THE SELECTION PROCESS OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BIO-FUELS AND

CO-FIRING

THE SELECTION PROCESS OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BIO-FUELS AND

CO-FIRING

Najib Altawell

Copyright © 2014 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. All rights reserved

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Altawell, Najib. The selection process of biomass materials for the production of bio-fuels and co-firing / Najib Altawell. pages cm Includes index. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-54266-8 (hardback) 1. Biomass chemicals. 2. Renewable energy sources. I. Title. TP248.B55A48 2014 662'.88–dc23 2013047869

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For those who are dedicated to look afterthe environment

andlife as a whole

vii

CONTENTS

Preface xv

Acknowledgments xvii

Abbreviations xix

1 Introduction 1

1.1 WhyThisBook? / 11.2 TheBookStructure / 2

1.2.1 Introduction / 21.2.2 Structure / 3

1.3 EnergyUtilization / 51.4 TheNeedforEffectiveBiomassUtilization / 71.5 RenewableEnergyImpactonBiomassEconomy / 71.6 Summary / 9References / 10

2 Background 13

2.1 RenewableEnergy:ABriefOutlook / 132.1.1 Introduction / 132.1.2 OldGraphs / 15

2.2 Wind / 162.3 Water / 172.4 Geothermal / 172.5 Solar / 19

2.5.1 SolarCells / 202.5.2 SolarWaterHeating / 202.5.3 SolarFurnaces / 20

2.6 Biomass / 21

viii    CONTENTS

2.7 BiomassasaSourceofEnergy / 242.7.1 EnergyCrops / 272.7.2 ExamplesofEnergyCrops / 292.7.3 BiomassUtilization / 302.7.4 BiomassandCoalComponents / 312.7.5 TypesofEnergyCropNeeded / 322.7.6 BiomassEnergyInfluencingFactors / 332.7.7 Characteristics/Co-firingPropertiesandTesting

Method / 352.8 BiomassApplications / 36

2.8.1 Bio-fuels / 362.8.2 ElectricityGeneration / 372.8.3 Heat,Steam,andCHP / 372.8.4 CombustibleGas / 382.8.5 AdditionalBio-energyTechnologies / 41

2.9 Co-firing / 422.9.1 BarriersforBiomassCo-firing / 432.9.2 AdditionalChallengesforCo-firing / 442.9.3 FurtherAdvancementinCo-firingEngineering / 442.9.4 PromotingCo-firing / 45

2.10 SystemEngineering / 462.11 BiomassConversionSystems / 482.12 EnergyCropsScheme(U.K.) / 492.13 RenewableObligationCertificate(ROC)(U.K.) / 522.14 ClimateChangeLevyExemptionCertificate(LEC)

(U.K.) / 522.15 Conclusion / 53References / 56

3 Co-firingIssues 61

3.1 TechnicalandEngineeringIssues / 613.1.1 Introduction / 613.1.2 HardwareandBiomassMaterials / 62

3.2 TechnicalandHardwareIssues / 623.3 Milling / 653.4 FuelMixing / 663.5 TheCombustionSystem / 71

3.5.1 Boilers / 713.6 By-products / 75

3.6.1 AshFormationandDeposition / 753.7 Degradation / 763.8 Conclusion / 77References / 80

CONTENTS    ix

4 Samples 83

4.1 SelectedSamples / 834.1.1 Introduction / 83

4.2 SamplesGeneralDescriptions / 844.2.1 TheReferenceSamples / 84

4.3 MainSamples / 914.3.1 Introduction / 914.3.2 CropsBasicComposition / 924.3.3 CropsandOilSources / 934.3.4 OilQualityandStandard / 944.3.5 CropsPhotosynthesis / 944.3.6 EnergyCropsEnvironmentalEffect / 954.3.7 Corn(Zea maysL.) / 964.3.8 Wheat(Triticum aestivumL.) / 1034.3.9 Miscanthus(Miscanthus sinensis) / 1084.3.10 Rice(Oryza sativa) / 1154.3.11 Barley(Hordeum vulgaresubsp.) / 1214.3.12 Sunflower(Helianthus annuus) / 1264.3.13 NigerSeed(Guizotia abyssinica) / 1344.3.14 Rapeseed(Brassica napus) / 141

4.4 Conclusion / 1474.4.1 SamplesSelection / 1484.4.2 TheNextStep / 150References / 151

5 Methodology:Part1 161

5.1 MethodologyApproach / 1615.1.1 Introduction / 161

5.2 ThePyramid / 1625.3 TheDecisionTree / 164

5.3.1 StepsfortheBiomassFuel / 1645.3.2 ThreeNumbers / 165

5.4 MethodologyTermsandDefinitionforBFandS&T / 1665.4.1 BF / 1665.4.2 S&T / 166

5.5 BFandS&TData / 1665.5.1 WhyAreDatafortheBFandS&T

Needed? / 1665.5.2 HowAreDatafortheBFObtained? / 1685.5.3 HowAreDatafortheS&TObtained? / 170

5.6 ScoringSystem / 1705.6.1 TheMethod / 170

x    CONTENTS

5.6.2 CalculatingtheScoreWhentheReferenceSampleIsSetinaPositiveMode / 172

5.6.3 CalculatingtheScoreWhentheReferenceSampleIsSetinaNegativeMode / 172

5.6.4 BoundariesforS&T / 1745.6.5 BoundariesforBF / 1745.6.6 ReferenceSampleBoundaries / 1745.6.7 BiomassBoundaries / 1755.6.8 ScoringPlanforBF / 176

5.7 MethodologySurvey / 1775.8 TheSurveyMethod / 178

5.8.1 Aim / 1785.8.2 Objective / 1785.8.3 WhatIstheSurveyLookingFor? / 1785.8.4 SurveyMethodology / 1785.8.5 Mode / 1795.8.6 ModeEffect / 1795.8.7 QuestionnaireDesign / 1795.8.8 SampleDesign / 1795.8.9 SampleSize / 1805.8.10 PretestingandPiloting / 1805.8.11 ReducingandDealingwith

Nonresponse / 1805.9 Conclusion / 181References / 183

6 Methodology:Part2 185

6.1 Introduction / 1856.1.1 BiomassSamplesandMethodology / 186

6.2 S&TValuesAnalysis / 1866.3 S&TFactorEvaluations / 187

6.3.1 EnergyFactor(EF) / 1876.3.2 CombustionIndexFactor(CIF) / 1906.3.3 VolatileMatterFactor(VMF) / 1936.3.4 MoistureFactor(MF) / 1956.3.5 AshFactor(AF) / 1966.3.6 DensityFactor(DF) / 1996.3.7 NitrogenEmission(Nx)Factor(NEF) / 201

6.4 S&TAllocationResults / 2036.4.1 Introduction / 2036.4.2 ThePriorityList / 204

6.5 Conclusion / 206References / 208

CONTENTS    xi

7 Methodology:Part3 211

7.1 BFPercentageValueSelection / 2117.1.1 Introduction / 2117.1.2 BFSubjectiveandObjectiveFactors / 2127.1.3 PercentageAllocationforBF / 2127.1.4 BFValuesandHeadlines / 2137.1.5 BiomassEnergyCommercializationandBF / 213

7.2 BFValuesAnalysis / 2157.3 BFEvaluations / 216

7.3.1 SystemFactor(SF) / 2177.3.2 ApproachFactor(AF) / 2187.3.3 BaselineMethodologyFactor(BMF) / 2197.3.4 BusinessViabilityFactor(BVF) / 2197.3.5 ApplicabilityFactor(APF) / 2207.3.6 LandandWaterIssuesFactor(LWIF) / 2237.3.7 SupplyFactor(SUF) / 2247.3.8 QualityFactor(QF) / 2257.3.9 EmissionFactor / 226

7.4 BFData / 2287.4.1 Introduction / 2287.4.2 ThePriorityList / 230

7.5 Conclusion / 235References / 237

8 Results:Part1 239

8.1 StatisticalDataandErrors / 2398.1.1 Introduction / 239

8.2 MethodologyLevelValue(BoundaryLevelScoringValue) / 2418.3 CalculatingStandardDeviationandRelativeError / 242

8.3.1 S&TFactors / 2438.3.2 BusinessFactors(BF) / 2468.3.3 MethodologyStandardDeviationforS&T / 2498.3.4 MethodologyStandardDeviationforBF / 2508.3.5 MethodologyStandardDeviation / 251

8.4 Analysis / 2518.5 Conclusion / 255References / 257

9 Results:Part2 259

9.1 DataandMethodologyApplication / 2599.1.1 Introduction / 259

xii    CONTENTS

9.2 Tests / 2609.2.1 ExperimentalTests / 260

9.3 S&TSamplesDataandReports(Results) / 2659.3.1 FossilFuel / 2659.3.2 BiomassMaterials / 266

9.4 BFSamplesReportsExamples(Results) / 2779.4.1 CoalBFData(Altawell,GSTF,2012) / 2779.4.2 RapeseedBFReport / 2789.4.3 BlackSunflowerSeedBFReport / 2789.4.4 NigerSeedBFReport / 2799.4.5 ApplePruningBFReport / 2809.4.6 StripedSunflowerSeedBFReport / 281

9.5 TheFinalBiomassSamples / 2829.5.1 S&TResults / 2829.5.2 BFResults / 284

9.6 SamplesFinalFitness / 2859.7 DiscussionandAnalysis / 2899.8 Conclusion / 294References / 296

10 EconomicFactors 297

10.1 BiomassFuelEconomicFactorsandSFS / 29710.1.1 Introduction / 297

10.2 EconomicFactors / 29810.3 BiomassBusiness / 300

10.3.1 Step1 / 30010.3.2 Step2 / 30110.3.3 Step3 / 30210.3.4 Step4 / 304

10.4 BiomassFuelSupplyChain / 30510.5 TheDemandforaNewBiomassFuel / 30610.6 TheSFSEconomicValueScenario / 30710.7 Discussion / 30810.8 Conclusion / 310References / 312

11 Conclusion 315

11.1 GeneralConclusion / 31511.2 Methodology(REA1)andApplications / 31611.3 WhyBiomass? / 31611.4 Co-firingandPowerGenerating / 31811.5 TheNewBiomassFuel(SFS) / 318

CONTENTS    xiii

11.6 TheFutureofCo-firingandBiomassEnergy / 31911.7 FinalResultsandFinalConclusion / 32011.8 PositiveOutlook / 32011.9 WhatNext? / 321References / 321

Index 323

PREFACE

More than 15 years ago, the following statement was made: “In Sweden today, power production with bioenergy systems is more costly than with fossil energy system” (Gustavsson and Börjesson, 1998).Today, although the cost of solid biomass still does not match that of coal, the legislative framework is estab-lished through mechanisms, such as the renewable obligation (RO) in the United Kingdom, to encourage biomass utilization for power generation. However, the factors surrounding biomass utilization in co-firing together with dedicated biomass power plant and combined heat and power (CHP) are complex, as they depend on business, scientific, and technical factors. In this book, a methodology is developed to assist in the selection of the most suitable biomass materials for co-firing, as well as for the production of bio-fuels.

At least nine scientific and technical (S&T) factors, including calorific value, ash content, and combustion performance, are evaluated. Similarly, more than 30 business factors (BF) concerning the overall viability, including environ-mental and human health risks, have been considered. Weightings have been applied to each of the factors based on expert input. Of the biomass samples considered, rapeseed was the highest rated, followed by black sunflower seeds, niger seed, apple tree pruning, and sunflower striped seeds.

The scenario of using a mixed biomass blend based on these samples (super fuel sample, SFS) is explored as a means to reduce the cost in relation to performance. Although the methodology is designed in the first instance for comparing different biomass samples for co-firing, it can be applied to any scenario involving biomass utilization. Examples of this would be pyrolysis and gasification, along with the sole production of a new bio-fuel.

This book has been designed and compiled for the widest possible range of readers, researchers, businessmen, and economists who are connected in one way or another to the renewable energy field in general, and biomass energy in particular. Most important, this book has been compiled for the general reader who may or may not have a technical or scientific background. This means the use of the technical language has been avoided wherever possible. As a result, the style of the writing is simple; that is, this book should be acces-sible to the majority of people with little or no higher education.

xv

xvi    PREFACE

With regard to methodology, the approach and mechanism is also simple and flexible. This means that the design and application of the methodology has not been written specifically for any particular energy business or, for that matter, a “specific” power station. In essence, the aspects of the methodology can be applied to a variety of biomass energy projects and businesses. In fact, with minor adjustments, the methodology itself can be applied to any type of commercial renewable energy enterprise. Therefore, the methodology is “uni-versal” in its approach and application; that is, a commercial energy business has the option and the flexibility to fit the methodology to its own type of functionalities, business dealings, and calculations. In a way, the methodology resembles a “skeleton” or “backbone” that can fit into any situation related to any commercial energy scheme. It gives the opportunity for those who are using it to “tailor” it for their own particular use in order to help in the pro-duction of their fuel. Methodology factors, percentage values, scoring values, and other related variables or constants are left open so the users can insert their own values during the application of the methodology. To achieve this kind of flexibility, the methodology is designed so that the weighting percent-age factors, boundary level scoring, and the addition/removal (or change) of both BF and S&T factors can all be manipulated. A power generating company, or any energy business, can create their own default values in a form they find more beneficial to their own business.

In some sections of the book, such as in Chapter 4, topics related to ash obtained from the samples used in this book have been briefly mentioned; that is, only the main elements for each sample have been listed in a graph. The reason for this is that another book will be forthcoming. This book will deal with ash for the aforementioned samples as well as other aspects related to the field of bio-energy.

Finally, whether the need arises from the original objectives of the research in the form of selecting suitable biomass materials for the purpose of generat-ing electricity or from the principle aim of reducing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the flexibility of the methodology has provided a platform for future development and regular updates.

NAJIB ALTAWELL

REFERENCE

Gustavsson L, Börjesson P (1998) CO2 mitigation cost: bioenergy systems and natural gas systems with decabonization. Energy Policy 26(9):699–713.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the staff at the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy (CEPMLP) (Dundee University), the Centre for Water Law, Policy and Science (CWLPS) (Dundee University), the Institute of Energy and Sustainable Development (IESD), the Faculty of Technology (De Montfort University), and the rest of the staff at De Montfort University (DMU). In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Rafael Macatangay (CEPMLP), Professor Chris Spray (CWLPS), Dr. Neil Brown (IESD), Dr. Nicole Archer (CWLPS), Dr. Leticia Ozawa-Meida (IESD), and Mr. Jim Boulton (DMU).

N.A.

xvii

ABBREVIATIONS

AD AbsolutedensityAF AshfactorAPF ApplicabilityfactorApple P ApplepruningBF BusinessfactorsBFB BubblingfluidbedBMF BaselinemethodologyfactorBP By-productsBtu BritishthermalunitBVF BusinessviabilityfactorCCS CarboncaptureandstorageCFB CirculatingfluidbedCHP CombinedheatandpowerCIF CombustionindexfactorCV CalorificvalueDEC DecarbonizedelectricitycertificateDefra DepartmentforEnvironmentFoodandRuralAffairsDF DensityfactorDTF DroptubefurnaceDTI DepartmentofTradeandIndustryECS EnergycropschemeEF EnergyFactorEJ Exajoule(1018joules)EOR EnhancedoilrecoveryEPA EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyERDP EnglandRuralDevelopmentProgrammeESF EmergingsystemsfactorEU-ETS EuropeanUnion—EmissionTradingSchemeEWP EnergyWhitePaperFAOSTAT Food andAgriculture Organization Corporate Statistical

DatabaseFGD FlueGasDesulphurisationGGETS (GETS) GreenhouseGasEmissionsTradingScheme

xix

xx    ABBREVIATIONS

GHG GreenhousegasesGRO Government’srenewableobligationHHV HigherheatingvalueIAFRE InternationalAssociationforRenewableEnergyIMF InternationalMonetaryFundIPCC IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeISBF InternationalStandard-BiomassFuelha HectareKP KyotoProtocolkWe OnethousandwattsofelectriccapacityLCI LifecycleinventoryLECs LevyexemptioncertificatesLHV LowerheatingvalueLWIF LandandwaterissuesfactorMC MoisturecontentMF MoisturefactorMJ Megajoule(1000j)MT MilliontonsMUV Manufacturesunitvalue(WorldBank)MW MegawattMwe MegawattsofelectricaloutputMWh Megawatt-hour(1,000,000wattsfor1hour)MWt MegawattsofthermaloutputNEF NitrogenemissionfactorNI NationalInsuranceNNFO NonfossilfuelobligationOdt OvendrytonPC PulverizedcoalPD PackingdensityPF PulverizedfuelPV PhotovoltaicQA QualityassuranceQC QualitycontrolQF QualityfactorRD&D Research,development,anddemonstrationREA1 RenewableEnergyAnalyserOneRET Renewableenergytechnology/technologiesRO RenewableobligationROC RenewableobligationcertificateSB SuspensionburnerSF SystemfactorSFS SuperfuelsampleSG StokergrateS&T Scientificandtechnical(factors)SUF Supplyfactor

ABBREVIATIONS    xxi

Sunflower BS Sunflowerblackseed(s)Sunflower SS Sunflowerstripedseed(s)TI TechnologyissuesTMT ThousandmetrictonsVED VolumetricenergydensityVM VolatilematerialsVMF Volatilematerialsfactor