the search for the physical cause of jesus christ’s death

8/12/2019 The Search for the Physical Cause of Jesus Christs Death

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ofarteries and veins represent a selfcontained system that circu-lates bloodto nourish the organs ofthe body in acardiac rupture

a hole in the wall ofthe heart causes blood to leak into theperi-cardial sac which quickly stops the pumping action ofthe heart

this phenomenon known as cardiac tamponade is rapidly fatalwhen cardiac tamponade strikes manyvictims willcryout loudlyquickly lose consciousness and then die all reminiscent of thewayjesus died

stroudstheoryisbasedontheincident described injohn1934

butone ofthe soldierswith aspearpierced his side and forthwithcamethereoutblood andwater johns observation contradictsthe maxim that a corpse does not bleedbleed4bleeds and places special sig-nificancenific ance on the emergence of both blood and water from thewound strouds theory is relatively simple the intensity ofjesussuffering onthe cross caused his heart to rupture resulting in hisrapid and dramatic death from cardiac tamponade the blood in

the pericardium then separated into clot andserumandemergedunder pressure as separate components when thesoldiers javelin

penetratedthe pericardium

it iscertainly truethatwhenblood isleft tosit in atesttube itwill eventually separate intoan ambercoloredserum anddarkredclot nevertheless with few exceptions blood does not clot inthe pericardium after cardiac tamponade even ifthiswere apossi-

bility the one ortwohours atmost that intervened between deathand the spearthrust would have been insufficient for the separa-

tion to occur finally it is difficult to understandhow a blood clotwhichhas theconsistencyofgelatin could flowfromthe wound 5

in all likelihood the accounts describing the presence of bloodand water which seemedtostroudto pinpointthe causeofchristsdeath ledhim to an erroneous conclusion

A more likely explanation for the

emergence of both

blood

and water from the wound assumes separate sources for thefluids the blood emerging from theheart and clear fluid emerg-

ingfrom either the pericardiumorthe chest cavity in the caseof the clear fluid there is normally a small amountofwatery fluidinthe spaces thatsurroundthelung pleural cavity and theheartpericardial space excessiveand pathologicaccumulation ofthis

fluidis nonspecific andcan occur in avariety ofconditions such as


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searcbforsearchfor the physical causeofofjesusjesus christs death 95

heart failure chest trauma and shock in the lords case the or-deals ofcrucifixion could have caused anaccumulation of pericar-

dial or pleural fluid A javelin thrust could penetrate the pleuralcavity thelung thepericardial space andtheheartitself resulting

inthe drainage ofthe separate fluids underthe influenceofgravity

the biblical record suggests that thewound waslarge enough forthis kind ofdrainage to occur remember thatthomas was able to

thrusthishandintochrists side seejohn2027other aspects ofstrouds theory do not stand up well to our

current medical understandingofcardiac tamponade the phe-nomenon isnot known tooccur intheabsence ofsome underlying

diseaseoftheheart theoverwhelmingmajorityofcasesofcardiacrupture seen today occur in the setting ofa heart attack or myo-

cardial infarction 611 in first centuryjudea it would have been stun-

ningly rare for a healthy man inhis thirties to experience a heart

attack furthermore whencardiac tamponade complicates aheart at-

tack it usuallydoesnot occuruntil sevento ten daysfollowing theinfarction thescripturalrecord offersno suggestion thatjesuswasin anyway ill intheweekpriorto his crucifixion it isimportant to

concede that anything including a heart attack could have hap-

pened during christs atoning agonies in the garden ofgethse-

mane twelve hours before his crucifixion but it would be difficult

to attribute the alleged cardiac rupture to a heart attack that oc-

curred ingethsemane onlytwelveto eighteenhoursearlierit should be noted that stroud never suggests thatjesus suf-

fered aheart attack yethe fails to offer an explanation other than

theintensityofchrists suffering asacausefortherupture since it

is impossible to know the physical consequencesofchrists eter-nal atonement it is impossible to further critique this argument

from amedical perspective

cardiactamponade is known tooccurinothersettings

drdavid

ballsuggeststhat christcouldhavediedasaresultoftraumatic car-

diac tamponade andcites several case studies to supportthe the-

ory he argues that christs numerous falls during his walk tocalvary could have been the source of the chest trauma that

caused the syndrome with his arms tied to the crossbar jesus

could not shield his body and would have fallen forward to the

cobblestone road under the weight of the load in this type of


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trauma the heart is compressed between the breastbone ster-num and the spinal column ballbanbailbali suggests that this trauma weak-

enedthe wall of theheartand caused it to rupture 7

the problem with ballsbansbalisbails theory like strouds relatestotimethe theory would require cardiac rupture to occur only six toseven hours following the trauma the modern experience withthese injuries suggests thattraumatic cardiac ruptureoccurs mostoften at the time ofinjury or less commonly days following theinjury the six-to seven hour time frame simply doesnot fit wellwenweliweil

although the various cardiac rupture theories may have great ap-pealfroma sentimental view supporting atraditional broken heartsymbolism modemmodern medical thinking does not substantiate thatparticular physicaldiagnosis

theasphyxia theory

virtuallyevery medical treatise onthe subject ofcrucifixion

and most ofthe experiments that simulate crucifixion in healthyvolunteers agree that crucifixion causes a profound disruption ofthevictims ability to breathe this knowledge has ledmany med-ical theoriststopostulate asphyxia as the cause ofchrists death 8

this disruption ofbreathingrelatestothe waythe chest wallwanwaliwaiiisstretched whenthevictim issuspended fromthe cross in anor-mal person the act ofinhaling or inspiration occurs with the

coordinated contraction of thediaphragm and outward expansionofthe chest wall when the chest anddiaphragmrelax the chestspontaneously deflates

in the cruciariuscruciarius the latin term for avictim ofcrucifixionthe chestwasstretchedinto the samepositionthat itassumed dur-ingnormal inspiration expiration could not occur spontaneouslybecause the chest was held in the inspiration position by the

weight ofthebody pulling onthe arms inessence thepositioningofthebodyon the cross transformed the normallyeffortless actofbreathing into somethingthatrequiredtremendous energy incom-pleteemptying ofthechest couldoccurbycontractingthemusclesofthe abdominal wall toforceairout of thechest the diaphragmwill only work forinspiration adequate expiration could not oc-curwithout liftingthe bodyup either by pulling upwiththe armsorpushing up onthe nailed feet


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searchforsearchporfor the physical causeofjesusofjesus christs deatbdeathdealb 97

while hanging by the hands thevictims breathing would be

shallow rapid and inefficient with time oxygen levels in the

bloodwould fall and carbondioxide levels would rise intense airhunger would ensue and prompt a heroic effort on the part ofthe cruciariuscruciarius to lift the body up to facilitate normal breathingA period of frantic gasping respiration would rescue the victim

fromsuffocation thenwithtime the legs would fatigue and forcethe cruciariuscruciarius to hang by the arms thereby ushering in anotherperiodoftortured breathingandairhunger

the rhythmic cycle of breathing would continue for manyhours oreven days to the experienced eye oftheexecutioner thiscycle served as a useful barometer ofthe overall condition of the

condemned and could probably be used to predict the time of

death to theonlooker itwas apowerfulvisual deterrentofcriminalconduct and asober reminderthat the ruling authoritieswould not

toleratedisruptions that threatened their political orreligious order

the agonies exacted by this form ofcapital punishmentwereunspeakable theyresultednotonlyfromthe airhunger andrespiratory distress already mentioned but also from multiple

other factors intense thirst severe muscle cramping and trau-

matic injuryto the nerves bones and soft tissues of the feet and

wrists caused bythe nails death came slowly and only after thevictims were so weak that they could no longer lift the body to

rescue themselves from asphyxia As the victims weakened theylifted themselves less frequently in time carbon dioxide levels

roseandoxygen levels fell and the victims gradually slipped into

acoma death when it finally came was quiet andpeaceful

it should now be apparent whythe practice ofbreaking the

legs of thecruciariuscruci ariuswasan effectivemeansofaccelerating death

thismaneuverwould make itimpossibleforthe crucified to stand

up and breathe even ifthe victim still had sufficient strength todo so

with this background in mind it is now possibleto critically

analyze the asphyxia theory inlightfight of the details provided by the

gospel narrators accounts ofchrists crucifixion although none

ofthe gospel narratives givea direct description ofchrists physi-cal condition on the cross they do so indirectly all four writers

agree thatjesus spoke from the cross since vocalization is

only


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possible duringexpiration he hadto have sufficient strength to urtlifturr

hisbodyandspeakoutabove theclamorthat surroundedhim oneach ofthe seven occasions where his words were recorded hespoke deliberately and used the occasion as a teaching moment

perhaps thepoint isbest illustrated by reviewing the wordschristspoke immediately prior to his death matthew mark andluke allanaliaildescribe them asbeinguttered forcefullyand relate thattheywerequickly followed by his death see matt 2750 mark 1537 andluke 2346 these words were not the final whispers ofa near

comatose man inthe terminal stages ofasphyxiaasphyxia caused by crucifixion closely resembles a severe

asthma or emphysema attack normally patients are restless pan-

icky and feel like they cannot get enough air they may be ex-tremelyagitated initially but asthe conditionworsens they become

moresedated and do not speak every effort is devoted to breath-ing finally victims gradually becomedrowsy slipinto acoma and

diequietlyifthe process is not reversedalthough victims ofcrucifixion are very similar to asthmatic

or emphysema patients in some ways they were different in one

very important respect they could reverse their inability to fully

exhalebypushing downon the nailsin thefeet easingthepullon

the chest that paralyzes normal respiration this maneuver al-lowed normalrespiratorymechanicstoensueandtemporarilyres-

cuethe victimfrom impendingcomaand deathdeath fromasphyxia andthecardiovascular instabilitycaused

byslow suffocation were probably the cause ofdeath in the vast

majority of the men and women who died by crucifixion how-ever it could not have been the cause ofchrists death althoughobviously weakened and suffering from his great ordeal he still

had sufficient strength to lift himself speak out and be heard

above the din ofhis enemies who encircled the cross hissuddenand unexpected death bears little resemblance to the gradual de-

cline and quiet passing ofone thatdiesbyslowasphyxia

thecardiovascular collapsetheory

the most prevalent modem theory on the cause ofchristsdeath isthat ofcardiovascular collapse the numerous supporters


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searcbforsearchjorfor the physical causeofjesusofjesuschrists death 99

of this theory suggest that jesus died of profound shock 9 thescourging the beatings andthefixingto the crosswouldhaveleft

jesus dehydrated weak and critically ill add to these insults thetremendous energyexpenditure thatcrucifixion exactedforthings

as simple as breathing and the conclusion is intuitive the stagewas set for a complex interplay ofphysiological insults to bepre-

sent simultaneously dehydration massive trauma and soft tissue

injury especially from the prior scourging inadequate respira-

tion andstrenuousphysical exertion allactedtogether to initiate

a vicious cycle ofincremental and irreversible decline eventuallythe severity ofthe shockwouldbesuch thatbloodpressure wouldfallbelow levels required to perfuse the brain andcomawould re-sult in fact cardiovascular collapse isinseparablyconnected withthe abnormalities that accompany gradual asphyxia this theorysupposes onlythatthecauseofcomawas the metabolic complica-

tions ofshockrather than those ofasphyxia

for this reason the contentions used to renounce the as-phyxia theory are exactly the same as those used to questionthecardiovascular collapse theory again the biblicalaccount ofchristsdeath clearly describes a sudden unexpected death that was im-

mediately preceded bya loudcryand a statement tothe onlookerssurrounding the cross jesusshowed none ofthe hallmark signsofone dying from profoundshock

theaspirationtheory

the nexttwo theories although less widely mentioned aretruly fascinating and stem from the passage injohn 1928301928 30 inthis account john places the death ofthe lord immediately fol-lowing the administration ofthe drinkofvinegar that was offeredto relieve his thirst this account has caused some to speculate

thatthe drinkwas the proximatecauseofthelords deaththere are several possibilities whereby drinkingcould resultin sudden death themost common scenario wouldbe aspirationofthe drink into the lungs rather than the stomach when aspira-tionofasufficient volumeoffluidoccurs itcan cause suffocation

alternatively it could have provoked a coughing fit that provedfatalwhen added to the already labored breathing pattern causedbycrucifixion yet thegospelsdiscreditbothpossibilities Asponge


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on the endofahyssop stalkcouldnotholdsufficient fluid tocause

suffocation furthermore john does not describe aviolentparox-

ysm oflabored breathing or coughing but rather states that hebowedhishead and gave uptheghost john 1930

thefatalsyncopetheory

could the drinkofvinegar have precipitated a fainting spell

or syncope and been the cause ofjesus death the notionthat

one could precipitate sudden death by offering the cruciariuscruciarius adrinkhas its basis inancient writings on crucifixion 10 the execuexecltioners wouldevengo sofaras to preventonlookers fromoffering

the victim anything to drink so as to maximize the duration of

their suffering the current understanding ofsyncope also sup-portsthepossibility

syncope occurswhen the blood pressure falls precipitously

it is more likely

to occur in states ofdehydration shock andsevere pain or in association with disorders of the heart or ner-vous system it canbeprecipitated byfear anxiety pain astronggag reflex or prolonged upright posture syncope would have

been rapidly fatal during crucifixion because it would make it

impossible for the victims to lift themselves to breathe further-more the victims prolonged upright position would exaggerate

the lackofblood flow to the brain A careful review of the scrip-

turesshows that christs condition was characterized bymany ofthefactors that canpredispose abodytosyncope it is a veryreal

possibility that a gag reflex to the drink ofvinegar could have

inducedsyncope in thelordthere is however one point that is difficult to explain using

this theory it again relates to the consensus conveyed in the re-

ports of matthew mark and luke regarding the lords wordsimmediately prior to his death in isolation theaccountofjohn is

compatiblewith death dueto fatal syncope but in thecontextof

the othergospels it is not ifjesus had fainted immediately priorto his death his body would have slumped down respiration

would have ceased and hewould have suffocated it would have

beenimpossibleforhim to lifthimselfup toexhale andspeak thefaint inanycase would havebeen silent


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searchforsearchforhorborthe physical causeofjesusofjesuschrists death 101

theresuscitation theory

this theory states thatjesus did not die on the cross butrather recovered spontaneously injosephs tomb or was revivedand spirited away by his followers like many of the theories of-fered thus far it has many advocates whose views have been cir-culatingcu lating since the late nineteenth century the argument beginswith the fact that on sunday morning the tomb was empty thisdetail is amatterofrecordand apointthat isnoteven disputedby

thejews that orchestrated christs judicial murder 12I1

the disputebegins with whether the hands that rolled back the stone werehumanorheavenly

contemporary medicines most vocal advocates of the resus-

citationtheory aremargaret andtrevorlloyd davies who suggestthatprofound shock resulted in unconsciousness onthe crossandled to a prematureentombment then in the cool andsecrecy of

thetomb jesusrecoveredor wasrevived byhis followers andthendisappeared from the area the loud cry before his collapse wasmerely a heavy sigh that coincided with his loss ofconsciousness

they openly question johns medical credibility because of hisaccount ofthe resurrection oflazarus they argue thatthewoundin christs side is overstated and may not have occurred at all itcouldnothavebeen awoundtohisheart forthiswould have irre-versiblyversiblyupsetthebalance ofonesoprecariouslyperched

betweenlife and death instead they favor a superficial wound perhapsnothing morethan a bored soldier draining a blister left overfrom

thescourging finally toexplain thereports ofchrists numeroussubsequent appearances they call on mass hallucination rather

thanresurrection 13

in most cases the believing christians reaction to theoriessuch as this is initially one ofoutrage however such a reaction

almost always obscures ones ability to critically assess the theoryforits meritsor flaws the commonthreadthatbindsthe resuscita-tion theories in alltheirvarieties isthe factthattheeventsthattran-

spired after the death ofjesus christ cannot be explained bycurrentscientificknowledge theneed to explain christsresurrec-tion couldbedone awaywithbyarguing that he never died in thefirst place rather than addressing the central question they shift


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the focus to one that can be addressed more comfortably from

within theparadigm ofstrictallegiance to the scientificmethod

Adetailed discussion ofwhytheresuscitation theory isunac-ceptableceptable is largely irrelevant after all from the outset this paper

hasbeenwritten forthebelieverratherthan theskeptic however

since some imply that it is ludicrous to consider any theorythat

embraces the reality of the resurrection from a scientific perspec-

tive 14 I1 shall point out some of the glaring inconsistencies in the

resuscitationhypothesis my rebuttals only requirement is accep-

tance of physical events portrayed in the gospels of matthewmark luke andjohn

that an unconscious but still livingjesus was able to makethisrecoverywithin thirtysix hours ofbeingcrucified is no small

feat unless he were assisted by some unknown conspiratorcoconspiratorcojesus would have had to uncover himself from beneath many

poundsofemembalmingembahningbahningspices and then unbind the linens thatwerewrapped around his limbs and body he would then have had toremove the large stone that blockedtheentrance to the tomb and

still escape the notice of the sentries at the tombs entrance hisrecoveryalso would have required sufficient strength to walk the

eightmilejourneytoemmauswithinthirtysix hoursofbeingcru-

cified considering how critically illjesus was at the time ofen-

tombmenttombment this type of recovery goes beyond the recuperative

capacity ofamortalbodyadditional arguments are equally problematic for this theory

weshould notforget that the actofbreathingonthe crosswas far

from subtle it required periodic lifting of the body to prevent

asphyxia As aresult theunconsciousness that isthefoundation of

the theory would have been fatal or permanently damaging in its

own right

the early deathofjesus seemark 1544 represented a glar-ing departure from the usual crucifixion ifpilate from the sani-

tized environs ofherodshernds palace recognized the oddityofchristsearlydeath wemustassume thatit was evenmoreapparenttothe

executionersexecutioners I1 envision a group ofhypervigilanthyper vigilant and suspicioussoldiers gathering around the foot ofchrists cross they wouldhave watched with the eye ofexperience and not hastened to


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searcbforsearchrorfor the physicalcauseofjesusofjesuschrists death 103

conclude that he had died hours ahead ofthe expected time

surely thesoldiers relegatedtoexecution detailknew theirprofes-

sion and understoodwellthe meaning of dead

finally with regard to the witnesses to whom christ ap-peared after the crucifixion no one disputes that an emotionally

traumatized person can experience hallucination but to suggest

that this experience occurred simultaneously in over fivehundredindividuals see I11 cor 156 and on multiple other occasions inother group settings raises serious doubts about the doctors ob-

jectivity it is this loss ofobjectivity andsurrendertopersonal bias

that results in the conclusion being written before the research

iscomplete

the concluding remarks ofmargaret andtrevor lloyddaviesareas follows faith doesnotrequire the abandonment ofthoughtorthe assent toconceptsnotscientificallyacceptable the churchwill bestronger ifit accommodates proven knowledge within its

creeds ifit does not all that is left is blind belief far beyond thecredulityofmostpeople 15 indeed they correctly pointout some

of the perils ofblind faith however theyfailto pointoutthatit is

equallydangerous to have blind faith in the ability ofscience itiscrucial torememberthatinno field isscientific knowledgecom-

plete to place supreme confidence in the ability ofscience toexplaineverything around us is naive andensures that sooner or

latera serious mistake willbe made

thelordsdeathinperspective

the assertion that the exact cause ofchrists death reallydoes notmatter is ofcourse valid it is adetail thatcouldbeomit-

ted from the story without significantly changing the importance

ofthe overall message when this line ofreasoning is taken to anextreme the same could be said ofalmost everything we knowaboutthe lord the onlydetails ofhis life that areofprimal signifi-cance arethat he did live that hedidatone forus andthathewas

resurrected these few details tell us he fulfillednilniifilled his part in theplanofsalvation

however the exercise of studying the nuances of detailstransforms

ancient manuscripts into living words

ofcounsel it is


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the details that bring longdead men and women to life in ourminds the intimacy ofour relationship with the lord is in largepart predicated uponour study ofthe details ofhis life andteach-ings inthiscontext anyquestion thatservestodeepenourunder-standingof thelords life isofgreatvalue to all thosewho seektoknowhim and understand him

A separate line ofreasoning argues thatthe exact cause ofthelordsdeath is amoot concept sincejesus alonedetermined thetiming andnature ofhis deathdeath16 andreminds us thatjesus himself

stated no man taketh it my life from me but I1 lay it down ofmyself I1 have power to lay it down and I1 have power to take it

again john 1018 christs unique ancestry made him at onceboth a man and a godand left him in full control throughouttheentire ordeal this point is critical to the entire discussion andshouldnotbe overlooked

yet I1 believe it is reasonableto assume thatthe creatorofthis

worldand godofheaven andearthwould abide by the samelawsthat maintain and govern his creation jesus mortal body wouldthereforebesubjectto the samelawsthatgovern allmortals once

christ suspended his godly power to maintain his life under thelethal weight ofaneternal atonement standard physiological prin-

ciples and laws would beoperative after all it is christs humanside rather than his immortal side with which we most closely

relate wecannot fully identifywiththe death ofthegod thatdiedon good friday yet it is much more within our reach to identify

with the manI1 am confident that any theory on the cause ofchrists

death including mine which follows is vulnerable to the criti-

cisms of a new generation ofscholars with revised editions ofmedical textbooks it is thereforeimportant that the exercise not

be invested solely in a search for a cause ofdeath ifthis searchfor enlightenment is to provide anything more than intellectual

curiosity and vigorous debate it must attempt to bridge the gap

between the secular and the spiritual to aspire for somethingless than this goal dilutes the experience and calls into question

its merit this quest is the basis for my theories on the cause ofchrists death


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searchforsearchforporthe physical causeofjesusoffesusjesus christs death 105

thecardiacarrhythmiatheory

for me the mostimportant details surrounding jesus deathcan be summarized in a few lines first it was premature com-

pared to the usual crucifixion pattern second he had sufficient

strength to lift hisbodyand speakout loudly immediately priorto

his death third his death was sudden and unexpected A viabletheorymustsuit thesefundamentals

my review ofthe scriptural accounts has convinced me that

christsdeath wascardiac innature but I1

maintainmybeliefthatitwas not due to cardiac rupture a heart attack or cardiovascular

collapse instead I1 believe it was dueto a cardiacarrhythmia

Acardiac arrhythmia is an acceleration ofthehearts beatingmotion to rates that dramatically impair the hearts ability topump blood before bloodcanbe pumpedoutofthe heart topro-

vide oxygen and nutrients to the brain and other organs blood

must enter the heart

and fill the

pumping chambers

malignant

arrhythmiasrepresent one of the most common causes of sudden

cardiac death because they rapidly decrease the flow of blood

from the heart to levels that approach zero this drop may occurbecause the heart beats so quickly that it does not allow sufficient

timeforthe heart to fillwithblood orbecausethebeating motion

ofthe heart becomes chaotic and uncoordinated in either case

the result is the same As soon as the cardiac output decreases to

levels thatprevent blood flow to the brain unconsciousness de-

velops after seven to ten seconds ofpulselessness and death

rapidly ensues 17

the most deadly arrhythmias are ventricular tachycardia andventricular fibrillation today these arrhythmias are most com-

monly seen in conjunction with underlying heart disease such as

chronicheartfailure or heart attack infact thereasononethirdof

heart attack victims die prior to arrival at the hospital relates to

development of a fatal arrhythmia but arrhythmias can also be

seen in other settings there is a wealth ofscientific evidence tosuggest that afatal arrhythmiacould be precipitated bymetabolic

complicationsthat are thought to occur duringcrucifixion

arrhythnliasarrhythmias most notable provocateurs which almost cer-

tainly occurred during crucifixion include high blood potassium


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levelsand an excessive accumulation ofacid inthe body acidosis

highpotassium levels can result from dehydration induced kidney

failureorleakage ofpotassium from damaged cells evenbriefsim-ulationsulations ofcrucifixion in healthy young men resulted in significant

damage to muscle cells probably the result of the intense physical

exertionand severe muscle crampingthat occurred on the cross 18

this type ofmuscleinjury exaggerated furtherby floggingorothertrauma releases large amounts ofpotassium into the blood from

the damaged cells furthermore in the setting ofsevere dehydra-

tion potassium ispoorlycleared from the bloodhigh potassium levels alone would be sufficient to cause a

fatal arrhythmia arrhythmias thatresult fromhighpotassium levels

usually begin asventricular tachycardia althoughvery dangerous

this arrhythmia mayallowenough cardiac output to maintain con-

sciousnessscious ness especially in a young person with a healthy heart

however withtimeandfurtherincreases in potassium levels ven-

triculartriculartachycardia usuallydegeneratesintoventricularfibrillationventricular fibrillation is an arrhythmia in which cardiac outputfalls to zero due to chaotic electrical activity in the heart it israpidly fatal

acidosis occurs with any form of shock and would be wors-

ened by dehydration trauma and the abnormal breathing pattern

seen in crucifixion several hours on the cross would lead to pro-

found acidosis which can worsen high potassium levels and canmake theheart irritable andpronetoarrhythmia thestagewas setperfectlyforjesusforhorborjesustoexperience cardiac arrestdue toanarrhythmia

cardiac arrhythmia is compelling as apotential cause of the

lords deathbecause its onset is often sudden andunpredictableit may also occur in the absence ofany underlying heartdisease

ofinterest is the fact that many patients who experience malig-

nant arrhythmias have a foreboding that something is wrongbefore they collapse this may relate to the patients feeling palpitationscitationspitations beingaware ofa rapid heartbeat or having a premoni-

tion ofan impending loss ofconsciousness with theonset ofthis type ofarrhythmia it is not uncommon for patients to cry

out or frantically search for help seconds prior to their collapse

anddeath finally when these malignant arrhythmias occur they

are rapidly fatal


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seasearchrebruh foforrorr tbtheeghysphysphysicalica 1 dausecausedansecause ofiesofjesofjesusfesusus chchristsfistsristsdeadeathtb 107

thebrokenheart

in lightoftheabundant albeitcircumstantial evidence insup-port ofan arrhythmicarrhythnlicticilc death we may conclude that the psalmistspoke wellinsaying reproach hathbroken myheart and I1 am fullof heaviness and I1 looked for some to take pity but there werenone and for comforters but I1 found none Ps 6920 21 in-deed theentire ordeal was borne in solitude notwithstanding thethrongofpeopleatthe footofthecross for eventhefatherspres-ence waswithdrawn atthepinnacle ofhis sufferingonthe cross 19

consider the irony ofthe notion that jesus himselfdied ofthevery thingherequires of those hewould redeem a broken heartand a contritespiritthat bearsthe heaviness ofothers burdens seePs 5116 17 14731475 2ne 27 and 3ne 920

my feelings about the broken heart theory may seem as

much figurative as they are based on medicine and physiologyhowever I1 stand bymy assertions thattheyhavemeritfrom amed-

icalperspective yet moreimportantthan allofthat istheway thatthe exercise increases our understanding ofchrists atonementdeath and resurrection As we study and ponder all that we canaboutoursavior ourhearts swell withgratitude for hiscondescen-sion and his infinite love our empathy for the lord fulfills thepleadings ofafamiliarhymn moretearsfor hissorrows morepainat his grief 2021 once this change has occurred ourperspective is

dramaticallyaltered andthequestfortheanswerto the question ofhowjesusdiedbecomes above all themediumthroughwhichourappreciation forthelords sacrifice isgreatly deepened

W reid litchfield is an endocrinologist in henderson nevada

NOTES

additional minortheories have beenoffered but it is beyond thescopeofthispaperto visitthem all

2jamesajamesames E talmage jesus the christ salt lake city deseret book 1981198166869668 69

3williamwilliamawilliam stroud treatise on the physical death ofjesus christ and itsrelation to the principles and practice ofchristianity london hamilton and

adams 1847731561847731847 731567515675 156


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origen AD 185254185 254 citedinjohn wilkinson theincidentof thebloodandwater injohn 1934 scottishjournalscottishjournaloftheology 28 1975 15960159 60

for related discussions see pierre barbet A doctor at calvary the pas-sion ofour lordjesusLorlord dJesusjesus christ as described by a surgeon garden city newyork image books 1963 139 42 wilkinson the incident ofthe blood andwater injohn 1934 159 64 and frederick T zugibe death by crucifixioncanadian society offorensicsciencejournalsciencejournal 17 1984 4

doronoron zahgerjahger and eliyahu milgalterMil galter clinical problem solving A brokenheart newenglandjournalenglandjournaltournai ofmedicine 334 1996 319213192319 2211

avldavid A ball the crucifixion and death ofa man calledjesus journalofthe mississippi state medicalassociation 30 1989 808280 82

me interested reader is referred to several studies that describe this typeof respiratory pattern in volunteers undergoing mock crucifixion hermannmoeddermoeddelMoedder dietodesursache bei derkreuzigung stimmerslimmer der zeit 144 1948525952 59 frederick T zugibe two questions about crucifixion bible review 5april 1989 36 zugibe death by crucifixion 7 and ball crucifixion and

death ofa man calledjesus 77 83 at first glance thestudies ofzugibeappeartocontradict thehypothesized respiratory pattern seen duringcrucifixion how-ever a careful review ofhis study reveals that his mockcrucifixionscrucifixions were donesuch that the bodywas kept in a raised position throughout the study further-

more whenever crampingordiscomfort inthe studysubject occurred dr zugibewouldsupporttheweightof thebodyat the level of thethighsandallow thesub-ject torest this maneuver would serve to prevent thedevelopmentof the veryphenomenon hewas trying tostudy thebalance ofevidencethereforesupportsthedevelopment ofsevererespiratoryembarrassment duringcrucifixion

equally instructive are horrific eyewitness accounts ofvictims oftortureduring the first andsecondworldwars theaustrogermanand nazi armies useda practice known asauaufbindenaubindenauraufbinden as atorture tehniquetechniquetehnique the victim wassuspendedby thewrists such thatthe feet scarcely touched theground the chest wall was

stretchedbythe bodysblodys weightsuch that thevictim couldnotexhale without lift-ingthebodyup by the arms ifthevictimwasprevented from doing so he orshewould rapidly die of asphyxia barbet A doctor at calvary 757675 76 and R Whynek science andthe holy shroud chicago benedictine 1936

for more ontheoriesthatsupport asphyxia as the cause ofchrists death seebarbet Adoctor atcalvary 81 83 R brucechwatt deathon thecross worldmedicine 29 1984 171917 19 nicholas P de pasqualeand george E burch deathby crucifixion letter american heartjournalheartjournal 66 1963 43435434 35 charles D

johnson medical and cardiological aspects of the passion and crucifixion of

jesus thechrist bolletinbollentinBol

letin association medicine puerto

rico70 1978 10101

loi1

9cac truman davis the crucifixion ofjesus the passion ofchrist from amedical point ofview adzonaarizona medicine 22 1965 187 W D edwards WWJJgabel and F E hosmer on the physical death ofjesus christ journal oftheamerican medical association 255 1986 1463 J E holoubek and A Bholoubek execution by crucifixion history methods and cause of death

journal ofmedicine 26 1995 111511 15 A A le becbee the death of the crossA physiological studyof the passionofourlordjesuschrist catholic medicalguardian 3 1925 126 32 R lumpkin thephysical sufferingofofchristChrist jourouramromr

nalofthe

medical association of the state ofalabama 47

1978 8- 10

810 S M


17/17

searchforsearchforporthe physicalcause ofjesusofjesusfesus christs death 109

tenney on death by crucifixion letter americanheartjournalheartjournal 68 196428687286 87 zugibe two questions about crucifixion 40 41 zugibe death by

crucifixion 111311 13iolelolele becbee the death of the cross 130311303130150 3311 J R whitaker the physicalcauseof the death ofourlord catholic medical guardian 13 1935 878887 88

hughjhughhughaJ schonfield the passover plotplokpiotprok new lighton the historyofjesusofjesusnewyork bantam 1965 J G bourne theresurrection ofchrist Aremark-

able medical theory london sunday times january 24 1965 C C P clarkdarkoarkwhat was the physical cause of the death ofjesus christ medical record 381890 543 W B primrose Asurgeon looks atthecrucifixion hibbartjourhibbartjour-

nal47 no 4 1949 38288382 88

for a review of the judicial irregularities associated with christs trialsbefore thejewish sanhedrin see R bucklin the legal and medical aspects ofthetrial and death ofchrist medicine scienceandthe law 10 1970 142614 26

13 13margaretmargaret lloyd davies and trevor A lloydlioyd davies resurrection orResuscitationresuscitationjournalresuscitationomrnJournal ofthe royal college ofphysicians oflondon 25 april1991 16770167 70

see schonfield the passover plot bourne the resurrection ofchristAremarkable medicaltheory clarkdarkoark whatwas thephysical causeof the deathofjesus christ 543 primrose Asurgeon looks at thecrucifixion 38288382 88

lloydlioyd davies and lloyddavies resurrection or resuscitation 1685alfredAIfredsalfred edersheim the life and times ofjesusofjesus the messiah 2 vols newyork N Y longmans green 1899 2614152614 15 talmagejetalmagejesusTalmagetaimagejejesusthechrist 668 69

death may be averted by applyingcardiopulmonaryresuscitation or CPRas a temporizingmeasureto mechanically force blood through theheart by com-pressing itbetween the sternum and spinal column it is estimated that CPR may

deliver approximately 10 percent of normal cardiac output which may beenough to perfuse the brain for a short period of time ifcoordinated cardiacactivitycan be restored throughthe timely administration ofan electrical shock

normal pumping action may berestored insomeinstances8 zugibe8zugibe death by crucifixion 8118 1119latterlatter day prophets have indicated that thepains ofgethsemane and the

horrors ofthe atonementreturned to christ in his final hours on the cross see

talmagejesustalmagetaimage jesus the christ 66061660 61 and bruce R mcconkie A newwitnesswitnessforforrorthearticles ofeaithfaith salt lakecity deseret book 1985 109

more holiness give me in hymns oftrethe church ofjesusofjesus christ oflatterday saints salt lake city thechurch ofjesus christ oflatterutter daysaints1985 no 131

the search for the physical cause of jesus christ’s death

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