the seven great monarchies vol 4 babylonia rawlingson

7/28/2019 The Seven Great Monarchies Vol 4 Babylonia Rawlingson

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BABYLONIA

THESEVENGREATMONARCHIESOFTHE

ANCIENTEASTERNWORLD;

OR,

THEHISTORY,

GEOGRAPHY,

AND

ANTIQUITIES

OF

CHALDAEA,

ASSYRIA

BABYLON,MEDIA,PERSIA,PARTHIA,ANDSASSANIAN,

ORNEWPERSIANEMPIRE.

BYGEORGERAWLINSON,M.A.,

CAMDENPROFESSOROFANCIENTHISTORYINTHEUNIVERSITYOFOXFORD

INTHREEVOLUMES.

VOLUMEII.

WITH

MAPS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS

CHAPTERI. EXTENTOFTHEEMPIRE.CHAPTERII. CLIMATEANDPRODUCTIONS.CHAPTEEIII. THEPEOPLE.CHAPTEEIV. THECAPITAL.CHAPTERV. ARTSANDSCIENCES.CHAPTERVI. MANNERSANDCUSTOMS.CHAPTERVII. RELIGION.CHAPTERVIII.HISTORYANDCHRONOLOGY.APPENDIX.A. STANDARDINSCRIPTIONOFNEBUCHADNEZZAR.B.

ON

THE

MEANINGS

OF

BABYLONIAN

NAMES.


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BABYLONIA

THEFOURTHMONARCHYBABYLONIA.


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BABYLONIA

CHAPTERI.EXTENTOFTHEEMPIRE."Behold,atreeinthemidstoftheearth,andtheheightthereofwasgreat;thetreegrew

andwasstrong:andtheheightthereofreacheduntoheaven,andthesightthereoftoth

endofalltheearth."Dan.iy.10,11.

Thelimits

of

Babylonia

Proper,

the

tract

in

which

the

dominant

power

of

the

Fourt

Monarchy had its abode, being almost identical with those which have been alread

describedundertheheadofChaldaea,willnotrequireinthisplacetobetreatedafresh,a

any length. Itneedsonly to remind the reader thatBabyloniaProper is that alluvial trac

towardsthemouthofthetwogreatriversofWesternAsiatheTigrisandtheEuphrates

whichintervenesbetweentheArabianDesertontheoneside,andthemoreeasternofth

twostreamsontheother.AcrosstheTigristhecountryisnolongerBabylonia,butCissia,o

Susianaa distinct region, known to the Jews as Elamthe habitat of a distinct people

Babylonialies

westward

of

the

Tigris,

and

consists

of

two

vast

plains

or

flats,

one

situate

between the two rivers,and thus forming the lowerportionof the"Mesopotamia"of th

GreeksandRomanstheother interposedbetween theEuphratesandArabia,a longbu

narrowstripalongtherightbankofthataboundingriver.Theformerofthesetwodistricts

shaped likeanancientamphora,themouthextendingfromHittoSamarah,theneck lyin

betweenBaghdadandCtesiphonon theTigris,MohammedandMosaibontheEuphrates

thefullexpansionofthebodyoccurringbetweenSerutandElKhithr,andthepointedbas

reachingdowntoKornahatthejunctionofthetwostreams.Thistract,themainregiono

the ancient Babylonia, is about 320 miles long, and from 20 to 100 broad. It may b

estimatedto

contain

about

18,000

square

miles.

The

tract

west

of

the

Euphrates

is

smalle

than this. Its length, in the timeof theBabylonianEmpire,maybe regardedasabout35

miles, its averagewidth is from 25 to 30miles,whichwould give an areaof about 900

squaremiles.ThustheBabyloniaofNabopolassarandNebuchadnezzarmayberegardeda

covering a space of 27,000 square milesa space a little exceeding the area of the Low

countries.

The small province included within these limitssmaller than Scotland or Ireland, o

PortugalorBavariabecame suddenly, in the latterhalfof the seventh centuryB.C., th

mistressof

an

extensive

empire.

On

the

fall

of

Assyria,

about

B.C.

625,

or

alittle

later,

Medi

andBabylonia,asalreadyobserved,dividedbetweenthemherextensiveterritory.Itiswit

the acquisitions thus made that we have now to deal.We have to inquire what portio

exactlyofthepreviousdominionsofAssyriafelltothelotoftheadventurousNabopolassa

whenNineveh ceased tobewhatwas theextentof the territorywhichwas ruled from

Babylon in the latter portion of the seventh and the earlier portion of the sixth centur

beforeourera?


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BABYLONIA

Nowtheevidencewhichwepossessonthispointisthreefold.Itconsistsofcertainnotice

intheHebrewScriptures,contemporaryrecordsoffirstratehistoricalvalue;ofanaccoun

which strangelymingles truthwith fable inoneof thebooksof theApocrypha; andof

passageofBerosuspreservedbyJosephus inhisworkagainstApion.TheScripturalnotice

arecontained inJeremiah, inDaniel,and inthebooksofKingsandChronicles.Fromthes

sourceswe learn that theBabylonianEmpireof this timeembracedon theonehand th

importantcountry

of

Susiana

or

Elymais

(Elam),

while

on

the

other

it

ran

up

the

Euphrates

a

least ashigh asCarchemish, from thenceextendingwestward to theMediterranean, an

southwardto,orratherperhaps into,Egypt.TheApocryphalbookof Judithenlargesthes

limitsineverydirection.ThattheNabuchodonosorofthatworkisareminiscenceoftherea

Nebuchadnezzartherecanbenodoubt.Theterritoriesofthatmonarcharemadetoexten

eastward,beyond Susiana, intoPersia;northward toNineveh;westward to Cilicia inAsi

Minor;andsouthwardtotheverybordersofEthiopia.Amongthecountriesunderhisswa

are enumerated Elam, Persia, Assyria, Cilicia, CoeleSyria, Syria of Damascus, Phoenicia

Galilee,

Gilead,

Bashan,

Judsea,

Philistia,

Goshen,

and

Egypt

generally.

The

passage

oBerosusisofamorepartialcharacter.Ithasnobearingonthegeneralquestionoftheexten

of the Babylonian Empire, but, incidentally, it confirms the statements of our othe

authoritiesastotheinfluenceofBabylonintheWest.IttellsusthatCoeleSyria,Phoenicia

and Egypt, were subject to Nabopolassar, and that Nebuchadnezzar ruled, not only ove

thesecountries,butalsooversomeportionofArabia.

Fromthesestatements,which,onthewhole,aretolerablyaccordant,wemaygathertha

the great Babylonian Empire of the seventh century B.C. inherited from Assyria all th

southernand

western

portion

of

her

territory,

while

the

more

northern

and

easter

provinces fell to the share of Media. Setting aside the statement of the book of Judit

(whollyunconfirmedas it isbyanyotherauthority),thatPersiawasatthistimesubjectt

Babylon,wemayregardas themosteasternportionoftheEmpire thedistrictofSusiana

which corresponded nearly with the modern Khuzistan and Luristan. This acquisitio

advancedtheeasternfrontieroftheEmpirefromtheTigristotheBakhtiyariMountains,

distance of 100 or 120 miles. It gave to Babylon an extensive tract of very productiv

territory, and an excellent strategic boundary. Khuzistan is one of the most valuabl

provinces of modern Persia. It consists of a broad tract of fertile alluvium, intervenin

betweenthe

Tigris

and

the

mountains,

well

watered

by

numerous

large

streams,

which

ar

capable of giving an abundant irrigation to the whole of the low region. Above this i

Luristan,astillmorepleasantdistrict,composedofalternatemountain,valley,anduplan

plain,aboundinginbeautifulglens,richlywooded,andfullofgushingbrooksandclearrapi

rivers.Muchofthisregionisofcourseuncultivablemountain,rangesucceedingrange,insi

oreightparallel lines,as the travelleradvances to thenortheast;andmostof the range

exhibitingvasttractsofbareandoftenprecipitousrock,inthecleftsofwhichsnowreststi

midsummer. Still the lower flanks of the mountains are in general cultivable, while th


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BABYLONIA

valleysteemwithorchardsandgardens,andtheplainsfurnishexcellentpasture.Theregio

closelyresemblesZagros,ofwhichitisacontinuation.Aswefollowit,however,towardsth

southeast into the Bakhtiyari country, where it adjoins upon the ancient Persia,

deteriorates in character; the mountains becoming barer and more arid, and the valley

narrowerandlessfertile.

Allthe

other

acquisitions

of

Babylonia

at

this

period

lay

towards

the

west.

They

consiste

of theEuphratesvalley,aboveHit;ofMesopotamiaProper,or thecountryabout the tw

streams of the Bilik and the Khabour; of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Idumasa, Norther

Arabia,andpartofEgypt.TheEuphratesvalleyfromHittoBalisisatractofnogreatvalue

exceptasa lineof communication.TheMesopotamianDesertpresses itcloselyupon th

one side,and theArabianupon theother.The river flowsmostly inadeepbedbetwee

cliffsofmarl,gypsum,and limestone,orelsebetweenbarehillsproducingonlya fewdr

sapless shrubs and a coarse grass; and there are but rare places where, except by grea

efforts,thewatercanberaisedsoasto irrigate,toanyextent,the landalongeitherbank

Thecourse

of

the

stream

is

fringed

by

date

palms

as

high

as

Anah,

and

above

is

dotte

occasionally with willows, poplars, sumacs, and the unfruitful palmtree. Cultivation i

possible in places along both banks, and the undulating country on either side afford

patches of good pasture. The land improves as we ascend. Above the junction of th

Khabourwiththemainstream,theleftbankismostlycultivable.Muchofthelandisflatan

wellwooded, while often there are broad stretches of open ground, well adapted fo

pasturage.A considerable population seems in ancient times to have peopled the valley

whichdidnotdependwhollyorevenmainlyon itsownproducts,butwasenrichedbyth

importanttraffic

which

was

always

passing

up

and

down

the

great

river.

MesopotamiaProper,orthetractextendingfromtheheadstreamsoftheKhabourabou

Mardin and Nisibin to the Euphrates at Bir, and thence southwards to Karkesiyeh o

Circesium, isnotcertainlyknowntohavebelongedtothekingdomofBabylon,butmayb

assignedto itongroundsofprobability.Dividedbyadesertorbyhighmountainsfromth

valleyoftheTigris,andattachedbymeansofitsstreamstothatoftheEuphrates,italmos

necessarilyfallstothatpowerwhichholdstheEuphratesunderitsdominion.Thetractison

ofconsiderableextentand importance.Boundedon thenorthby the rangeofhillswhic

Strabocalls

Mons

Masius,

and

on

the

east

by

the

waterless

upland

which

lies

directly

west

o

themiddleTigris,itcompriseswithinitallthenumerousaffluentsoftheKhabourandBilik

andisthusbettersuppliedwithwaterthanalmostanycountryintheseregions.Theborder

ofthestreamsafford therichestpasture,andthewholetractalong the flankofMasius i

fairly fertile. Towards the west, the tract between the Khabour and the Bilik, which

diversifiedbytheAbdelAzizhills,isalandoffountains."Such,"saysIbnHaukal,"arenott

befoundelsewhere inallthe landoftheMoslems,fortherearemorethanthreehundre

purerunningbrooks."Irrigationisquitepossibleinthisregion;andmanyremainsofancien


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watercoursesshowthatlargetracts,atsomedistancefromthemainstreams,wereformerl

broughtundercultivation.

Opposite to Mesopotamia Proper, on the west or right bank of the Euphrates, la

NorthernSyria,with its importantfortressofCarchemish,whichwasundoubtedly include

in theEmpire.This tract isnotoneofmuch value.Towards thenorth it ismountainous

consistingof

spurs

from

Amanus

and

Taurus,

which

gradually

subside

into

the

desert

alittl

to the south of Aleppo. The bare, roundbacked, chalky or rocky ranges, which her

continually succeed one another, are divided only by narrow tortuous valleys,which ru

chieflytowardstheEuphratesorthe lakeofAntioch.Thismountaintractissucceededby

regionofextensiveplains,separatedfromeachotherbylowhills,bothequallydesolate.Th

soilisshallowandstony;thestreamsarefewandoflittlevolume;irrigationisthusdifficul

and,exceptwhere itcanbeapplied, thecropsarescanty.Thepistachionutgrowswild i

places;Vinesandolivesarecultivatedwithsomesuccess;andsomegrain is raisedby th

inhabitants;butthecountryhasfewnaturaladvantages,and ithasalwaysdependedmor

uponits

possession

of

acarrying

trade

than

on

its

home

products

for

prosperity.

West and southwestof this region,between it and theMediterranean, and extendin

southwardsfromMountAmanustothelatitudeofTyre,liesSyriaProper,theCoeleSyriao

manywriters,a longbutcomparativelynarrow tractofgreat fertilityandvalue.Here tw

parallelrangesofmountainsintervenebetweenthecoastandthedesert,prolificparentso

anumerousprogenyofsmallstreams.First,alongthelineofthecoast,istherangeknowna

Libanusinthesouth,from lat.3320'to lat.3440',andasBargylus inthenorth,from lat

34 45' to theOrontes atAntioch, a rangeof great beauty, richlywooded inplaces, an

aboundingin

deep

glens,

foaming

brooks,

and

precipices

of

afantastic

form.

[PLATE

VII.,

Fi

2.] More inland is Antilibanus, culminating towards the south in Hermon, and prolonge

northward in the Jebel Shashabu, Jebel Biha, and JebelelAla, which extends from nea

Hems to the latitudeofAleppo.More striking than even Lebanon at its lower extremity

whereHermon liftsa snowypeak into theairduringmostof theyear, it ison thewhol

inferiorinbeautytothecoastrange,beingbleaker,morestony,andlessbrokenupbydel

andvalleystowardsthesouth,andtamer,barer,and lesswellsuppliedwithstreams in it

morenorthernportion.Betweenthetwoparallelranges liesthe"HollowSyria,"a longan

broadishvalley,

watered

by

the

two

streams

of

the

Orontes

and

the

"Litany"

which,

rising

a

nogreatdistance fromoneanother, flow inoppositedirections,onehurryingnorthward

nearlytotheflanksofAmanus,theothersouthwardstothehillsofGalilee.Fewplacesinth

world are more, remarkable, or have a more stirring history, than this wonderful vale

Extending for above twohundredmiles fromnorth to south, almost in adirect line, an

withoutfurtherbreakthananoccasionalscreenoflowhills,itfurnishesthemostconvenien

lineof passagebetweenAsia andAfrica, alike for thejourneys ofmerchants and for th

marchofarmies.Alongthis linepassedThothinesandBarneses,Sargon,andSennacherib


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BABYLONIA

NecoandNebuchadnezzar,Alexanderandhiswarlike successors,Pompey,Antony,Kaled

GodfreyofBouillon;alongthismustpasseverygreatarmywhich,startingfromthegenera

seatsofpowerinWesternAsia,seeksconquestsinAfrica,orwhich,proceedingfromAfrica

aims at the acquisitionof anAsiaticdominion. Few richer tracts are tobe found even i

thesemostfavoredportionsoftheearth'ssurface.TowardsthesouththefamousElBuka

isalandofcornfieldsandvineyards,wateredbynumeroussmallstreamswhichfallintoth

Litany.Towards

the

north

El

Ghab

is

even

more

splendidly

fertile,

with

adark

rich

soi

luxuriantvegetation,andwater intheutmostabundance,thoughatpresent it iscultivate

onlyinpatchesimmediatelyaboutthetowns,fromfearoftheNusairiyehandtheBedouins.


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BABYLONIA


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BABYLONIA

Parallelwith the southernpartof theCoeleSyrian valley, to thewest and to the eas

weretwosmallbutimportanttracts,usuallyregardedasdistinctstates.Westward,betwee

theheightsofLebanonandthesea,andextendingsomewhatbeyondLebanon,bothupan

down thecoast,wasPhoenicia,anarrowstripof territory lyingalong theshore, in lengt

from150to180miles,andinbreadthvaryingfromonemiletotwenty.Thistractconsiste

ofamerebeltofsandylandalongthesea,wherethesmilingpalmgrovesgrewfromwhic

thecountry

derived

its

name,

of

abroader

upland

region

along

the

flank

of

the

hills,

whic

wascultivatedingrain,andofthehigherslopesofthemountainswhichfurnishedexcellen

timber.Smallharbors,shelteredbyrockyprojections,werefrequentalongthecoast.Woo

cutinLebanonwasreadilyfloateddownthemanystreamstotheshore,andthenconveye

by sea to theports.Anarrow and scanty landmade commerce almost anecessity.Her

accordingly the first great maritime nation of antiquity grew up. The Phoenician fleet

exploredtheMediterraneanatatimeanteriortoHomer,andconveyedtotheGreeksan

theother inhabitantsofEurope,andofNorthernandWesternAfrica,thewaresofAssyria

Babylon,

and

Egypt.

Industry

and

enterprise

reaped

their

usual

harvest

of

success;

thPhoenicians grew inwealth, and their townsbecame great andmagnificent cities. In th

timewhentheBabylonianEmpirecame intobeing,thenarrowtractofPhoeniciasmalle

than many an English countywas among the most valuable countries of Asia; and it

possessionwas farmore tobe coveted than thatofmany a landwhose areawas teno

twentytimesasgreat.

EastwardofAntilibanus,inthetractbetweenthatrangeandthegreatSyriandesert,wa

anothervery importantdistrictthedistrictwhichtheJewscalled"AramDammesek,"an

whichnow

forms

the

chief

part

of

the

Pashalik

of

Damascus.

From

the

eastern

flanks

of

th

Antilibanustwogreatandnumeroussmallerstreamsflowdown intotheDamasceneplain

and, carrying with them that strange fertilizing power which water always has in ho

climates,convertthearidsterilityofthedesertintoagardenofthemostwonderfulbeauty

The Barada and Awaaj, bursting by narrow gorges from the mountain chain, scatte

themselves in numerous channels over the great flat, intermingling their waters, an

spreading themoutsowidely that foracircleof thirtymiles thedeepverdureofOrienta

vegetationreplacestheredhueoftheHauran.Walnuts,planes,poplars,cypresses,apricots

orangetrees, citrons, pomegranates, olives, wave above; corn and grass of the mos

luxuriantgrowth,

below.

In

the

midst

of

this

great

mass

of

foliage

the

city

of

Damascu

"strikesoutthewhitearmsofitsstreetshitherandthither"amongthetrees,nowhidamon

them,nowovertoppingthemwith itsdomesandminarets,themostbeautifulofallthos

beautifultownswhichdelighttheeyeoftheartistintheEast.Inthesouthwesttowersth

snowcladpeakofHermon, visible fromeverypartof theDamasceneplain.West,north

west,andnorth, stretches the longAntilibanus range,bare,gray, and flattopped,excep

where about midway in its course, the rounded summit of Jebel Tiniyen breaks th

uniformityoftheline.Outsidethecircleofdeepverdure,knowntotheOrientalsasElMe


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0

("theMeadow"),isasettingorframeworkofpartiallycultivableland,dottedwithclumpso

treesandgroves,whichextendformanymilesovertheplain.TotheDamascuscountrymus

alsobereckonedthosemanycharmingvalleysofHermonandAntilibanuswhichopenou

into it,sendingtheirwaters to increase itsbeautyand luxuriance, themost remarkableo

which are the long ravine of the Barada, and the romantic Wady Halbon, whose vine

produced the famous beveragewhichDamascus anciently supplied atonce to the Tyria

merchantprinces

and

to

the

voluptuous

Persian

kings.

BelowtheCoeloSyrianvalley,towardsthesouth,camePalestine,theLandofLandstoth

Christian,thecountrywhicheventhephilosophermustacknowledgetohavehadagreate

influenceon theworld'shistory thananyother tractwhichcanbebroughtunderasingl

ethnicdesignation.PalestineetymologicallythecountryofthePhilistineswassomewha

unfortunately named. Philistine influence may possibly have extended at a very remot

periodover thewholeof it;but inhistorical times thatwarlikepeopledidbutpossess

cornerofthetract, lessthanonetenthofthewholethe lowcoastregionfromJamniat

Gaza.Palestine

contained,

besides

this,

the

regions

of

Galilee,

Samaria,

and

Judaea,

to

th

westoftheJordan,andthoseofIturaea,Trachonitis,Bashan,andGilead,eastofthatriver.

was a tract 140 miles long, by from 70 to 100 broad, containing probably about 11,00

squaremiles. Itwas thusaboutequal insize toBelgium,while itwas less thanHollando

Hanover, and not much larger than the principality of Wales, with which it has bee

comparedbyarecentwriter.

ThegreatnaturaldivisionofthecountryistheJordanvalley.Thisremarkabledepression

commencingon thewest flankofHermon, runswith a coursewhich isalmostdue sout

fromlat.

33

25'

to

lat.

31

47',

where

it

is

merged

in

the

Dead

Sea,

which

may

be

viewed

however,asacontinuationofthevalley,prolongingittolat.318'.Thisvalleyisquiteunlik

anyotherinthewholeworld.Itisavolcanicrentintheearth'ssurface,abroadchasmwhic

hasgapedandneverclosedup.Naturally,itshouldterminateatMerom,wherethelevelo

theMediterraneanisnearlyreached.Bysomewonderfulconvulsion,oratanyratebysom

unusual freakofNature, there is a channelopenedout fromMerom,which rapidly sink

belowthesealevel,andallowsthestreamtoflowhastily,downandstilldown,fromMerom

toGennesareth,andfromGennesarethtotheDeadSea,wherethedepressionreaches it

lowestpoint,

and

the

land,

rising

into

aridge,

separates

the

Jordan

valley

from

the

uppe

endoftheGulfofAkabah.TheJordanvalleydividesPalestine,stronglyandsharply,intotw

regions.Itsdepth,itsinaccessibility(foritcanonlybeenteredfromthehighlandsoneithe

sidedownafewsteepwatercourses),andthedifficultyofpassingacross it(fortheJorda

hasbutfewfords),give itaseparatingpoweralmostequaltothatofanarmofthesea.I

lengthaboveahundredmiles, inwidthvarying fromonemile to ten,andaveragingsom

fivemiles,orperhapssix,itmusthavebeenvaluableasaterritory,possessing,asitdoes,

richsoil,abundantwater,andinitslowerportionatropicalclimate.


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BABYLONIA

OneithersideofthedeepJordancleftliesahighlandofmoderateelevation,ontherigh

thatofGalilee,Samaria,andJudsea,ontheleftthatofIturaea,Bashan,andGilead.Therigh

orwesternhighlandconsistsofamassofundulatinghills,withroundedtops,composedo

coarsegraystone,covered,orscarcelycovered,withascantysoil,butcapableofcultivatio

incorn,olives,and figs.Thisregion ismostproductivetowardsthenorth,barerandmor

arid as we proceed southwards towards the desert. The lowest portion, Judaea,

unpicturesque,ill

watered,

and

almost

treeless;

the

central,

Samaria,

has

numerous

springs

some rich plains, many wooded heights, and in places quite a sylvan appearance; th

highest,Galilee, isa landofwaterbrooks,abounding in timber, fertileandbeautiful.Th

averageheightof thewholedistrict is from1500 to1800 feet above theMediterranean

Mainelevationswithin itvaryfrom2500to4000feet.Theaxisoftherange istowardsth

East,nearer,that is,totheJordanvalleythantothesea. It isapeculiarityofthehighlan

that there isone importantbreak in it.As the LowlandmountainsofScotlandarewholl

separatedfromthemountainsoftheHighlandsbythelowtractwhichstretchesacrossfrom

the

Frith

of

Forth

to

the

Frith

of

Clyde,

or

as

the

ranges

of

St.

Gall

and

Appenzell

are

divideofffromtherestoftheSwissmountainsbytheflatwhichextendsfromtheRhineatEagat

tothesameriveratWaldshut,sothewesternhighlandofPalestineisbrokenintwainbyth

famous"plainofEsdraelon,"whichrunsfromtheBayofAcretotheJordanvalleyatBeth

SheanorScythopolis.

East of the Jordan no such depression occurs, the highland there being continuous.

differsfromthewesternhighlandchieflyinthisthatitssurface,insteadofbeingbrokenu

into a confused mass of rounded hills, is a tableland, consisting of a long succession o

slightlyundulating

plains.

Except

in

Trachonitis

and

southern

Ituraea,

where

the

basaltic

roc

everywherecropsout,thesoilisrichandproductive,thecountryinplaceswoodedwithfin

trees,andtheherbageluxuriant.Onthewestthemountainsrisealmostprecipitouslyfrom

theJordanvalley,abovewhichtheytowertotheheightof3000or4000feet.Theoutlinei

singularlyuniform;andtheeffectisthatofahugewallguardingPalestineonthissidefrom

thewild tribesof thedesert.Eastward the tableland slopes gradually, andmelts into th

sandsofArabia.Herewaterandwoodare scarce;but thesoil is stillgood,andbears th

mostabundantcrops.

Finally,Palestine

contains

the

tract

from

which

it

derives

its

name,

the

low

country

of

th

Philistines,whichthe Jewscalled theShephelah, togetherwithacontinuationof this trac

northwards to the roots of Carmol, the district known to the Jews as "Sharon," or "th

smoothplace."FromCarmoltotheWadySheriah,wherethePhilistinecountryended, is

distanceofaboutonehundredmiles,whichgives the lengthof the region inquestion. It

breadth between the shore and thehighland varies from about twentyfivemiles, in th

south,betweenGazaandthehillsofDan,tothreemiles,orless,inthenorth,betweenDo

andtheborderofManasseh.Itsarea isprobablyfrom1400to1500squaremiles,This low


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BABYLONIA

2

strip isalong itswholecoursedivided intotwoparallelbeltsorbandsthefirstaflatsand

tract along the shore, the Ramleh of the modern Arabs; the second, more undulating,

regionofbroad rollingplains rich incorn,andancientlyclothed inpartwith thickwoods

wateredbyreedystreams,whichflowdownfromthegreathighland.Avaluabletractisth

entireplain,butgreatlyexposedtoravage.Eventhesandybeltwillgrowfruittrees;andth

townswhich standon it,asGaza, Jaffa,andAshdod,are surroundedwithhugegroveso

olives,sycamores,

and

palms,

or

buried

in

orchards

and

gardens,

bright

with

pomegranate

andorangetrees.Themore inland region isofmarvellous fertility. Its soil is a rich loam

containingscarcelyapebble,whichyieldsyearafteryearprodigiouscropsofgrainchiefl

wheatwithoutmanureor irrigation, orother cultivation than a light ploughing. Philisti

wasthegranaryofSyria,andwas importantdoubly,first,asyielding inexhaustiblesupplie

to itsconqueror,andsecondlyasaffordingthereadiestpassagetothegreatarmieswhic

contendedintheseregionsforthemasteryoftheEasternWorld.

SouthoftheregiontowhichwehavegiventhenameofPalestine,interveningbetween

andEgypt,

lay

atract,

to

which

it

is

difficult

to

assign

any

political

designation.

Herodotu

regardeditasaportionofArabia,whichhecarriedacrossthevalleyoftheArabahandmad

abutontheMediterranean.TotheJewsitwas"thelandofthesouth"thespecialcountr

of theAmalekites.ByStrabo's time ithadcome tobeknownas Idumsea,or theEdomit

country;andunderthisappellation itwillperhapsbemostconvenienttodescribe ithere

Idumasa, then,was the tractsouthandsouthwestofPalestine fromabout lat.3110'.

reachedwestwardtothebordersofEgypt,whichwereatthistimemarkedbytheWadye

Arish, southward to the range of Sinai and the Elanitic Gulf, and eastward to the Grea

Desert.Its

chief

town

was

Petra,

in

the

mountains

east

of

the

Arabah

valley.

The

character

o

thetractisforthemostpartahardgravellyandrockydesert;butoccasionallythereisgoo

herbage,andsoilthatadmitsofcultivation;brilliantflowersand luxuriantlygrowingshrub

bedecktheglensandterracesofthePetrarange;andmostofthetractproducesplantsan

bushesonwhichcamels,goats,andevensheepwillbrowse,whileoccasionalpalmgrove

furnishagratefulshadeandan important fruit.The tractdivides itself into four regions

first, a region of sand, low and flat, along the Mediterranean, the Shephelahwithout it

fertility; next, a region of hard gravelly plain intersected by limestone ridges, and raise

considerablyabovethesealevel,theDesertofElTin,orof"theWanderings;"thenthelong

broad,low

valley

of

the

Arabah,

which

rises

gradually

from

the

Dead

Sea

to

an

imperceptibl

watershed,and then fallsgently to theheadof theGulfofAkabah,a regionofhardsan

thickly dotted with bushes, and intersected by numerous torrent courses; finally a lon

narrowregionofmountainsandhillsparallelwiththeArabah,constitutingIdumseaPrope

or theoriginalEdom,which, though rockyand rugged, is fullof fertileglens,ornamente

with trees and shrubs, and inplaces cultivated in terraces. In shape the tractwasa rud

squareoroblong,with its sidesnearly facing the four cardinalpoints, its length from th

MediterraneantotheGulfofAkabahbeing130miles,anditswidthfromtheWadyelAris


13/143

BABYLONIA

to theeasternsideof thePetramountains120miles.Thearea is thusabout1560squar

miles.

Beyond theWadyelArishwasEgypt, stretching from theMediterranean southwards

distanceofnearlyeightdegrees,ormorethan550miles.Asthiscountrywasnot,howeve

somuchapartoftheBabylonianEmpireasadependencylyinguponitsborders,itwillno

benecessary

to

describe

it

in

this

place.

One region, however, remains still unnoticed which seems to have been an integra

portion of the Empire. This is Palmyrene, or the Syrian Desertthe tract lying betwee

CoeloSyria on the one hand and the valley of the middle Euphrates on the other, an

abuttingtowardsthesouthonthegreatArabianDesert,towhich it issometimesregarde

asbelonging.Itisforthemostpartahardsandyorgravellyplain, intersectedbylowrock

ranges,andeitherbarrenorproductiveonlyofsomesaplessshrubsandofalowthingrass

Occasionally,however,thereareoases,wherethe fertility isconsiderable.Suchanoasis i

theregion

about

Palmyra

itself,

which

derived

its

name

from

the

palm

groves

in

the

vicinity

herethesoilisgood,andalargetractisevennowundercultivation.Anotheroasisisthato

Karyatein,which iswateredbyanabundantstream,and iswellwooded,andproductiveo

grain.ThePalmyrene,however,asawholepossessesbut littlevalue,exceptasapassag

country.Thoughlargearmiescanneverhavetraversedthedeserteveninthisupperregion

whereitiscomparativelynarrow,tradeinancienttimesfounditexpedienttoavoidthelon

detourbytheOrontesValley,Aleppo,andBambuk,andtoproceeddirectlyfromDamascu

by way of Palymra to Thapsaeus on the Euphrates. Small bands of light troops als

occasionally took thesamecourse;and thegreatsavingofdistance thuseffectedmade

importantto

the

Babylonians

to

possess

an

authority

over

the

region

in

question.

Such, then, in itsgeographicalextent,was thegreatBabylonianEmpire.Reaching from

LuristanontheonesidetothebordersofEgyptontheother,itsdirectlengthfromeastt

west was nearly sixteen degrees, or about 980 miles, while its length for all practica

purposes, owing to the interposition of the desert between its western and its easter

provinces,wasperhapsnotlessthan1400miles.Itswidthwasverydisproportionatetothis

BetweenZagrosandtheArabianDesert,wherethewidthwasthegreatest, itamountedt

about280miles;betweenAmanusandPalmyra itwas250;betweentheMonsMasiusan

themiddle

Euphrates

it

may

have

been

200;

in

Syria

and

Idumsea

it

cannot

have

been

mor

than 100 or 160. The entire area of the Empire was probably from 240,000 to 250,00

squaremileswhichisaboutthepresentsizeofAustria.Itsshapemaybecomparedroughl

toagnomon,withonelongerandoneshorterarm.

It added to the inconvenience of this long straggling form, which made a rapi

concentrationoftheforcesoftheEmpireimpossible,thatthecapital,insteadofoccupying

centralposition,wasplacedsomewhatlowinthelongerofthetwoarmsofthegnomon,an


14/143

BABYLONIA

4

wasthusnearly1000milesremovedfromthefrontierprovinceofthewest.Thoughindirec

distance,asthecrowflies,Babylonisnotmorethan450milesfromDamascus,ormoretha

520 from Jerusalem, yet thenecessarydetourbyAleppo is sogreat that it lengthens th

distance,intheonecaseby250,intheotherby380miles.Fromsoremoteacentreitwa

impossibleforthelifebloodtocirculateveryvigorouslytotheextremities.

TheEmpire

was

on

the

whole

fertile

and

well

watered.

The

two

great

streams

of

Wester

AsiatheTigrisand theEuphrateswhichaffordedanabundant supplyof the invaluabl

fluid to themost importantof theprovinces, thoseof the southeast,have alreadybee

describedat length;ashavealsothechiefstreamsoftheMesopotamiandistrict,theBeli

and the Khabour. But as yet in this work no account has been given of a number o

importantriversintheextremeeastandtheextremewest,onwhichthefertility,andsoth

prosperity,oftheEmpireverygreatlydepended.Itisproposedinthepresentplacetosuppl

thisdeficiency.

Theprinciple

rivers

of

the

extreme

east

were

the

Choaspes,

or

modern

Kerkhah,

th

PasitigrisorEulseus,now theKuran, theHedyphonorHedypnus,now the Jerahi,and th

Oroatis, atpresent theTaborHindyan.Of these, theOroatis,which is themosteastern

belongsperhapsmoretoPersiathantoBabylon;butitslowercourseprobablyfellwithinth

Susianian territory. It rises in themountainsbetweenShirazandPersepolis,about lat.29

45',long.5235'E.;andflowstowardsthePersianGulfwithacoursewhichisnorthwestt

Failiyun, then nearly W. to Zehitun, after which it becomes somewhat south of west t

Hindyan,andthenS.W.byS.tothesea.The lengthofthestream,withoutcounting lesse

windings, is200miles; itswidthatHindyan,sixteenmilesabove itsmouth, iseightyyards

andto

this

distance

it

is

navigable

for

boats

of

twenty

tons

burthen.

At

first

its

waters

ar

pureandsweet,buttheygraduallybecomecorrupted,andatHindyantheyaresobrackis

asnottobefitforuse.TheJerahirisesfromseveralsourcesintheKuhMargun,aloftyan

precipitous range, forming thecontinuationof thechainofZagros.about long.50to51

andlat.3130'.TheseheadstreamshaveageneraldirectionfromN.E.toS.W.Theprincipa

ofthemistheKurdistanriver,whichrisesaboutfiftymilestothenortheastofBabahanan

flowingsouthwesttothatpoint,thenbendsroundtothenorth,andrunsnorthwestnearl

to the fort of Mungasht, where it resumes its original direction, and receiving from th

northeast

the

Abi

Zard,

or

"Yellow

River"a

delightful

stream

of

the

coldest

and

pures

waterpossiblebecomesknownas the Jerahi,andcarriesa largebodyofwateras fara

FellahiyehorDorak.NearDorak thewatersof the Jerahiaredrawnoff into anumbero

canals, and the river is thus greatly diminished; but still the stream struggles on, an

proceedsbyasoutherlycoursetowardsthePersianGulf,which itentersnearGadiin long

4852'.ThecourseoftheJerahi,exclusivelyofthesmallerwindings,isaboutequalinlengt

tothatoftheTaborHindyan.Involume,beforeitsdispersion,itisconsiderablygreatertha

that river. It has a breadth of about a hundred yards before it reaches Babahan, and


15/143

BABYLONIA

navigable forboatsalmost from itsjunctionwiththeAbiZard. Itssize is,however,greatl

reduced in its lowercourse,andtravellerswhoskirtthecoastregardtheTabasthemor

importantriver.

TheKuranisariververymuchexceedinginsizeboththeTabandtheJerahi.Itisforme

by thejunction of two large streamsthe Dizful river and the Kuran proper, or river o

Shuster.Of

these

the

Shuster

stream

is

the

more

eastern.

It

rises

in

the

Zarduh

Kuh,

o

"YellowMountain,"inlat.32,long.51,almostoppositetotheriverIsfahan.Fromitssourc

itisalargestream.Itsdirectionisatfirsttothesoutheast,butafterawhileitsweepsroun

and runs considerably north of west; and this course it pursues through the mountains

receiving tributariesof importance fromboth sides, till,nearAkhili, it turns round to th

south,and,cuttingatarightangletheoutermostoftheZagrosranges,flowsdownwith

courseS.W.byS.nearlytoSinister,where,inconsequenceofabundordamthrownacros

it,itbifurcates,andpassesintwostreamstotherightandtotheleftofthetown.Therigh

branch, which earned commonly about two thirds of the water, proceeds by a tortuou

courseof

nearly

forty

miles,

in

adirection

avery

little

west

of

south,

to

its

junction

with

th

Dizfulstream,whichtakesplaceabouttwomilesnorthofthe littletownofBandikir.Jus

below that town the left branch, called at present AbiGargar, which has made

considerablebendtotheeast,rejoinsthemainstream,whichthenceforthflowsinasingl

channel. The course of the Kuran from its source to itsjunction with the Dizful branch

including main windings, is about 210 miles. The Dizful. branch rises from two sources

nearlyadegreeapart, in lat.3330'.Thesestreamsrunrespectivelysoutheastandsouth

west,adistanceof fortymiles, to theirjunctionnearBahrein,whence theirunitedwater

flowin

atortuous

course,

with

ageneral

direction

of

south,

for

above

ahundred

miles

to

th

outer barrier of Zagros, which they penetrate near the Diz fort, through a succession o

chasmsandgorges.Thecourseofthestreamfromthispointissouthwestthroughthehil

andacrosstheplain,pastDizful,totheplacewhereitreceivestheBeladrudfromthewest

whenitchangesandbecomesfirstsouthandthensoutheasttoitsjunctionwiththeShuste

rivernearBandikir.TheentirecourseoftheDizfulstreamtothispointisprobablynotles

than380miles.BelowBandikir,theKuran,nowbecome"anobleriver,exceedinginsizeth

TigrisandEuphrates,"meandersacrosstheplain inageneraldirectionofS.S.W.,pastth

townsofUris,Ahwaz,and Ismaili, toSablah,when it turnsmore to thewest,andpassin

Mohammerah,empties

itself

into

the

Shat

el

Arab,

about

22

miles

below

Busra.

The

entir

courseoftheKuranfromitsmostremotesource,exclusiveofthelesserwindings,isnotles

than430miles.

The Kerkhah (anciently the Choaspes) is formed by three streams of almost equa

magnitude,allofthemrisinginthemosteasternportionoftheZagrosrange.Thecentralo

thethree flows from thesouthern flankofMountElwand (Orontes), themountainbehin

Hamadan (Ecbatana), and receives on the right, after a course of about thirtymiles, th


16/143

BABYLONIA

6

northernorSingurbranch,andtenmilesfurtheronthesouthernorGuranbranch,which

knownby thenameof theGamasab.The river thus formed flowswestward toBehistun

afterwhichitbondstothesouthwest,andthentothesouth,receivingtributariesonbot

hands,andwindingamongthemountainsasfarastheruinedcityofRudbar.Hereitburst

throughtheouterbarrierofthegreatrange,and,receivingthe largestreamoftheKirrin

from thenorthwest, flowsS.S.E.andS.E.along the footof the range,between itand th

KebirKuh,

till

it

meets

the

stream

of

the

Abi

Zal,

when

it

finally

leaves

the

hills

and

flow

throughtheplain,pursuingaS.S.E.directiontotheruinsofSusa,whichlieuponitsleftbank

andthenturningtotheS.S.W.,andrunning inthatdirectiontotheShatelArab,which

reachesaboutfivemilesbelowKurnur.Itslengthisestimatedatabove500miles;itswidth

atsomedistanceaboveitsjunctionwiththeAbiZal,isfromeightytoahundredyards.

ThecourseoftheKerkhahwasnotalwaysexactlysuchas isheredescribed.Anciently

appearstohavebifurcatedatPaiPul,18or20milesN.W.ofSusa,andtohavesentabranc

eastoftheSusaruins,whichabsorbedtheShapur,asmalltributaryoftheDizfulstream,an

raninto

the

Kuran

alittle

above

Ahwaz.

The

remains

of

the

old

channel

are

still

to

be

traced

and itsexistenceexplainstheconfusion,observable inancienttimes,betweentheKerkha

andtheKuran,toeachofwhichstreams,incertainpartsoftheircourse,wefindthenam

Eulseusapplied.TheproperEulseuswastheeasternbranchoftheKerkhah(Choaspes)from

PaiPul toAhwaz;but thenamewasnaturallyextendedbothnorthwards to theChoaspe

abovePaiPulandsouthwardstotheKuranbelowAhwaz.The latterstreamwas,howeve

knownalso,bothinitsupperanditslowercourse,asthePasitigris.

On theopposite sideof theEmpire the riverswere less considerable.Among themos

importantmay

be

mentioned

the

Sajur,

atributary

of

the

Euphrates,

the

Koweik,

or

river

o

Aleppo,theOrontes,orriverofAntioch,theLitany,orriverofTyre,theBarada,orrivero

Damascus,andtheJordan,withitstributaries,theJabbokandtheHieromax.

TheSajurrisesfromtwoprinciplesourcesonthesouthernflanksofAmanus,which,afte

runningashortdistance,unitealittletotheeastofAinTab.Thecourseofthestreamfrom

thepointofjunctionissoutheast.Inthisdirectionitflowsinasomewhattortuouschanne

between two rangesofhills for adistanceof about 30miles to TelKhalid, a remarkabl

conicalhillcrownedbyruins.HereitreceivesanimportantaffluenttheKeraskatfromth

west,and

becomes

suitable

for

boat

navigation.

At

the

same

time

its

course

changes,

an

runseastward forabout12miles;afterwhich thestreamagain inclines to thesouth,an

keepinganE.S.E.directionfor14or15miles,enterstheEuphratesbyfivemouthsinabou

lat.3637'.Thecourseoftherivermeasuresprobablyabout65miles.

TheKoweik,orriverofAleppo(theChalusofXenophon),risesinthehillssouthofAinTab

Springingfromtwosources,oneofwhichisknownastheBalokluSu,or"FishRiver,"itflow

at first eastward, as if intending tojoin the Euphrates. On reaching the plain of Aleppo


17/143

BABYLONIA

however,nearSayyadokKoi, itreceivesatributaryfromthenorth,whichgives itscourse

southerninclination;andfromthispointitproceedsinasouthandsouthwesterlydirection

windingalong the shallowbedwhich ithas scooped in theAloppoplain,adistanceof6

miles,pastAleppo toKinnisrin,near the footof the JebelelSis.Here its furtherprogres

southward isbarred, and it is forced to turn to theeast along the footof themountain

which itskirtsforeightortenmiles,finallyenteringthesmall lakeormarshofElMelak, i

whichit

loses

itself

after

asource

of

about

80

miles.

TheOrontes,thegreatriverofAssyria,risesintheBuka'athedeepvalleyknowntoth

ancientsasCoeleSyriaProperspringingfromanumberofsmallbrooks,whichflowdow

from theAntilibanus rangebetween lat.345'and lat.3412'. Itsmost remotesource i

nearYunin,aboutsevenmitesN.N.E.ofBaalbek.ThestreamflowsatfirstN.W.byW. int

theplain,onreachingwhichitturnsatarightangletothenortheast,andskirtsthefooto

theAntilibanus range as far as Lebweh,where,beingjoinedby a larger stream from th

southeast,130ittakesitsdirectionandflowsN.W.andthenN.acrosstheplaintothefooto

Lebanon.Here

it

receives

the

waters

of

amuch

more

abundant

fountain,

which

wells

ou

from the roots of that range, and is regarded by the Orientals as the true "head of th

stream."Thusincreasedtheriverflowsnorthwardsforashortspace,afterwhichitturnst

thenortheast,andrunsinadeepcleftalongthebaseofLebanon,pursuingthisdirectionfo

15or16milestoapointbeyondRibleh,nearly in lat.3430'.Herethecourseoftherive

againchanges,becomingslightlywestofnorthtotheLakeofHems(BuheiretHems),whic

is nine or ten miles below Ribleh. Issuing from the Lake of Hems about lat. 34 43', th

Orontesoncemoreflowstothenortheast,andinfiveorsixmilesreachesHemsitself,whic

itleaves

on

its

right

bank.

It

then

flows

for

twenty

miles

nearly

due

north,

after

which,

o

approaching Hama (Hamath), it makes a slight bend to the east round the foot of Jebe

Erbayn,andthenenteringtherichpasturecountryofElGhab'runsnorthwestandnortht

the"IronBridge"(JisrHadid),inlat.3611'.Itscoursethusfarhasbeennearlyparallelwit

thecoastoftheMediterranean,andhas lainbetweentworangesofmountains,themor

westernofwhichhasshutitoutfromthesea.AtJisrHadidthewesternmountainscomet

anend,and theOrontes, sweeping round theirbase, runs firstwestand then southwes

down the broad valleyofAntioch, in themidstof themost lovely scenery, to the coas

whichitreachesalittleabovethe36thparallel,inlong.3555'.ThecourseoftheOrontes

exclusiveof

lesser

windings,

is

about

200

miles.

It

is

aconsiderable

stream

almost

from

it

source.AtHamah,morethanahundredmiles from itsmouth, it iscrossedbyabridgeo

thirteenarches.AtAntiochitisfiftyyardsinwidth,andrunsrapidly.Thenativesnowcall

theNahrelAsy,or"RebelRiver,"eitherfromitsrunninginanoppositedirectiontoallothe

streamsofthecountry,or(moreprobably)fromitsviolenceandimpetuosity.

There isonetributaryoftheOronteswhichdeservesacursorymention.This istheKar

Su,or "BlackRiver,"which reaches it from theAgaDenghis,orBahrelAbiyad,about fiv


18/143

BABYLONIA

8

milesbelow JisrHadidand fourorfiveaboveAntioch.Thisstreambrings intotheOronte

thegreaterpartofthewaterthatisdrainedfromthesouthernsideofAmanus.Itisforme

byaunionoftworivers,theupperKaraSuandtheAfrin,whichflow intotheAgaDengh

(WhiteSea),orLakeofAntioch,fromthenorthwest,theoneenteringitatitsnorthern,th

otherat itseasternextremity.Both are considerable streams;and theKaraSuon issuin

fromthelakecarriesagreaterbodyofwaterthantheOrontesitself,andthusaddslargelyt

thevolume

of

that

stream

in

its

lower

course

from

the

point

of

junction

to

th

Mediterranean.

TheLitany,orriverofTyre,risesfromasourceatnogreatdistancefromtheheadspring

oftheOrontes.ThealmostimperceptiblewatershedoftheBuka'arunsbetweenYuninan

Baalbek,a fewmilesnorthof the latter;andwhen it isoncepassed, thedrainageof th

waterissouthwards.Thehighestpermanentfountainofthesouthernstreamseemstobe

small lakenear TelHushben,which lies about sixmiles to the southwestof theBaalbe

ruins.SpringingfromthissourcetheLitanyflowsalongthelowerBuka'ainadirectionwhic

isgenerally

alittle

west

of

south,

receiving

on

either

side

anumber

of

streamlets

and

ril

from Libanus and Antilibanus, and giving out in its turn numerous canals for irrigation

whichfertilizethethirstysoil.Asthestreamdescendswithnumerouswindings,butstillwit

the same general course, the valley of the Buka'a contractsmore andmore, till finally

terminatesinagorge,downwhichthunderstheLitanyagorgeathousandfeetormorei

depth,andsonarrowthat inoneplace it isactuallybridgedoverbymassesofrockwhic

have fallen from thejagged sides. Narrower and deeper grows the gorge, and the rive

chafesand foams through it,graduallyworking itself round to thewest,andsoclearing

waythrough

the

very

roots

of

Lebanon

to

the

low

coast

tract,

across

which

it

meander

slowly,as ifweariedwith its long struggle,before finallyemptying itself into the sea.Th

courseoftheLitanymayberoughlyestimatedatfrom70to75miles.

TheBarada,or riverofDamascus, rises in theplainofZebdanytheverycentreof th

Antilibanus.Ithasitsrealpermanentsourceinasmallnamelesslakeinthelowerpartofth

plain,about lat.3341';but inwinter it is fedby streams flowing from thevalleyabove

especiallybyonewhichrisesinlat.3346',nearthesmallhamletofAinHawar.Thecours

oftheBaradafromthesmalllakeisatfirsttowardstheeast;butitsoonsweepsroundan

flowssouthward

for

about

four

miles

to

the

lower

end

of

the

plain,

after

which

it

again

turn

totheeastandentersaromanticglen,runningbetweenhighcliffs,andcuttingthroughth

mainridgeoftheAntilibanusbetweentheZebdanyplainandSuk,theAbilaoftheancients

FromSuktheriverflowsthroughanarrowbutlovelyvalley,inacoursewhichhasagenera

directionof southeast,pastAin Fijoh (where itswaters are greatly increased), through

seriesofgorgesandglens,tothepointwheretherootsoftheAntilibanussinkdownupo

theplain,whenitburstsforthfromthemountainsandscatters.Channelsaredrawnfrom


19/143

BABYLONIA

oneitherside,anditswatersarespreadfarandwideovertheMerj,whichitcoverswithfin

treesandsplendidherbage.

Onebranchpassesrightthroughthecity,cuttingitinhalf.Othersirrigatethegardensan

orchardsbothtothenorthandtothesouth.Beyondthetownthetendencytodivisionsti

continues. The river, weakened greatly through the irrigation, separates into three mai

channels,which

flow

with

divergent

courses

towards

the

east,

and

terminate

in

two

larg

swamps or lakes, the BahreteshShurkiyeh and the BahretelKibliyeh, at a distance o

sixteenorseventeenmilesfromthecity.TheBaradaisashortstream,itsentirecoursefrom

theplainofZebdanynotmuchexceedingfortymiles.

The Jordan is commonly regarded as flowing from two sources in the Huleh or plai

immediately above LakeMerom, one at Banias (the ancient Paneas), theother at Tele

Kady,whichmarksthesiteofLaishorDan.Butthetruehighestpresentsourceoftheriver

the springnearHasbeiya, calledNebaesHasbany,orEasenNeba.This spring rises in th

torrentcourse

known

as

the

Wady

el

Teim,

which

descends

from

the

north

western

flank

o

Hermon,andrunsnearlyparallelwiththegreatgorgeoftheLitany,havingadirectionfrom

northeast to southwest.Thewaterwells forth inabundance from the footofa volcani

bluff,calledEaselAnjah,lyingdirectlynorthofHasbeiya,andisimmediatelyusedtoturn

mill.ThecourseofthestreamletisveryslightlywestofsouthdowntheWadytotheHule

plain,where it isjoined,andmultiplied sevenfold,by thestreams fromBanaisandTele

Kady,becomingatonceworthyofthenameofriver.Henceitrunsalmostduesouthtoth

Merom lake, which it enters in lat. 33 7', through a reedy and marshy tract which it

difficulttopenetrate. IssuingfromMerom in lat.333',theJordanflowsat firstsluggishl

southwardto

"Jacob's

Bridge,"

passing

which,

it

proceeds

in

the

same

direction,

with

amuc

swifter current down the depressed and narrow cleft between Merom and Tiberias

descending at the rate of fifty feet in amile, and becoming (as has been said) a sort o

"continuouswaterfall."BeforereachingTiberiasitscoursebendsslightlytothewestofsout

forabouttwomiles,anditpoursitselfintothat"sea"inaboutlat.3253'.Quittingtheseai

lat.3242', it finallyenters the trackcalled theGhor, thestill lowerchasmorcleftwhic

intervenesbetweenTiberiasand theupperendof theDeadSea.Here thedescentof th

streambecomescomparativelygentle,notmuchexceedingthreefeetpermile;forthoug

thedirect

distance

between

the

two

lakes

is

less

than

seventy

miles,

and

the

entire

fa

above600feet,whichwouldseemtogiveadescentofnineortenfeetamile,yet,asth

courseof the river throughout thispartof itscareer is tortuous in theextreme, the fall

reallynotgreater thanabove indicated.Still it issufficient toproduceasmanyas twenty

sevenrapids,orattherateofonetoeverysevenmiles.InthispartofitscoursetheJorda

receivestwoimportanttributaries,eachofwhichseemstodeserveafewwords.

The Jarmuk,orSheriatelMandhur,anciently theHieromax,drains thewater,notonl

from Gaulonitis or Jaulan, the country immediately east and southeast of the sea o


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BABYLONIA

0

Tiberias,butalsofromalmostthewholeoftheHauran.Atitsmouthitis130feetwide,an

inthewinter itbringsdownagreatbodyofwater intotheJordan. Insummer,however,

shrinksupintoaninconsiderablebrook,havingnomoreremotesourcesthantheperennia

springs at Mazarib, Dilly, and one or two other places on the plateau of Jaulan. It run

throughafertilecountry,andhasgenerallyadeepcoursefarbelowthesurfaceoftheplain

erefalling intothe Jordan itmakes itswaythroughawildravine,betweenruggedcliffso

basalt,which

are

in

places

upwards

of

ahundred

feet

in

height.

TheZurka,orJabbok,isastreamofthesamecharacterwiththeHieromax,butofinferio

dimensionsandimportance.ItdrainsaconsiderableportionofthelandofGilead,buthasn

very remote sources, and in summeronly carrieswater through a fewmiles of its lowe

course. In winter, on the contrary, it is a roaring stream with a strong current, an

sometimescannotbeforded.Theravinethroughwhichitflowsisnarrow,deep,andinsom

placeswild.Throughoutnearlyitswholecourseitisfringedbythicketsofcaneandoleande

whileabove,itsbanksareclothedwithforestsofoak.

TheJordanreceivestheHieromaxaboutfourorfivemilesbelowthepointwhereitissue

from theSeaofTiberias,and the Jabbokabouthalfwaybetween that lakeand theDea

Sea.Augmentedby these streams,andothersof less importance from themountainso

eitherside, itbecomesa riverofconsiderablesize,beingoppositeBethshan (Beisan)14

feetwide,andthreefeetdeep,andaveraging, in its lowercourse,awidthofninetywith

depthofeightorninefeet. Itsentirecourse,fromthefountainnearHasbeiyatotheDea

Sea, including the passage of the two lakes through which it flows, is, if we exclud

meanders,about130, ifwe includethem,360miles. It iscalculatedtopour intotheDea

Sea6,090,000

tons

of

water

daily.

BesidestheseriverstheBabylonianterritorycomprisedanumberof important lakes.O

these someof themore easternhavebeendescribed in a former volume: as theBahr

Nedjif inLowerChaldsea,andtheLakeofKhatouniyeh inthetractbetweentheSinjaran

theKhabour.Itwaschiefly,however,towardsthewestthatsheetsofwaterabounded:th

principaloftheseweretheSabakhah,theBahrelMelak,andtheLakeofAntioch inUppe

Syria;theBahrelKades,orLakeofHems,inthecentralregion;andtheDamascuslakes,th

LakeofMerom,theSeaofGalileeorTiberias,andtheDeadSea,intheregionslyingfurthes

tothe

south.

Of

these

the

greater

number

were

salt,

and

of

little

value,

except

as

furnishin

thesaltofcommerce;but fourtheLakeofAntioch, theBahrelKades, theLakeMerom

andtheSeaofGalileewerefreshwaterbasinslyinguponthecoursesofstreamswhichra

through them;and thesenotonlydiversified the sceneryby theirclearbrightaspect,bu

wereofconsiderablevaluetotheinhabitants,asfurnishingthemwithmanyexcellentsort

offish.


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BABYLONIA

Ofthesalt lakesthemosteasternwastheSabakhah.This isabasinof longandnarrow

form,lyingonandjustbelowthe36thparallel.ItissituatedonthesouthernroutefromBal

toAleppo,andisnearlyequallydistantbetweenthetwoplaces.Itslengthisfromtwelvet

thirteenmiles;and itswidth,where it isbroadest, isabout fivemiles. It receives fromth

north the waters of the NahrelDhahab, or "Golden River" (which has by some bee

identified with the Daradax of Xenophon), and from the west two or three insignifican

streams,which

empty

themselves

into

its

western

extremity.

The

lake

produces

alarg

quantityofsalt,especiallyafterwetseasons,which iscollectedandsoldbythe inhabitant

ofthesurroundingcountry.

The BahrelMolak, the lakewhich absorbs the Koweik, or river ofAleppo, is less tha

twenty miles distant from Lake Sabakhah, which it very much resembles in its genera

character.Itsordinarylengthisaboutninemiles,anditswidththreeorfour;butinwinter

is greatly swollen by the rains, and at that time it spreads out so widely that it

circumference sometimes exceeds fiftymiles.Much salt isdrawn from itsbed in the dr

season,and

alarge

part

of

Syria

is

hence

supplied

with

the

commodity.

The

lake

is

covere

withsmallislands,andgreatlyfrequentedbyaquaticbirdsgeese,ducks,flamingoes,andth

like.

The lakes in theneighborhoodofDamascus are three innumber,andareallofa ver

similartype.Theyareindeterminateinsizeandshape,changingwiththewetnessordrynes

of the season;and it ispossible that sometimes theymaybeallunited inone.Themos

northern,whichiscalledtheBahreteshShurkiyeh,receivesabouthalfthesurpluswatero

theBarada,togetherwithsomestreamletsfromtheoutlyingrangesofAntilibanustoward

thenorth.

The

central

one,

called

the

Bahret

el

Kibliyeh,

receives

the

rest

of

the

Barad

water,whichentersitbythreeorfourbranchesonitsnorthernandwesternsides.Themos

southern,knownasBahretHijaneh,isthereceptacleforthestreamoftheAwaaj,andtake

alsothewaterfromthenorthernpartsoftheLedjah,orregionofArgob.Thethreelakesar

inthesamelinealinewhichrunsfromN.N.E.toS.S.W.Theyare,oratleastwererecently

separatedby tractsofdry land from two to fourmilesbroad.Dense thicketsof tall reed

surroundthem,andinsummeralmostcovertheirsurface.LiketheBahrelMelak,theyare

homeforwaterfowl,whichflocktotheminenormousnumbers.

Byfar

the

largest

and

most

important

of

the

salt

lakes

is

the

Great

Lake

of

the

Southth

Bahr Lut ("Seaof Lot"),orDeadSea.This sheetofwater,whichhasalwaysattracted th

specialnoticeandobservationoftravellers,hasoflateyearsbeenscientificallysurveyedb

officersoftheAmericannavy;anditsshape,itssize,andevenitsdepth,arethusknownwit

accuracy.TheDeadSeaisofanoblongform,andwouldbeofaveryregularcontour,were

not fora remarkableprojection from itseasternshorenear itssouthernextremity. In th

place,a longand lowpeninsula,shaped likeahumanfoot,projects intothe lake,fillingu

twothirdsofitswidth,andthusdividingtheexpanseofwaterintotwoportions,whichar


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BABYLONIA

2

connectedbyalongandsomewhatnarrowpassage.Theentirelengthofthesea,fromnort

tosouth, is46miles: itsgreatestwidth,between itseasternand itswesternshores, is10

miles. The whole area is estimated at 250 geographical square miles. Of this space 17

squaremilesbelongtothenorthernportionofthe lake (thetrue"Sea"),29tothenarrow

channel,and46 to thesouthernportion,whichhasbeencalled"thebackwater,"or"th

lagoon."

Themostremarkabledifferencebetweenthetwoportionsofthelakeisthecontrastthe

presentas todepth.While thedepthof thenorthernportion is from600 feet,ata shor

distance from themouth of the Jordan, to 800, 1000, 1200, and even 1300 feet, furthe

down, thedepthof the lagoon isnowheremore than12or13 feet;and inplaces it iss

shallowthatithasbeenfoundpossible,insomeseasons,tofordthewholewayacrossfrom

onesidetotheother.ThepeculiaritiesoftheDeadSea,ascomparedwithotherlakes,areit

depressionbelow the sealevel, itsbuoyancy,and itsextreme saltness.Thedegreeof th

depression isnot yet certainly known;but there is reason tobelieve that it isat least a

muchat

1300

feet,

whereas

no

other

lake

is

known

to

be

depressed

more

than

570

feet.

Th

buoyancyandthesaltnessarenotsowhollyunparalleled.ThewatersofLakeUrumiyehar

probablyassaltandasbuoyant;thoseofLakeEltoninthesteppeeastoftheWolga,ando

certainotherRussianlakes,appeartobeevensalter.Butwiththesefewexceptions(ifthe

are exceptions), theDead Seawatermust be pronounced to be the heaviest and saltes

waterknowntous.Morethanonefourthofitsweightissolidmatterheldinsolution.Ofth

solid matter nearly one third is common salt, which is more than twice as much as i

containedinthewatersoftheocean.

Ofthe

fresh

water

lakes

the

largest

and

most

important

is

the

Sea

of

Tiberias.

This

shee

ofwaterisofanovalshape,withanaxis,likethatoftheDeadSea,verynearlyduenorthan

south.Itsgreatestlengthisaboutthirteenanditsgreatestwidthaboutsixmiles.Itsextrem

depth,sofarashasbeenascertained, is27fathoms,or165feet.TheJordanflows into it

upperendturbidandmuddy,andissuesforthatitssouthernextremityclearandpellucid.

receivesalso thewatersofa considerablenumberof small streamsand springs, someo

whicharewarmandbrackish;yetitsownwaterisalwayssweet,cool,andtransparent,and

havingeverywhereashelvingpebblybeach,hasabrightsparklingappearance.Thebank

arelofty,

and

in

general

destitute

of

verdure.

What

exactly

is

the

amount

of

depressio

below the level of the Mediterranean remains still, to some extent, uncertain; but it i

probablynotmuchlessthan700feet.Now,asformerly,thelakeproducesanabundanceo

fish,whicharepronounced,bythosewhohavepartakenofthem,tobe"delicious."

NinemilesabovetheSeaofTiberias,onthecourseofthesamestream,isthefarsmalle

basinknownnowastheBahrelHuleh,andanciently(perhaps)asMerom.Thisisamountai

tarn,varyinginsizeastheseasoniswetordry,butneverapparentlymorethanaboutseve

mileslong,byfiveorsixbroad.ItissituatedatthelowerextremityoftheplaincalledHuleh


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BABYLONIA

and isalmostentirelysurroundedbyflatmarshyground, thicklysetwithreedsandcanes

whichmakethelakeitselfalmostunapproachable.ThedepthoftheHulehisnotknown.Iti

afavoriteresortofaquaticbirds,andissaidtocontainanabundantsupplyoffish.

TheBahrelKades,orLakeofHems, lieson thecourseof theOrontes,about139mile

N.N.E.ofMerom,andnearly thesamedistancesouthof theLakeofAntioch. It isasma

sheetof

water,

not

more

than

six

or

eight

miles

long,

and

only

two

or

three

wide,

running

i

thesamedirectionwiththecourseoftheriver,whichhereturnsfromnorthtonortheast

AccordingtoAbulfedaandsomeotherwriters,itismainly,ifnotwholly,artificial,owingit

origintoadamorembankmentacrossthestream,whichisfromfourtofivehundredyard

inlength,andabouttwelveorfourteenfeethigh.InAbulfeda'stimetheconstructionofth

embankment was ascribed to Alexander the Great, and the lake consequently was no

regardedashavinghadanyexistenceinBabyloniantimes;buttraditionsofthiskindarelittl

to be trusted, and it is quite possible that the work above mentioned, constructe

apparentlywithaviewtoirrigation,mayreallybelongtoaverymuchearlierage.

Finally, in Northern Syria, 115 miles north of the BahrelKades, and about 60 mile

N.W.W.oftheBahrelMelak, istheBahrelAbyad(WhiteLake),orSeaofAntioch.[PLATE

VIII., Fig.1.]This sheetofwater isaparallelogram, the anglesofwhich face the cardina

points: in itsgreaterdiameter itextendssomewhatmore than tenmiles,while it isabou

sevenmilesacross.Itsdepthonthewesternside,whereitapproachesthemountains,issi

oreightfeet;butelsewhereitisgenerallymoreshallow,notexceedingthreeorfourfeet.

liesinamarshyplaincalledElUmk,andisthicklyfringedwithreedsroundthewholeofit

circumference.Fromthesilenceofantiquity,somewritershaveimaginedthatitdidnotexis

inancient

times;

but

the

observations

of

scientific

travellers

are

opposed

to

this

theory.

Th

lakeaboundswithfishofseveralkinds,andthefisheryattractsandemploysaconsiderabl

numberofthenativeswhodwellnearit.


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BABYLONIA

4


25/143

BABYLONIA

Besides these lakes, therewere containedwithin the limitsof theEmpire anumbero

pettytarns,whichdonotmeritparticulardescription.SuchweretheBahrelTaka,andothe

smalllakesontherightbankofthemiddleOrontes,theBirketelLimumintheLebanon,an

theBirketerEamon thesouthern flankofHermon. It isunnecessary,however, topursu

thissubjectany further.Buta fewwordsmustbeaddedonthechiefcitiesoftheEmpire

beforethischapterisbroughttoaconclusion.

ThecitiesoftheEmpiremaybedividedintothoseofthedominantcountryandthoseo

theprovinces.Thoseof thedominant countrywere, for themostpart, identicalwith th

townsalreadydescribedasbelongingtotheancientChaldaea,BesidesBabylonitself,ther

flourished in theBabylonianperiod thecitiesofBorsippa,Duraba,SipparaorSepharvaim

Opis,Psittace,Cutha,OrchoeorErech,andDiridotisorTeredon.Thesitesofmostofthos

havebeendescribedinthefirstvolume;butitremainstostatebrieflythepositionsofsom

fewwhichwereeithernewcreationsorcomparativelyundistinguishedintheearliertimes.

Opis,atown

of

sufficient

magnitude

to

attract

the

attention

of

Herodotus,

was

situate

ontheleftoreastbankoftheTigris,nearthepointwheretheDiyalehorGyndesjoinedth

mainriver. ItspositionwassouthoftheGyndesembouchure,and itmightbereckoneda

lyinguponeither river.The truenameof theplacethatwhich itbears in thecuneiform

inscriptionswas Hupiya; and its site is probably marked by the ruins at Khafaji, nea

Baghdad, which place is thought to retain, in a corrupted form, the original appellation

PsittaceorSitace,thetownwhichgavenametotheprovinceofSittacene,was inthenea

neighborhoodofOpis,lyingonthesamesideoftheTigris,butlowerdown,atleastaslowa

themodernfortoftheZobeidchief.Itsexactsitehasnotbeenasyetdiscovered.Teredon

orDiriaotis,

appears

to

have

been

first

founded

by

Nebuchadnezzar.

It

lay

on

the

coast

of

th

PersianGulf, a littlewest of themouth of the Euphrates, and protected by a quay, or

breakwater,fromthehightidesthatrolledinfromtheIndianOcean.Thereisgreatdifficult

inidentifyingitssite,owingtotheextremeuncertaintyastotheexactpositionofthecoast

line,andthecourseoftheriver,inthetimeofNebuchadnezzar.Probablyitshouldbesough

aboutZobair,ora little further inland..ThechiefprovincialcitieswereSusaandBadaca i

Susiana; Anat, Sirki, and Carchemish, on the Middle Euphrates; Sidikan on the Khabou

HarranontheBilik;Hamath,Damascus,andJerusalem, inInnerSyria;Tyre,Sidon,Ashdod

Ascalon,and

Gaza,

upon

the

coast.

Of

these,

Susa

was

undoubtedly

the

most

importan

indeed,itdeservestoberegardedasthesecondcityoftheEmpire.Here,betweenthetw

armsoftheChoaspes,onanobleandwellwateredplain,backedatthedistanceoftwenty

fivemilesbya loftymountain range, the freshbreezes fromwhich tempered thesumme

heats,wastheancientpalaceoftheKissiankings,proudlyplacedupona loftyplatformo

mound,andcommandingawideprospectoftherichpasturesat itsbase,whichextende

northwards to the rootsof thehills, and ineveryotherdirection as far as the eye coul

reach.Clusteredatthefootofthepalacemound,moreespeciallyonitseasternside,layth


26/143

BABYLONIA

6

ancienttown,thefoundationofthetraditionalMemnonwholedanarmytothedefenceo

Troy.ThepureandsparklingwateroftheChoaspesadrinkfitforkingsflowednear,whil

aroundgrewpalms,konars,andlemontrees,theplainbeyondwavingwithgreengrassan

golden corn. It may be suspected that the Babylonian kings, who certainly maintained

palaceatthisplace,andsenthighofficersoftheircourtto"dotheirbusiness"there,made

theiroccasionalresidence,exchanging,insummerandearlyautumn,theheatsandswamp

ofBabylon

for

the

comparatively

dry

and

cool

region

at

the

base

of

the

Lurish

hills.

But

however,thismayhavebeen,atanyrateSusa,longthecapitalofakingdomlittleinferiort

Babylonitself,musthavebeenthefirstoftheprovincialcities,surpassingalltherestatonc

in sizeand inmagnificence.Among theother cities,Carchemishon theUpperEuphrates

Tyreupon the Syrian coast, andAshdodon thebordersofEgypt,held thehighestplace

Carchemish, which has been wrongly identified with Circesium, lay certainly high up th

river,andmostlikelyoccupiedasitesomedistancetothenorthofBalis,whichisinlat.36

nearly. It was the key of Syria on the east, commanding the ordinary passage of th

Euphrates,

and

being

the

only

great

city

in

this

quarter.

Tyre,

which

had

by

this

timsurpasseditsrival,Sidon,wasthechiefofallthemaritimetowns;anditspossessiongaveth

masteryof theEasternMediterranean to thepowerwhich couldacquireandmaintain it

Ashdod was the key of Syria upon the south, being a place of great strength, an

commanding the coast routebetweenPalestineandEgypt,whichwasusuallypursuedb

armies.It isscarcelytoomuchtosaythatthepossessionofAshdod,Tyre,andCarchemish

involved the lordship of Syria, which could not be permanently retained except by th

occupationofthosecities.

Thecountries

by

which

the

Babylonian

Empire

was

bounded

were

Persia

on

the

eas

Mediaandherdependenciesonthenorth,Arabiaonthesouth,andEgyptattheextrem

southwest.Directlytothewestshehadnoneighbor,herterritorybeingonthatsidewashe

bytheMediterranean.

OfPersia,whichmustbedescribedatlengthinthenextvolume,sinceitwastheseato

EmpireduringtheFifthMonarchy,nomoreneedbesaidherethanthatitwasforthemos

partaruggedandsterilecountry,apttoproduceabraveandhardyrace,but incapableo

sustaininga largepopulation.A strongbarrier separated it from thegreatMesopotamia

lowland;and

the

Babylonians,

by

occupying

afew

easily

defensible

passes,

could

readil

prevent a Persian army from debouching on their fertile plains. On the other hand, th

natural strength of the region is so great that in the hands of brave and active men it

defence is easy; and the Babylonians were not likely, if an aggressive spirit led to the

pressingeastward,tomakeanyseriousimpressioninthisquarter,orevergreatlytoadvanc

theirfrontier.

ToMedia,thepowerwhichborderedheruponthenorth,Babylonia,onthecontrary,la

whollyopen.TheMedes,possessingAssyriaandArmenia,withtheUpperTigrisvalley,an


27/143

BABYLONIA

probablytheMonsMasius,couldatanytime,withthegreatestease,havemarchedarmie

into the lowcountry,and resumed thecontest inwhichAssyriawasengaged forsoman

hundredyearswiththegreatpeopleofthesouth.Onthissidenaturehadsetnoobstacles

and, if danger threatened, resistance had to be made bymeans of those artificialwork

whicharespeciallysuitedforflatcountries.Longlinesofwall,broaddykes,hugereservoirs

bymeansofwhich largetractsmaybe laidunderwater, formthenaturalresort insuch

case;and

to

such

defences

as

these

alone,

in

addition

to

her

armies,

could

Babylonia

look

i

caseofaquarrelwith theMedes.On thisside,however,she formanyyears feltno fea

Politicalarrangementsand family tiesconnectedherwith theMedian reigninghouse,an

shelookedtohernorthernneighborasanallyuponwhomshemightdependforaid,rathe

thanasarivalwhoseambitiousdesignsweretobewatchedandbaffled.

BabylonialayopenalsoonthesideofArabia.Here,however,thenatureofthecountryi

such thatpopulationmustbealwayssparse;and thehabitsof thepeopleareopposed t

thatpoliticalunionwhichcanalonemakea race really formidable toothers.Onceonly i

theirhistory,

under

the

excitement

of

areligious

frenzy,

have

the

Arabs

issued

forth

from

th

greatpeninsulaon anerrandof conquest. In general they are content to vex andharas

without seriously alarming their neighbors. The vast space and arid character of th

peninsula are adverse to the collection and the movement of armies; the love o

independencecherishedbytheseveraltribesindisposesthemtounion;theaffectionforth

nomadiclife,whichisstronglyfelt,disinclinesthemtotheoccupationofconquests.Arabia

asaaconterminouspower,istroublesome,butrarelydangerous:onesectionofthenatio

mayalmostalwaysbeplayedoffagainstanother:if"theirhandisagainsteveryman,""ever

man'shand"

is

also

"against

them;"

blood

feuds

divide

and

decimate

their

tribes,

which

ar

everturningtheirswordsagainsteachother;theirneighborsgenerallywishthemill,andwi

fall upon them, if they can take them at a disadvantage; it is only under very peculia

circumstances,suchascanvery rarelyexist, that theyare likelyeven toattemptanythin

moreserious thanaplundering inroad.Babyloniaconsequently, thoughopen toattacko

thesideofthesouthaswellasonthatofthenorth,had littletofearfromeitherquarte

Thefriendlinessofhernorthernneighbor,andthepracticalweaknessofhersouthernone

were equal securities against aggression; and thus on her two largest andmost expose

frontierstheEmpiredreadednoattack.

But itwasotherwise inthefarsouthwest.HeretheEmpirebordereduponEgypt,aric

andpopulouscountry,whichatall timescovetsSyria,and isoftenstrongenough toseiz

andholditinpossession.Thenaturalfrontierismoreoverweak,nootherbarrierseparatin

betweenAfricaandAsiathananarrowdesert,whichhasneveryetprovedaseriousobstacl

toanarmy.FromthesideofEgypt,iffromnootherquarter,Babyloniamightexpecttohav

trouble. Here she inherited from her predecessor, Assyria, an old hereditary feud, whic

mightatanytimebreakout intoactivehostility.Herewasanancient,powerful,andwel


28/143

BABYLONIA

8

organizedkingdomuponherborders,withclaimsuponthatportionofherterritorywhich

wasmostdifficultforhertodefendeffectively.ByseasandbylandequallythestripofSyria

coast layopentothearmsofEgypt,whowasfreetochoosehertime,andpourherhost

into the countrywhen theattentionofBabylonwasdirected to someotherquarter.Th

physicalandpoliticalcircumstancesalikepointed tohostile transactionsbetweenBabylo

and her southwestern neighbor. Whether destruction would come from this quarter, o

fromsome

other,

it

would

have

been

impossible

to

predict.

Perhaps,

on

the

whole,

it

may

b

said thatBabylonmighthavebeenexpected tocontendsuccessfullywithEgyptthatsh

hadlittletofearfromArabiathatagainstPersiaProperitmighthavebeenanticipatedtha

shewouldbeabletodefendherselfbutthatshelayatthemercyofMedia.TheBabylonia

Empirewasintruthanempireuponsufferance.Fromthetimeofitsestablishmentwithth

consentoftheMedes,theModesmightatanytimehavedestroyedit.Thedynastictiealon

preventedthisresult.Whenthattiewassnapped,andwhenmoreover,bythevictorieso

Cyrus,PersianenterprisesucceededtothedirectionofMedianpower,thefateofBabylo

was

sealed.

It

was

impossible

for

the

long

straggling

Empire

of

the

south,

lying

chiefly

in

lowflat,openregions,toresistforanyconsiderabletimethegreatkingdomofthenorth,ofth

highplateau,andofthemountainchains.


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BABYLONIA

CHAPTERII.CLIMATEANDPRODUCTIONS.TheBabylonianEmpire,lyingasitdidbetweenthethirtiethandthirtyseventhparallelso

north latitude, and consisting mostly of comparatively low countries, enjoyed a climat

whichwas,upon thewhole, considerablywarmer than thatofMedia,and less subject t

extremevariations.

In

its

more

southern

parts

Susiana,

Chaldaea

(or

Babylonia

Proper

Philistia, and Edomthe intensity of the summer heat must have been great; but th

wintersweremildandofshortduration.InthemiddleregionsofCentralMesopotamia,th

Euphratesvalley,thePalmyrene,CoeleSyria,Judaea,andPhoenicia,whilethewinterswer

somewhatcolderand longer,thesummerwarmthwasmoretolerable.Towardsthenorth

alongtheflanksofMasius,Taurus,andAmanus,aclimatemore likethatofeasternMedi

prevailed, the summers being little less hot than those of the middle region, while th

winterswereofconsiderableseverity.Avarietyofclimatethusexisted,butavarietywithi

somewhat narrow limits. The regionwas altogether hotter and drier than is usual in th

samelatitude.

The

close

proximity

of

the

great

Arabian

desert,

the

small

size

of

the

adjoinin

seas,thewantofmountainswithintheregionhavinganygreatelevation,andthegenera

absenceof timber, combined toproduce an amountofheat anddryness scarcely know

elsewhereoutsidethetropics.

Detailedaccountsofthetemperature,andoftheclimategenerally,inthemostimportan

provincesoftheEmpire,BabyloniaandMesopotamiaProper,havebeenalreadygiven,an

on these points the reader is referred to the first volume. With regard to the remainin

provinces, itmaybenoticed, in the firstplace,that theclimateofSusianadiffersbutver

slightlyfrom

that

of

Babylonia,

the

region

to

which

it

is

adjacent.

The

heat

in

summer

excessive,thethermometer,even inthehillcountry,atanelevationof5000feet,standin

often at 107 Fahr. in the shade. The natives construct for themselves serdaubs, o

subterranean apartments, inwhich they liveduring theday, thus somewhat reducing th

temperature,butprobablyneverbringingitmuchbelow100degrees.Theysleepatnighti

theopenairontheflatroofsoftheirhouses.Sofarasthere isanydifferenceofclimatea

this seasonbetweenSusianaandBabylonia, it is in favorof the former.Theheat, thoug

scorching,israrelyoppressive;andnotunfrequentlyacool,invigoratingbreezesetsinfrom

the

mountains,

which

refreshes

both

mind

and

body.

The

winters

are

exceedingly

mild,

snowbeingunknownontheplains,andrareonthemountains,exceptataconsiderableelevation

At this time, howeverfrom December to the end of Marchrain falls in tropica

abundance;andoccasionallythereareviolenthailstorms,whichinflictseriousinjuryonth

crops.ThespringtimeinSusianaisdelightful.Softairsfanthecheek,ladenwiththescento

flowers;acarpetofverdureisspreadovertheplains;theskyiscloudless,oroverspreadwit

athingauzyveil;theheatofthesunisnottoogreat;theriversrunwithfullbanksandfillth


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0

numerous canals; the crops advance rapidly towardsperfection; andonevery side a ric

luxuriantgrowthcheerstheeyeofthetraveller.

OntheoppositesideoftheEmpire,inSyriaandPalestine,amoister,andonthewhole

coolerclimateprevails. InLebanonandAntiLebanon there isaseverewinter,which last

fromOctobertoApril;muchsnowfalls,andthethermometeroftenmarkstwentyorthirt

degreesof

frost.

On

the

flanks

of

the

mountain

ranges,

and

in

the

highlands

of

Upper

an

CoeleSyria,ofDamascus,Samaria,and Judsea,thecold isconsiderably less;buttherear

intervalsof frost; snow falls, though itdoesnotoften remain longupon the ground;an

prolongedchillingrainsmakethewinterandearlyspringunpleasant.Inthelowregions,o

theotherhand,intheShephelah,theplainofSharon,thePhoeniciancoasttract,thelowe

valleyof theOrontes,andagain in theplainofEsdraelonand the remarkabledepressio

fromtheMeromlaketotheDeadSea,thewintersareexceedinglymild;frostandsnowar

unknown;thelowesttemperatureisproducedbycoldrainsandfogs,whichdonotbringth

thermometermuchbelow40.Duringthesummerthese lowregions,especiallytheJorda

valleyor

Ghor,

are

excessively

hot,

the

heat

being

ordinarily

of

that

moist

kind

which

i

intolerably oppressive. The upland plains and mountain flanks experience also a hig

temperature,buttheretheheatisofadriercharacter,andisnotgreatlycomplainedof;th

nightseven insummerarecold,thedewsbeingoftenheavy;coolwindsblowoccasionally

andthoughtheskyisformonthswithoutacloud,theprevailingheatproducesnoinjuriou

effectsonthosewhoareexposedto it. InLebanonandAntiLebanontheheat isofcours

still less;refreshingbreezesblowalmostconstantly;andthenumerousstreamsandwood

giveasenseofcoolnessbeyondthemarkingsofthethermometer.

Thereis

one

evil,

however,

to

which

almost

the

whole

Empire

must

have

been

subjec

Alikeintheeastandinthewest,inSyriaandPalestine,nolessthaninBabyloniaProperan

Susiana,therearetimeswhenafierceandscorchingwindprevailsfordaystogetherawin

whosebreathwitherstheherbageandisunspeakablydepressingtoman.Calledintheeas

theSherghis,andinthewesttheKhamsin,thisfierysiroccocomesladenwithfineparticle

ofheated sand,whichatonce raise the temperatureand render theairunwholesome t

breathe. InSyriathesewindsoccurcommonly inthespring, fromFebruarytoApril;but i

SusianaandBabyloniathetimeforthem istheheightofsummer.Theyblowfromvariou

quarters,according

to

the

position,

with

respect

to

Arabia,

occupied

by

the

differen

provinces. In Palestine the worst are from the east, the direction in which the desert i

nearest;inLowerBabyloniatheyarefromthesouth;inSusianafromthewestorthenorth

west.During theircontinuance theair isdarkened,a luridglow iscastover theearth, th

animalworldpines and droops, vegetation languishes, and, if the traveller cannot obtai

shelter,andthewindcontinues,hemaysinkanddieunderitsdeleteriousinfluence.

TheclimateoftheentiretractincludedwithinthelimitsoftheEmpirewasprobablymuc

the same in ancient times as inourowndays. In the low alluvialplains indeednear th


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BABYLONIA

Persian Gulf it is probable that vegetation was anciently more abundant, the datepalm

being cultivatedmuchmore extensively then than atpresent; and so far itmight appea

reasonabletoconcludethattheclimateofthatregionmusthavebeenmoisterandcoole

than it now is. But if we mayjudge by Strabo's account of Susiana, where the climati

conditionswerenearlythesameasinBabylonia,noimportantchangecanhavetakenplace

forStrabonotonlycallstheclimateofSusiana"fieryandscorching,"butsaysthat inSusa

duringthe

height

of

summer,

if

alizard

or

asnake

tried

to

cross

the

street

about

noon

day

hewasbakedtodeathbeforeaccomplishinghalfthedistance.Similarlyonthewest,thoug

there isreasontobelievethatPalestine isnowmuchmoredenudedoftimberthan itwa

formerly,anditsclimateshouldthereforebebothwarmeranddrier,yetithasbeenargue

withgreatforcefromtheidentityofthemodernwiththeancientvegetation,thatinrealit

therecanhavebeennoconsiderablechange. If then therehasbeen suchpermanencyo

climate inthe tworegionswhere thegreatestalterationseems tohave takenplace inth

circumstanceswherebyclimateisusuallyaffected,itcanscarcelybethoughtthatelsewher

any

serious

change

has

been

brought

about.

ThechiefvegetableproductionsofBabyloniaProperinancienttimesarethusenumerate

byBerosus."ThelandoftheBabylonians,"hesays,"produceswheatasanindigenousplant,

andhasalsobarley,andlentils,andvetches,andsesame;thebanksofthestreamsandth

marshessupplyedibleroots,calledgongoe,whichhavethetasteofbarleycakes.Palms,too

growinthecountry,andapples,andfruittreesofvariouskinds.Wheat,itwillbeobserved

and barley are placed first, since it was especially as a grain country that Babylonia wa

celebrated. The testimonies of Hero

the seven great monarchies vol 4 babylonia rawlingson

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