisadiscipleofthenobleones—thusdevoidofgreed,devoidofillwill,undeluded,alert,andresolute—keepspervadingthefirstdirection[theeast],aswellastheseconddirection,thethird,andthefourth,withanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwill.Thushekeepspervadingabove,below,andallaround,everywhereandineveryrespecttheall-encompassingworldwithanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwill,abundant,expansive,immeasurable,freefromhostility,freefromillwill.

“Hekeepspervadingthefirstdirection—aswellastheseconddirection,thethird,andthefourth—withanawarenessimbuedwithcompassion.Thushekeepspervadingabove,below,andallaround,everywhereandineveryrespecttheallencompassingworldwithanawarenessimbuedwithcompassion,abundant,expansive,immeasurable,freefromhostility,freefromillwill.“Hekeepspervadingthefirstdirection—aswellastheseconddirection,thethird,andthefourth—withanawarenessimbuedwithappreciation.Thushekeepspervadingabove,below,andallaround,everywhereandineveryrespecttheallencompassingworldwithanawarenessimbuedwithappreciation,abundant,expansive,immeasurable,freefromhostility,freefromillwill.

“Hekeepspervadingthefirstdirection—aswellastheseconddirection,thethird,andthefourth—withanawarenessimbuedwithequanimity.Thushekeepspervadingabove,below,andallaround,everywhereandineveryrespecttheallencompassingworldwithanawarenessimbuedwithequanimity,abundant,expansive,immeasurable,freefromhostility,freefromillwill.”—AN3:66

§72.“Wiseandmindful,youshoulddevelopimmeasurableconcentration[i.e.,concentrationbasedonimmeasurablegoodwill,compassion,appreciation,orequanimity].When,wiseandmindful,onehasdevelopedimmeasurableconcentration,fiverealizationsariserightwithinoneself.Whichfive?“Therealizationarisesrightwithinoneselfthat‘Thisconcentrationisblissfulinthepresentandwillresultinblissinthefuture.’

“Therealizationarisesrightwithinoneselfthat‘Thisconcentrationisnobleandnotconnectedwiththebaitsoftheflesh.’

“Therealizationarisesrightwithinoneselfthat‘Thisconcentrationisnot

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obtainedbybasepeople.’“Therealizationarisesrightwithinoneselfthat‘Thisconcentrationis

peaceful,exquisite,theacquiringofserenity,theattainmentofunity,notkeptinplacebythefabricationsofforcefulrestraint.’

“Therealizationarisesrightwithinoneselfthat‘Ienterintothisconcentrationmindfully,andmindfullyIemergefromit.’

“Wiseandmindful,youshoulddevelopimmeasurableconcentration.When,wiseandmindful,onehasdevelopedimmeasurableconcentration,thesefiverealizationsariserightwithinoneself.”—AN5:27

Other meditation themes can also be used to convert verbal fabricationinto right resolve, so as to counteract a wide variety of unskillful mentalstates that can prevent mindfulness practice from developing intoconcentration.

§73.“Thereisthecaseofamonkwhoremainsfocusedonthebodyinandofitself—ardent,alert,andmindful—puttingasidegreedanddistresswithreferencetotheworld.Asheremainsthusfocusedonthebodyinandofitself,afeverbasedonthebodyariseswithinhisbody,orthereissluggishnessinhisawareness,orhismindbecomesscatteredexternally.Heshouldthendirecthismindtoanyinspiringtheme[accordingtotheCommentary,thismeans,e.g.,recollectionoftheBuddha].Ashismindisdirectedtoanyinspiringtheme,delightariseswithinhim.Inonewhofeelsdelight,rapturearises.Inonewhosemindisenraptured,thebodygrowsserene.Hisbodyserene,hefeelspleasure.Ashefeelspleasure,hismindgrowsconcentrated.Hereflects,‘Ihaveattainedtheaimtowhichmymindwasdirected.Letmewithdraw(mymindfromtheinspiringtheme).’Hewithdrawsandengagesneitherindirectedthoughtnorinevaluation.Hediscerns,‘Iamnotthinkingorevaluating.Iaminwardlymindfulandatease.’

“Furthermore,heremainsfocusedonfeelings…mind…mentalqualitiesinandofthemselves—ardent,alert,andmindful—puttingasidegreedanddistresswithreferencetotheworld.Asheremainsthusfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,afeverbasedonmentalqualitiesariseswithinhisbody,orthereissluggishnessinhisawareness,orhismindbecomesscatteredexternally.Heshouldthendirecthismindtoanyinspiringtheme.Ashismindisdirectedtoanyinspiringtheme,delightariseswithinhim.Inonewhofeelsdelight,rapturearises.Inonewhosemindisenraptured,thebodygrowsserene.Hisbodyserene,heissensitivetopleasure.Ashefeelspleasure,hismindgrows

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concentrated.Hereflects,‘Ihaveattainedtheaimtowhichmymindwasdirected.Letmewithdraw.’Hewithdrawsandengagesneitherindirectedthoughtnorinevaluation.Hediscerns,‘Iamnotthinkingorevaluating.Iaminwardlymindfulandatease.’”—SN47:10

§74.IhaveheardthatononeoccasionacertainmonkwasdwellingamongtheKosalansinaforestthicket.Nowatthattime,hespenttheday’sabidingthinkingevil,unskillfulthoughts,i.e.,thoughtsofsensuality,thoughtsofillwill,thoughtsofdoingharm.

Thenthedevatāinhabitingtheforestthicket,feelingsympathyforthemonk,desiringhisbenefit,desiringtobringhimtohissenses,approachedhimandaddressedhimwiththisverse:

“Frominappropriateattentionyou’rebeingchewedbyyourthoughts.Relinquishingwhat’sinappropriate,

contemplateappropriately.

KeepingyourmindontheTeacher,theDhamma,theSaṅgha,yourvirtues,

youwillarriveatjoy,rapture,pleasurewithoutdoubt.

Then,saturatedwithjoy,

youwillputanendtosufferingandstress.”

Themonk,chastenedbythedevatā,cametohissenses.—SN9:11

§75.IhaveheardthatononeoccasiontheBlessedOnewasstayingamongtheSakyansatKapilavatthuintheBanyanPark.NowatthattimeMahānāma…wenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,havingboweddown,sattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne:“IhaveheardthatmanymonksareatworkmakingrobesfortheBlessedOne,(thinking,)‘Whentherobesarefinished,attheendofthethreemonths,theBlessedOnewillsetoutwandering.’Forthoseofuslivingbymeansofvariousdwellingplaces(forthemind),by

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meansofwhichdwellingplaceshouldwelive?”“Excellent,Mahānāma…,excellent!Itisfittingforclansmenlikeyouto

approachtheTathāgataandask,‘Forthoseofuslivingbymeansofvariousdwellingplaces(forthemind),bymeansofwhichdwellingplaceshouldwelive?’

“[a]Onewhoisarousedtopracticeisoneofconviction,notwithoutconviction…[b]isonewithpersistencearoused,notlazy…[c]isoneofestablishedmindfulness,notmuddledmindfulness…[d]iscenteredinconcentration,notuncentered.[e]Onearousedtopracticeisdiscerning,notundiscerning.

“Establishedinthesefivequalities,youshouldfurtherdevelopsixqualities.[1]“ThereisthecasewhereyourecollecttheTathāgata:‘Indeed,theBlessedOneisworthy&rightlyself-awakened,consummateinknowledgeandconduct,well-gone,anexpertwithregardtotheworld,unexcelledasatrainerforthosepeoplefittobetamed,theTeacherofdivineandhumanbeings,awakened,blessed.’AtanytimewhenadiscipleofthenobleonesisrecollectingtheTathāgata,hismindisnotovercomewithpassion,notovercomewithaversion,notovercomewithdelusion.Hismindheadsstraight,basedontheTathāgata.Andwhenthemindisheadedstraight,thediscipleofthenobleonesgainsasenseofthegoal,gainsasenseoftheDhamma,gainsjoyconnectedwiththeDhamma.Inonewhoisjoyful,rapturearises.Inonewhoisrapturous,thebodygrowscalm.Onewhosebodyiscalmedexperiencesease.Inoneatease,themindbecomesconcentrated.

“Mahānāma,youshoulddevelopthisrecollectionoftheBuddhawhileyouarewalking,whileyouarestanding,whileyouaresitting,whileyouarelyingdown,whileyouarebusyatwork,whileyouarerestinginyourhomecrowdedwithchildren.

[2]“Furthermore,thereisthecasewhereyourecollecttheDhamma:‘TheDhammaiswell-expoundedbytheBlessedOne,tobeseenhereandnow,timeless,invitingverification,pertinent,toberealizedbythewiseforthemselves.’AtanytimewhenadiscipleofthenobleonesisrecollectingtheDhamma,hismindisnotovercomewithpassion,notovercomewithaversion,notovercomewithdelusion.Hismindheadsstraight,basedontheDhamma.Andwhenthemindisheadedstraight,thediscipleofthenobleonesgainsasenseofthegoal…themindbecomesconcentrated.

“Mahānāma,youshoulddevelopthisrecollectionoftheDhammawhileyouarewalking,whileyouarestanding,whileyouaresitting,whileyouarelyingdown,whileyouarebusyatwork,whileyouarerestinginyourhomecrowdedwithchildren.

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[3]“Furthermore,thereisthecasewhereyourecollecttheSaṅgha:‘TheSaṅghaoftheBlessedOne’sdiscipleswhohavepracticedwell…whohavepracticedstraight-forwardly…whohavepracticedmethodically…whohavepracticedmasterfully—inotherwords,thefourtypesofdiscipleofthenobleoneswhentakenaspairs,theeightwhentakenasindividualtypes—theyaretheSaṅghaoftheBlessedOne’sdisciples,worthyofgifts,worthyofhospitality,worthyofofferings,worthyofrespect,theincomparablefieldofmeritfortheworld.’AtanytimewhenadiscipleofthenobleonesisrecollectingtheSaṅgha,hismindisnotovercomewithpassion,notovercomewithaversion,notovercomewithdelusion.Hismindheadsstraight,basedontheSaṅgha.Andwhenthemindisheadedstraight,thediscipleofthenobleonesgainsasenseofthegoal…themindbecomesconcentrated.

“Mahānāma,youshoulddevelopthisrecollectionoftheSaṅghawhileyouarewalking,whileyouarestanding,whileyouaresitting,whileyouarelyingdown,whileyouarebusyatwork,whileyouarerestinginyourhomecrowdedwithchildren.

[4]“Furthermore,thereisthecasewhereyourecollectyourownvirtues:‘(Theyare)untorn,unbroken,unspotted,unsplattered,liberating,praisedbythewise,untarnished,conducivetoconcentration.’Atanytimewhenadiscipleofthenobleonesisrecollectingvirtue,hismindisnotovercomewithpassion,notovercomewithaversion,notovercomewithdelusion.Hismindheadsstraight,basedonvirtue.Andwhenthemindisheadedstraight,thediscipleofthenobleonesgainsasenseofthegoal…themindbecomesconcentrated.

“Mahānāma,youshoulddevelopthisrecollectionofvirtuewhileyouarewalking,whileyouarestanding,whileyouaresitting,whileyouarelyingdown,whileyouarebusyatwork,whileyouarerestinginyourhomecrowdedwithchildren.

[5]“Furthermore,thereisthecasewhereyourecollectyourowngenerosity:‘Itisagain,agreatgainforme,that—amongpeopleovercomewiththestainofpossessiveness—Iliveathome,myawarenesscleansedofthestainofpossessiveness,freelygenerous,openhanded,delightinginbeingmagnanimous,responsivetorequests,delightinginthedistributionofalms.’Atanytimewhenadiscipleofthenobleonesisrecollectinggenerosity,hismindisnotovercomewithpassion,notovercomewithaversion,notovercomewithdelusion.Hismindheadsstraight,basedongenerosity.Andwhenthemindisheadedstraight,thediscipleofthenobleonesgainsasenseofthegoal…themindbecomesconcentrated.

“Mahānāma,youshoulddevelopthisrecollectionofgenerositywhileyouare

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walking,whileyouarestanding,whileyouaresitting,whileyouarelyingdown,whileyouarebusyatwork,whileyouarerestinginyourhomecrowdedwithchildren.

[6]“Furthermore,youshouldrecollectthedevas:‘TherearethedevasoftheFourGreatKings,thedevasoftheThirty-three,thedevasoftheHours,theContentedDevas,thedevaswhodelightincreation,thedevaswhohavepoweroverthecreationsofothers,thedevasofBrahmā’sretinue,thedevasbeyondthem.Whateverconvictiontheywereendowedwiththat—whenfallingawayfromthislife—theyre-arosethere,thesamesortofconvictionispresentinmeaswell.Whatevervirt uetheywereendowedwiththat—whenfallingawayfromthislife—theyre-arosethere,thesamesortofvirtueispresentinmeaswell.Whateverlearningtheywereendowedwiththat—whenfallingawayfromthislife—theyre-arosethere,thesamesortoflearningispresentinmeaswell.Whatevergenerositytheywereendowedwiththat—whenfallingawayfromthislife—theyre-arosethere,thesamesortofgenerosityispresentinmeaswell.Whateverdiscernmenttheywereendowedwiththat—whenfallingawayfromthislife—theyre-arosethere,thesamesortofdiscernmentispresentinmeaswell.’Atanytimewhenadiscipleofthenobleonesisrecollectingtheconviction,virtue,learning,generosity,anddiscernmentfoundbothinhimselfandthedevas,hismindisnotovercomewithpassion,notovercomewithaversion,notovercomewithdelusion.Hismindheadsstraight,basedonthe(qualitiesofthe)devas.Andwhenthemindisheadedstraight,thediscipleofthenobleonesgainsasenseofthegoal,gainsasenseoftheDhamma,gainsjoyconnectedwiththeDhamma.Inonewhoisjoyful,rapturearises.Inonewhoisrapturous,thebodygrowscalm.Onewhosebodyiscalmedexperiencesease.Inoneatease,themindbecomesconcentrated.

“Mahānāma,youshoulddevelopthisrecollectionofthedevaswhileyouarewalking,whileyouarestanding,whileyouaresitting,whileyouarelyingdown,whileyouarebusyatwork,whileyouarerestinginyourhomecrowdedwithchildren.”—AN9:13

In all of these contemplations, the aim is to bring the mind to a state ofright concentration, for the resolves leading to right concentration are thehighest form of right resolve.

§76.“Andwhatistherightresolvethatiswithouteffluents,transcendent,afactorofthepath?Thethinking,directedthinking,resolve,mentalfixity,mentaltransfixion,focusedawareness,andverbalfabricationsinonedevelopingthe

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noblepathwhosemindisnoble,whosemindiswithouteffluents,whoisfullypossessedofthenoblepath.Thisistherightresolvethatiswithouteffluents,transcendent,afactorofthepath.”—M N117

Mental fabrications can be observed in the way they shape the mindinto various states — the important part of the observation being to focuson mind states as events in and of themselves, to see how they aredeveloped — rather than focusing on what they are about or how theyrelate to the world. As the following passage suggests, the categories bywhich these mind states are categorized grow progressively more andmore refined as one’s powers of concentration and discernment developto progressively higher levels.

§77.“Andhowdoesamonkremainfocusedonthemindinandofitself?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,whenthemindhaspassion,discernsthatthemindhaspassion.Whenthemindiswithoutpassion,hediscernsthatthemindiswithoutpassion.Whenthemindhasaversion,hediscernsthatthemindhasaversion.Whenthemindiswithoutaversion,hediscernsthatthemindiswithoutaversion.Whenthemindhasdelusion,hediscernsthatthemindhasdelusion.Whenthemindiswithoutdelusion,hediscernsthatthemindiswithoutdelusion.

“Whenthemindisrestricted,hediscernsthatthemindisrestricted.Whenthemindisscattered,hediscernsthatthemindisscattered.Whenthemindisenlarged,hediscernsthatthemindisenlarged.Whenthemindisnotenlarged,hediscernsthatthemindisnotenlarged.Whenthemindissurpassed,hediscernsthatthemindissurpassed.Whenthemindisunsurpassed,hediscernsthatthemindisunsurpassed.Whenthemindisconcentrated,hediscernsthatthemindisconcentrated.Whenthemindisnotconcentrated,hediscernsthatthemindisnotconcentrated.Whenthemindisreleased,hediscernsthatthemindisreleased.Whenthemindisnotreleased,hediscernsthatthemindisnotreleased.

“Inthiswayheremainsfocusedinternallyonthemindinandofitself,orexternallyonthemindinandofitself,orbothinternallyandexternallyonthemindinandofitself.Orheremainsfocusedonthephenomenonoforiginationwithregardtothemind,onthephenomenonofpassingawaywithregardtothemind,oronthephenomenonoforiginationandpassingawaywithregardtothemind.Orhismindfulnessthat‘Thereisamind’ismaintainedtotheextentofknowledgeandremembrance.Andheremainsindependent,unsustainedby/not

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clingingtoanythingintheworld.Thisishowamonkremainsfocusedonthemindinandofitself.”—DN22

Perception, as a mental fabrication, plays several roles in the path. Aswe have already noted, perception is used by mindfulness to get the mindinto right concentration and to keep it there. Once the mind is nourishedby right concentration, it is in the strong, well-grounded position requiredfor adopting the skillful perceptions used to deconstruct its ignorant waysof thinking, for many of these skillful perceptions are quite stark. If themind is not operating from a deep sense of well-being, these perceptionscan lead to depression and disorientation.

§78.“Monks,therearethesefourperversionsofperception,perversionsofmind,perversionsofview.Whichfour?‘Constant’withregardtotheinconstantisaperversionofperception,aperversionofmind,aperversionofview.‘Pleasant’withregardtothestressful….‘Self’withregardtonot-self….‘Attractive’withregardtotheunattractiveisaperversionofperception,aperversionofmind,aperversionofview.”—AN4:49

§79.“Ānanda,ifyougotothemonkGirimānandaandtellhimtenperceptions,it’spossiblethatwhenhehearsthetenperceptionshisdiseasemaybeallayed.Whichten?Theperceptionofinconstancy,theperceptionofnot-self,theperceptionofunattractiveness,theperceptionofdrawbacks,theperceptionofabandoning,theperceptionofdispassion,theperceptionofcessation,theperceptionofdistasteforeveryworld,theperceptionoftheundesirabilityofallfabrications,mindfulnessofin-and-outbreathing.

[1]“Andwhatistheperceptionofinconstancy?Thereisthecasewhereamonk—havinggonetothewilderness,totheshadeofatree,ortoanemptybuilding—reflectsthus:‘Formisinconstant,feelingisinconstant,perceptionisinconstant,fabricationsareinconstant,consciousnessisinconstant.’Thusheremainsfocusedoninconstancywithregardtothefiveaggregates.This,Ānanda,iscalledtheperceptionofinconstancy.

[2]“Andwhatistheperceptionofnot-self?Thereisthecasewhereamonk—havinggonetothewilderness,totheshadeofatree,ortoanemptybuilding—reflectsthus:‘Theeyeisnot-self;formsarenot-self.Theearisnot-self;soundsarenot-self.Thenoseisnot-self;aromasarenot-self.Thetongueisnot-self;flavorsarenot-self.Thebodyisnot-self;tactilesensationsarenot-self.Theintellectisnot-self;ideasarenot-self.’Thusheremainsfocusedonnot-selfnesswithregard

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tothesixinnerandoutersensemedia.Thisiscalledtheperceptionofnot-self.[3]“Andwhatistheperceptionofunattractiveness?Thereisthecasewherea

monkpondersthisverybody—fromthesolesofthefeetonup,fromthecrownoftheheadondown,surroundedbyskin,filledwithallsortsofuncleanthings—‘Thereisinthisbody:hairofthehead,hairofthebody,nails,teeth,skin,muscle,tendons,bones,bonemarrow,spleen,heart,liver,membranes,kidneys,lungs,largeintestines,smallintestines,gorge,feces,gall,phlegm,lymph,blood,sweat,fat,tears,oil,saliva,mucus,oilinthejoints,urine.’Thusheremainsfocusedonunattractivenesswithregardtothisverybody.Thisiscalledtheperceptionofunattractiveness.

[4]“Andwhatistheperceptionofdrawbacks?Thereisthecasewhereamonk—havinggonetothewilderness,tothefootofatree,ortoanemptydwelling—reflectsthus:‘Thisbodyhasmanypains,manydrawbacks.Inthisbodymanykindsofdiseasearise,suchasseeing-diseases,hearing-diseases,nose-diseases,tongue-diseases,body-diseases,head-diseases,ear-diseases,mouth-diseases,teeth-diseases,cough,asthma,catarrh,fever,aging,stomachache,fainting,dysentery,grippe,cholera,leprosy,boils,ringworm,tuberculosis,epilepsy,skin-diseases,itch,scab,psoriasis,scabies,jaundice,diabetes,hemorrhoids,fistulas,ulcers,diseasesarisingfrombile,fromphlegm,fromthewind-property,fromcombinationsofbodilyhumors,fromchangesintheweather,fromunevencareofthebody,fromattacks,fromtheresultofkamma;cold,heat,hunger,thirst,defecation,urination.’Thusheremainsfocusedondrawbackswithregardtothisbody.Thisiscalledtheperceptionofdrawbacks.

[5]“Andwhatistheperceptionofabandoning?Thereisthecasewhereamonkdoesnottolerateanarisenthoughtofsensuality.Heabandonsit,destroysit,dispelsit,andwipesitoutofexistence.Hedoesnottolerateanarisenthoughtofill-will.Heabandonsit,destroysit,dispelsit,andwipesitoutofexistence.Hedoesnottolerateanarisenthoughtofharmfulness.Heabandonsit,destroysit,dispelsit,andwipesitoutofexistence.Hedoesnottoleratearisenevil,unskillfulmentalqualities.Heabandonsthem,destroysthem,dispelsthem,andwipesthemoutofexistence.Thisiscalledtheperceptionofabandoning.

[6]“Andwhatistheperceptionofdispassion?Thereisthecasewhereamonk—havinggonetothewilderness,totheshadeofatree,ortoanemptybuilding—reflectsthus:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite,thepacificationofallfabrications,therelinquishingofallacquisitions,theendingofcraving,dispassion,Unbinding.’Thisiscalledtheperceptionofdispassion.

[7]“Andwhatistheperceptionofcessation?Thereisthecasewhereamonk—havinggonetothewilderness,totheshadeofatree,ortoanemptybuilding

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—reflectsthus:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—thepacificationofallfabrications,therelinquishingofallacquisitions,theendingofcraving,cessation,Unbinding.’Thisiscalledtheperceptionofcessation.

[8]“Andwhatistheperceptionofdistasteforeveryworld?Thereisthecasewhereamonkabandoninganyattachments,clingings,fixationsofawareness,biases,orobsessionswithregardtoanyworld,refrainsfromthemanddoesnotgetinvolved.Thisiscalledtheperceptionofdistasteforeveryworld.

[9]“Andwhatistheperceptionoftheundesirabilityofallfabrications?Thereisthecasewhereamonkfeelshorrified,humiliated,anddisgustedwithallfabrications.Thisiscalledtheperceptionoftheundesirabilityofallfabrications.[10]“Andwhatismindfulnessofin-and-outbreathing?[See§67]—AN10:60

Ultimately, however, perception can be used to help developdispassion for perception itself, as well as for all forms of fabrication.

§80.“Nowsupposethatinthelastmonthofthehotseasonamiragewereshimmering,andamanwithgoodeyesightweretoseeit,observeit,andappropriatelyexamineit.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinamirage?Inthesameway,amonksees,observes,andappropriatelyexaminesanyperceptionthatispast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,blatantorsubtle,commonorsublime,farornear.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinperception?

“Nowsupposethatamandesiringheartwood,inquestofheartwood,seekingheartwood,weretogointoaforestcarryingasharpax.Therehewouldseealargebananatree,straight,young,ofenormousheight.Hewouldcutitattherootand,havingcutitattheroot,wouldchopoffthetop.Havingchoppedoffthetop,hewouldpeelawaytheouterskin.Peelingawaytheouterskin,hewouldn’tevenfindsapwood,tosaynothingofheartwood.Thenamanwithgoodeyesightwouldseeit,observeit,andappropriatelyexamineit.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinabananatree?Inthesameway,amonksees,observes,andappropriatelyexaminesanyfabricationsthatarepast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,blatantorsubtle,commonorsublime,farornear.Tohim—seeingthem,observingthem,andappropriatelyexaminingthem—theywouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinfabrications?”—SN22:95

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A similar strategy applies to the role of feeling as a mental fabricationon the path. Skillful feelings of pleasure are developed in the practice ofright concentration to help wean the mind away from its tendency to feedon sensual pleasures, for if the mind does not have an alternative meansof escape from painful feeling, its attachment to sensual pleasures willremain strong.

§81.“Eventhoughadiscipleofthenobleoneshasclearlyseenasitactuallyiswithrightdiscernmentthatsensualityisofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks,still—ifhehasnotattainedaraptureandpleasureapartfromsensuality,apartfromunskillfulmentalqualities,orsomethingmorepeacefulthanthat—hecanbetemptedbysensuality.Butwhenhehasclearlyseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobethatsensualityisofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks,andhehasattainedaraptureandpleasureapartfromsensuality,apartfromunskillfulmentalqualities,orsomethingmorepeacefulthanthat,hecannotbetemptedbysensuality.”—M N14

§82.“Whentouchedwithafeelingofpain,theuninstructedrun-of-the-millpersonsorrows,grieves,andlaments,beatshisbreast,becomesdistraught.Sohefeelstwopains,physicalandmental.Justasiftheyweretoshootamanwithanarrowand,rightafterward,weretoshoothimwithanotherone,sothathewouldfeelthepainsoftwoarrows….

“Asheistouchedbythatpainfulfeeling,heisresistant.Anyresistance-obsessionwithregardtothatpainfulfeelingobsesseshim.Touchedbythatpainfulfeeling,hedelightsinsensuality.Whyisthat?Becausetheuninstructedrun-of-the-millpersondoesnotdiscernanyescapefrompainfulfeelingasidefromsensuality.Asheisdelightinginsensuality,anypassion-obsessionwithregardtothatfeelingofpleasureobsesseshim.Hedoesnotdiscern,asithascometobe,theorigination,passingaway,allure,drawback,orescapefromthatfeeling.Ashedoesnotdiscerntheorigination,passingaway,allure,drawback,orescapefromthatfeeling,thenanyignorance-obsessionwithregardtothatfeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-painobsesseshim.

“Sensingafeelingofpleasure…afeelingofpain…afeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-pain,hesensesitasthoughjoinedwithit.Thisiscalledanuninstructedrun-of-the-millpersonjoinedwithbirth,aging,anddeath;withsorrows,lamentations,pains,distresses,anddespairs.Heisjoined,Itellyou,withsufferingandstress.

“Now,thewell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleones,whentouchedwitha

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feelingofpain,doesnotsorrow,grieve,orlament,doesnotbeathisbreastorbecomedistraught.Sohefeelsonepain,physical,butnotmental.Justasiftheyweretoshootamanwithanarrowand,rightafterward,didnotshoothimwithanotherone,sothathewouldfeelthepainofonlyonearrow….

“Asheistouchedbythatpainfulfeeling,heisnotresistant.Noresistance-obsessionwithregardtothatpainfulfeelingobsesseshim.Touchedbythatpainfulfeeling,hedoesnotdelightinsensuality.Whyisthat?Becausethewell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleonesdiscernsanescapefrompainfulfeelingasidefromsensuality.Asheisnotdelightinginsensuality,nopassion-obsessionwithregardtothatfeelingofpleasureobsesseshim.Hediscerns,asithascometobe,theorigination,passingaway,allure,drawback,andescapefromthatfeeling.Ashediscernstheorigination,passingaway,allure,drawback,andescapefromthatfeeling,noignorance-obsessionwithregardtothatfeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-painobsesseshim.

“Sensingafeelingofpleasure,hesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Sensingafeelingofpain,hesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Sensingafeelingofneither-pleasure-norpain,hesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Thisiscalledawell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleonesdisjoinedfrombirth,aging,anddeath,fromsorrows,lamentations,pains,distresses,anddespairs.Heisdisjoined,Itellyou,fromsufferingandstress.”—SN36:6

The contemplation of feelings in and of themselves — one of the fourframes of reference — is intimately entwined with the development ofright concentration. On the one hand, this contemplation is one of the fourthemes of right concentration.

§83.Visākha:“Nowwhatisconcentration,lady,whatqualitiesareitsthemes?…”

S isterDhammadinnā:“Singlenessofmindisconcentration,friendVisākha,thefourframesofreferenceareitsthemes.”—M N4 4

On the other hand, once the mind is in right concentration, it is in anexcellent position to observe feelings in and of themselves as they growprogressively more refined.

§84.“Andhowdoesamonkremainfocusedonfeelingsinandofthemselves?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,whenfeelingapainfulfeeling,discernsthatheisfeelingapainfulfeeling.Whenfeelingapleasantfeeling,hediscernsthatheis

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feelingapleasantfeeling.Whenfeelinganeither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling,hediscernsthatheisfeelinganeither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling.“Whenfeelingapainfulfeelingoftheflesh,hediscernsthatheisfeelingapainfulfeelingoftheflesh.Whenfeelingapainfulfeelingnotoftheflesh,hediscernsthatheisfeelingapainfulfeelingnotoftheflesh.Whenfeelingapleasantfeelingoftheflesh,hediscernsthatheisfeelingapleasantfeelingoftheflesh.Whenfeelingapleasantfeelingnotoftheflesh[e.g.,inthefirstthreejhānas],hediscernsthatheisfeelingapleasantfeelingnotoftheflesh.Whenfeelinganeither-painful-nor-pleasantfeelingoftheflesh,hediscernsthatheisfeelinganeither-painful-nor-pleasantfeelingoftheflesh.Whenfeelinganeitherpainful-nor-pleasantfeelingnotoftheflesh[e.g.,inthethirdandfourthjhānas],hediscernsthatheisfeelinganeither-painful-nor-pleasantfeelingnotoftheflesh.

“Inthiswayheremainsfocusedinternallyonfeelingsinandofthemselves,orexternallyonfeelingsinandofthemselves,orbothinternallyandexternallyonfeelingsinandofthemselves.Orheremainsfocusedonthephenomenonoforiginationwithregardtofeelings,onthephenomenonofpassingawaywithregardtofeelings,oronthephenomenonoforiginationandpassingawaywithregardtofeelings.Orhismindfulnessthat‘Therearefeelings’ismaintainedtotheextentofknowledgeandremembrance.Andheremainsindependent,unsustainedby/notclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thisishowamonkremainsfocusedonfeelingsinandofthemselves.”—DN22

However, as one observes the refined feelings in jhāna, one can seethat even they have their drawbacks.

§85.“Againthemonk,withthestillingofdirectedthoughtsandevaluations,entersandremainsinthesecondjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofconcentration,unificationofawarenessfreefromdirectedthoughtandevaluation—internalassurance…Withthefadingofraptureheremainsequanimous,mindfulandalert,andsensespleasurewiththebody.Heentersandremainsinthethirdjhāna,ofwhichthenobleonesdeclare,‘Equanimousandmindful,hehasapleasantabiding’…Withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain—aswiththeearlierdisappearanceofjoysanddistresses—heentersandremainsinthefourthjhāna,[with]purityofequanimityandmindfulness,neitherpleasurenorpain.Atthattimehedoesnotintendhisownaffliction,theafflictionofothers,ortheafflictionofboth.Hefeelsafeelingtotallyunafflicted.Theunafflicted,Itellyou,isthehighestallureoffeelings.

“Andwhatisthedrawbackoffeelings?Thefactthatfeelingisinconstant,

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stressful,subjecttochange;thisisthedrawbackoffeelings.“Andwhatistheescapefromfeelings?Thesubduingofdesire-passionforfeelings,theabandoningofdesire-passionforfeelings;thatistheescapefromfeelings.”—M N13

The texts describe two ways in which the practice of rightconcentration can be used to develop dispassion for perceptions andfeelings. The first is to view both of these processes as they functionwithin any particular level of jhāna or the formless attainments based onthe fourth jhāna.

§86.“Itellyou,theendingofthementaleffluentsdependsonthefirstjhāna…thesecondjhāna…thethird…thefourth…thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace…thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness…thedimensionofnothingness.Itellyou,theendingofthementaleffluentsdependsonthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception….“Supposethatanarcherorarcher’sapprenticeweretopracticeonastrawmanormoundofclay,sothatafterawhilehewouldbecomeabletoshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,andtopiercegreatmasses.Inthesameway,thereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna,[with]raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Heregardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness,asinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.Heturnshismindawayfromthosephenomena,andhavingdoneso,inclineshismindtothepropertyofdeathlessness:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite,theresolutionofallfabrications;therelinquishingofallacquisitions;theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;Unbinding.’“Stayingrightthere,hereachestheendingofthementaleffluents.Or,ifnot,then—throughthisveryDhamma-passion,thisDhamma-delight,andfromthetotalwastingawayofthefirstfiveFetters[self-identityviews,graspingatpreceptsandpractices,uncertainty,sensualpassion,andirritation]—heisduetobereborn[inthePureAbodes],theretobetotallyunbound,neveragaintoreturnfromthatworld.

“‘Itellyou,theendingofthementaleffluentsdependsonthefirstjhāna.’Thusitwassaid,andinreferencetothiswasitsaid.[Similarlywiththeotherlevelsofjhānaupthroughthedimensionofnothingness.]

“Thus,asfarastheperception-attainmentsgo,thatisasfarasgnosis-penetrationgoes.Asforthesetwodimensions—theattainmentofthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionandtheattainmentofthe

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cessationoffeelingandperception—Itellyouthattheyaretoberightlyexplainedbythosemonkswhoaremeditators,skilledinattaining,skilledinattainingandemerging,whohaveattainedandemergedindependenceonthem.”—AN9:36

The other approach is to observe how each level of jhāna involvesabandoning the grosser levels of perception and feeling — and fabricationin general — inherent in the more elementary levels. This observation canlead to progressively more refined levels of concentration, to the pointwhere perception, feeling, and fabrication entirely cease.

§87.“Ihavealsotaughtthestep-by-stepcessationoffabrications.Whenonehasattainedthefirstjhāna,speechhasceased.W henonehasattainedthesecondjhāna,directedthoughtandevaluation[verbalfabrications]haveceased.Whenonehasattainedthethirdjhāna,rapturehasceased.W henonehasattainedthefourthjhāna,in-and-outbreathing[bodilyfabrication]hasceased.Whenonehasattainedthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace,theperceptionofformshasceased.Whenonehasattainedthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness,theperceptionofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspacehasceased.Whenonehasattainedthedimensionofnothingness,theperceptionofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousnesshasceased.Whenonehasattainedthedimensionofneither-perceptionnornon-perception,theperceptionofthedimensionofnothingnesshasceased.W henonehasattainedthecessationofperceptionandfeeling,perceptionandfeeling[ mentalfabrications]haveceased.Whenamonk’seffluentshaveended,passionhasceased,aversionhasceased,delusionhasceased.”—SN36:11

§88.IhaveheardthatononeoccasionVen.SāriputtawasstayingnearRājagahaintheBambooGrove,theSquirrels’FeedingSanctuary.Therehesaidtothemonks,“ThisUnbindingispleasant,friends.ThisUnbindingispleasant.”

Whenthiswassaid,Ven.UdāyinsaidtoVen.Sāriputta,“Butwhatisthepleasurehere,myfriend,wherethereisnothingfelt?”

“Justthatisthepleasurehere,myfriend,wherethereisnothingfelt.Therearethesefivestringsofsensuality.Whichfive?Formscognizableviatheeye—agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,accompaniedbysensuality,enticing,soundscognizableviatheear…aromascognizableviathenose…tastescognizableviathetongue…tactilesensationscognizableviathebody—

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agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,accompaniedbysensuality,enticing.Whateverpleasureorjoyarisesindependenceonthesefivestringsofsensuality,thatissensualpleasure.

“Nowthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna….If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwithsensuality,thatisanafflictionforhim.Justaspainarisesasanafflictioninahealthyperson,evensotheattentiontoperceptionsdealingwithsensualitythatbesetthemonkisanafflictionforhim.Now,theBlessedOnehassaidthatwhateverisanafflictionisstress.SobythislineofreasoningitmaybeknownhowUnbindingispleasant.

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthesecondjhāna….If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwithdirectedthought,thatisanafflictionforhim….

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthethirdjhāna….If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwithrapt ure,thatisanafflictionforhim….

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthefourthjhāna….If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwithequanimity,thatisanafflictionforhim….

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace.If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwithform,thatisanafflictionforhim….

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness.If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwiththedimensionoftheinfinit udeofspace,thatisanafflictionforhim….

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthedimensionofnothingness.If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwiththedimensionoftheinfinit udeofconsc iousness,thatisanafflictionforhim….

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception.If,asheremainsthere,heisbesetwithattentiontoperceptionsdealingwiththedimensionofnothingness,thatisanafflictionforhim.Now,theBlessedOnehassaidthatwhateverisanafflictionisstress.SobythislineofreasoningitmaybeknownhowUnbindingispleasant.

“Thenthereisthecasewhereamonk,withthecompletetranscendingofthe

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dimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception,entersandremainsinthecessationofperceptionandfeeling.And,havingseen(that)withdiscernment,hiseffluentsarecompletelyended.SobythislineofreasoningitmaybeknownhowUnbindingispleasant.”—AN9:34

§89.“Thereisthecase,Ānanda,whereamonk,withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionofnothingness,entersandremainsinthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception….Thoughsomemightsay,‘Thatisthehighestpleasurethatbeingsexperience,’Iwouldnotgrantthemthat.Whyisthat?Becausethereisanotherpleasure,moreextremeandrefinedthanthat.

“Andwhat,Ānanda,isanotherpleasuremoreextremeandrefinedthanthat?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception,entersandremainsinthecessationofperceptionandfeeling.Thisisanotherpleasuremoreextremeandrefinedthanthat.

“Nowit’spossible,Ānanda,thatsomewanderersofotherpersuasionsmightsay,‘Gotamathecontemplativespeaksofthecessationofperceptionandfeelingandyetdescribesitaspleasure.Whatisthis?Howisthis?’Whentheysaythat,theyaretobetold,‘It’snotthecase,friends,thattheBlessedOnedescribesonlypleasantfeelingasincludedunderpleasure.Whereverpleasureisfound,inwhateverterms,theBlessedOnedescribesitaspleasure.’”—SN36:19

CONSCIOUSNESS

As with mind states, it is important to view sensory consciousness notin terms of its objects or how it relates to the world, but in terms of howit plays a role in a causal process, nourished by its supports and thennourishing, in turn, the proliferation of states of becoming. Viewing it inthis way, one can develop dispassion for sensory consciousness, and —in allowing it to become unestablished by preventing it from feeding on itssupports — allow it to be released.

§90.TheBlessedOnesaid:“Monks,therearethesefivemeansofpropagation.Whichfive?Root-propagation,stem-propagation,joint-propagation,cutting-propagation,andseed-propagationasthefifth.Andifthesefivemeansofpropagationarenotbroken,notrotten,notdamagedbywindandsun,mature,andwell-buried,butthereisnoearthandnowater,wouldtheyexhibitgrowth,

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increase,andproliferation?”“No,lord.”“Andifthesefivemeansofpropagationarebroken,rotten,damagedbywind

andsun,immature,andpoorly-buried,butthereisearthandwater,wouldtheyexhibitgrowth,increase,andproliferation?”

“No,lord.”“Andifthesefivemeansofpropagationarenotbroken,notrotten,not

damagedbywindandsun,mature,andwell-buried,andthereisearthandwater,wouldtheyexhibitgrowth,increase,andproliferation?”

“Yes,lord.”“Liketheearthproperty,monks,ishowthefourstanding-spotsfor

consciousnessshouldbeseen.Liketheliquidpropertyishowdelightandpassionshouldbeseen.Likethefivemeansofpropagationishowconsciousnesstogetherwithitsnutrimentshouldbeseen.

“Shouldconsciousness,whentakingastance,standattachedtoform,supportedbyform(asitsobject),establishedonform,wateredwithdelight,itwouldexhibitgrowth,increase,andproliferation.

“Shouldconsciousness,whentakingastance,standattachedtofeeling….“Shouldconsciousness,whentakingastance,standattachedtoperception….“Shouldconsciousness,whentakingastance,standattachedtofabrications,

supportedbyfabrications(asitsobject),establishedonfabrications,wateredwithdelight,itwouldexhibitgrowth,increase,andproliferation.

“Weresomeonetosay,‘Iwilldescribeacoming,agoing,apassingaway,anarising,agrowth,anincrease,oraproliferationofconsciousnessapartfromform,fromfeeling,fromperception,fromfabrications,’thatwouldbeimpossible.

“Ifamonkabandonspassionforthepropertyofform….“Ifamonkabandonspassionforthepropertyoffeeling….“Ifamonkabandonspassionforthepropertyofperception…“Ifamonkabandonspassionforthepropertyoffabrications….“Ifamonkabandonspassionforthepropertyofconsciousness,thenowingto

theabandonmentofpassion,thesupportiscutoff,andthereisnobaseforconsciousness.Consciousness,thusunestablished,notproliferating,notperforminganyfunction,isreleased.Owingtoitsrelease,itissteady.Owingtoitssteadiness,itiscontented.Owingtoitscontentment,itisnotagitated.Notagitated,he[themonk]istotallyunboundrightwithin.Hediscernsthat‘Birthis

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ended,theholylifefulfilled,thetaskdone.Thereisnothingfurtherforthisworld.’”—SN22:54

§91.“Nowsupposethatamagicianormagician’sapprenticeweretodisplayamagictrickatamajorintersection,andamanwithgoodeyesightweretoseeit,observeit,andappropriatelyexamineit.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinamagictrick?Inthesameway,amonksees,observes,andappropriatelyexaminesanyconsciousnessthatispast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,blatantorsubtle,commonorsublime,farornear.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance:forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinconsciousness?”—SN22:95

NAME

Because perception and feeling, two of the factors of Name, occur atseveral points in dependent co-arising, they form feedback loops allowingdifferent stages in the sequence to run past intention and attention asthey reenter the sequence at Name. When these two sub-factors areunskillful, they can compound the resulting stress and suffering. But ifthey are skillful, they can mitigate the resulting stress and suffering, oreven abort the sequence before stress and suffering are produced. Thusthey are among the most important factors in dependent co-arising as awhole. When the noble eightfold path comes together, it functions righthere at the factor of intention.

§92.“Intention,Itellyou,iskamma.Intending,onedoeskammabywayofbody,speech,andintellect.”—AN6:63

§93.“Thereiskammathatisdarkwithdarkresult,kammathatisbrightwithbrightresult,kammathatisdarkandbrightwithdarkandbrightresult,andkammathatisneitherdarknorbrightwithneitherdarknorbrightresult,leadingtotheendingofkamma….Andwhatiskammathatisneitherdarknorbrightwithneitherdarknorbrightresult,leadingtotheendingofkamma?Rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.”—AN4:237

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As for attention, the Buddha recognized two types: appropriate andinappropriate. There is no role for bare attention in his teachings at all.Given the place of attention in the sequence of factors, conditioned byfabrications and consciousness, an utterly bare attention would beimpossible. Instead, the Buddha advised developing appropriate attention,which is functionally equivalent to right view in focusing on issues thathelp in solving the problem of suffering and away from issues that wouldget in the way. In its broadest role, it draws the mind’s focus away fromquestions of being and self, and directs it toward viewing presentexperience in terms of the four noble truths.

§94.“Thereisthecasewhereanuninstructed,run-of-the-millperson—whohasnoregardfornobleones,isnotwell-versedordisciplinedintheirDhamma,whohasnoregardforpeopleofintegrity,isnotwell-versedordisciplinedintheirDhamma—doesnotdiscernwhatideasarefitforattentionorwhatideasareunfitforattention.Thisbeingso,hedoesnotattendtoideasfitforattentionandattends(instead)toideasunfitforattention….

“Thisishowheattendsinappropriately:‘WasIinthepast?WasInotinthepast?WhatwasIinthepast?HowwasIinthepast?Havingbeenwhat,whatwasIinthepast?ShallIbeinthefuture?ShallInotbeinthefuture?WhatshallIbeinthefuture?HowshallIbeinthefuture?Havingbeenwhat,whatshallIbeinthefuture?’Orelseheisinwardlyperplexedabouttheimmediatepresent:‘AmI?AmInot?WhatamI?HowamI?Wherehasthisbeingcomefrom?Whereisitbound?’

“Asheattendsinappropriatelyinthisway,oneofsixkindsofviewarisesinhim:theview‘Ihaveaself’arisesinhimastrueandestablished,ortheview‘Ihavenoself’…ortheview‘ItispreciselybymeansofselfthatIperceiveself’…ortheview‘ItispreciselybymeansofselfthatIperceivenot-self’…ortheview‘Itispreciselybymeansofnot-selfthatIperceiveself’arisesinhimastrueandestablished,orelsehehasaviewlikethis:‘Thisveryselfofmine—theknowerthatissensitivehereandtheretotheripeningofgoodandbadactions—istheselfofminethatisconstant,everlasting,eternal,notsubjecttochange,andwillendureaslongaseternity.’Thisiscalledathicketofviews,awildernessofviews,acontortionofviews,awrithingofviews,afetterofviews.Boundbyafetterofviews,theuninstructedrun-of-the-millpersonisnotfreedfrombirth,aging,anddeath,fromsorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespair.Heisnotfreed,Itellyou,fromsufferingandstress.

“Thewell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleones—whohasregardfornoble

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ones,iswell-versedanddisciplinedintheirDhamma,whohasregardforpeopleofintegrity,iswell-versedanddisciplinedintheirDhamma—discernswhatideasarefitforattentionandwhatideasareunfitforattention.Thisbeingso,hedoesnotattendtoideasunfitforattentionandattends(instead)toideasfitforattention….

“Heattendsappropriately:Thisisstress…Thisistheoriginationofstress…Thisisthecessationofstress…Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofstress.Asheattendsappropriatelyinthisway,threefettersareabandonedinhim:identity-view,doubt,andgraspingathabitsandpractices.Thesearecalledtheeffluentstobeabandonedbyseeing.”—M N2

In line with the duties appropriate to the four noble truths, appropriateattention fosters comprehension of — and dispassion for — the clinging-aggregates that act as the heart of suffering and stress.

§95.OnoneoccasionVen.SāriputtaandVen.MahāKoṭṭhitawerestayingnearVārāṅasīintheDeerParkatIsipatana.ThenVen.MahāKoṭṭhita,emergingfromseclusioninthelateafternoon,wenttoVen.Sāriputtaand,onarrival,exchangedcourteousgreetingswithhim.Afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetingsandcourtesies,hesattooneside.Ashewassittingthere,hesaidtoVen.Sāriputta,“Sāriputtamyfriend,whichthingsshouldavirtuousmonkattendtoinanappropriateway?”

“Avirtuousmonk,Koṭṭhitamyfriend,shouldattendinanappropriatewaytothefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-self.Whichfive?Formasaclinging-aggregate,feeling…perception…fabrications…consciousnessasaclinging-aggregate.Avirtuousmonkshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-self.Foritispossiblethatavirtuousmonk,attendinginanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant…not-self,wouldrealizethefruitofstream-entry.”

“Thenwhichthingsshouldamonkwhohasattainedstream-entryattendtoinanappropriateway?”

“Amonkwhohasattainedstream-entryshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-self.Foritispossiblethatamonkwhohasattainedstream-entry,attendinginanappropriate

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waytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant…not-self,wouldrealizethefruitofonce-returning.”

“Thenwhichthingsshouldamonkwhohasattainedonce-returningattendtoinanappropriateway?”

“Amonkwhohasattainedonce-returningshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-self.Foritispossiblethatamonkwhohasattainedonce-returning,attendinginanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant…not-self,wouldrealizethefruitofnon-returning.”

“Thenwhichthingsshouldamonkwhohasattainednon-returningattendtoinanappropriateway?”

“Amonkwhohasattainednon-returningshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-self.Foritispossiblethatamonkwhohasattainednon-returning,attendinginanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant…not-self,wouldrealizethefruitofarahantship.”

“Thenwhichthingsshouldanarahantattendtoinanappropriateway?”“Anarahantshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-self.Although,foranarahant,thereisnothingfurthertodo,andnothingtoaddtowhathasbeendone,stillthesethings—whendevelopedandpursued—leadbothtoapleasantabidinginthehere-and-nowandtomindfulnessandalertness.”—SN22:122

§96.“Furthermore,themonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefiveclinging-aggregates.Andhowdoesheremainfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefiveclinging-aggregates?Thereisthecasewhereamonk(discerns):‘Suchisform,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance.Suchisfeeling….Suchisperception….Sucharefabrications….Suchisconsciousness,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance.’

“Inthiswayheremainsfocusedinternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,orexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,orbothinternallyandexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves.Orheremainsfocusedonthephenomenonoforiginationwithregardtomentalqualities,onthephenomenonofpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities,oronthe

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phenomenonoforiginationandpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities.Orhismindfulnessthat‘Therearementalqualities’ismaintainedtotheextentofknowledgeandremembrance.Andheremainsindependent,unsustainedby/notclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thisishowamonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefiveclinging-aggregates.”—DN22

As noted in §45, appropriate attention also acts as food for developingthe seven factors for Awakening, factors conducive to the path, and as ameans for starving the hindrances, mind states that contribute to theorigination of suffering and stress. In this way, appropriate attentioninforms the practice of right mindfulness focused on the theme of mentalqualities in and of themselves.

§97.“Thereisthecasewhereamonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefivehindrances.Andhowdoesamonkremainfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothefivehindrances?Thereisthecasewhere,therebeingsensualdesirepresentwithin,amonkdiscernsthat‘Thereissensualdesirepresentwithinme.’Or,therebeingnosensualdesirepresentwithin,hediscernsthat‘Thereisnosensualdesirepresentwithinme.’Hediscernshowthereisthearisingofunarisensensualdesire.Andhediscernshowthereistheabandoningofsensualdesireonceithasarisen.Andhediscernshowthereisnofurtherappearanceinthefutureofsensualdesirethathasbeenabandoned.[Thesameformulaisrepeatedfortheremaininghindrances:illwill,slothanddrowsiness,restlessnessandanxiety,anduncertainty.]….

“Furthermore,themonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothesevenfactorsforAwakening.AndhowdoesheremainfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothesevenfactorsforAwakening?Thereisthecasewhere,therebeingmindfulnessasafactorforAwakeningpresentwithin,hediscernsthat‘MindfulnessasafactorforAwakeningispresentwithinme.’Or,therebeingnomindfulnessasafactorforAwakeningpresentwithin,hediscernsthat‘MindfulnessasafactorforAwakeningisnotpresentwithinme.’HediscernshowthereisthearisingofunarisenmindfulnessasafactorforAwakening.AndhediscernshowthereistheculminationofthedevelopmentofmindfulnessasafactorforAwakeningonceithasarisen.[ThesameformulaisrepeatedfortheremainingfactorsforAwakening:analysisofqualities,persistence,rapture,serenity,concentration,and

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equanimity.]“Inthiswayheremainsfocusedinternallyonmentalqualitiesinandof

themselves,orexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,orbothinternallyandexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves.Orheremainsfocusedonthephenomenonoforiginationwithregardtomentalqualities,onthephenomenonofpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities,oronthephenomenonoforiginationandpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities.Orhismindfulnessthat‘Therearementalqualities’ismaintainedtotheextentofknowledgeandremembrance.Andheremainsindependent,unsustainedbynotclingingtoanythingintheworld.”—DN22

FORM

Form as a topic of meditation is used primarily in two ways: to developequanimity for the objects of the senses and to develop the perception ofnot-self with regard to the body.

§98.“Rāhula,developthemeditationintunewithearth.Forwhenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithearth,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.Justaswhenpeoplethrowwhatiscleanoruncleanontheearth—feces,urine,saliva,pus,orblood—theearthisnothorrified,humiliated,ordisgustedbyit;inthesameway,whenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithearth,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.

“Developthemeditationintunewithwater.Forwhenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithwater,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.Justaswhenpeoplewashwhatiscleanoruncleaninwater—feces,urine,saliva,pus,orblood—thewaterisnothorrified,humiliated,ordisgustedbyit;inthesameway,whenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithwater,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.

“Developthemeditationintunewithfire.Forwhenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithfire,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.Justaswhenfireburnswhatiscleanorunclean—feces,urine,saliva,pus,orblood—itisnothorrified,humiliated,ordisgustedbyit;inthesameway,whenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithfire,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthat

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havearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.“Developthemeditationintunewithwind.Forwhenyouaredevelopingthe

meditationintunewithwind,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.Justaswhenwindblowswhatiscleanorunclean—feces,urine,saliva,pus,orblood—itisnothorrified,humiliated,ordisgustedbyit;inthesameway,whenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithwind,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.

“Developthemeditationintunewithspace.Forwhenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithspace,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.Justasspaceisnotestablishedanywhere,inthesameway,whenyouaredevelopingthemeditationintunewithspace,agreeableanddisagreeablesensoryimpressionsthathavearisenwillnotstayinchargeofyourmind.”—M N62

§99.Ven.Sāriputta:“Andwhatistheformclinging-aggregate?Thefourgreatelementsandtheformderivedfromthem.Andwhatarethefourgreatelements?Theearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty.

“Andwhatistheearthproperty?Theearthpropertycanbeeitherinternalorexternal.Whatistheinternalearthproperty?Whateverinternal,withinoneself,ishard,solid,andsustained[bycraving]:headhairs,bodyhairs,nails,teeth,skin,flesh,tendons,bones,bonemarrow,kidneys,heart,liver,pleura,spleen,lungs,largeintestines,smallintestines,contentsofthestomach,feces,orwhateverelseinternal,withinoneself,ishard,solid,andsustained:Thisiscalledtheinternalearthproperty.Nowboththeinternalearthpropertyandtheexternalearthpropertyaresimplyearthproperty.Andthatshouldbeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe:‘Thisisnotmine,thisisnotwhatIam,thisisnotmyself.’Whenoneseesitthuswithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,onebecomesdisenchantedwiththeearthpropertyandmakestheminddispassionatetowardtheearthproperty.

“Nowtherecomesatime,friends,whentheexternalliquidpropertyisprovoked,andatthattimetheexternalearthpropertyvanishes.Sowhenevenintheexternalearthproperty—sovast—inconstancywillbediscerned,destructibilitywillbediscerned,atendencytodecaywillbediscerned,changeabilitywillbediscerned,thenwhatofthisshort-lastingbody,sustainedbyclinging,is‘I’or‘mine’or‘whatIam’?Ithashereonlya‘no.’“Nowifotherpeopleinsult,malign,exasperate,andharassamonk(whohasdiscernedthis),hediscernsthat’Apainfulfeeling,bornofear-contact,hasarisenwithinme.And

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thatisdependent,notindependent.Dependentonwhat?Dependentoncontact.’Andheseesthatcontactisinconstant,feelingisinconstant,perceptionisinconstant,consciousnessisinconstant.Hismind,withthe(earth)propertyasitsobject/support,leapsup,growsconfident,steadfast,andreleased.

“Andifotherpeopleattackthemonkinwaysthatareundesirable,displeasing,anddisagreeable—throughcontactwithfists,contactwithstones,contactwithsticks,orcontactwithknives—themonkdiscernsthat‘Thisbodyisofsuchanaturethatcontactswithfistscome,contactswithstonescome,contactswithstickscome,andcontactswithknivescome.NowtheBlessedOnehassaid,inhisexhortationofthesimileofthesaw[MN21],“Monks,evenifbanditsweretocarveyouupsavagely,limbbylimb,withatwo-handledsaw,heamongyouwholethisheartgetangeredevenatthatwouldnotbedoingmybidding.”Somypersistencewillbearousedanduntiring,mymindfulnessestablishedandunconfused,mybodycalmandunaroused,mymindcenteredandunified.Andnowletcontactwithfistscometothisbody,letcontactwithstones,withsticks,withknivescometothisbody,forthisishowtheBuddha’sbiddingisdone.’“Andif,inthemonkrecollectingtheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghainthisway,equanimitybasedonwhatisskillfulisnotestablished,hefeelsapprehensiveatthatandgivesrisetoasenseofurgency:‘Itisalossforme,notagain,ill-gottenforme,notwell-gotten,thatwhenIrecollecttheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghainthisway,equanimitybasedonwhatisskillfulisnotestablishedwithinme.’Justaswhenadaughter-in-law,onseeingherfather-in-law,feelsapprehensiveandgivesrisetoasenseofurgency(topleasehim),inthesameway,if,inthemonkrecollectingtheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghainthisway,equanimitybasedonwhatisskillfulisnotestablished,hefeelsapprehensiveatthatandgivesrisetoasenseofurgency:‘Itisalossforme,notagain,ill-gottenforme,notwell-gotten,thatwhenIrecollecttheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghainthisway,equanimitybasedonwhatisskillfulisnotestablishedwithinme.’

“Butif,inthemonkrecollectingtheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghainthisway,equanimitybasedonwhatisskillfulisestablished,thenheisgratifiedatthat.Andeventothisextent,friends,themonkhasaccomplishedagreatdeal.

“Andwhatistheliquidproperty?Theliquidpropertymaybeeitherinternalorexternal.Whatistheinternalliquidproperty?Whateverinternal,belongingtooneself,isliquid,watery,andsustained:bile,phlegm,pus,blood,sweat,fat,tears,skin-oil,saliva,mucus,fluidinthejoints,urine,orwhateverelseinternal,withinoneself,isliquid,watery,andsustained:Thisiscalledtheinternalliquidproperty.Nowboththeinternalliquidpropertyandtheexternalliquidproperty

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aresimplyliquidproperty.Andthatshouldbeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe:‘Thisisnotmine,thisisnotwhatIam,thisisnotmyself.’Whenoneseesitthuswithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,onebecomesdisenchantedwiththeliquidpropertyandmakestheminddispassionatetowardtheliquidproperty.

“Nowtherecomesatime,friends,whentheexternalliquidpropertyisprovokedandwashesawayvillage,town,city,district,andcountry.Therecomesatimewhenthewaterinthegreatoceandropsdownonehundredleagues,twohundred…threehundred…fourhundred…fivehundred…sixhundred…sevenhundredleagues.Therecomesatimewhenthewaterinthegreatoceanstandssevenpalmyra-treesdeep,six…five…four…three…twopalmyra-treesdeep,onepalmyra-treedeep.Therecomesatimewhenthewaterinthegreatoceanstandssevenfathomsdeep,six…five…four…three…twofathomsdeep,onefathomdeep.Therecomesatimewhenthewaterinthegreatoceanstandshalfafathomdeep,hip-deep,knee-deep,ankledeep.Therecomesatimewhenthewaterinthegreatoceanisnoteventhedepthofthefirstjointofafinger.“Sowhenevenintheexternalliquidproperty—sovast—inconstancywillbediscerned,destructibilitywillbediscerned,atendencytodecaywillbediscerned,changeabilitywillbediscerned,thenwhatofthisshort-lastingbody,sustainedbyclinging,is‘I’or‘mine’or‘whatIam’?Ithashereonlya‘no’…

“Andwhatisthefireproperty?Thefirepropertymaybeeitherinternalorexternal.Whatistheinternalfireproperty?Whateverinternal,belongingtooneself,isfire,fiery,andsustained,thatbywhich(thebody)iswarmed,aged,andconsumedwithfever;andthatbywhichwhatiseaten,drunk,chewed,andsavoredgetsproperlydigested,orwhateverelseinternal,withinoneself,isfire,fiery,andsustained,thisiscalledtheinternalfireproperty.Nowboththeinternalfirepropertyandtheexternalfirepropertyaresimplyfireproperty.Andthatshouldbeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe:‘Thisisnotmine,thisisnotwhatIam,thisisnotmyself.’Whenoneseesitthuswithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,onebecomesdisenchantedwiththefirepropertyandmakestheminddispassionatetowardthefireproperty.

Nowtherecomesatime,friends,whentheexternalfirepropertyisprovokedandconsumesvillage,town,city,district,andcountry,andthen,comingtotheedgeofagreendistrict,theedgeofaroad,theedgeofarockydistrict,tothewater’sedge,ortoalush,well-wateredarea,goesoutfromlackofsustenance.Therecomesatimewhenpeopletrytomakefireusingawing-boneandtendonparings.

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“Sowhenevenintheexternalfireproperty—sovast—inconstancywillbediscerned,destructibilitywillbediscerned,atendencytodecaywillbediscerned,changeabilitywillbediscerned,thenwhatofthisshort-lastingbody,sustainedbyclinging,is‘I’or‘mine’or‘whatIam’?Ithashereonlya‘no’….

“Andwhatisthewindproperty?Thewindpropertymaybeeitherinternalorexternal.Whatistheinternalwindproperty?Whateverinternal,belongingtooneself,iswind,windy,andsustained,up-goingwinds,down-goingwinds,windsinthestomach,windsintheintestines,windsthatcoursethroughthebody,in-and-outbreathing,orwhateverelseinternal,withinoneself,iswind,windy,andsustained,thisiscalledtheinternalwindproperty.Nowboththeinternalwindpropertyandtheexternalwindpropertyaresimplywindproperty.Andthatshouldbeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe:‘Thisisnotmine,thisisnotwhatIam,thisisnotmyself.’Whenoneseesitthuswithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,onebecomesdisenchantedwiththewindpropertyandmakestheminddispassionatetowardthewindproperty.

“Nowtherecomesatime,friends,whentheexternalwindpropertyisprovokedandblowsawayvillage,town,city,district,andcountry.Therecomesatimewhen,inthelastmonthofthehotseason,peopletrytostartabreezewithafanorbellows,andeventhegrassatthefringeofathatchroofdoesn’tstir.“Sowhenevenintheexternalwindproperty—sovast—inconstancywillbediscerned,destructibilitywillbediscerned,atendencytodecaywillbediscerned,changeabilitywillbediscerned,thenwhatofthisshort-lastingbody,sustainedbyclinging,is‘I’or‘mine’or‘whatIam’?Ithashereonlya‘no.’”—M N28

§100.“Furthermore…justasaskilledbutcherorhisapprentice,havingkilledacow,wouldsitatacrossroadscuttingitupintopieces,themonkcontemplatesthisverybody—howeveritstands,howeveritisdisposed—intermsofproperties:‘Inthisbodythereistheearthproperty,theliquidproperty,thefireproperty,andthewindproperty.’

“Inthiswayheremainsfocusedinternallyonthebodyinandofitself,orexternallyonthebodyinandofitself,orbothinternallyandexternallyonthebodyinandofitself.Orheremainsfocusedonthephenomenonoforiginationwithregardtothebody,onthephenomenonofpassingawaywithregardtothebody,oronthephenomenonoforiginationandpassingawaywithregardtothebody.Orhismindfulnessthat‘Thereisabody’ismaintainedtotheextentofknowledgeandremembrance.Andheremainsindependent,unsustainedbynotclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thisishowamonkremainsfocusedonthe

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bodyinandofitself.”—DN22

§101.“SupposethatalargegloboffoamwerefloatingdownthisGangesRiver,andamanwithgoodeyesightweretoseeit,observeit,andappropriatelyexamineit.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinagloboffoam?Inthesameway,amonksees,observes,andappropriatelyexaminesanyformthatispast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,blatantorsubtle,commonorsublime,farornear.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance:forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinform?”—SN22:95

SENSE MEDIA, CONTACT, FEELING

The primary practice focused on the sense media is the practice ofrestraint. Instead of looking to the processes of sensory perception togain information about the world, one watches them to see how they actas tools of defilement, seeking out details that will give rise to greed,anger, or delusion, or to enflame any greed, anger, and delusion alreadythere in the mind. Because sensory contacts and their resulting feelingsare among the foods nourishing the process whereby consciousnessproliferates into becoming (§41), one must exercise care not to feed thatprocess. This involves focusing away from details that feed thesedefilements, and focusing instead on other details that help to starvethem. By engaging in this practice, one is in an excellent position to seehow the feelings produced by sensory contact are ephemeral andunreliable. This observation helps to develop dispassion for thosefeelings, thus undercutting any clingings or fetters that might arise basedon them.

§102.“Andhowdoesamonkdresswounds?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,onseeingaformwiththeeye,doesnotgraspatanythemeordetailsbywhich—ifheweretodwellwithoutrestraintoverthefacultyoftheeye—evil,unskillfulqualitiessuchasgreedordistressmightassailhim.Hepracticeswithrestraint.Heguardsthefacultyoftheeye.Heachievesrestraintwithregardtothefacultyoftheeye.[Similarlywiththeothersensemedia.]

“Thisishowamonkdresseswounds.”—M N33

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§103.“Andhowdoesrestraintofthesenses,whendevelopedandpursued,leadtotheculminationofthethreecoursesofrightconduct?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,onseeingapleasantformwiththeeye,doesnothankerafterit,doesnotdelightinit,doesnotgiverisetopassionforit.Unmovedinbodyandunmovedinmind,heisinwardlywellcomposedandwellreleased.Onseeinganunpleasantformwiththeeye,heisnotupset,hismindisnotunsettled,hisfeelingsarenotwounded,hisminddoesnotbecomeresentful.Unmovedinbodyandunmovedinmind,heisinwardlywellcomposedandwellreleased.[Similarlywiththeothersensemedia.]

“Thisishowrestraintofthesenses,whendevelopedandpursued,leadstotheculminationofthethreecoursesofrightconduct.”—SN46:6

As we noted under Form, contemplation of the four properties helps tostrengthen equanimity. This is because mindfulness of the body providesan anchor for the exercise of sense restraint.

§104.“Andwhatislackofrestraint?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,seeingaformwiththeeye,isobsessedwithpleasingforms,isrepelledbyunpleasingforms,andremainswithbody-mindfulnessunestablished,withlimitedawareness.Hedoesnotdiscern,asitactuallyispresent,theawareness-release,thediscernment-releasewhereanyevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesthathavearisenutterlyceasewithoutremainder.

“Hearingasoundwiththeear….“Smellinganaromawiththenose….“Tastingaflavorwiththetongue….“Touchingatactilesensationwiththebody….“Cognizinganideawiththeintellect,heisobsessedwithpleasingideas,is

repelledbyunpleasingideas,andremainswithbody-mindfulnessunestablished,withlimitedawareness.Hedoesnotdiscern,asitactuallyispresent,theawareness-release,thediscernment-releasewhereanyevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesthathavearisenutterlyceasewithoutremainder.

"Justasifaperson,catchingsixanimalsofdifferentranges,ofdifferenthabitats,weretobindthemwithastrongrope.Catchingasnake,hewouldbinditwithastrongrope.Catchingacrocodile…abird…adog…ahyena…amonkey,hewouldbinditwithastrongrope.Bindingthemallwithastrongrope,andtyingaknotinthemiddle,hewouldsetchasetothem.

“Thenthosesixanimals,ofdifferentranges,ofdifferenthabitats,wouldeach

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pulltowarditsownrangeandhabitat.Thesnakewouldpull,thinking,‘I’llgointotheanthill.’Thecrocodilewouldpull,thinking,‘I’llgointothewater.’Thebirdwouldpull,thinking,‘I’llflyupintotheair.’Thedogwouldpull,thinking,‘I’llgointothevillage.’Thehyenawouldpull,thinking,‘I’llgointothecharnelground.’Themonkeywouldpull,thinking,‘I’llgointotheforest.’Andwhenthesesixanimalsbecameinternallyexhausted,theywouldsubmit,theywouldsurrender,theywouldcomeundertheswayofwhicheveramongthemwasthestrongest.Inthesameway,whenamonkwhosemindfulnessimmersedinthebodyisundevelopedandunpursued,theeyepullstowardpleasingforms,whileunpleasingformsarerepellent.Theearpullstowardpleasingsounds….Thenosepullstowardpleasingaromas….Thetonguepullstowardpleasingflavors….Thebodypullstowardpleasingtactilesensations….Theintellectpullstowardpleasingideas,whileunpleasingideasarerepellent.This,monks,islackofrestraint.

“Andwhatisrestraint?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,seeingaformwiththeeye,isnotobsessedwithpleasingforms,isnotrepelledbyunpleasingforms,andremainswithbody-mindfulnessestablished,withimmeasurableawareness.Hediscerns,asithascometobe,thereleaseofawareness,thereleaseofdiscernmentwhereallevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesthathavearisenutterlyceasewithoutremainder.[Similarlywiththeothersensemedia.]

“Justasifaperson,catchingsixanimalsofdifferentranges,ofdifferenthabitats,weretobindthemwithastrongrope…andtetherthemtoastrongpostorstake.

“Thenthosesixanimals,ofdifferentranges,ofdifferenthabitats,wouldeachpulltowarditsownrangeandhabitat….Andwhenthesesixanimalsbecameinternallyexhausted,theywouldstand,sit,orliedownrighttherenexttothepostorstake.Inthesameway,whenamonkwhosemindfulnessimmersedinthebodyisdevelopedandpursued,theeyedoesnotpulltowardpleasingforms,andunpleasingformsarenotrepellent.Theeardoesnotpulltowardpleasingsounds…thenosedoesnotpulltowardpleasingaromas…thetonguedoesnotpulltowardpleasingtastes…thebodydoesnotpulltowardpleasingtactilesensations…theintellectdoesnotpulltowardpleasingideas,andunpleasingideasarenotrepellent.This,monks,isrestraint.

“The‘strongpostorstake’isatermformindfulnessimmersedinthebody.“Thusyoushouldtrainyourselves:‘Wewilldevelopmindfulnessimmersedinthebody.Wewillpursueit,giveitameansoftransport,giveitagrounding.Wewillsteadyit,consolidateit,andsetaboutitproperly.’That’showyoushouldtrainyourselves.”—SN35:20 6

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§105.“Dependentoneyeandforms,eye-consciousnessarises.Themeetingofthethreeiscontact.Withcontactasarequisitecondition,thereisfeeling.Whatonefeels,oneperceives[labelsinthemind].Whatoneperceives,onethinksabout.Whatonethinksabout,oneobjectifies.Basedonwhatapersonobjectifies,theperceptionsandcategoriesofobjectificationassailhim/herwithregardtopast,present,andfutureformscognizableviatheeye.[Similarlywiththeothersensemedia.]—M N18

§106.“Nowsupposethatintheautumn,whenit’sraininginfat,heavydrops,awaterbubbleweretoappearanddisappearonthewater,andamanwithgoodeyesightweretoseeit,observeit,andappropriatelyexamineit.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinawaterbubble?Inthesameway,amonksees,observes,andappropriatelyexaminesanyfeelingthatispast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,blatantorsubtle,commonorsublime,farornear.Tohim—seeingit,observingit,andappropriatelyexaminingit—itwouldappearempty,void,withoutsubstance,forwhatsubstancewouldtherebeinfeeling?”—SN22:95

§107.“Nowifinternallytheeyeisintactbutexternallyformsdonotcomeintorange,noristhereacorrespondingengagement,thenthereisnoappearingofthecorrespondingtypeofconsciousness.Ifinternallytheeyeisintactandexternallyformscomeintorange,butthereisnocorrespondingengagement,thenthereisnoappearingofthecorrespondingtypeofconsciousness.Butwheninternallytheeyeisintactandexternallyformscomeintorange,andthereisacorrespondingengagement,thenthereistheappearingofthecorrespondingtypeofconsciousness.

“Theformofwhathasthuscomeintobeingisgatheredundertheformclinging-aggregate.Thefeelingofwhathasthuscomeintobeingisgatheredunderthefeelingclinging-aggregate.Theperceptionofwhathasthuscomeintobeingisgatheredundertheperceptionclinging-aggregate.Thefabricationsofwhathasthuscomeintobeingaregatheredunderthefabricationclinging-aggregate.Theconsciousnessofwhathasthuscomeintobeingisgatheredundertheconsciousnessclinging-aggregate.Onediscerns,‘This,itseems,ishowthereisthegathering,meeting,andconvergenceofthesefiveclinging-aggregates.Now,theBlessedOnehassaid,“Whoeverseesdependentco-arisingseestheDhamma;whoeverseestheDhammaseesdependentco-arising.”Andthesethings—thefiveclinging-aggregates—aredependentlyco-arisen.Anydesire,embracing,

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grasping,andholding-ontothesefiveclinging-aggregatesistheoriginationofstress.Anysubduingofdesireandpassion,anyabandoningofdesireandpassionforthesefiveclinging-aggregatesisthecessationofstress.’Andeventothisextent,friends,themonkhasaccomplishedagreatdeal.[Similarlywiththeear,nose,tongue,body,andintellect.]”—M N28

§108.“Furthermore,themonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothesixfoldinternalandexternalsensemedia.Andhowdoesheremainfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothesixfoldinternalandexternalsensemedia?Thereisthecasewherehediscernstheeye,hediscernsforms,hediscernsthefetterthatarisesdependentonboth.Hediscernshowthereisthearisingofanunarisenfetter.Andhediscernshowthereistheabandoningofafetteronceithasarisen.Andhediscernshowthereisnofurtherappearanceinthefutureofafetterthathasbeenabandoned.[Thesameformulaisrepeatedfortheremainingsensemedia:ear,nose,tongue,body,andintellect.]

“Inthiswayheremainsfocusedinternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,orexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves,orbothinternallyandexternallyonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves.Orheremainsfocusedonthephenomenonoforiginationwithregardtomentalqualities,onthephenomenonofpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities,oronthephenomenonoforiginationandpassingawaywithregardtomentalqualities.Orhismindfulnessthat‘Therearementalqualities’ismaintainedtotheextentofknowledgeandremembrance.Andheremainsindependent,unsustainedby/notclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thisishowamonkremainsfocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselveswithreferencetothesixfoldinternalandexternalsensemedia.”—DN22

§109.“Asamonkisdwellingthusmindfulandalert—heedful,ardent,andresolute—afeelingofpleasurearisesinhim.Hediscernsthat‘Afeelingofpleasurehasariseninme.Itisdependentonarequisitecondition,notindependent.Dependentonwhat?Dependentonthisbody.Now,thisbodyisinconstant,fabricated,dependentlyco-arisen.Beingdependentonabodythatisinconstant,fabricated,anddependentlyco-arisen,howcanthisfeelingofpleasurethathasarisenbeconstant?’Heremainsfocusedoninconstancywithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofpleasure.Heremainsfocusedondissolution…dispassion…cessation…relinquishmentwithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofpleasure.Asheremainsfocusedoninconstancy…

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dissolution…dispassion…cessation…relinquishmentwithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofpleasure,heabandonsanypassion-obsessionforthebodyandthefeelingofpleasure.

“Asheisdwellingthusmindfulandalert—heedful,ardent,andresolute—afeelingofpainarisesinhim.Hediscernsthat‘Afeelingofpainhasariseninme.Itisdependentonarequisitecondition,notindependent.Dependentonwhat?Dependentonthisbody.Now,thisbodyisinconstant,fabricated,dependentlyco-arisen.Beingdependentonabodythatisinconstant,fabricated,anddependentlyco-arisen,howcanthisfeelingofpainthathasarisenbeconstant?’Heremainsfocusedoninconstancywithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofpain.Heremainsfocusedondissolution…dispassion…cessation…relinquishmentwithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofpain.Asheremainsfocusedoninconstancy…dissolution…dispassion…cessation…relinquishmentwithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofpain,heabandonsanyresistance/obsessionforthebodyandthefeelingofpain.

“Asheisdwellingthusmindfulandalert—heedful,ardent,andresolute—afeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-painarisesinhim.Hediscernsthat‘Afeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-painhasariseninme.Itisdependentonarequisitecondition,notindependent.Dependentonwhat?Dependentonthisbody.Now,thisbodyisinconstant,fabricated,dependentlyco-arisen.Beingdependentonabodythatisinconstant,fabricated,anddependentlyco-arisen,howcanthisfeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-painthathasarisenbeconstant?’Heremainsfocusedoninconstancywithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-pain.Heremainsfocusedondissolution…dispassion…cessation…relinquishmentwithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofneither-pleasure-norpain.Asheremainsfocusedoninconstancy…dissolution…dispassion…cessation…relinquishmentwithregardtothebodyandtothefeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-pain,heabandonsanyignorance-obsessionforthebodyandthefeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-pain.

“Sensingafeelingofpleasure,hediscernsthatitisinconstant,notgraspedat,notrelished.Sensingafeelingofpain….Sensingafeelingofneither-pleasurenor-pain,hediscernsthatitisinconstant,notgraspedat,notrelished.Sensingafeelingofpleasure,hesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Sensingafeelingofpain….Sensingafeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-pain,hesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Whensensingafeelinglimitedtothebody,hediscernsthat‘Iamsensingafeelinglimitedtothebody.’Whensensingafeelinglimitedtolife,hediscernsthat‘Iamsensingafeelinglimitedtolife.’Hediscernsthat‘Withthebreak-upofthebody,aftertheterminationoflife,allthatisexperienced,notbeingrelished,

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willgrowcoldrighthere.’“Justasanoillampburnsindependenceonoilandwick;andfromthe

terminationoftheoilandwick—andfromnotbeingprovidedanyothersustenance—itgoesoutunnourished;inthesameway,whensensingafeelinglimitedtothebody,hediscernsthat‘Iamsensingafeelinglimitedtothebody.’Whensensingafeelinglimitedtolife,hediscernsthat‘Iamsensingafeelinglimitedtolife.’Hediscernsthat‘Withthebreak-upofthebody,aftertheterminationoflife,allthatissensed,notbeingrelished,willgrowcoldrighthere.’”—SN36:7

CRAVING

As we noted in Chapter Two, the Pali word for craving — taṇhā — alsomeans thirst. This is thus one of the factors of dependent co-arising thatrelates most directly to the image of feeding.

As a factor of dependent co-arising, craving is defined in terms of theobjects of the six senses. However, craving can take any of three formsand can focus on a large number of locations related to the senses. Infact, in many of the discourses, the role of craving — together withclinging — is to create a sense of location around which a state ofbecoming can coalesce.

§110.“Andwhatisthenobletruthoftheoriginationofstress?Thecravingthatmakesforfurtherbecoming—accompaniedbypassionanddelight,relishingnowhereandnowthere—i.e.,sensuality-craving,becoming-craving,andnonbecoming-craving.

“Andwheredoesthiscraving,whenarising,arise?Andwhere,whendwelling,doesitdwell?Whateverisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld;thatiswherethiscraving,whenarising,arises.Thatiswhere,whendwelling,itdwells.

“Andwhatisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld?Theeyeisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld.Thatiswherethiscraving,whenarising,arises.Thatiswhere,whendwelling,itdwells.

“Theear….Thenose….Thetongue….Thebody….Theintellect….“Forms….Sounds….Aromas….Tastes….Tactilesensations….Ideas….“Eye-consciousness….Ear-consciousness….Nose-consciousness….Tongue-

consciousness….Body-consciousness….Intellect-consciousness….“Eye-contact….Ear-contact….Nose-contact….Tongue-contact….Body-

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contact….Intellect-contact….“Feelingbornofeye-contact….Feelingbornofear-contact….Feelingbornof

nose-contact….Feelingbornoftongue-contact….Feelingbornofbodycontact….Feelingbornofintellect-contact….

“Perceptionofforms….Perceptionofsounds….Perceptionofaromas….Perceptionoftastes….Perceptionoftactilesensations….Perceptionofideas….

“Intentionforforms….Intentionforsounds….Intentionforaromas….Intentionfortastes….Intentionfortactilesensations….Intentionforideas….

“Cravingforforms….Cravingforsounds….Cravingforaromas….Cravingfortastes….Cravingfortactilesensations….Cravingforideas….

“Thoughtdirectedatforms….Thoughtdirectedatsounds….Thoughtdirectedataromas….Thoughtdirectedattastes….Thoughtdirectedattactilesensations….Thoughtdirectedatideas….

“Evaluationofforms….Evaluationofsounds….Evaluationofaromas….Evaluationoftastes….Evaluationoftactilesensations….Evaluationofideasisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld.Thatiswherethiscraving,whenarising,arises.Thatiswhere,whendwelling,itdwells.

“Thisiscalledthenobletruthoftheoriginationofstress.“Andwhatisthenobletruthofthecessationofstress?Theremainderless

fadingandcessation,renunciation,relinquishment,release,andlettinggoofthatverycraving.

“Andwhere,whenbeingabandoned,isthiscravingabandoned?Andwhere,whenceasing,doesitcease?Whateverisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld:thatiswhere,whenbeingabandoned,thiscravingisabandoned.Thatiswhere,whenceasing,itceases.

“Andwhatisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld?Theeyeisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld.Thatiswhere,whenbeingabandoned,thiscravingisabandoned.Thatiswhere,whenceasing,itceases.

“Theear….Thenose….Thetongue….Thebody….Theintellect….“Forms….Sounds….Aromas….Tastes….Tactilesensations….Ideas….“Eye-consciousness….Ear-consciousness….Nose-consciousness….Tongue-

consciousness….Body-consciousness….Intellect-consciousness….“Eye-contact….Ear-contact….Nose-contact….Tongue-contact….

Bodycontact….Intellect-contact….“Feelingbornofeye-contact….Feelingbornofear-contact….Feelingbornof

nose-contact….Feelingbornoftongue-contact….Feelingbornofbody-

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contact….Feelingbornofintellect-contact….“Perceptionofforms….Perceptionofsounds….Perceptionofaromas….

Perceptionoftastes….Perceptionoftactilesensations….Perceptionofideas….“Intentionforforms….Intentionforsounds….Intentionforaromas….

Intentionfortastes….Intentionfortactilesensations….Intentionforideas….“Cravingforforms….Cravingforsounds….Cravingforaromas….Craving

fortastes….Cravingfortactilesensations….Cravingforideas….“Thoughtdirectedatforms….Thoughtdirectedatsounds….Thought

directedataromas….Thoughtdirectedattastes….Thoughtdirectedattactilesensations….Thoughtdirectedatideas….

“Evaluationofforms….Evaluationofsounds….Evaluationofaromas….Evaluationoftastes….Evaluationoftactilesensations….Evaluationofideasisendearingandalluringintermsoftheworld.Thatiswhere,whenbeingabandoned,thiscravingisabandoned.Thatiswhere,whenceasing,itceases.

“Thisiscalledthenobletruthofthecessationofstress.”—DN22

The following passage expands on the concept of location. Although itis possible to feel desire or passion for forms that one has not yet seen,the desire and passion is actually located at the idea of those forms. Thisis an important point to keep in mind when trying to observe the role oflocation in the workings of the mind.

§111.“Whatdoyouthink,Māluṅkyaputta,theformscognizableviatheeyethatareunseenbyyou,thatyouhaveneverbeforeseen,thatyoudon’tsee,andthatarenottobeseenbyyou,doyouhaveanydesireorpassionorlovethere?”

“No,lord.”“Thesoundscognizableviatheear…“Thearomascognizableviathenose…“Theflavorscognizableviathetongue…“Thetactilesensationscognizableviathebody…“Theideascognizableviatheintellectthatareuncognizedbyyou,thatyou

haveneverbeforecognized,thatyoudon’tcognize,andthatarenottobecognizedbyyou,doyouhaveanydesireorpassionorlovethere?”

“No,lord.”—SN35:95

The first of the three types of craving, sensuality-craving, is — strictlyspeaking — aimed not at attractive sensual objects but at the mind’s

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plans and resolves surrounding those objects. The mind is actually moreattached to the activity of planning and resolving on its sensual pleasuresthan to the pleasures themselves.

§112.“Therearethesefivestringsofsensuality.Whichfive?Formscognizableviatheeye—agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,fosteringdesire,enticing;soundscognizableviatheear…aromascognizableviathenose…flavorscognizableviathetongue…tactilesensationscognizableviathebody—agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,fosteringdesire,enticing.Butthesearenotsensuality.Theyarecalledstringsofsensualityinthedisciplineofthenobleones.

Thepassionforhisresolvesisaman’ssensuality,notthebeautifulsensualpleasures

foundintheworld.Thepassionforhisresolvesisaman’ssensuality.Thebeautiesremainastheyareintheworld,whilethewise,inthisregard,

subduetheirdesire.—AN6:63

The second of the three types of craving — becoming-craving — isfocused on the process whereby the mind takes on an identity within aworld of experience. This combination of identity-within-a-world isproduced by consciousness and craving focused on the potentialsprovided by the field of one’s kamma, past and present.

§113.Ven.Ānanda:Thisword,‘becoming,becoming’—towhatextentistherebecoming?

TheBuddha:Iftherewerenokammaripeninginthepropertyofsensuality,wouldsensualbecomingbediscerned?

Ven.Ānanda:No,lord.TheBuddha:Thuskammaisthefield,consciousnesstheseed,andcravingthe

moisture.Theintentionanddeterminationoflivingbeingshinderedbyignoranceandfetteredbycravingisestablishedin/tunedtoalowerproperty.Thusthereistheproductionofrenewedbecominginthefuture.”

[Similarlyforthemorerefinedpropertiesofform-becomingandformlessbecoming.]

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—AN3:77

The following passage is the only place in the discourses where aworking definition of non-becoming — the object of the third of the threetypes of craving — can be found. It also is one of the few passagesproviding a sense of how to escape the paradox of craving and becoming.If craving for becoming produces suffering, and craving for non-becomingalso produces becoming — which involves more suffering — it wouldseem that there would be no way to escape suffering. However, as thispassage points out, it is possible to develop a state of mind that focusesnot on the process of becoming or non-becoming, but simply on the rawmaterial of experience as it has come to be. When the mind is in thisstate, it can avoid both kinds of craving and thus arrive at the end ofsuffering and stress.

§114.“Overcomebytwoviewpoints,somehumananddivinebeingsadhere,otherhumananddivinebeingssliprightpast,whilethosewithvisionsee.“Andhowdosomeadhere?Humananddivinebeingsenjoybecoming,delightinbecoming,aresatisfiedwithbecoming.WhentheDhammaisbeingtaughtforthesakeofthecessationofbecoming,theirmindsdonottaketoit,arenotcalmedbyit,donotsettleonitorbecomeresolvedonit.Thisishowsomeadhere.

“Andhowdosomesliprightpast?Some,feelinghorrified,humiliated,anddisgustedwiththatverybecoming,relishnon-becoming:‘Whenthisself,atthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,perishesandisdestroyed,anddoesnotexistafterdeath,thatispeaceful,thatisexquisite,thatissufficiency!’Thisishowsomesliprightpast.

“Andhowdothosewithvisionsee?Thereisthecasewhereamonkseeswhathascomeintobeingascomeintobeing.Seeingwhathascomeintobeingascomeintobeing,hepracticesfordisenchantmentwithwhathascomeintobeing,dispassiontowardwhathascomeintobeing,cessationofwhathascomeintobeing.Thisishowthosewithvisionsee.”—Iti49

To bring the mind to the point where it can develop this vision,however, one has to develop strong concentration. And concentrationbuilds on the desire to get the mind centered. In this way, even thoughcraving and desire are ultimately abandoned at the end of the path, theyfirst need to be skillfully developed through conviction to provide the

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original impetus to get on the path.

§115.IhaveheardthatononeoccasionVen.ĀnandawasstayinginKosambī,atGhosita’sPark.ThenthebrāhmanUṇṇābhawenttoVen.Ānanda….Afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetingsandcourtesies,hesattooneside.Ashewassittingthere,hesaidtoVen.Ānanda:“MasterĀnanda,whatistheaimofthisholylifelivedunderthecontemplativeGotama?”

“Brāhman,theholylifeislivedundertheBlessedOnewiththeaimofabandoningdesire.”

“Isthereapath,isthereapractice,fortheabandoningofthatdesire?”“Yes,thereisapath,thereisapractice,fortheabandoningofthatdesire.”“Whatisthepath,thepractice,fortheabandoningofthatdesire?”“Brāhman,thereisthecasewhereamonkdevelopsthebaseofpower

endowedwithconcentrationfoundedondesireandthefabricationsofexertion.Hedevelopsthebaseofpowerendowedwithconcentrationfoundedonpersistence…concentrationfoundedonintent…concentrationfoundedondiscriminationandthefabricationsofexertion.This,brāhman,isthepath,thisisthepracticefortheabandoningofthatdesire.”

“Ifthat’sso,MasterĀnanda,thenit’sanendlesspath,andnotonewithanend,forit’simpossiblethatonecouldabandondesirebymeansofdesire.”“Inthatcase,brāhman,letmequestionyouonthismatter.Answerasyouseefit.Whatdoyouthink,didn’tyoufirsthavedesire,thinking,‘I’llgotothepark,’andthenwhenyoureachedthepark,wasn’tthatparticulardesireallayed?”

“Yes,sir”….“Soitiswithanarahantwhoseeffluentsareended,whohasreached

fulfillment,donethetask,laiddowntheburden,attainedthetruegoal,totallydestroyedthefetterofbecoming,andwhoisreleasedthroughrightgnosis.Whateverdesirehefirsthadfortheattainmentofarahantship,onattainingarahantshipthatparticulardesireisallayed….Sowhatdoyouthink,brāhman?Isthisanendlesspath,oronewithanend?”

“You’reright,MasterĀnanda.Thisisapathwithanend,andnotanendlessone.”—SN51:15

§116.Ven.Ānanda:“‘Thisbodycomesintobeingthroughcraving.Andyetitisbyrelyingoncravingthatcravingistobeabandoned.’Thusitwassaid.Andinreferencetowhatwasitsaid?Thereisthecase,sister,whereamonkhears,‘Themonknamedsuch-and-such,theysay,throughtheendingoftheeffluents,has

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enteredandremainsintheeffluent-freeawareness-releaseanddiscernment-release,havingknownandrealizedthemforhimselfinthehereandnow.’Thethoughtoccurstohim,‘IhopethatI,too,will—throughtheendingoftheeffluents—enterandremainintheeffluent-freeawareness-releaseanddiscernment-release,havingdirectlyknownandrealizedthemformyselfrightinthehereandnow.’Then,atalatertime,heabandonscraving,havingreliedoncraving.”—AN4:159

CLINGING

As we noted in Chapter Two, the Pali word for clinging — upādāna —also means sustenance, both the food that provides sustenance and theact of taking sustenance from that food. This is thus another factordirectly related to the image of feeding. Clinging takes sustenance fromthe five aggregates — which, as we have seen in §107 — develop fromsensory contact and provide sustenance for becoming.

§117.Visākha:“Isitthecase,lady,thatclingingisthesamethingasthefiveclinging-aggregatesorisitsomethingseparate?”

S isterDhammadinnā:“FriendVisākha,neitherisclingingthesamethingasthefiveclinging-aggregates,norisitsomethingseparate.Whateverdesireandpassionthereiswithregardtothefiveclinging-aggregates,thatistheclingingthere.”—M N4 4

As noted in §14, there are four types of clinging: sensuality-clinging,view-clinging, habit-and-practice-clinging, and doctrine-of-self-clinging.To develop dispassion for sensuality-clinging, the Canon recommendsweighing the allure of sensuality against its drawbacks. This is becausethe mind addicted to any form of unskillful behavior tends to exaggeratethe allure and to turn a blind eye to the drawbacks of that behavior. Thusboth the allure and the drawbacks have to be clearly seen for what theyare. To help in this process, the Canon also recommends a number ofperceptions for bringing the drawbacks of sensuality into sharp relief.

§118.“Nowwhat,monks,istheallureofsensuality?…Whateverpleasureorhappinessarisesindependenceonthefivestringsofsensuality,thatistheallureofsensuality.

“Andwhatisthedrawbackofsensuality?Thereisthecasewhere,onaccount

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oftheoccupationbywhichaclansmanmakesaliving—whethercheckingoraccountingorcalculatingorplowingortradingorcattle-tendingorarcheryorasaking’sman,orwhatevertheoccupationmaybe—hefacescold,hefacesheat,beingharassedbymosquitoesandflies,windandsunandcreepingthings,dyingfromhungerandthirst.

“Nowthisdrawbackinthecaseofsensuality,thismassofstressvisiblehereandnow,hassensualityforitsreason,sensualityforitssource,sensualityforitscause,thereasonbeingsimplysensuality.

“Iftheclansmangainsnowealthwhilethusworkingandstrivingandmakingeffort,hesorrows,grieves,andlaments,beatshisbreast,becomesdistraught:‘Myworkisinvain,myeffortsarefruitless!’….

“Iftheclansmangainswealthwhilethusworkingandstrivingandmakingeffort,heexperiencespainanddistressinprotectingit:‘Howwillneitherkingsnorthievesmakeoffwithmyproperty,norfireburnit,norwatersweepitaway,norhatefulheirsmakeoffwithit?’Andashethusguardsandwatchesoverhisproperty,kingsorthievesmakeoffwithit,orfireburnsit,orwatersweepsitaway,orhatefulheirsmakeoffwithit.Andhesorrows,grieves,andlaments,beatshisbreast,becomesdistraught:‘Whatwasmineisnomore!’….

“Again,itiswithsensualityforthereason,sensualityforthesource,sensualityforthecause,thereasonbeingsimplysensuality,thatkingsquarrelwithkings,nobleswithnobles,brāhmanswithbrāhmans,householderswithhouseholders,motherwithchild,childwithmother,fatherwithchild,childwithfather,brotherwithbrother,sisterwithsister,brotherwithsister,sisterwithbrother,friendwithfriend.Andthenintheirquarrels,brawls,anddisputes,theyattackoneanotherwithfistsorwithclodsorwithsticksorwithknives,sothattheyincurdeathordeadlypain….

“Again,itiswithsensualityforthereason,sensualityforthesource…that(men),takingswordsandshieldsandbucklingonbowsandquivers,chargeintobattlemassedindoublearraywhilearrowsandspearsareflyingandswordsareflashing;andtheretheyarewoundedbyarrowsandspears,andtheirheadsarecutoffbyswords,sothattheyincurdeathordeadlypain.…

“Again,itiswithsensualityforthereason,sensualityforthesource…that(men),takingswordsandshieldsandbucklingonbowsandquivers,chargeslipperybastionswhilearrowsandspearsareflyingandswordsareflashing;andtheretheyaresplashedwithboilingcowdungandcrushedunderheavyweights,andtheirheadsarecutoffbyswords,sothattheyincurdeathordeadlypain….“Again,itiswithsensualityforthereason,sensualityforthesource…that(men)breakintowindows,seizeplunder,commitburglary,ambushhighways,commit

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adultery,andwhentheyarecaptured,kingshavethemtorturedinmanyways.Theyflogthemwithwhips,beatthemwithcanes,beatthemwithclubs.Theycutofftheirhands,cutofftheirfeet,cutofftheirhandsandfeet.Theycutofftheirears,cutofftheirnoses,cutofftheirearsandnoses.Theysubjectthemto[manygraphictortures].Theyhavethemsplashedwithboilingoil,devouredbydogs,impaledaliveonstakes.Theyhavetheirheadscutoffwithswords,sothattheyincurdeathordeadlypain.Nowthisdrawbacktoointhecaseofsensuality,thismassofstressvisiblehereandnow,hassensualityforitsreason,sensualityforitssource,sensualityforitscause,thereasonbeingsimplysensuality.

“Again,itiswithsensualityforthereason,sensualityforthesource…that(people)engageinbodilymisconduct,verbalmisconduct,mentalmisconduct.Havingengagedinbodily,verbal,andmentalmisconduct,they—onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—re-appearintheplaneofdeprivation,thebaddestination,thelowerrealms,inhell.Nowthisdrawbacktoointhecaseofsensuality,thismassofstressinthefuturelife,hassensualityforitsreason,sensualityforitssource,sensualityforitscause,thereasonbeingsimplysensuality.

“Andwhat,monks,istheescapefromsensuality?Thesubduingofdesire/passionforsensuality,theabandoningofdesire-passionforsensuality:Thatistheescapefromsensuality.”—M N13

§119.“Supposeadog,overcomewithweaknessandhunger,weretocomeacrossaslaughterhouse,andthereadexterousbutcherorbutcher’sapprenticeweretoflinghimachainofbones,thoroughlyscraped,withoutanyflesh,smearedwithblood.Whatdoyouthink?Wouldthedog,gnawingonthatchainofbones—thoroughlyscraped,withoutanyflesh,smearedwithblood—appeaseitsweaknessandhunger?”

“No,lord.Andwhyisthat?Becausethechainofbonesisthoroughlyscraped,withoutanyflesh,andsmearedwithblood.Thedogwouldgetnothingbutitsshareofwearinessandvexation.”

“Inthesameway,householder,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthispoint:‘TheBlessedOnehascomparedsensualitytoachainofbones,ofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks.’Seeingthiswithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,thenavoidingtheequanimitycomingfrommultiplicity,dependentonmultiplicity,hedevelopstheequanimitycomingfromsingleness,dependentonsingleness,wheresustenance/clingingforthebaitsoftheworldceaseswithouttrace.

“Nowsupposeavulture,akite,orahawk,seizingalumpofflesh,wereto

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takeoff,andothervultures,kites,orhawks,followingrightafterit,weretotearatitwiththeirbeaksandpullatitwiththeirclaws.Whatdoyouthink?Ifthatvulture,kite,orhawkwerenotquicklytodropthatlumpofflesh,woulditmeetwithdeathfromthatcause,orwithdeath-likepain?”

“Yes,lord.”“Inthesameway,householder,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthis

point,‘TheBlessedOnehascomparedsensualitytoalumpofflesh,ofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks.’Seeingthiswithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,thenavoidingtheequanimitycomingfrommultiplicity,dependentonmultiplicity,hedevelopstheequanimitycomingfromsingleness,dependentonsingleness,wheresustenance/clingingforthebaitsoftheworldceaseswithouttrace.

“Nowsupposeamanweretocomeagainstthewind,carryingaburninggrasstorch.Whatdoyouthink?Ifhewerenotquicklytodropthatgrasstorch,wouldheburnhishandorhisarmorsomeotherpartofhisbody,sothathewouldmeetwithdeathfromthatcause,orwithdeath-likepain?”

“Yes,lord.”“Inthesameway,householder,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthis

point,‘TheBlessedOnehascomparedsensualitytoagrasstorch,ofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks.’Seeingthiswithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,thenavoidingtheequanimitycomingfrommultiplicity,dependentonmultiplicity,hedevelopstheequanimitycomingfromsingleness,dependentonsingleness,wheresustenance/clingingforthebaitsoftheworldceaseswithouttrace.

“Nowsupposetherewereapitofglowingembers,deeperthanaman’sheight,fullofembersthatwereneitherflamingnorsmoking,andamanweretocomealong,lovinglife,hatingdeath,lovingpleasure,abhorringpain,andtwostrongmen,grabbinghimwiththeirarms,weretodraghimtothepitofembers.Whatdoyouthink?Wouldn’tthemantwisthisbodythiswayandthat?”“Yes,lord.Andwhyisthat?Becausehewouldrealize,‘IfIfallintothispitofglowingembers,Iwillmeetwithdeathfromthatcause,orwithdeath-likepain.’”

“Inthesameway,householder,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthispoint,‘TheBlessedOnehascomparedsensualitytoapitofglowingembers,ofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks.’Seeingthiswithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,thenavoidingtheequanimitycomingfrommultiplicity,dependentonmultiplicity,hedevelopstheequanimitycomingfromsingleness,dependentonsingleness,wheresustenance/clingingforthebaits

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oftheworldceaseswithouttrace.“Nowsupposeaman,whendreaming,weretoseedelightfulparks,delightful

forests,delightfulstretchesofland,anddelightfullakes,andonawakeningweretoseenothing.Inthesameway,householder,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthispoint:‘TheBlessedOnehascomparedsensualitytoadream,ofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks.’Seeingthiswithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,thenavoidingtheequanimitycomingfrommultiplicity,dependentonmultiplicity,hedevelopstheequanimitycomingfromsingleness,dependentonsingleness,wheresustenance/clingingforthebaitsoftheworldceaseswithouttrace.

“Nowsupposeamanhavingborrowedsomegoods—amanlycarriage,finejewels,andearornaments—weretogointothemarketprecededandsurroundedbyhisborrowedgoods,andpeopleseeinghimwouldsay,‘Howwealthythismanis,forthisishowthewealthyenjoytheirpossessions,’buttheactualowners,wherevertheymightseehim,wouldstriphimthenandthereofwhatistheirs.Whatdoyouthink:Wouldthemanjustifiablybeupset?”

“No,lord.Andwhyisthat?Becausetheownersarestrippinghimofwhatistheirs.”“Inthesameway,householder,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthis

point,‘TheBlessedOnehascomparedsensualitytoborrowedgoods,ofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks.’Seeingthiswithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,thenavoidingtheequanimitycomingfrommultiplicity,dependentonmultiplicity,hedevelopstheequanimitycomingfromsingleness,dependentonsingleness,wheresustenance/clingingforthebaitsoftheworldceaseswithouttrace.

“Nowsupposethat,notfarfromavillageortown,therewereadenseforestgrove,andthereinthegrovewasatreewithdeliciousfruit,abundantfruit,butwithnofruitfallentotheground.Amanwouldcomealong,desiringfruit,lookingforfruit,searchingforfruit.Plungingintotheforestgrove,hewouldseethetree…andthethoughtwouldoccurtohim,‘Thisisatreewithdeliciousfruit,abundantfruit,andthereisnofruitfallentotheground,butIknowhowtoclimbatree.Whydon’tIclimbthetree,eatwhatIlike,andfillmyclotheswiththefruit?’So,havingclimbedthetree,hewouldeatwhathelikedandfillhisclotheswiththefruit.Thenasecondmanwouldcomealong,desiringfruit,lookingforfruit,searchingforfruitandcarryingasharpax.Plungingintotheforestgrove,hewouldseethetree…andthethoughtwouldoccurtohim,‘Thisisatreewithdeliciousfruit,abundantfruit,andthereisnofruitfallentotheground,andIdon’tknowhowtoclimbatree.Whydon’tIchopdownthistree

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attheroot,eatwhatIlike,andfillmyclotheswiththefruit?’Sohewouldchopthetreeattheroot.Whatdoyouthink:Ifthefirstmanwhoclimbedthetreedidn’tquicklycomedown,wouldn’tthefallingtreecrushhishandorfootorsomeotherpartofhisbody,sothathewouldmeetwithdeathfromthatcause,orwithdeath-likepain?”

“Yes,lord.”“Inthesameway,householder,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthis

point:‘TheBlessedOnehascomparedsensualitytothefruitsofatree,ofmuchstress,muchdespair,andgreaterdrawbacks.’Seeingthiswithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,thenavoidingtheequanimitycomingfrommultiplicity,dependentonmultiplicity,hedevelopstheequanimitycomingfromsingleness,dependentonsingleness,wheresustenance/clingingforthebaitsoftheworldceaseswithouttrace.”—M N54

Because a person engaged in the practice cannot do without sensorypleasures, the Buddha recommends developing alertness in one’s use ofthe requisites so as not to be pulled into sensual clinging. One is advisedto develop contentment with what one has — and to beware of any pridethat might develop around that contentment — and to reflect on the validreasons for the requisites each time they are used.

§120.“Thereisthecasewhereamonkiscontentwithanyoldclothatall.Hespeaksinpraiseofbeingcontentwithanyoldclothatall.Hedoesn’t,forthesakeofcloth,doanythingunseemlyorinappropriate.Notgettingcloth,heisn’tagitated.Gettingcloth,heusesitunattachedtoit,uninfatuated,guiltless,seeingthedrawbacks(ofattachmenttoit),anddiscerningtheescapefromthem.Hedoesn’t,onaccountofhiscontentmentwithanyoldclothatall,exalthimselfordisparageothers.Inthisheisdiligent,deft,alert,andmindful.Thisissaidtobeamonkstandingfirmintheancient,originaltraditionsofthenobleones.”[Similarlywithfoodandlodging.]—AN4:28

§121.“Thereisthecasewhereamonk,reflectingappropriately,usesclothsimplytocounteractcold,tocounteractheat,tocounteractthetouchofflies,mosquitoes,wind,sun,andreptiles,simplyforthepurposeofcoveringthepartsofthebodythatcauseshame.

“Reflectingappropriately,heusesalmsfood,notplayfully,norforintoxication,norforputtingonbulk,norforbeautification,butsimplyforthesurvivalandcontinuanceofthisbody,forendingitsafflictions,forthesupportof

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theholylife,thinking,‘ThuswillIdestroyoldfeelings[ofhunger]andnotcreatenewfeelings[fromovereating].Iwillmaintainmyself,beblameless,andliveincomfort.’

“Reflectingappropriately,heuseslodgingsimplytocounteractcold,tocounteractheat,tocounteractthetouchofflies,mosquitoes,wind,sun,andreptiles;simplyforprotectionfromtheinclemenciesofweatherandfortheenjoymentofseclusion.

“Reflectingappropriately,heusesmedicinalrequisitesthatareusedforcuringthesicksimplytocounteractanypainsofillnessthathavearisenandformaximumfreedomfromdisease.”—M N2

Although view-clinging is the second type of clinging, and soeventually must be abandoned, a person engaged in the practice cannotdo without right views. This continues a pattern that has appearedrepeatedly throughout these passages: Just as one needs to feedskillfully in order ultimately to go beyond the need to feed, and just as oneneeds to use perception and feeling in order ultimately to go beyondattachment to perception and feeling, one needs to use skillful views inorder to go beyond the need for views.

We have already seen that right view is defined as seeing things interms of the four noble truths. In the most advanced stage of right view,one engages the mind in the process of watching the events of thesensory world arise and pass away. When the mind is engaged in thisprocess, concepts of “existence” and “non-existence” do not occur to itas relevant to what one is watching. This places the mind in a positionwhere it can view the factors of dependent co-arising purely as events,and events purely as stress. When one sees them purely in these terms— instead of as necessary aspects of one’s self or the world — one is ina position to abandon them.

§122.ThenVen.KaccāyanaGottaapproachedtheBlessedOneand,onarrival,havingboweddown,sattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne:“Lord,‘Rightview,rightview,’itissaid.Towhatextentisthererightview?”

“Byandlarge,Kaccāyana,thisworldissupportedby/takesasitsobjectapolarity,thatofexistenceandnon-existence.Butwhenoneseestheoriginationoftheworldwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,‘non-existence’with

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referencetotheworlddoesnotoccurtoone.Whenoneseesthecessationoftheworldwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,‘existence’withreferencetotheworlddoesnotoccurtoone.

“Byandlarge,Kaccāyana,thisworldisinbondagetoattachments,clingings/sustenances,andbiases.Butonesuchasthisdoesnotgetinvolvedwithorclingtotheseattachments,clingings,fixationsofawareness,biases,orobsessions;norisheresolvedon‘myself.’Hehasnouncertaintyordoubtthatmerestress,whenarising,isarising;stress,whenpassingaway,ispassingaway.Inthis,hisknowledgeisindependentofothers.It’stothisextent,Kaccāyana,thatthereisrightview.

“‘Allexists’:Thatisoneextreme.‘Alldoesn’texist’:Thatisasecondextreme.Avoidingthesetwoextremes,theTathāgatateachestheDhammaviathemiddle:Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications….”—SN12:15

Right view, in seeing all things as events, is also in a position to seeitself as an event. Thus, when it has done its job in cutting throughattachment to views about one’s self or the world, it can turn back onitself as well. In this way, it contains the means for its owntranscendence.

§123.Nowonthatoccasionthewanderersofotherpersuasionshadcometogetherinagatheringandweresitting,discussingmanykindsofbestialtopics,makingagreatnoiseandracket.TheysawAnāthapiṇḍikathehouseholdercomingfromafar,andonseeinghim,hushedoneanother:“Bequiet,goodsirs.Don’tmakeanynoise.HerecomesAnāthapiṇḍikathehouseholder,adiscipleofthecontemplativeGotama.HeisoneofthosedisciplesofthecontemplativeGotama,cladinwhite,wholivesinSavatthī.Thesepeoplearefondofquietude,trainedinquietude,andspeakinpraiseofquietude.Maybe,ifheperceivesourgroupasquiet,hewillconsideritworthhiswhiletocomeourway.”Sothewanderersfellsilent.

ThenAnāthapiṇḍikathehouseholderwenttowherethewanderersofotherpersuasionswerestaying.Onarrivalhegreetedthemcourteously.Afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetingsandcourtesies,hesattooneside.Ashewassittingthere,thewandererssaidtohim,“Tellus,householder,whatviewsthecontemplativeGotamahas.”

“Venerablesirs,Idon’tknowentirelywhatviewstheBlessedOnehas.”“Well,well.Soyoudon’tknowentirelywhatviewsthecontemplative

Gotamahas.Thentelluswhatviewsthemonkshave.”

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“Idon’tevenknowentirelywhatviewsthemonkshave.”“Soyoudon’tknowentirelywhatviewsthecontemplativeGotamahasor

eventhatthemonkshave.Thentelluswhatviewsyouhave.”“Itwouldn’tbedifficultformetoexpoundtoyouwhatviewsIhave.But

pleaseletthevenerableonesexpoundeachinlinewithhisposition,andthenitwon’tbedifficultformetoexpoundtoyouwhatviewsIhave.”

Whenthishadbeensaid,oneofthewandererssaidtoAnāthapiṇḍikathehouseholder,“Thecosmosiseternal.Onlythisistrue;anythingotherwiseisworthless.ThisisthesortofviewIhave.”

AnotherwanderersaidtoAnāthapiṇḍika,“Thecosmosisnoteternal.Onlythisistrue;anythingotherwiseisworthless.ThisisthesortofviewIhave.”

Anotherwanderersaid,“Thecosmosisfinite…”…“Thecosmosisinfinite…”…“Thesoulandthebodyarethesame…”…“Thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother…”…“AfterdeathaTathāgatae xists…”…“AfterdeathaTathāgatadoesnote xist…”…“AfterdeathaTathāgatabothdoesanddoesnote xist…”…“AfterdeathaTathāgataneitherdoesnordoesnote xist.Onlythisistrue;anythingotherwiseisworthless.ThisisthesortofviewIhave.”

Whenthishadbeensaid,Anāthapiṇḍikathehouseholdersaidtothewanderers,“Asforthevenerableonewhosays,‘Thecosmosiseternal.Onlythisistrue;anythingotherwiseisworthless.ThisisthesortofviewIhave,”hisviewarisesfromhisowninappropriateattentionorindependenceonthewordsofanother.Nowthisviewhasbeenbroughtintobeing,isfabricated,willed,dependentlyoriginated.Whateverhasbeenbroughtintobeing,isfabricated,willed,dependentlyoriginated,thatisinconstant.Whateverisinconstantisstress.Thisvenerableonethusadherestothatverystress,submitshimselftothatverystress.”[Similarlyfortheotherpositions.]

Whenthishadbeensaid,thewandererssaidtoAnāthapiṇḍikathehouseholder,“Wehaveeachandeveryoneexpoundedtoyouinlinewithourownpositions.Nowtelluswhatviewsyouhave.”

“Whateverhasbeenbroughtintobeing,isfabricated,willed,dependentlyoriginated,thatisinconstant.Whateverisinconstantisstress.Whateverisstressisnotme,isnotwhatIam,isnotmyself.ThisisthesortofviewIhave.”

“So,householder,whateverhasbeenbroughtintobeing,isfabricated,willed,dependentlyoriginated,thatisinconstant.Whateverisinconstantisstress.Youthusadheretothatverystress,submityourselftothatverystress.”

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“Venerablesirs,whateverhasbeenbroughtintobeing,isfabricated,willed,dependentlyoriginated,thatisinconstant.Whateverisinconstantisstress.Whateverisstressisnotme,isnotwhatIam,isnotmyself.Havingseenthiswellwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe,Ialsodiscernthehigherescapefromitasithascometobe.”

Whenthiswassaid,thewanderersfellsilent,abashed,sittingwiththeirshouldersdrooping,theirheadsdown,brooding,atalossforwords.—AN10:93

§124.“This,monks,theTathāgatadiscerns.Andhediscernsthatthesestandpoints,thusseized,thusgraspedat,leadtosuchandsuchadestination,tosuchandsuchastateintheworldbeyond.Andhediscernswhatsurpassesthis.Andyethedoesnotgraspatthatactofdiscerning.Asheisnotgrasping,Unbinding[ nibbuti]isexperiencedrightwithin.Knowing,astheyhavecometobe,theorigin,ending,allure,anddrawbacksoffeelings,alongwiththeemancipationfromfeelings,theTathāgata,monks—throughlackofsustenance/clinging—isreleased.”—DN1

Habit-and-practice-clinging is the third type of clinging, and here asimilar dynamic holds. A person engaged in the path needs to develop theskillful habits of right speech, right action, and right livelihood, and theskillful practices of right effort, right mindfulness, and rightconcentration, even though eventually he/she will have to abandon thesehabits and practices. But their abandoning does not mean reverting tounskillful behavior. Instead, it means continuing to follow skillful habitsand practices but without fashioning a sense of self-identity around them.

§125.“Nowwheredounskillfulhabitsceasewithouttrace?…Thereisthecasewhereamonkabandonswrongbodilyconductanddevelopsrightbodilyconduct,abandonswrongverbalconductanddevelopsrightverbalconduct,abandonswronglivelihoodandmaintainshislifewithrightlivelihood….Nowwheredoskillfulhabitsceasewithouttrace?…Thereisthecasewhereamonkisvirtuous,butnotfashionedofvirtue[ nasīlamaya].”—M N78

§126.“Apersonofnointegrity…entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna.Henotices,‘Ihavegainedtheattainmentofthefirstjhāna,buttheseothermonkshavenotgainedtheattainmentofthefirstjhāna.’Heexaltshimselffortheattainmentofthefirstjhānaanddisparagesothers.Thisisthequalityofapersonofnointegrity.

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“Apersonofintegritynotices,‘TheBlessedOnehasspokenofnonfashioning[atammayatā—literally,“not-made-of-that-ness”]evenwithregardtotheattainmentofthefirstjhāna,forhowevertheyconstrueit,itbecomesotherwise.’So,makingnon-fashioninghisfocalpoint,heneitherexaltshimselffortheattainmentofthefirstjhānanordisparagesothers.Thisisthequalityofapersonofintegrity.”—M N113

A similar dynamic also applies to the abandoning of the fourth type ofclinging, doctrine-of-self-clinging. To function on the earlier stages ofthe path, one needs a sense of oneself — even if it is not fully articulatedas a self-doctrine — as being responsible and self-reliant.

§127.“‘Iamtheownerofactions[kamma],heirtoactions,bornofactions,relatedthroughactions,andhaveactionsasmyarbitrator.WhateverIdo,forgoodorforevil,tothatwillIfallheir.’Thisisthefifthfactthatoneshouldreflectonoften,whetheroneisawomanoraman,layorordained.”—AN5:57

A perception of self defined around self-honor, combined with a senseof urgency in relieving one’s own suffering, can also function as a skillfulimpetus to practice.

§128.“Andwhatistheselfasagoverningprinciple?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,havinggonetoawilderness,tothefootofatree,ortoanemptydwelling,reflectsonthis,‘It’snotforthesakeofrobesthatIhavegoneforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness;it’snotforthesakeofalmsfood,forthesakeoflodgings,orforthesakeofthisorthatstateof[future]becomingthatIhavegoneforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness.SimplythatIambesetbybirth,aging,anddeath,bysorrows,lamentations,pains,distresses,anddespairs,besetbystress,overcomewithstress,[andIhope,]“Perhapstheendofthisentiremassofsufferingandstressmightbeknown!”Now,ifIweretoseekthesamesortofsensualpleasuresthatIabandonedingoingforthfromhomeintohomelessness—oraworsesort—thatwouldnotbefittingforme.’Sohereflectsonthis:‘Mypersistencewillbearousedandnotlax,mymindfulnessestablishedandnotconfused,mybodycalmandnotaroused,mymindcenteredandunified.’Havingmadehimselfhisgoverningprinciple,heabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisunblameworthy,andlooksafterhimselfinapureway.Thisiscalledtheselfasagoverningprinciple.”—AN3:40

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In these early stages of the path, the perception of not-self can beapplied to the unskillful habits and practices one hopes to abandon. But asskillful habits and practices become more firmly established, theperception of not-self can be applied to the five aggregates in all theiraspects, as a means for cutting through clinging to any source ofsuffering.

§129.“Form,monks,isnot-self.Ifformweretheself,thisformwouldnotlenditselftodis-ease.Itwouldbepossible(tosay)withregardtoform,‘Letmyformbethus.Letmyformnotbethus.’Butpreciselybecauseformisnot-self,thisformlendsitselftodis-ease.Anditisnotpossible(tosay)withregardtoform,‘Letmyformbethus.Letmyformnotbethus.’

“Feelingisnot-self….“Perceptionisnot-self….“Fabricationsarenot-self….“Consciousnessisnot-self.Ifconsciousnessweretheself,thisconsciousness

wouldnotlenditselftodis-ease.Itwouldbepossible(tosay)withregardtoconsciousness,‘Letmyconsciousnessbethus.Letmyconsciousnessnotbethus.’Butpreciselybecauseconsciousnessisnot-self,consciousnesslendsitselftodisease.Anditisnotpossible(tosay)withregardtoconsciousness,‘Letmyconsciousnessbethus.Letmyconsciousnessnotbethus.’

“Whatdoyouthink,monks:Isformconstantorinconstant?”“Inconstant,lord.”“Andisthatwhichisinconstanteasefulorstressful?”“Stressful,lord.”“Andisitfittingtoregardwhatisinconstant,stressful,subjecttochangeas:

‘Thisismine.Thisismyself.ThisiswhatIam’?”“No,lord.”“…Isfeelingconstantorinconstant?”“Inconstant,lord.”….“…Isperceptionconstantorinconstant?”“Inconstant,lord.”….“…Arefabricationsconstantorinconstant?”“Inconstant,lord.”….“Whatdoyouthink,monks:Isconsciousnessconstantorinconstant?”

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“Inconstant,lord.”“Andisthatwhichisinconstanteasefulorstressful?”“Stressful,lord.”“Andisitfittingtoregardwhatisinconstant,stressful,subjecttochangeas:

‘Thisismine.Thisismyself.ThisiswhatIam’?”“No,lord.”“Thus,monks,anyformwhatsoeverthatispast,future,orpresent,internalor

external,blatantorsubtle,commonorsublime,farornear...Everyformistobeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobeas,‘Thisisnotmine.Thisisnotmyself.ThisisnotwhatIam.’

“Anyfeelingwhatsoever….“Anyperceptionwhatsoever….“Anyfabricationswhatsoever….“Anyconsciousnesswhatsoeverthatispast,future,orpresent,internalor

external,blatantorsubtle,commonorsublime,farornear...Everyconsciousnessistobeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobeas:‘Thisisnotmine.Thisisnotmyself.ThisisnotwhatIam.’”—SN22:59

§130.“Monks,youwoulddowelltoclingtothatdoctrine-of-self-clinging,clingingtowhichtherewouldnotarisesorrow,lamentation,pain,grief,anddespair.Butdoyouseeadoctrine-of-self-clinging,clingingtowhichtherewouldnotarisesorrow,lamentation,pain,grief,anddespair?”

“No,lord.”“Verygood,monks.NeitherdoI….“Whatdoyouthink,monks?Ifapersonweretogatherorburnordoashe

likeswiththegrass,twigs,branchesandleaveshereinJeta’sGrove,wouldthethoughtoccurtoyou,‘It‘susthatthispersonisgathering,burning,ordoingwithashelikes’?”

“No,lord.Whyisthat?Becausethosethingsarenotourself,nordotheybelongtoour

self.”“Evenso,monks,whateverisn’tyours,letgoofit.Yourlettinggoofitwillbe

foryourlong-termwelfareandhappiness.Andwhatisn’tyours?Formisn’tyours…Feelingisn’tyours…Perception…Fabrications…Consciousnessisn’tyours:Letgoofit.Yourlettinggoofitwillbeforyourlong-termwelfareandhappiness.”—M N22

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Ultimately, the perception of not-self is applied not only to the fiveaggregates, but also to the lower stages of Awakening, where oneexperiences the deathless as a phenomenon, or object of the mind, andcan still develop a sense of passion for it (see §86). The perception ofnot-self, applied at this stage, can help to develop a sense of dispassioneven there.

§131.Whenyouseewithdiscernment,‘Alldhammas[phenomena]arenot-self’—yougrowdisenchantedwithstress.

Thisisthepathtopurity.—Dhp27 9

At the ultimate stage of Awakening, one arrives at the point where thedeathless is experienced not as a phenomenon, but as the ending ofphenomena.

§132.“‘Allphenomenagainafootinginthedeathless.“‘AllphenomenahaveUnbindingastheirfinalend.’”—AN10:58

At this point, one no longer holds to any doctrine of the existence ornon-existence of the self, for as we have seen in §122, concepts ofexistence and non-existence are now irrelevant to one’s mode ofexperience.

§133.ThenthewandererVacchagottawenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,exchangedcourteousgreetingswithhim.Afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetingsandcourtesies,hesattooneside.AshewassittingthereheaskedtheBlessedOne:“Nowthen,MasterGotama,isthereaself?”

Whenthiswassaid,theBlessedOnewassilent.“Thenistherenoself?”Asecondtime,theBlessedOnewassilent.ThenVacchagottathewanderergotupfromhisseatandleft.Then,notlongafterVacchagottathewandererhadleft,Ven.Ānandasaidto

theBlessedOne,“Why,lord,didtheBlessedOnenotanswerwhenaskedaquestionbyVacchagottathewanderer?”

“Ānanda,ifI—beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisaself—weretoanswerthatthereisaself,thatwouldbeconformingwiththose

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brāhmansandcontemplativeswhoareexponentsofeternalism[theviewthatthereisaneternal,unchangingsoul].IfI—beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisnoself—weretoanswerthatthereisnoself,thatwouldbeconformingwiththosebrāhmansandcontemplativeswhoareexponentsofannihilationism[theviewthatdeathistheannihilationofconsciousness].IfI—beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisaself—weretoanswerthatthereisaself,wouldthatbeinkeepingwiththearisingofknowledgethatallphenomenaarenot-self?”

“No,lord.”“AndifI—beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisnoself—

weretoanswerthatthereisnoself,thebewilderedVacchagottawouldbecomeevenmorebewildered;‘DoestheselfIusedtohavenownotexist?’”—SN4 4:10

§134.Upasīva:Onewhohasreachedtheend:doeshenotexist,orisheforeternityfreefromaffliction?Please,sage,declarethistomeasthisphenomenonhasbeenknownbyyou.

TheBuddha:Onewhohasreachedtheendhasnocriterionbywhichanyonewouldsaythat—itdoesnotexistforhim.Whenallphenomenaaredoneawaywith

allmeansofspeakingaredoneawaywithaswell.—Sn5:6

BECOMING

Stages of right concentration are states of becoming on the level ofform and formlessness. Thus the path involves bringing states ofbecoming into being. However, as we have noted many times, one mustultimately learn to see the drawbacks even of these refined states ofbecoming if one is to gain full Awakening.

§135.“Justasevenasmallamountofexcrementisfoulsmelling,inthesame

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wayIdonotpraiseevenasmallamountofbecoming,evenfortheextentofafinger-snap.”—AN1:202

§136.Ihaveheardthatononeoccasion,whentheBlessedOnewasnewlyAwakened—stayingatUruvelabythebanksoftheNerañjaraRiverintheshadeoftheBodhitree,thetreeofAwakening—hesatintheshadeoftheBodhitreeforsevendaysinonesession,sensitivetotheblissofrelease.Attheendofsevendays,afteremergingfromthatconcentration,hesurveyedtheworldwiththeeyeofanAwakenedOne.Ashedidso,hesawlivingbeingsburningwiththemanyfeversandaflamewiththemanyfiresbornofpassion,aversion,anddelusion.Then,onrealizingthesignificanceofthat,heonthatoccasionexclaimed:

Thisworldisburning.Afflictedbycontact,itcallsdiseasea‘self.’Bywhateveritconstrues(things),that’salwaysotherwise.Becomingotherwise,theworldis

heldbybecomingafflictedbybecoming

andyetdelightsinthatverybecoming.

Wherethere’sdelight,thereisfear.

Whatonefearsisstressful.

Thisholylifeislivedfortheabandoningofbecoming.

Whateverpriestsorcontemplativessaythatliberationfrombecomingisbymeansofbecoming,allofthemarenotreleasedfrombecoming,Isay.

Andwhateverpriestsorcontemplativessaythatescapefrombecomingisbymeansofnon-becoming,allofthemhavenotescapedfrombecoming,Isay.

Thisstresscomesintoplayindependenceonallacquisitions.Withtheendingofallclinging/sustenance,there’snostresscomingintoplay.

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Lookatthisworld:Beings,afflictedwiththickignorance,areunreleasedfromdelightinwhathascometobe.Alllevelsofbecoming,

anywhere,inanyway,

areinconstant,stressful,subjecttochange.Seeingthis—asit’scometobe—withrightdiscernment,oneabandonscravingforbecoming,withoutdelightinginnon-becoming.Fromthetotalendingofcravingcomefadingandcessationwithoutremainder:

Unbinding.Forthemonkunboundthroughlackofclinging/sustenance,there’snofurtherbecoming.HehasconqueredMāra,

wonthebattle.gonebeyondallbecomings:

Such.—Ud3:10

BIRTH

Perceptions [8] and [9] in §79 are examples of perceptions meant toinduce dispassion for birth on any level of becoming. This dispassion isnecessary in the path to the end of suffering, for birth leads not only toinevitable aging and death, but also to all the pains and instabilities thatcome from having to subsist on food.

§137.Then,earlyinthemorning,Calāthenunputonherrobesand,takingherbowlandouterrobe,wentintoSāvatthīforalms.WhenshehadgoneforalmsinSāvatthīandhadreturnedfromheralmsround,afterhermealshewenttotheGroveoftheBlindtospendtheday.HavinggonedeepintotheGroveoftheBlind,shesatdownatthefootofatreefortheday’sabiding.

ThenMāratheEvilOne,wantingtoarousefear,horripilation,andterrorinher,wantingtomakeherfallfromsolitude,approachedherandsaid,“Whatisit

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thatyoudon’tapproveof,nun?”“Idon’tapproveofbirth,myfriend.”

M āra:“Whydon’tyouapproveofbirth?

Onewhoisbornenjoyssensualpleasures.

Whooneartheverpersuadedyou:

‘Nun,don’tapproveofbirth’?”S isterCalā:“Foronewhoisborn

there’sdeath.Onewhoisborn

seespain.It’sabinding,aflogging,atorment.That’swhyoneshouldn’tapprove

ofbirth.TheAwakenedOnetaughtmetheDhamma

—theovercomingofbirth—fortheabandoningofallpain.

Heestablishedmeinthetruth.

Butbeingswhohavecometoformandthosewithashareintheformless,

iftheydon’tdiscerncessation,returntobecoming-again.”

ThenMāratheEvilOne—sadanddejectedatrealizing,“Calāthenunknowsme”—vanishedrightthere.—SN5:6

In addition to these reminders of the drawbacks of birth, the Buddhaalso recommended the recollection of peace — the peace that comesfrom finding the unborn — as a reminder of the unhungering freedomthat can come from discarding any desire to be reborn.

§138.“Thereis,monks,anunborn—unbecome—unmade—unfabricated.Iftherewerenotthatunborn—unbecome—unmade—unfabricated,therewould

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notbethecasethatemancipationfromtheborn—become—made—fabricatedwouldbediscerned.Butpreciselybecausethereisanunborn—unbecome—unmade—unfabricated,emancipationfromtheborn—become—made—fabricatedisdiscerned.”—Ud8:3

§139.S isterGuttā:Discardingbirthandwandering-on,comprehendingfurtherbecoming,

freefromhungerintheright-here-and-nowyouwillgoabout

totallycalmed.—Thig6:7

AGING-AND-DEATH

Reflecting on the aging and death of other individuals helps toundercut lust. Reflecting on one’s own inevitable aging and death inspiresheedfulness in developing skillful qualities of mind and acting in skillfulways, the sort of skillful kamma that will lead to rebirth on pleasantlevels of becoming. Reflecting on the inevitability of aging and death inany level of becoming on which one might take rebirth, however, inducesa sense of urgency in pursuing the path that leads beyond all becoming,birth, aging, and death so as to arrive at the deathless.

§140.“Nowwhat,monks,istheallureofforms?Supposetherewereamaidenofthenoblecaste,thebrāhmancaste,orthehouseholderclass,fifteenorsixteenyearsold,neithertootallnortooshort,neithertoothinnortooplump,neithertoodarknortoopale.Isherbeautyandcharmatthattimeatitsheight?”

“Yes,lord.”“Whateverpleasureandhappinessariseindependenceonthatbeautyand

charm,thatistheallureofforms.”“Andwhatisthedrawbackofforms?Thereisthecasewhereonemightsee

thatverysamewomanatalatertime,whenshe’seighty,ninety,onehundredyearsold,aged,roof-raftercrooked,bent-over,supportedbyacane,palsied,miserable,broken-toothed,gray-haired,scanty-haired,bald,wrinkled,herbodyallblotchy.Whatdoyouthink?Hasherearlierbeautyandcharmvanished,andthedrawbackappeared?”

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“Yes,lord.”“This,monks,isthedrawbackofforms.“Again,onemightseethatverysamewomansick,inpain,andseriouslyill,

lyingsoiledwithherownurineandexcrement,liftedupbyothers,laiddownbyothers.Whatdoyouthink?Hasherearlierbeautyandcharmvanished,andthedrawbackappeared?”

“Yes,lord.”“Thistoo,monks,isthedrawbackofforms.“Again,onemightseethatverysamewomanasacorpsecastawayina

charnelground,oneday,twodays,threedaysdead,bloated,livid,andoozing.Whatdoyouthink?Hasherearlierbeautyandcharmvanished,andthedrawbackappeared?”

“Yes,lord.”“Thistoo,monks,isthedrawbackofforms.”—M N13

§141.“Furthermore,asifhe[ameditatingmonk]weretoseeacorpsecastawayinacharnelground,oneday,twodays,threedaysdead,bloated,livid,andoozing,heappliesittothisverybody,‘Thisbody,too,suchisitsnature,suchisitsfuture,suchitsunavoidablefate’…

“Oragain,asifheweretoseeacorpsecastawayinacharnelground,pickedatbycrows,vultures,andhawks,bydogs,hyenas,andvariousothercreatures…askeletonsmearedwithfleshandblood,connectedwithtendons…afleshlessskeletonsmearedwithblood,connectedwithtendons…askeletonwithoutfleshorblood,connectedwithtendons…bonesdetachedfromtheirtendons,scatteredinalldirections...hereahandbone,thereafootbone,hereashinbone,thereathighbone,hereahipbone,thereabackbone,herearib,thereachestbone,hereashoulderbone,thereaneckbone,hereajawbone,thereatooth,hereaskull…theboneswhitened,somewhatlikethecolorofshells…piledup,morethanayearold…decomposedintoapowder...Heappliesittothisverybody,‘Thisbody,too:Suchisitsnature,suchisitsfuture,suchitsunavoidablefate.’”—DN22

§142.Ven.Mahākāla:Thisswarthywoman[preparingacorpseforcremation]

—crow-like,enormous—breakingathighandthentheother

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thigh,breakinganarmandthentheother

arm,crackingopenthehead,

likeapotofcurds,shesitswiththemheapedupbesideher.Whoever,unknowing,makesacquisitions

—thefool—returnsoverandovertosufferingandstress.So,discerning,don’tmakeacquisitions.

MayIneverliewithmyheadcrackedopen

again.—Thag2:16

§143.“Now,basedonwhatlineofreasoningshouldoneoftenreflect…that‘Iamsubjecttoaging,havenotgonebeyondaging’?Therearebeingswhoareintoxicatedwitha(typical)youngperson’sintoxicationwithyouth.Becauseofthatintoxicationwithyouth,theyconductthemselvesinabadwayinbody,abadwayinspeech,abadwayinmind.Butwhentheyoftenreflectonthatfact,thatyoungperson’sintoxicationwithyouthwilleitherbeentirelyabandonedorgrowweaker….

“Now,basedonwhatlineofreasoningshouldoneoftenreflect…that‘Iamsubjecttodeath,havenotgonebeyonddeath’?Therearebeingswhoareintoxicatedwitha(typical)livingperson’sintoxicationwithlife.Becauseofthatintoxicationwithlife,theyconductthemselvesinabadwayinbody,abadwayinspeech,abadwayinmind.Butwhentheyoftenreflectonthatfact,thatlivingperson’sintoxicationwithlifewilleitherbeentirelyabandonedorgrowweaker….

“Now,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthis:‘Iamnottheonlyonesubjecttoaging,whohasnotgonebeyondaging.Totheextentthattherearebeings—pastandfuture,passingawayandre-arising—allbeingsaresubjecttoaging,havenotgonebeyondaging.’Whenhe/sheoftenreflectsonthis,thepathtakesbirth.He/shestickswiththatpath,developsit,cultivatesit.Ashe/shestickswiththatpath,developsit,andcultivatesit,thefettersareabandoned,theobsessionsdestroyed.”

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“Now,adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthis:‘Iamnottheonlyonesubjecttodeath,whohasnotgonebeyonddeath.Totheextentthattherearebeings—pastandfuture,passingawayandre-arising—allbeingsaresubjecttodeath,havenotgonebeyonddeath.’Whenhe/sheoftenreflectsonthis,thepathtakesbirth.He/shestickswiththatpath,developsit,cultivatesit.Ashe/shestickswiththatpath,developsit,andcultivatesit,thefettersareabandoned,theobsessionsdestroyed.”—AN5:57

§144.“Monks,mindfulnessofdeath—whendevelopedandpursued—isofgreatfruitandgreatbenefit.Itgainsafootinginthedeathless,hasthedeathlessasitsfinalend.Andhowismindfulnessofdeathdevelopedandpursuedsothatitisofgreatfruitandgreatbenefit,gainsafootinginthedeathless,andhasthedeathlessasitsfinalend?

“Thereisthecasewhereamonk,asdaydepartsandnightreturns,reflects,‘Manyarethe(possible)causesofmydeath.Asnakemightbiteme,ascorpionmightstingme,acentipedemightbiteme.Thatwouldbehowmydeathwouldcomeabout.Thatwouldbeanobstructionforme.Stumbling,Imightfall,myfood,digested,mighttroubleme,mybilemightbeprovoked,myphlegm…piercingwindforces(inthebody)mightbeprovoked.Thatwouldbehowmydeathwouldcomeabout.Thatwouldbeanobstructionforme.’Thenthemonkshouldinvestigate:‘Arethereanyevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesunabandonedbymethatwouldbeanobstructionformeifIweretodieinthenight?’If,onreflecting,herealizesthatthereareevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesunabandonedbyhimthatwouldbeanobstructionforhimifheweretodieinthenight,thenheshouldputforthextradesire,effort,diligence,endeavor,relentlessness,mindfulness,andalertnessfortheabandoningofthoseverysameevil,unskillfulqualities.Justaswhenapersonwhoseturbanorheadwasonfirewouldputforthextradesire,effort,diligence,endeavor,relentlessness,mindfulness,andalertnesstoputoutthefireonhisturbanorhead,inthesamewaythemonkshouldputforthextradesire,effort,diligence,endeavor,relentlessness,mindfulness,andalertnessfortheabandoningofthoseverysameevil,unskillfulqualities.Butif,onreflecting,herealizesthattherearenoevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesunabandonedbyhimthatwouldbeanobstructionforhimifheweretodieinthenight,thenforthatveryreasonheshoulddwellinjoyandrapture,traininghimselfdayandnightinskillfulqualities.

“Further,thereisthecasewhereamonk,asnightdepartsanddayreturns,reflects,‘Manyarethe(possible)causesofmydeath….’Thenthemonkshouldinvestigate:‘Arethereanyevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesunabandonedbyme

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thatwouldbeanobstructionformeifIweretodieduringtheday?’If,onreflecting,herealizesthatthereareevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesunabandonedbyhimthatwouldbeanobstructionforhimifheweretodieduringtheday,thenheshouldputforthextradesire,effort,diligence,endeavor,relentlessness,mindfulness,andalertnessfortheabandoningofthoseverysameevil,unskillfulqualities….Butif,onreflecting,herealizesthattherearenoevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesunabandonedbyhimthatwouldbeanobstructionforhimifheweretodieduringtheday,thenforthatveryreasonheshoulddwellinjoyandrapture,traininghimselfdayandnightinskillfulqualities.

“This,monks,ishowmindfulnessofdeathisdevelopedandpursuedsothatitisofgreatfruitandgreatbenefit,gainsafootinginthedeathless,andhasthedeathlessasitsfinalend.“—AN6:20

§145.Ven.Valliya:Whatneedstobedonewithfirmpersistence,whatneedstobedonebyonewhohopesforAwakening:

ThatIwilldo.Iwillnotfail.

See:persistenceandstriving!Youshowmethepath:

straight,gainingafootinginthedeathless.

I,throughsagacity,willreachit,knowit,asthestreamoftheGanges,

thesea.—Thag2:24

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GLOSSARY

Arahant:A“worthyone”or“pureone;”apersonwhosemindisfreeofdefilementandthusnotdestinedforfurtherrebirth.AtitlefortheBuddhaandthehighestlevelofhisnobledisciples.

Bodhi:Awakening.Brahmā:Aninhabitantofthehigherheavenlyrealmsofformorformlessness.Brahman:InUpaniṣadictexts,thesourcefromwhichthecosmosasawhole

emanates.Brāhman:Amemberofthepriestlycaste,whichclaimedtobethehighest

casteinIndia,basedonbirth.InaspecificallyBuddhistusage,“brāhman”canalsomeananarahant,conveyingthepointthatexcellenceisbasednotonbirthorrace,butonthequalitiesattainedinthemind.

D eva(devatā):Literally,“shiningone.”Aninhabitantoftheheavenlyrealms.Dhamma:(1)Event,action,(2)aphenomenoninandofitself,(3)mental

quality,(4)doctrine,teaching,(5)nibbāna(althoughtherearepassagesdescribingnibbānaastheabandoningofalldhammas).Sanskritform:Dharma.

Gotama:TheBuddha’sclanname.Jhāna:Mentalabsorption.Astateofstrongconcentrationfocusedonasingle

sensationormentalnotion.Kamma:(1)Intentionalaction,(2)theresultsofintentionalactions.Sanskrit

form:Karma.Khandha:Aggregate,physicalandmentalphenomenaastheyaredirectly

experienced:rūpa—physicalform,vedanā—feelingsofpleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain,saññā—perception,mentallabel,saṅkhāra—fabrication,thoughtconstruct,andviññāṇa—sensoryconsciousness,theactoftakingnoteofsensedataandideasastheyoccur.Sanskritform:Skandha.

M āra:Thepersonificationoftemptationandallforces,withinandwithout,thatcreateobstaclestoreleasefromtheroundofdeathandrebirth.

Nibbāna:Literally,the“unbinding”ofthemindfrompassion,aversion,anddelusion,andfromtheentireroundofdeathandrebirth.Asthistermalsodenotestheextinguishingofafire,itcarriesconnotationsofstilling,cooling,and

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peace.Sanskritform:Nirvāṇa.Pajāpati:Ahigh-rankingdeva,secondincommandtothekingofhis

particulardevarealm.Pāli:ThelanguageoftheoldestextantCanonoftheBuddha’steachings.Sakyan:AninhabitantoftheSakyanrepublic,theBuddha’shometerritory.Saṅgha:Ontheconventional(sammati)level,thistermdenotesthe

communitiesofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Ontheideal(ariya)level,itdenotesthosefollowersoftheBuddha,layorordained,whohaveattainedatleaststream-entry.

Tathāgata:Literally,onewhohas“becomeauthentic(tatha-āgata)”orwhois“trulygone(tathā-gata)”:anepithetusedinancientIndiaforapersonwhohasattainedthehighestreligiousgoal.InBuddhism,itusuallydenotestheBuddha,althoughoccasionallyitalsodenotesanyofhisarahantdisciples.

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ABBREVIATIONS

Pāli Texts

AN AṅguttaraNikāya

DN DīghaNikāya

Dhp Dhammapada

Iti Itivuttaka

Khp Khuddakapāṭha

M N MajjhimaNikāya

SN SaṁyuttaNikāya

Sn S uttaNipāta

Thag Theragāthā

Thig Therīgāthā

Ud Udāna

ReferencestoDN,Iti,andMNaretodiscourse(sutta).ThosetoDhparetoverse.Referencestoothertextsaretosection(saṁyutta,nipāta,orvagga)anddiscourse.

Alltranslationsfromthesetextsarebytheauthor,andarebasedontheRoyalThaiEditionofthePaliCanon(Bangkok:MahāmakutRājavidyālaya,1982).

Upaniṣads

BAU Bṛhad-āraṅyakaUpaniṣad

ChU ChāndogyaUpaniṣad

MaiU MaitrīUpaniṣad

TU TaittirīyaUpaniṣad

CitationsandtranslationsarebasedontheEnglishandSanskrittextinS.

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Radhakrishnan,ThePrincipalUpaniṣads.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1969.

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Preface 4Introduction“Onlystress,andthecessationofstress.” 7ChapterOne“Atangledskein” 16ChapterTwo“Abandonfood,havingreliedonfood” 57ChapterThree“Allphenomenaareunworthyofattachment” 78Ignorance 80Fabrications 88Consciousness 109Name 111Form 116SenseMedia,Contact,Feeling 121Craving 127Clinging 133Becoming 147Birth 149Aging-and-Death 151

Glossary 156Abbreviations 158

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