the scramble for africa part 1-the slave

8/19/2019 The Scramble for Africa Part 1-The Slave

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-scramble-for-africa-part-1-the-slave 1/56



http:??***mapsof*orldcom?physical-map?maps?africa-physical-map3pg

!he Sahara Desert spans most of North Africa @t consists of roc& ratherthan sandy stretches interspersed "y *aterholes or oases @t is a desertregion that is dry, hot during the summer, and dry during the *inter !his isa region of nomadic peoples li%ing in tents, oasis agriculture, in *hich camelsare used for transportation

North of the Sahara along the shores of 4editerranean Africa is anarro* region in *hich the climate is similar to that of southern Europe @tincludes the Atlas 4ountains, the Spanish @fni, northern 4orocco, Algeria, !unisia, a coastal strip to !ripolitania, and an upland in Cyrenaica, Li"ya Atthe higher ele%ations there are deciduous and coniferous trees, and at lo*er

ele%ations cedars and cor& oa& trees, !he crops that *ere gro*n in NorthAfrica *ith its 4editerranean climate similar to the ertile Crescent of the4iddle East, including "arley, *heat, peas, "eans, lemons, almonds, ;gs,grapes, and oli%es

http://www.mapsofworld.com/physical-map/maps/africa-physical-map.jpg

http://www.mapsofworld.com/physical-map/maps/africa-physical-map.jpg



http:??astatictrunitynet?images?$2?F?scale?saharaGdesertG>3pg

!o the south of the Sahara is the Sahel, *hich is a "orderland "et*eenthe desert and the sa%anna @t consists of semi-arid grasslands, *oodlands,and shru"lands interspersed *ith isolated plateaus and mountain ranges @tis the oldest region in Africa of agricultural culti%ation, *here as early as BC sorghum and African rice *ere gro*n !he domestic uinea fo*loriginated here at a"out the same time Along the "end of the Niger 6i%er in*hat is today the country of 4ali, *ere situated the trading to*ns of

!im"u&tu, ao, and D3ennH @n the Sahel, *here the rains come in thesummer rather than the *inter, the crops are sorghum and pearl millet,*hich Diamond calls 'the staple cereals of much of su"-Saharan Africa)F

!he sa%anna is the grasslands and forest region @t is hot and humid insummer and dry and *arm in *inter @t consists of steppe grasslands inAngola and *estern South Africa as *ell as a continent *ide strip south ofthe Sahara Desert, open sa%anna 5grassland and *oodland7 in anothercontinent-*ide strip north, east, and south of the rainforest, temperategrassland in eastern South Africa !he region etends from Senegal on the*est to La&e Chad on the east, and as far south as Somalia @n the Ethiopian

highlands the crops include chat 5a narcotic7, enset e 5*hich is li&e "ananas7,noog 5an oily plant7, ;nger millet 5"re*ed into "eer7, and tef 5a grain used toma&e "read7 @n addition coIee is thought to ha%e originated in Ethiopia andspread to Ara"ia and then around the *orld Jest Africa is the home ofAfrican rice, yams, oil palm, and &ola nuts 5a caIeinated narcotic che*ed "yJest Africans7 @n the southern part of the continent these grasslands are&no*n as the veld, *hich comes from is the Dutch and erman *ord veldt or

http://a.static.trunity.net/images/179848/500x340/scale/sahara_desert_02.jpg

http://a.static.trunity.net/images/179848/500x340/scale/sahara_desert_02.jpg



grasslands !he agricultural here traditional ma&es use of hoes *ith somegra.ing animals and people tend to li%e in to*ns

'4ost Americans and many Europeans e/uate nati%e Africans *ith"lac&s, *hite Africans *ith recent intruders, and African racial history *ith

the story of European coloniali.ation and sla%e trading,) *rites Diamond0o*e%er, he adds, 'E%en "efore the arri%al of *hite colonialists, Africaalready har"ored not 3ust "lac&s "ut ;%e of the *orld(s si ma3or di%isionsof humanity, and three of them are con;ned as nati%e to Africa One-/uarterof the *orld(s languages are spo&en there No other continent approachesthis human di%ersity) !he ;%e groups mentioned "y Diamond are "lac&s,*hites, African #ygmies, 8hoisan, and Asians 4ore Asians and *hites li%eoutside Africa today Blac&s formerly li%ed only in Africa, "ut today only#ygmies and 8hoisan li%e only on that continent @n $ AD "lac&s5including <ulus, Somalis, and @"os7 li%ed primarily in the southern Saharaand in su"-Saharan Africa Jhites 5including Egyptians, Li"yans, and

4oroccans7 li%ed in the northern Sahara and the northern coastal region ofAfrica !he 8hoisan include "oth the San and the 8hoi, pre%iously &no*n asthe Bushmen and 0ottentot !oday, the names San and 8hoi are preferred !he San *ere hunter-gathers, and the 8hoi *ere herders of li%estoc& !he#ygmies *ere hunters *ho *ere *idespread throughout the e/uatorialforests until they *ere displaced "y Bantu farmers !he #ygmies are the onlyAfrican group that doesn(t ha%e its o*n language @nstead they spea& thelanguages of the people *ho li%e net to them

Africa(s $, languages are classi;ed into ;%e language families: Afro-Aisiatic 5*hich includes the Semitic su"-family7, Niger-Congo 5not-Bantu7,

Niger-Congo 5Bantu7, Nilo-Saharan, 8hoisan, and Austronesian !he Semiticlanguages 5*hich include Aramaic, 0e"re*, and Ara"ic7 according to +osephreen"erg, a linguist at Stanford Kni%ersity, are only one of si "ranches ofthe Afro-Asiatic languages !he Afro-Asiatic region co%ers a large part ofnorth Africa from the Atlantic Ocean, through the southern and eastern4editerranean to the Ara"ian #eninsula to the 0orn of Africa @t is thoughtthat li&e the other Afro-Asiastic languages it arose in Africa and spread to theNear East !he Afro-Asiatic-spea&ing Caucasians *hich include ;%e linguisticsu"groups: the 0amito-Semitic *hich originated in Ara"ia and 4esopotamia,the Ber"er along the north*est coast of Africa, the Ancient Egyptian in themiddle Nile %alley, the Chadic in the Sahara 5after *hich the country of Chad

is named7 !he Negro population in the upper Nile =alley had a distinctlanguage family &no*n as Sudanic 5after *hich the country of Sudan *asnamed7, including !*i 5the language of the Ashanti-anti people of the oldCoast7, E*e 5the language of the !ogoland7, oru"a and Dahomey 5inNigeria7, Jolof or +olof 5spo&en in am"ia and Senegal7, !emne and 4ende5in Sierra Leone7, 4andingo 5in central Sudan7, @"o, Nupe, and E;& 5in easternSudan7



!he other ma3or language families in Africa include the Nilo-Sharanlanguages found in poc&ets in north central Africa, the Niger-Congolanguages found along the Jest Africa and the Congo 6i%er "asin, the Bantulanguages 5*hich is a "ranch of the Niger-Congo family7 found %astsa%annahs of south central Africa, and the 8hosian languages found in South

Africa and other poc&ets such as !an.ania !he Niger-Congo spea&ingpeoples include the 4ande or 4andingo in *estern Sahara, the Adama*a-Eastern in the eastern Sahara, and the Bantu in southeastern Nigeria and theCameroon 0ighlands, including 8ongo 'E%idently,) Diamond says, 'theNiger-Congo language family arose in Jest Africa1 the Bantu "ranch of itarose at the east end of that range, in Cameroon and Nigeria1 and the Bantuthen spread out of that homeland o%er most of su"e/uatorial Africa !hatspread must ha%e "egun long ago enough that the ancestral Bantu languagehad time to split into daughter languages) !he Bantu epanded fromthe Cameroon 0ighlands into the rainforest and pushed the #ygmy furtherinto the interior rom there the Bantus pushed into the sa%anna lands

Diamond says that 'all of Africa(s indigenous cropsMthose of the Sahel,Ethiopia, and East AfricaMoriginated north of the e/uator Not a singleAfrican crop originated south of it !his already gi%e us a hint *hy spea&ersof the Niger-Congo languages, stemming from north of the e/uator, *erea"le to displace Africa(s #ygmies and su"e/uatorial 8hoisan people)



http:??***nationsonlineorg?maps?African-language-map>png

As early as > BC iron-ma&ing *as "rought "y the Ber"er tradersfrom Egypt to the *estern Sudan, *hich lead to the de%elopment of the earlyAfrican &ingdom of hana Other metals such as "ron.e and "rass *erede%eloped "y the people of the uinea Coast and the Congo 4etal toolsena"led them to ma&e door posts, "oes, stools, mas&s, and drums from*ood and human and animal forms car%ed in i%ory One of the early items oftrade *ithin Africa *as salt, *hich *as rare in the Sudan region "et*een theSahara and the rain forest !he Ber"ers de%eloped har%ested salt in thenorth-central deserts *hich they echanged for gold and Negro sla%es to*or& in the salt *or&s !he Ber"ers also had camels to transport the saltacross the Sahara to peoples of the Niger Basin Salt also contri"uted in the

rise to po*er of the Empire of hana, *hich gained control of the mid-Saharasalt mines, "ut not the gold mines to the south at the head*aters of theNiger 6i%er !he #hoenicians founded the city of Carthage in the ninthcentury BC and introduced "ron.e and iron ma&ing @n the second centuryB C the 6omans con/uered Carthage and introduced irrigation systems andmonopoli.ed trade *ith central Africa @t "ecame part of the By.antineEmpire in ;fth and sith centuries AD

http://www.nationsonline.org/maps/African-language-map2.png

http://www.nationsonline.org/maps/African-language-map2.png



http:??farrell*orldcultures&arnscity*i&ispacesnet?;le?%ie*?AfricaGJestGAfricanG8ingdoms3pg?$2?F$?AfricaGJestGAfricanG8ingdoms3pg

Around $>F the 4andin&a ruler Sundiata 8eita o%erthre* the &ingdomof hana and esta"lished the 4uslim &ingdom of 4ali Sundiata "ecame&no*n as the 'Lion 8ing of 4ali) in an epic poem of the 4andin&a people

that *ent into oral tradition through retelling "y generations of griot5storytellers7 One of his successors *as 4ansa 4usa, *ho in $F> made alegendary pilgrimage to 4ecca *ith an entourage consisting of , men,$>, sla%es, and camels "earing gold that he distri"uted to the pooralong the *ay @t is thought that his pilgrimage *as the "eginning of thestoried *ealth of the Niger 6i%er region A signi;cant num"er of 4andin&a*ere "rought to North America as part of the trans-Atlantic sla%e trade !oday, the 4andin&a people are distri"uted in se%eral Jest African countries,including the am"ia, uinea, 4ali, Sierra Leon, the @%ory Coast, Senegal,Bur&ina aso, Li"eria, uindea-Bissau, Niger, and 4auritania

!he oru"a are "lac& Africa(s largest population !he oru"a state ofOyo 5near @"adan in modern Nigeria7 had de%eloped stone car%ing, iron-ma&ing, and "ron.e-*or&ing As Songhai and @slam infringed from the northand Benin from the south, the oru"a had to de%elop a military organi.ation"y the end of the siteenth century 6o"ert arris !hompson *rites: 'oru"aur"anism is ancient, dating to the 4iddle Ages, *hen their holy city, @le-@fe,*here the oru"a "elie%e the *orld "egan, *as 9ourishing *ith an artisticforce that later pro%o&e astonishment in the Jest)2 On the sa%annas to the

http://farrellworldcultures.karnscity.wikispaces.net/file/view/Africa_West_African_Kingdoms.jpg/196474800/391x448/Africa_West_African_Kingdoms.jpg






northeast of the oru"a *ere the 0ausa people Both the anti and theAshanti ac/uired sla%es from the interior and sold them to the EuropeansJiedner *rites that 'Before the end of the se%enteenth century the Ashantihad changed from a peaceful, agricultural people into a military alliance thatepanded ;rst "y con/uest, then "y threat and persuasion) !he Ashanti

ac/uired salt, tools, and European goods "y trade *ith the anti and throughthis trade the sa%anna tri"es "ecame dependent on the Ashanti !hedemand for sla%es in America in the eighteenth century resulted in theAshanti o"taining an arsenal of arms and ammunition After $ theAshanti tried to push out the anti as the middle man in this trade

!o the *est of the oru"a *ere the Ashanti people in present-dayhana !hey *ere descendants of the A&an people *ho migrated from theupper reaches of the =olta 6i%er in the thirteenth century AD to the regionof the lo*er =olta occupied "y the a people !he Ashanti "ecame the mainproducers of gold from inland regions the upper Niger Another A&an people

&no*n as the anti settled along the old Coast 3ust *est of the a !he#ortuguese made treaties *ith the anti tri"es at a trading posted theyesta"lished in $> at Elmina on the old Coast to echange gold from theinterior for salt, cloth, and tools

'@n all Jest Africa south of the Sahara, and in the Congo, agriculture isthe mainstay of the producti%e economy, though in the northern sa%annacountry herding is also important @n all the area gardening is done *ith thehoe, the hea%y agricultural *or& "eing performed "y the men, the crops"eing tended "y *omen,) *rites 4el%ille 0ers&o%its '@n addition to the "asicagricultural organi.ations are %arious craft groupings, *hich re9ect a di%ision

of la"or that ma&es for speciali.ation in %arious callingsMiron*or&ers, cloth*ea%ers, *ood car%ers, traders, dealers in o"3ect of supernatural moment,potters, "as&et ma&ers)

+ared Diamond poses the /uestion: 'Jhy Europeans *ere the ones tocoloni.e su"-Saharan Africa) and not the other *ay around 0is ans*ers are;rst, Eurasia nati%e animals *ere co*s, sheep, goats, horse, and pits that*ere easily domesticated, *hereas the nati%e animals of Africa, such as"uIalo, .e"ra, "ush pig, rhino, and hippopotamus *ere not easilydomesticated 0e notes, ho*e%er, that 0anni"al had 'tamed) Africanelephants in his unsuccessful *ar against 6ome Second, Eurasia had

de%eloped more domestic plants than the Sahel, Ethiopia, and Jest Africa !hird, only a"out a third of the African continent is located in the su"-Saharan region north of the e/uator, occupied "y farmers and herders "efore$ BC !hus, Diamond claims 'all other things "eing e/ual, more land andmore people mean more competing societies and in%entions, hence a fasterpace of de%elopment) inally, Diamond maintains that Africa(s main ais isnorth-south, *hereas Eurasia(s is east-*est 'As one mo%ed along a north-south ais, one tra%erses .ones diIering greatly in climate, ha"itat, rainfall,



day length, and diseases of crops and li%estoc& 0ence crops and animalsdomesticated or ac/uired in one part of Africa had great diPculty mo%ing toother parts)$

Knder #rince 0enry the Na%igator that #ortugal sought to open a sea

route to the gold mines on the *est coast of Africa to "ypass the 4oors andthe Sahara desert 0e sent ships to trade for gold and Negro sla%es as earlyas $$, ;rst from the Ber"ers at Arguin 5modern 4auritania7 and later "ythe time of his death in $ from the so-called old Coast @t *as in thistrade that Christopher Colum"us of enoa gained his initial na%igationaleperience in the employ of the #ortuguese By the $s the #ortuguese*ere o"taining gold on the so-called old Coast, at the mouth of the Senegal6i%er and at El 4ina in the ulf of uinea @n $2 =asco de ama na%igatedaround the Cape and, according to #a&enham, 'opened up the sea*ay to the@ndies !he sea*ay supplanted the land route across Asia, and long the coastof Africa lay the main road of *orld trade) @n 4arch $ da ama

na%igated along the east coast of Africa he came upon <en3 ports of 4uslimtraders 'At the same moment a ne* &ind of African eport came on themar&et, *hich *as e%en more important for *orld trade during the net Fyears than African gold had "een in the 4iddle Ages)$$ !his *as the trade insla%es along the so-called Sla%e Coast *est of the Niger 6i%er destined forplantations in Bra.il, the Jest @ndies, and North America @n response to the#ortuguese traders the oru"a along the Niger Delta made the Dahomeansinto their %assals in a military confederation

Bet*een $ and $$ Afonso d(Al"u/uer/ue completed thecon/uest of all the Ara", @ndian, and 4alayan entrepQts on the east coast of

Africa and the trade routes from 4o.am"i/ue to 0ormu. in #ersia, 4alaccaon the 4alay Straits, and oa on the @ndian su"continent !he #ortuguesetoo& o%er the trade in 4onomotapa gold, sla%es, and i%ory from East Africa inechange for Asian cloth, metal products and glass*or& #ortuguese andoan settlers *ere encouraged create large plantations on the upperreaches of the <am"e.i 6i%er 0o*e%er, #ortugal(s main interest *as in oaand the Spice @sland rather than Africa !he 4om"asa, 4alini, and 8il*apeople, *ho had "een ruled for years "y the Ara"s, disli&ed the tri"utes andtrade restrictions that *ere imposed upon them Starting in $>> Omanhelped e%ict the #ortuguese from East Africa, and "y $ the coast *asmostly Ara" dominated @n response to the #ortuguese traders the oru"a

along the Niger Delta made the Dahomeans into their %assals in a militaryconfederation

!o the *est of the oru"a *ere the Ashanti people in present-dayhana !hey *ere descendants of the A&an people *ho migrated from theupper reaches of the =olta 6i%er in the thirteenth century AD to the regionof the lo*er =olta occupied "y the a people !he Ashanti "ecame the mainproducers of gold from inland regions the upper Niger Another A&an people



&no*n as the anti settled along the old Coast 3ust *est of the a !he#ortuguese made treaties *ith the anti tri"es at a trading posted theyesta"lished in $> at Elmina on the old Coast to echange gold from theinterior for salt, cloth, and tools @n $ 8ing #hilip @@ of Spain inherited the#ortuguese, *hich depri%ed #ortugal of its main trading partner, the

Netherlands !he Dutch had "een trying for eight years to "ecomeindependent from Spain @nstead of trading *ith #ortugal, the Dutch "egan tosend its o*n 9eets to @ndia and East Asia

'!he 0ispanic nations of the @"erian peninsula *ere the ;rst to "eginthe sla%e trade, and the last to /uit @n the ;fteenth and siteenth centuries,the Spanish and #ortuguese carried the rudimentary institutions of the SouthAtlantic System from the 4editerranean to the Atlantic @slands, then to SantoDomingo and Bra.il,) *rites #hilip Curtin @n the se%enteenth and eighteenthcenturies, the Dutch, English, and rench dominated the sla%e trade, "ut, inthe nineteenth century, Bra.il and Cu"a accounted for the %ast ma3ority of

sla%es importedMand "y that time the northern po*ers had made their o*nsla%e trade eIecti%ely illegal)$> Donald Jiedner *rites: 'After $F,ho*e%er, Spanish epansion to Cu"a and the American mainland along *ith#ortuguese settlement in underpopulated Bra.il created ne* mar&ets forAfrican sla%es Before $, the old mines near Elmina "egan to gi%e out, sothe anti middlemen "egan supplying sla%es for the Americas)$F @n $2 asthe Bantu people along the south*estern coast of Africa "egan to losepo*er, the #ortuguese esta"lished a sla%e depot at Luanda in present-dayAngola, *hich came to replace the Congo region as the leading pro%ider ofsla%es @n the se%enteenth century, the Dutch Jest @ndia Company usurpedthe sla%e trade from the #ortuguese on the *est coast of Africa !he Dutch

made their o*n treaties *ith the anti and sei.ed control of the #ortuguesefort at Luanda Kntil the $2s the Dutch held a %irtual monopoly on theAtlantic sla%e trade

@n $ a group of London merchants recei%ed a royal charter from8ing Charles @@ for the Company of 6oyal Ad%enturers !rading to Africa @tsleader *as Charles @@(s "rother, +ames, the Du&e of or&, later 8ing +ames @@@ts original purpose *as to eploit the gold ;elds along the Kpper am"ia6i%er, "ut it soon "ecame in%ol%ed in the sla%e trade !he company *asgranted a monopoly o%er English trade *ith Jest Africa @n $ the BritishAdmiral 6o"ert 0olmes attac&ed the Dutch trading posts in Africa, prompting

a *ar "et*een Britain and the Netherlands By $2 the company *ashea%ily in de"t and it lost most of its forts on the Africa coast @n $ a ne*company named the am"ia Ad%enturers *as granted a ten-year license tothe African trade north of the Bight of Benin

@n $2> the earlier company *as restructured as the ne* 6oyal AfricanCompany *ith additional po*ers to esta"lish forts and factories, maintain anarmy, and eercise martial la* in Jest Africa in pursuit of trade in gold,



sil%er, and sla%es Jhen the am"ia Ad%enturers license epired in $2, it*as merged into the royal African Company !he sla%es "ound for America*ere "randed either *ith the letters D for the Du&e of or& or 6AC for 6oyalAfrican Company rom $ to $ the company allied itself *ith amerchant named +ohn Ca"ess Ror Ca"essa and near"y African &ingdoms in

deposing the 8ing of Eguafo 5in hana, today7 and esta"lishing a fort andfactory in the to*n of 8omenda After the lorious 6e%olution in $ the6oyal African Company lost its monopoly and the African trade *as open toall English merchants *ho *ere *illing to pay a ten percent le%y to thecompany After $2F$ the company stopped "uying and transporting sla%es infa%or of trade in i%ory and gold dust !he gold *as sold to the English 4int to"e made into gold coins &no*n as guineas @n $2> the 6oyal AfricanCompany *as dissol%ed and it *as succeeded "y the African Company of4erchants

@n +une $2 nine mem"ers of the Saturday(s Clu" 5an elite eating

clu"7 met at Al"ans !a%ern in London Among those present *ere Sir +osephBan&s, a *ealthy and in9uential "otanist *ho had accompanied Captain +ames Coo& on his ;rst epedition around the *orld1 0enry Beaufoy, aTua&er a"olitionist *ho *as also a 4em"er of #arliament1 the Bishop ofLlandaI, a scientist and a"olitionist1 Sir +oh Sinclair, a mathematician *holater "ecame go%ernor-general of @ndia1 and Lord 6a*don, *ho commandedBritish forces at the Battle of Bun&er 0ill during the American 6e%olution,later "ecame the go%ernor of Bengal and o*ner of the island of Singapore Atthis meeting the group founded the Association for #romoting and theDisco%ery of the @nterior or Africa, later &no*n simply as the AfricanAssociation @ts ;rst goal *as to eplore the Niger 6i%er and disco%er the

ancient city of !im"u&tu '!hough the prospect of pro;ta"le commerce *iththe un&no*n continent *as certainly a moti%ating factor 5it *as pro"a"ly noaccident that the St Al"ans *orthies set their sights on Africa so soon afterEngland lost her %ast American territories, only ;%e years "efore, in $2F7,the group had more no"le moti%es as *ell: the a"olition of the sla%e tradeand a sincere desire of 8no*ledge)$

!he main port in the 8ingdom of Dahomey on the uinea Coast *asJhydah, a"out $ into the interior '!here are no traditions among thesepeople that they acted as middlemen for traders farther inland1 they *ere, infact, a%oided "y the merchant fol&, such as the 0ausa, since the stranger in

their &ingdom *as himself fair game,) says 0ers&o%its '!he peoples raided"y the Dahomeans li%ed no farther from the coast than > miles, *hilemost of their %ictims came from much near !ri"es to the east and *est,rather than to the north, *ere the easiest prey, and hence the Nago 5oru"a7of Nigeria and the people of the present !ogoland are found to ;gure mostprominently in nati%e lists of the annual campaigns)$



Both the anti and the Ashanti ac/uired sla%es from the interior andsold them to the Europeans Jiedner *rites: 'Before the end of these%enteenth century the Ashanti had changed from a peaceful, agriculturalpeople into a military alliance that epanded ;rst "y con/uest, then "ythreat and persuasion)$ !he Ashanti ac/uired salt, tools, and European

goods "y trade *ith the anti and through this trade the sa%anna tri"es"ecame dependent on the Ashanti !he demand for sla%es in America in theeighteenth century resulted in the Ashanti o"taining an arsenal of arms andammunition

After $ the Ashanti tried to push out the anti as the middle man inthis trade !he oru"a state of Oyo 5near @"adan in modern Nigeria7 hadde%eloped stone car%ing, iron-ma&ing, and "ron.e-*or&ing As Songhai and@slam infringed from the north and Benin from the south, the oru"a had tode%elop a military organi.ation "y the end of the siteenth century Bet*een$2> and $2> the 8ing of Dahomey con/uered much of the coast and

"ecame middle-men in the sla%e trade !he Dahomeans enlisted an elitecorps of %irgin *omen &no*n as Ama.ons to con/uer neigh"oring statessuch as the Ouidah 5or Jhydah7 @n the mid-nineteenth century Dahomeyattempted *ith its Ama.on army to ta&e control the port at Lagos, "ut failed@n $$ the port *as occupied "y Britain

On the sa%annas to the northeast of the oru"a *ere the 0ausa people8ano *as a 0ausa city in northern Nigeria @t is located "et*een and miles from the coast Bet*een $ and $> the ulani leader Ksuman5Othman7 dan odio fought against the 0ausa states and e%entuallycon/uered parts of oru"aland and the old Songhai !he ulani Empire

launched sla%e raids in the Cameroon 0ighlands 0is lieutenant AhmaduLo"o etended ulani control o%er the 4andingoes *ho li%ed "et *een theNiger and Senegal ri%ers Ahmadu Lo"o esta"lished the 4assina Empire @n$F the !uscolor Negroes on the eastern "order of Senegal came under thecontrol of El 0ad3 Omar !he !uscalor etended their control to*ard Senegaland the Niger =alley under Omar and his son Ahmadu Lo"o @@ @n $2 a4uslim commoner named Samory "ecame the leader of the 4andingoes inthe southeastern section of the rench colony Both the !uscolor and the4andingoes attac&ed the JoloI tri"es that *ere allied *ith the renchcolonists Napoleon @@@ sent as go%ernor of Senegal eneral Louis aidher"e,*ho *hen he arri%ed in $ attempted to peacefully contain the

4andingoes and !uscolor By $2 this policy *as not *or&ing, so the renchlaunched a campaign to con/uer the sa%annas o%er the net nineteen years

'Large num"ers of sla%es *ere shipped from the Niger Delta region, asindicated "y the manifests of ships loaded at Cala"ar and Bonny, theprincipal ports,) *rites 0ers&o%its '!hese *ere mainly @"o sla%esrepresenting a people *hich today inha"its a large portion of this region)$2 Cala"ar Negroes *as a generic name for @"o sla%es #hilip Curtain says that



there t*o tendencies at *or& in designating the African places of origin inthe oPcial records 'One *as the European ha"it of identifying nationalitiescustomarily shipped from a particular African port "y the name of the port,as in the case of USenegalese( !he second *as to pic& one ethnic group orlinguistic term to identify a much larger group, as in the case of UBam"ara(

!hese tendencies ma&e for confusion and o%erlapping terminology !heseo%erlapping %ariants ma&e it diPcult to e/uate ethnic identi;cations *ithparticular coastal regions of the sla%e trade U4andigue( 5or 4andingo inEnglish7 *as originally a term attached to the 4alin&e-spea&ing people of theam"ia %alley, "ut it later spread to all spea&ers of 4ande languages)$

6o"ert arris !hompson notes that, '!he sla%e traders of the early$(s ;rst applied the name U8ongo( solely to the Ba&ongo people !hengradually they used the name to designate any person "rought from the*est coast of Central Africa to America Similiarly, the meaning of UAngola("roadened o%er the centuries UNgola( once referred only to the ruler of the

Ndongo part of the 8im"undu culture in *hat is no* the northern part ofAngola !hen the term "ecame the name of not only modern Angola "utsometimes the *hole *est coast of Central Africa, from Cape Lope. innorth*estern a"on to Benguela on the coast of Angola proper)$

Bet*een $2$ and $$ a"out percent of the o%erall !rans-Atlanticsla%e trade *as conducted "y the rance and England 4ore than 2 percentof the sla%es in the English trade came from the uinea Coast from Cape4ount to the Cameroons> #hilip Curtin identi;es si su"regions:Senegam"ia 5Senegal and am"ia, today71 Sierra Leone 5uinea-Coma&ry,uinea-Bissau, and parts of Senegal and Li"eria71 the so-called 'Jind*ard

Coast) 5on either side of Sierra Leone71 the old Coast 5the 6epu"lic ofhana71 and the Bight of Benin 5!ogo and Dahomey71 the Bight of Biafra5centering on the Niger 6i%er Delta from the Benin 6i%er on the *est to CapeLope. in a"on on the south7>$ Lesser num"ers came from 'Angola) 5in its"road sense consisting of most of Central Africa7 and southeastern Africa5from the Cape of ood 0ope to Cape Delgado, including the island of4adagascar7 #hilip Curtin re%ised the total num"er of sla%es imported to theAmericas from $$ to $2 from > million to approimately $ millionAlmost percent of these sla%es *ere not sent to North America, "ut to theAtlantic fringe of South America from Bra.il through the uianas and to thecoast and islands of the Cari""ean !he sla%es from Senegam"ia *ere sent

primarily to the rench Cari""ean island of 4artini/ue and rench uiana>>

6o"ert arris !hompson *rites that 'Africans from 8ongo and Angolashared fundamental "eliefs and languages Jhen they met on theplantations and in the cities of the *estern hemisphere, they fostered theirheritage 8ongo ci%ili.ation and art *ere not o"literated in the Ne* Jorld:they resurface in the coming together, here and there, of numerous sla%esfrom 8ongo and Angola) One of the "est eamples is no the fol& religion



&no*n as =oodoo '!here are thousands of deities in oru"a territory,*estern Nigeria and eastern Benin 6epu"lic, "ut only the most *idely*orshipped and important sur%i%ed the %icissitudes of the Atlantic !rade,)*rites 6o"ert arris !hompson '!hese deities include Eshu, spirit ofindi%iduality and change1 @fV, god of di%ination1 OgW Lord of iron1 emo3a,

goddess of the seas1 Oshun, goddess of s*eet *ater, lo%e, and gi%ing1Oshoosi, god of hunting1 O"aluaiye, dread spirit of disease and earth1 NanaBu&uu, his mother1 ShVngX, the ;ery thunder god, *ho inspired thousands of Afro-Americans 5t*o Afro-American religionsMShVngX in !rinidad and Yangoin 6ecife in Bra.ilM"ear his name7 @n 0aiti occurred a deep synthesis ofthe main forms and tenets of the classical religions of the oru"a, theDahomeans, and the Ba&ong that *as partly informed "y the saints of the6oman Catholic Church and "y their attri"utes !he result *as vodun:formally spea&ing, one of the richest and most misunderstood religions of theplanet)>F

!he %oodoo 5or =odun7 fol& religion *as "rought from 0aiti to Ne*Orleans 0ersho%its notes that #apa LH"at 5in Ne* Orleans7 or #apa Leg"a 5in0aiti7 *ho is related to the Dahomean tric&ster !he Dahomean serpent-godDan 5*ho is the god of good fortune7 is related to Dam"alla 5in 0aiti7 orDanny 5in Ne* Orleans7 0e also mentions the syncretistic association of%oodoo deities *ith Catholic saints '!he identity of Leg"a Ror Li"a andSt #eter follo*s in principle the syncretism of 0aiti1 Li"a, guardian ofgate and crossroads, is concei%ed as St #eter, guardian of the &eys)>

Not only the deities, "ut also the music and instruments ha%e Africanroots '!he Congo orchestra consists of three drums of diIerent si.es called

manman, timebal, and tri-congo,) *rites !hompson '@n their cylindricalshape, dou"le heads and method of head-attachment they are remar&a"lyli&e European drums of *hich they may "e merely copies !he head tensionis o"tained "y t*o *ooden rings Knli&e the other drums *hich arepositioned %ertically or sloped, the timebal is &ept hori.ontal on a chair orsome other support @t is played *ith stic&s @t is the timebal, people say*hich gi%es the true Congo music, the other drums "eing merely there to"ac& it up *ith crié Rcries and ralé Rspells) Al"ert 4Htrau notes that in0aitian =oodoo, '!he drum is not only a musical instrument, it is also asacred o"3ect and e%en the tangi"le form of a di%inity !he mysterious o"3ect*ith *hich it is endo*ed is concei%ed of either as a nanum 5soul7, a sort of

%aguely de;ned life-force, or as spirit called huntó, a Dahomean *ord usedalso for the "ig manman drum and the man *ho "eats it !ime and againin the course of ceremonies, hungan Rmale priest and mambo Rfemalepriestess *ill &iss the ground in front of the drums and pour out li"erationsto them Sacri;ces and oIerings to the drums are part of the ritualo"ligations of =oodoo societies and constitute a ceremony &no*n as Uputtingthe drums to "ed( 5coucher tambour 7, or bay manger tambour 5feeding thedrums7)>



@n Jest African cultures music, dance, and art are closely related Arthistorian 6o"ert arris !hompson argues that throughout su"-Saharan Africathere is a '"road conception of dance) in *hich 'dance is *idely is notrestricted to the mo%ing human "ody, "ut can com"ine in certain contets

*ith things and o"3ects, granting them autonomy in art, intensifying theali%eness of an image must em"ody to function as a *or& of art Africathus introduces a diIerent art history, a history of danced art, de;ned in the"lending of mo%ement and sculpture, tetiles, and other forms, "ringing into"eing their o*n inherent goodness and %itality) !hompson argues that theconcept of 'etting do*n) is essential "oth to African art and dance 0enotes that '*ater-spirit dancers in oru"aland insist that *hen the sound ofthe master drummer ascends in pitch the dancers correspond "y dancingUhigh,( ie, upon their toes, to the maimum %ertical etent of their frameBut they "end, gradually, closer to the earth, as they dance until, at onepoint, they crouch and *hirl)>

https:??niiash;les*ordpresscom?>$?$>?fanti-dance-gold-coast-$F-3ames-ed*ard-aleander-narrati%e-of-a-%oyage-of-o"ser%ation-among-the-colonies-of-*estern-africa-london-$F23pg

0e compares that posture seen in @"i"io female sculpture from Nigeria

https://niiash.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/fanti-dance-gold-coast-1835-james-edward-alexander-narrative-of-a-voyage-of-observation-among-the-colonies-of-western-africa-london-1837.jpg








http:??***tri"al-art-au&tionde?en?catalogue$?d$GF>$?

Another musical characteristic of Jest African music is the call-and-responsethat !hompson sees replicated in the solo-and-circle or solo-and-line inAfrican dance

Stanley *atching the dance of the Bandusumma at Krisihttp:??image*e"-cdnmagnoliasoftnet?"ridgeman?fullsi.e?&*$23pg

Alfred 4etrau says that 'Dance is so closely lin&ed *ith the *orship of loa Rspirit or demon that =oodoo can "e regarded as one of the Udancedreligions Dancing is a ritual act from *hich emanates a po*er that aIectsthe supernatural *orld Drum rhythms and dances attract the spirits !hat is*hy they are assigned a predominating role in nearly all ceremonies @f themusic and dancing pleases to such an etent that they are aIected, e%enagainst their *ill, then it is "ecause they themsel%es are dancers *ho allo*themsel%es to "e carried a*ay "y the supernatural po*er of rhythm)>2

http://www.tribal-art-auktion.de/en/catalogue164/d10_321/

http://imageweb-cdn.magnoliasoft.net/bridgeman/fullsize/kw441407.jpg

http://www.tribal-art-auktion.de/en/catalogue164/d10_321/

http://imageweb-cdn.magnoliasoft.net/bridgeman/fullsize/kw441407.jpg



!here are also Jest African sur%i%als so-called 'day names) gi%en tochildren according to the day of the *ee& on *hich they *ere "orn, foreample, the male Cud3o and female +u"a for 4onday, the male CuIee orCuIy and the female #he"a or #hi""i for riday, and the male 8*ame and

female 4im"a for Saturday An African-American rhythmic se/uence "yslapping one(s hands to the &nees or to the chest called 'patting 3u"a)5&no*n as ham"one in 8entuc&y7 or dancing to this slapping rhythm &no*nas dancing '+u"a)> +u"a 5or 3i""a, 3i"a7 *as the name sla%es ga%e to a ste*made up of the *ee&(s lefto%ers from the plantation house, *hich *as fed tothem @t "ecame the "asis of a sla%e song

+u"a dis and +u"a dat,and +u"a &illed da yello* cat, ou sift the meal and ya gimme the hus&,you "a&e the "read and ya gimme the crust,

you eat the meat and ya gimme the s&in,and thatZs the *ay,my mamaZs trou"les "egin>

+ L Dillard distinguishes "et*een African sur%i%als and #idgin English0e de;nes a pidgin as 'a language *hich has no nati%e spea&ers Jhenthe pidgin "ecomes the only language of a speech community, it then"ecomes a Creole) 0e states that: 'Although many of the sla%es may notha%e had to relin/uish their African languages immediately, they all foundthemsel%es in a situation in *hich they had to learn an auiliary language ina hurry in order to esta"lish communication in the heterogeneous groups into

*hich they *ere thro*n !his miing of spea&ers of a large num"er oflanguages, *ith no lone language predominant, is the perfection conditionfor the spread of a pidgin language, *hich is in a sense the ultimate inauiliary languages)F Dillard says that #idgin English "ecame the languageof most sla%es in *hat is today the continental Knited States 0e cautions,ho*e%er, contrary to popular misconception, a pidgin is not a derogatoryterm to linguistics



http:??upload*i&imediaorg?*i&ipedia?commons?F?F$?Sla%eDanceandG4usic3pg

A fol& painting titled The Old Plantation in the A""y Aldrich 6oc&efeller

ol& Art Collection, *hich *as found in South Carolina, contains many ofthese African sur%i%als Both men and *omen in front of the sla%e ca"ins are*earing head&erchiefs 0ersho%its also says that the head&erchief *as aJest African cultural sur%i%al in the Knited States, the Jest @ndies, and theSouth American country of uiana '!he head&erchief *as common enoughso that it came to "e accepted as the integral part of the con%entionalportrait of the Negro Umammy,() *rites 0ersh&o%its 0e notes that inCharleston, South Carolina, married *omen *ore a 'peculiarly-tied) &erchiefon their heads @n 0aiti mambos 5=oodoo priestesses7 *ear *hitehead&erchiefs !he central male ;gure is dancing *ith a stic& According toErrol 0ill, the stic& dance &no*n as the Calinda, *hich he says is 'pro"a"ly of

African origin, that "ecame part of the Carni%al cele"ration in the Jest@ndies '@t *as *itnessed in Be/uia, a small island dependency of St =incent,"y E L +oseph, *ho descri"ed it in $F as an agile, deterous danceperformed to Negro drums, *hile the dancers engaged in moc& com"at *iththeir U"eau-stic&s,( *hich *ere a"out thirty inches in length Lafcadio0earn also sa* a Uholiday caleinda( danced in 4artini/ue in $, *hen it*as accompanied "y song-chants as *ell as drums, and, in the eighteenthcentury, sla%es in San Domingo *ere heard singing calinda airs to entertainthemsel%es in the e%ening)F$

One of the musicians is playing the "an3o !he antecedent of the American

"an3o can "e found in %arious African gourd instruments 6ichard +o"son, anearly tra%eler to am"ia from $> to $>$, *rote: [!here is, *ithout dou"t,no people on the earth more naturally aIected to the sound of music&e thenthese people !hey ha%e little %arietie of instruments, that *hich is mostcommon in use, is made of a great gourd, and a nec&e thereunto fastened,resem"ling, in some sort, our Bandora1 "ut they ha%e no manner of fret, andthe strings they are either such as the place yeeldes, or their in%ention canattaine to ma&e, "eing %ery unapt to yeeld a s*eete and musicall sound,

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/SlaveDanceand_Music.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/SlaveDanceand_Music.jpg



not*ithstanding *ith pinnes they *inde and "ring to agree in tuna"le notes,ha%ing not a"o%e si strings upon their greatest instrument [ AnotherEuropean tra%eler, !homas Ed*ard Bo*dich, *rote in $$: [!he 4osees,4allo*as, Bournous and nati%es from the more remote parts of the interior,play on a rude %iolin: the "ody is a cala"ash, the top is co%ered *ith deer

s&in, and t*o large holes are cut in it for the sound to escape1 the strings, orrather one string, is composed of co*Zs hair, and "road li&e that of the "o**ith *hich they play, *hich resem"les the "o* of a %iolin)

!he earliest reference to the instrument as a "an3o *as a $reference to a Jest @ndian instrument made from a gourd *ith a nec& andstrings made of horse hair that *as either strummed or "o*ed 'related tothe banza @n 4arch $2 +ohann Da%id Schoepf descri"ed an instrumentcarried "y sla%es on a sla%e ship in the Bahamas that he calls a Banjah'O%er a hollo* cala"ash 5Cucerb lagenaria L7 is stretched a sheeps&in, theinstrument lengthened *ith a nec&, strung *ith four strings\ @n America and

on the @slands they ma&e use of this instrument greatly for dance) @n hisNotes on the State of =irginia 5$2$-$2>7, !homas +eIerson *rites: [!heinstrument proper to them RSla%es is the Banjar , *hich they "rought hitherfrom Africa, and *hich is the original of the guitar, its chords "eing preciselythe four lo*er chords of the guitar[ @n $22 Nicholas Cres*ell notes a gourd"an3o in 4aryland: 'R!hey RNegroes generally meet together and amusethemsel%es *ith Dancing to the Ban3o !his musical instrument 5if it may "eso called7 is made of a ourd something in the imitation of a guitar, *ith onlyfour strings and played *ith the ;ngers in the same manner[

Another musician is playing an hourglass-shaped drum &no*n as a

'tal&ing drum) @t has t*o drumheads connected "y leather tension cords,*hich allo* the player to modulate the pitch of the drum "y s/uee.ing thecords "et*een his arm and "ody, there"y mimic&ing human speech !hedrum is "eaten "y one or t*o cur%ed or straight stic&s !hese drums are&no*n as !ondo or Odondo in the A&an languages 5ante, !*i, Baoule7 and!undun or "angan in oru"a !hese drums *ere used "y the Jest Africangriots 5storytellers7, and their origin can "e traced "ac& to the hana Empire



oru"an tal&ing-drummers !he man on left holding omelo a#o and bat$ and theother t*o men holding dondunshttp:??en*i&ipediaorg?*i&i?!al&ingGdrum]media%ie*er?ile:8*arastatedrummers3pg

!he a"olition of the sla%e trade and sla%ery itself in the Jestern0emisphere *as accomplished piecemeal !he 0aitian 6e%olution of $2$"egan as a sla%e re"ellion, and its leader !oussaint L(Ou%erture in $$*rote a constitution that a"olished sla%ery in the ;rst "lac& repu"lic in theAmericas 6e%olutionary rance a"olished sla%ery $2, "ut Napoleon

restored sla%ery in the rench colonies in $> @n $2 Britain "anned thesla%e trade, and in $F it "anned sla%ery as *ell Knder the KSConstitution of $22 the international sla%e trade *as to "e ended in $By $ all the northern states had a"olished sla%ery 5some "y a graduala"olition under only the children "orn to sla%e parents *ould "e free7, "ut it*asn(t until after the Ci%il Jar that sla%ery *as a"olished throughout theKnited States under the !hirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, rati;edin Decem"er $ Spain a"olished sla%ery at home and all its colonies5ecept Cu"a, #uerto 6ico, and Santo Domingo7 in $$$ Cu"a a"olished thesla%e trade in $>, "ut didn(t a"olish sla%ery until $ Spain a"olishedsla%ery in its colony of #uerto 6ico in $2F Santo Domingo a"olished sla%ery

in $>>, *hich *as con;rmed in $ under its ne* constitution as theDominican 6epu"lic @n $>$ SimXn Bol^%ar gradually a"olished sla%ery inran Colom"ia 5=ene.uela, Colom"ia, E/uator, and #anama7 Bra.il a"olishedthe sla%e trade in $F$, "ut it *as seldom enforced prior to $

'By the $s, *est coast merchants had found accepta"lealternati%es to the for"idden mar&et in sla%es,) *rites #a&enham '!hesteam"oats, carrying Birmingham "uttons and 4anchester cottons to Africa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drum#mediaviewer/File:Kwarastatedrummers.jpg






in echange for oil and nuts, also carried a ne* generation of eplorers totry, *ith od(s help, to open the interior)F> @n the mid-nineteenth centuryrance epanded its holding from "ases on the @%ory Coast into Dahomeyand the mouth of the Senegal 6i%er !hese holdings "ecame renchE/uatorial Africa @n competition *ith the rench, Britain epanded its holds

from the old Coast, Nigeria, and the Cro*n colony of Sierra Leone,esta"lished as a homeland for freed sla%es #ortugal(s claims to #ortugueseuinea, Angola, and 4o.am"i/ue *ere recogni.ed "y rance and ermanyas an attempt to stop British epansion in southern Africa

'@n the 4iddle Ages Africa had "een the El Dorado, the gilded place,)*rites !homas #a&enham '!*o thirds of the *orld(s gold supply in the late4iddle Ages came from Jest Africa)FF @n the fourteenth century 4ansa4usa, the &ing of 4ali, arri%ed in Cairo on a pilgrimage to 4ecca *ith sla%es each carrying four pounds of gold !his "egan a cara%an trade acrossthe Sahara Desert from +enne and !im"uctu Europeans minted the gold into

coins for use in the de%eloping trade for sil& in China and spices in the4oluccas '!o tap this Jest African gold *as one of the principle aims of the#ortuguese na%igators of the ;fteenth century No one &ne* *here, "eyondthe Sahara, in *hat &ingdoms of forest or s*amp, the tric&le of goldoriginated But the #ortuguese sa* they could di%ert this trade from @taly to#ortugal if they could ;nd a direct sea*ay to and from Jest Africa)F

!im"u&tu is located in central 4ali today, a"out miles north of theNiger 6i%er on the southern edge of the Sahara Desert !im"u&tu issurrounded "y sand dunes, and its streets are co%ered "y sand During mostof the year there is too little rain for traditional agriculture, "ut during therainy season that "egins in +une or +uly African 9oating rice is so*n !he

gro*ing season ends from Septem"er to Decem"er *hen an annual 9oodcaused "y hea%y rain in the head*aters of the Niger and Bani ri%ers in *hatis today the countries of uinea and the northern @%ory Coast !he to*n *assettled in the early t*elfth century as the southern terminus of a trans-Sahara trade route Controlled "y Bera"ich 5or Bara"ish7 tri"e of Ara"ic-spea&ing desert nomads, the trade consisted of salt, gold, i%ory, and sla%esSla"s of roc& salt from the !aoudenni mining center in the Sahara a"out miles of !im"u&tu *ere transported "y large cara%ans of se%eral hundredcamels in a three-*ee& 3ourney to !im"u&tu, *here it *ould "e trans-shipped"y *ater to other places in E/uatorial Africa @n early No%em"er and late4arch the cara%ans *ould depart from !im"u&tu *ith food for the salt

miners



http:??shs*staticcom?gif?*illo*?history-of-maligif

Since around $F AD !im"u&tu *as part of the 4alian Empire, *henit *as a center of trade "y Ara"s, Ber"ers, and "lac& Africans, and some +e*s, =enetians, and #ortuguese in "lac& sla%es from Sudan 5meaning at thattime, the sa%anna and sahel across Africa south of the Sahara7 and gold fromthe gold mines in Jest Africa 5*or&ed "y "lac& sla%es for "lac& and Ara"

masters7 in echange for European manufactured goods, horses, and slatmined in the desert !he Ara"s con/uered this region in the se%enth century'0a%ing ta&en their empire, the Ara"s sealed it oI oreigners *ho dared setfoot in any part of it *ere confronted *ith a harro*ing chose: either ta&e a%o* of a"iding allegiance to @slam, forsa&ing all other loyalties, or facedecapitation)F Nomadic !uareg Ber"er tri"es "rie9y too& control of the city,"ut in $ it "ecame part of the Songhai Empire Jhile the oPcial languageof 4ali, a"out percent of !im"u&tu(s population spea&s 8oyra Chiini, alanguage in the Songhay linguistic family A"out $ percent spea& 0assaniyaAra"ic and another $ percent spea& !amashe& 5spo&en "y "oth @&elan and !uareg ethnic minorities7

http://s.hswstatic.com/gif/willow/history-of-mali0.gif

http://s.hswstatic.com/gif/willow/history-of-mali0.gif



http:??en*i&ipediaorg?*i&i?!im"u&tu]media%ie*er?ile:!im"u&tu-manuscripts-astronomy-mathematics3pg

!im"u&tu *as a center of @slamic learning as early as the thirteenthcentury, "ut under the 4ali and Songhai empires it eperienced its oldenAge !he Songhai ruler As&ia 4ohammad @ 5$-$F7 encouraged a tradein "oo&s and manuscripts from all o%er the @slamic *orld Jealthy merchantfamilies sponsored the esta"lishment of li"raries and madrasahs 5institutionsof learning7 *hich attracted scholars from all o%er North Africa One of thesemadrasahs *as the Sa&ore 4adrasah and 4os/ue Ahmad Ba"a *asperhaps !im"u&tu(s greatest scholar 0e *as "orn in $ in Araouane, asmall %illage in the Sahara Desert 5in 4ali today7 At an early age he mo%ed*ith his father to !im"u&tu to study As a man he *rote more than "oo&s,until $ *hen he *as eiled to 4orocco for sedition, after 4oroccan forcesunder +udar #asha 5a Spanish eunuch7 defeated the Songhai emperor As&ia@sha/ @@ in $$ !he Ahmad Ba"a @nstitute founded in $2F in !im"u&tu isnamed in his honor

http:??en*i&ipediaorg?*i&i?!im"u&tu]media%ie*er?ile:!im"u&tuG4os/ueGSan&ore3pg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktu#mediaviewer/File:Timbuktu-manuscripts-astronomy-mathematics.jpg


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktu#mediaviewer/File:Timbuktu_Mosque_Sankore.jpg








@n $$ a 4oroccan army defeated the Songhai Empire and mo%ed thecapital from ao to !im"u&tu After $$> a foreign elite &no*n as the arma ruled !im"u&tu %irtually independent from 4orocco A Spanish 4oor namedLeo Africanus %isited !im"u&tu as a representati%e of e., "ut he *as ta&en

capti%e "y Christian pirates and presented as a sla%e to #ope Leo Y, *hofreed him @n $> he pu"lished a "oo& titled The %istory and !escri&tion o' ('rica and the )otable Tings Contained Therein

!he houses of !im"u&tu are huts made of clay-co%ered*attles *ith thatched roofs @n the center of the city is a temple"uilt of stone and mortar, "uilt "y an architect named ranata,R@sha& es Sahili el-harnati, "rought to !im"u&tu "y 4ansaSuleyman and in addition there is a large palace, constructed "ythe same architect, *here the &ing li%es !he shops of theartisans, the merchants, and especially *ea%ers of cotton clothare %ery numerous a"rics are also imported from Europe to !im"u&tu, "orne "y Ber"er merchants

!he *omen of the city maintain the custom of %eiling theirfaces, ecept for the sla%es *ho sell all the foodstuIs !heinha"itants are %ery rich, especially the strangers *ho ha%esettled in the country1 so much so that the current &ing RZOmar"en 4ohammed Naddi, not in fact the &ing, "ut representati%e ofthe ruler of the &ingdom of Songhai has gi%en t*o of hisdaughters in marriage to t*o "rothers, "oth "usinessmen, onaccount of their *ealth !here are many *ells containing s*eet

*ater in !im"u&tu1 and in addition, *hen the Niger is in 9oodcanals deli%er the *ater to the city rain and animals area"undant, so that the consumption of mil& and "utter isconsidera"le But salt is in %ery short supply "ecause it is carriedhere from !ega.a, some miles from !im"u&tu @ happened to"e in this city at a time *hen a load of salt sold for eighty ducats !he &ing has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots One ofthese ingots *eighs pounds Ra gross eaggeration

!he royal court is magni;cent and %ery *ell organi.edJhen the &ing goes from one city to another *ith the people of

his court, he rides a camel and the horses are led "y hand "yser%ants @f ;ghting "ecomes necessary, the ser%ants mount thecamels and all the soldiers mount on horse"ac& Jhen someone*ishes to spea& to the &ing, he must &neel "efore him and "o*do*n1 "ut this is only re/uired of those *ho ha%e ne%er "eforespo&en to the &ing, or of am"assadors !he &ing has a"out F,horsemen and in;nity of foot-soldiers armed *ith "o*s made of*ild fennel *hich they use to shoot poisoned arro*s !his &ing

http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/med/leo_afri.asp#2















ma&es *ar only upon neigh"oring enemies and upon those *hodo not *ant to pay him tri"ute Jhen he has gained a %ictory, hehas all of them--e%en the children--sold in the mar&et at !im"u&tu

Only small, poor horses are "orn in this country !hemerchants use them for their %oyages and the courtiers to mo%ea"out the city But the good horses come from Bar"ary !heyarri%e in a cara%an and, ten or t*el%e days later, they are led tothe ruler, *ho ta&es as many as he li&es and pays appropriatelyfor them

!he &ing is a declared enemy of the +e*s 0e *ill not allo*any to li%e in the city @f he hears it said that a Ber"er merchantfre/uents them or does "usiness *ith them, he con;scates hisgoods !here are in !im"u&tu numerous 3udges, teachers andpriests, all properly appointed "y the &ing 0e greatly honors

learning 4any hand-*ritten "oo&s imported from Bar"ary arealso sold !here is more pro;t made from this commerce thanfrom all other merchandise

@nstead of coined money, pure gold nuggets are used1 andfor small purchases, co*rie shells *hich ha%e "een carried from#ersia RCo*rie shells, *idely used for money in Jest Africa,sometimes came in fact from e%en farther a*ay, from the4aladi%e @slands of Southeast Asia, and of *hich e/ual aducat Si and t*o-thirds of their ducats e/ual one 6oman goldounce RA Sudanese gold ducat *ould *eigh $ o.

!he people of !im"u&tu are of a peaceful nature !heyha%e a custom of almost continuously *al&ing a"out the city inthe e%ening 5ecept for those that sell gold7, "et*een $ #4 and$ A4, playing musical instruments and dancing !he citi.ensha%e at their ser%ice many sla%es, "oth men and *omen

!he city is %ery much endangered "y ;re At the time *hen@ *as there on my second %oyage Rpro"a"ly in $$> half the city"urned in the space of ;%e hours But the *ind *as %iolent andthe inha"itants of the other half of the city "egan to mo%e their

"elongings for fear that the other half *ould "urn

!here are no gardens or orchards in the area surrounding !im"u&tuF



















http:??en*i&ipediaorg?*i&i?As&iaG4ohammadG@]media%ie*er?ile:SON0A@GempireGmap#N

@n $ the Songhai con/uered !im"u&tu, and in $2 the to*n of

D3ennH !he Songhai state named after its leading ethnic group, the Songhaipeople, eisted around the Niger 6i%er to*n of ao since the ele%enthcentury !he empire *as ruled "y the Sonni dynasty from a"out $ to $Fand then "y the As&iya dynasty from $F to $$ As&ia @sha/ @@ 5$-$$7 *as the last ruler of the empire 0e *as defeated at the Battle of !ondi"i in $$ "y an army sent ty al-4ansur of 4orocco led "y +udar #asha5a Spanish eunuch7 to ta&e control of the !rans-Saharan trade routes@t is estimated that "et*een the se%enth century to the end of thenineteenth, "et*een and $F million sla%es *ere sent north across theSahara ran& 8ry.a says that '!his is compara"le to the num"ers shippedsea*ard during the four centuries of the Atlantic sla%e trade, though the

Sahara traPc has recei%ed less pu"lic discussion)F2

!he British sent a num"er of epeditions in attempts to cross NorthAfrica !he ;rst *as +ohn Ledyard, an American *ho had li%ed among the@ro/uois, ser%ed in "oth the British na%y and army, sailed *ith Captain Coo&on his last %oyage in *hich he *as &illed in 0a*aii, and tra%eled across6ussia to Si"eria in a failed attempt to esta"lish a fur-eporting "usiness @n +une $2 Ledyard left England for Cairo in attempt to cross Africa from eastto *est, "ut he died in Cairo from an accidental do.e of sulfuric acid "eforehe could proceed further !he second eplorer, Simon Lucas, attempted tocross Africa from north to south Lucas *as a *ine merchant, *ho had gone

to Cadi. as a young man to learn a"out sherry, "ut he *as captured "ypirates and sold as a sla%e to the bey of 4orocco After three years incapti%ity he "ecame the British consul to 4orocco 0e remained in 4oroccofor siteen years, and then returned to London as an Ara"ic interpreter at theCourt of St +ames !he African Society then hired him to proceed toi"raltar, then to !ripoli, and ;nally to e..an 5a desert &ingdom south ofpresent-day Li"ya7 0e left England in August $2, *hile Ledyard *as still inCairo 0e reached !ripoli in Octo"er, "ut the basha* of !ripoli, Ali 8armanli,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askia_Mohammad_I#mediaviewer/File:SONGHAI_empire_map.PNG






*arned him that no Christian had e%er attempted such a trip Despite the*arning Lucas left !ripoli in e"ruary $2 accompanied "y t*o e..anshei&hs *ho said they *ould escort him along the 4editerranean coast to theport city of 4isurata !here he *as *arned a"out *arring tri"es that *ould"loc& his *ay into the interior, and he ;nally decided to a"andon his eIort

and return to England Later in $2 Lucas "ecame the consul to !ripoli

http:??studycom?cimages?multimages?$?"ar"ary-coast-map3pg

'!he regency of !ripoli *as the most important of three &ingdoms onthe southern 4editerranean coast 5Algiers and !unis "eing the t*o others7*hich o*ed their nominal independence to the !ur&ish sultan,) *rites

8ry.aF !ripoli *as ruled "y a basha*, a title e/ui%alent to go%ernor !hebasha* at the time of 4a3or Laing(s arri%al *as usuf 8aramanli @n $$British na%y had impressed usuf Basha* "y its "om"arding Bar"ary Coastpirates in Algiers for ensla%ing Christians !he basha* /uic&ly freed hisDanish, @talian, Spanish and ree& sla%es "efore the British did the same in !ripoli 8ry.a says that, '!he basha* reali.ed that the age of piracy *asending Knder his reign, piratical practices had already "een the cause of *arin $ "et*een !ripolitania and the Knited States @n $$, a com"ineAnglo-rench s/uadron appeared oI the shores of !ripoli !he basha* andother Bar"ary rulers *ere ordered to gi%e up attac&s on 4editerraneanshipping or face grim conse/uences from the *orld(s t*o greatest na%ies)F

!he British Colonial OPce also ingratiated itself *ith the basha* "y pro%idinghim *as a _, loan

http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/barbary-coast-map.jpg

http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/barbary-coast-map.jpg



http:??a&"arncom?pu"licGhtml?AfricanCountry?a"on?am"ia?gam"iaGmapgi f

!he African Association net sent an epedition led "y an @rish ma3ornamed Daniel 0oughton to reach !im"u&tu "y *ay of the mouth of the

am"ia 6i%er on the *est coast of Africa 0e proceeded as far as the rapidsat Barra 8unda alls, *hich *as the farthest inland that one could na%igatethe ri%er rom there he proceeded on foot, "ut he *as lured into the Sahara"y nati%e traders *ho ro""ed and &illed him in $2$ in *hat is today 4ali !he African Association then sent 4ungo #ar&, a Scottish physician *ho had"een a ship(s surgeon on an East @ndia Company ship sent to Sumatra @n4ay $2 #ar& departed for the to*n of +ilifree on the north "an& of theam"ia 6i%er 0e then proceeded inland, despite "eing harassed "y localtri"esmen demanding payments for crossing through their territory At onepoint he *as ta&en prisoner "y 4uslim horsemen *ho *anted to &ill him, "uthe managed to escape 0e managed to o%ercome fe%er, hunger, thirst, andsandstones to emerge from 4uslim territory into the region of the Bam"ara,*ho turned out to "e friendly 0e proceeded east to*ards the to*n of Segou,and in +une $2 he "ecame the ;rst European to reach the Niger 6i%er at apoint at *hich it 9o*ed east*ard into the interior #ar& then *anted to follo*the Niger to !im"u&tu and then continue to the mouth of the ri%er 0o*e%er,he needed to turn "ac& a"out miles from !im"u&tu, and after *anderingfor an entire year ;nally reached the Atlanta in +une $22 "y *ay of theam"ia 6i%er 8ry.a *rites that #ar& '*as the ;rst *hite man to penetratethe for"idding interior of Africa for the sole purpose of ;nding out *hat laythere, and to come "ac& ali%e) #ar& returned to #ee"les, Scotland, topractice medicine One of his friends *as the Scottish no%elists Sir JalterScott

http://akbarn.com/public_html/AfricanCountry/Gabon/Gambia/gambia_map.gif






http:??***mundocuriososencillocom?Con/uista!ierra?@magenes?4ugo#ar&?#ar&routes3pg

#ar& *as con%inced that past !im"u&tu or the great la&e in Jangarathe Niger 6i%er turned south and 9o*ed into the Congo 6i%er @n $ hecon%inced the British go%ernment to send #ar&s on another epedition to testthis theory "y again going up the am"ia 6i%er, then go o%erland to theNiger 6i%er, and ;nally do*n the Congo #ar& departed in +anuary $ andin t*o months arri%ed at oree at the mouth of the am"ia Commissionedas a "re%et 5ie, a commission granted for meritorious conduct *ithoutauthority7 captain, #ar& recruited British soldiers, sailors, and con%icts toman his military epedition !hey tra%eled "y "oat up the am"ia 6i%er tothe to*n of 8ayee, *here #ar& hired an English-spea&ing 4andingo guidename @saaco By the end of +une they reached the Niger 6i%er, "ut at the cost

of losing three-/uarters of his men to dysentery and attac&s "y 4uslimtri"esmen Jhen they reached !im"u&tu they faced hostility on the part ofits inha"itants, and they decided to proceed *ithout entering the city Jithhis party reduced to one oPcer, three soldiers, and @saaco, they reachedSegou on the Niger 6i%er in Septem"er Sending @saaco "ac& to the coast*ith letters, #ar& proceeded in No%em"er do*n the Niger 6i%er and *asne%er heard from again

http://www.mundocuriososencillo.com/ConquistaTierra/Imagenes/MugoPark/Parkroutes.jpg






http:??***e*pnetcom?li"ya?etreme3pg

Before #ar& returned from his ;rst epedition, Sir +oseph Ban&srecruited riedrich 0ornemann, the erman son of a Lutheran pastor, toem"ar& on another attempt to cross the Sahara from Cairo 0ornemannarri%ed Aleandria 3ust "efore Napoleon in%aded Egypt in the summer of$22 0ornemann *as a"le to recruit a fello* erman named +ospehrenden"urgh, *ho had con%erted to @slam, and the t*o in Septem"er $2*ith some ;nancial assistance from Napoleon departed *est*ard across theSahara "ound for the e..an !hey passed through the oasis at Si*a andarri%ed at 4ur.u& 54ursuch7, *here renden"urgh died from diseasecontracted in the mos/uito-infested oasis After a se%en month stay in4ur.u&, 0ornemann tra%eled north*ard to !ripoli, *here he *as recei%ed "ythe British consul at the time, Simon Lucas @n the spring of $ 0ornemannreturned to 4ur.u& to resume his tra%els to !i"u&tu and the Niger 6i%er 0etoo *as ne%er heard from again Bet*een $ and $$2 the AfricanAssociation sent the S*iss eplorer +ean Louis Bur&hardt to try again fromCairo Bur&hardt tried to accomplish *hat others had failed to do "y

disguising himself as a 4uslim 0o*e%er, he died from dysentery "efore hecould depart on his 3ourney '0a%ing failed in assaults from the north 5!ripoli7,the east 5Cairo7, and the *est 5am"ia7, the mem"ership Rof the AfricanAssociation no* proposed that an eIort "e made from the south,) *rites8ry.a '@t *as no* &no*n at the time that the Niger 6i%er emptied into theulf of uinea , and so, in a cruel irony, the starting point of theepedition *as in fact its destination) $

http://www.ewpnet.com/libya/extreme.jpg

http://www.ewpnet.com/libya/extreme.jpg



http:??higheredmheducationcom?sites?dl?free?2>F2?$22$?ch$Gmap>3pg

'4ean*hile, in England, a discerna"le transition *as ta&ing place inthe temper of African eploration,) 8ry.a notes 'Spurred "y the *ars inEurope and Britain(s ri%alry *ith rance, the Colonial OPce and theAdmiralty, chose to ta&e a larger role in Africa)> !he British go%ernmentdecided on a t*o-prong strategy One prong *as for the Colonial OPce tosend 4a3or +ohn #eddie *ith the assistance of the 6oyal Africa Corps to mapthe course of the Niger 6i%er from Senegal 0e arri%ed there in No%em"er$$, "ut died from coastal fe%er "efore he could proceed inland #eddie *asreplaced "y Captain !homas Camp"ell, *ho started inland, "ut had to turn"ac& "ecause of hug s*arms of "ees 0e too died and *as replaced "y t*o

military surgeons, Dr Jilliam ray and Dr +ohn Dochard ray *as ta&encapti%e, and Dochard had to turn "ac& "efore reaching the Niger 6i%er

!he second prong, commissioned "y Sir +oh Barro*, secretary of theBritish Admiralty, *as to search for !im"u&tu and the Niger 6i%er from themouth of the Congo 6i%er Barro* chose Captain +ames 8ingston !uc&ey tolead the epedition !hey *ere a"le to na%igate up the Congo as far as allala alls rom there they proceeded o%erland for another > miles"efore they had to turn "ac& Of the men *ho started out on theepedition, only $ made it "ac& to the coast !uc&ey himself died shortlyafter their return in Octo"er $$

@n $>$ Sir Charles 4acCarthy, the British go%ernor of Sierra Leone,sent a mission to am"ia and the 4andingo country @t *as led "y a youngScottish oPcer named Lieutenant Aleander ordon Laing One this and t*oother missions Laing tra%eled > miles into the interior through the to*n ofala"a, the seat of the Soolima tri"e, as far as the source of the 6o&elle 6i%er@n $>F Laing *as promoted and sent to the old Coast, *here a *ar had"ro&en out "et*een the British and the Ashanti people @n the con9ict

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/0072963786/817718/ch01_map2.jpg

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/0072963786/817718/ch01_map2.jpg



4acCarthy *as ta&en capti%e and slain Laing *as sent "ac& to England toreport to the Secretary for Jar and the Colonies, 0enry Bathurst, on thee%ents in Africa Bathurst *as an a%id a"olitionist, and he founded the BritishColonial OPce Lord Bathurst "elie%ed that the shorted route to !im"u&tu*as "y tra%eling south from !ripoli

http:??imageschinacn?attachement?3pg?site$2?>$$F>>?$"$ec2fef>a3pg

!he ;rst British epedition from !ripoli *as led "y a t*enty-se%en-yearold Scottish surgeon named +oseph 6itchie along *ith a t*enty-three-yearold na%al oPcer named eorge Lyon and a ship*right named +ohn Belford !hey left !ripoli disguised as 4oors !he basha* suggested that theyaccompany the ne* bey 5the !ur&ic title of chieftain or tri"al leader7 ofre..an, 4ohammed El 4u&ni, *ho *as lea%ing !ripoli *ith armed Ara"s on atrip to capture sla%es from "lac& African %illages !hey left !ripoli in 4arch$$ and arri%ed in 4ur.u&, the capital of the e..an, in 4ay !here Lyoncame do*n *ith dysentery, and once he reco%ered 6itchie fell ill *ith "iliousfe%er inally, in +uly El 4u&ni and his sla%e hunting party left *ithout theminally, in No%em"er 6itchie died from his illness !hough sic& themsel%es,Lyon and Belford continued on to !egheri a"out $ miles south of 4ur.u& !here they came in contact *ith the !e"u tri"e, *ho *ere "lac& Africans,rather than Ber"ers, and the northernmost of the !e"u people *hoseterritory included northern Chad, Niger, and Sudan today !he !e"u *erenominally 4uslims, "ut they departed from traditional 4uslim *ays Lyon*as a"le to ma&e friends *ith the !e"u and also *ith their enemies, the !uareg, *ho *ere, according to 8ry.a, 'the dominant nomads of the central

http://images.china.cn/attachement/jpg/site1007/20110322/0019b91ec74f0ef28a9009.jpg






and *estern Sahara)F But Belford "ecame too sic& at !egheri to continue,and in e"ruary $> Lyon and Belford 3oined a sla%ing cara%an to return to !ripoli Lyon reported "ac& to London that the Niger 6i%er 9o*ed into La&eChad in northcentral Africa No* the British "ecame focused on the ancientAfrican &ingdom of Bornu 5or Borno in northeastern Nigeria today7, located

south*est of La&e Chad

http:??***studentne*sdailycom?*p-content?uploads?>$?F?image$Fgif

!he net British epedition into the African interior to*ard Bornu *asled "y another Scottish physician, Dr Jalter Oudney Dr Oudney recruitedhis friend, Lieutenant 0ugh Clapperton, *ho *as the son of a Dumfrieshirephysician and an eperienced na%al oPcer *ho had sailed the4editerranean, the South China Sea, and the #aci;c Clapperton foughtagainst the Knited States on La&e 0uron in the Jar of $$> and against the

rench in the Battle of 4auritius A third mem"er of their party *asLieutenant Dion Denham, *ho taught at the military college at SandhurstDenham assumed that he *as the leader of the epedition due to hispolitical social connections

http:??upload*i&imediaorg?*i&ipedia?commons?thum"?a?a?0ughGClappertonGportrait3pg?>>p-0ughGClappertonGportrait3pg

http://www.studentnewsdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/image1369.gif

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Hugh_Clapperton_portrait.jpg/220px-Hugh_Clapperton_portrait.jpg


http://www.studentnewsdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/image1369.gif





!he British consul in !ripoli at the time *as Colonel 0anmerJarrington Oudney and Clapperton arri%ed in !ripoli in Octo"er $>$Denham didn(t arri%e until mid-No%em"er *ith his o*n instruction from theColonial OPce Once they reached Bornu, Oudney *as to remain there as

=ice-Consul to the Sultan, and Denham and Clapperton *ere to eplore tothe south and east for the Niger 6i%er and follo* it to its mouth usuf8aramanli *ould pro%ide an escort of $, armed men in echange for_, But after continued negotiations it turned out that the basha* hadno intention of pro%iding the escort Oudney and Clapperton departed for4ur.u& from !ripoli in e"ruary $>> *ithout an escort Denham *as to 3ointhem later After a strenuous trip across the desert, they reached 4ur.u&,*here they *ere told the ne* bey of e..an, El Ahmar, *as to pro%ide anescort to Bornu 0o*e%er, they learned he *as a"out to lea%e for !ripoli, notBornu Denham, *ho 3oined them in 4arch $>>, decided to return to !ripolito recruit a ne* escort

http:??***thelongridersguildcom?clapperton-map3pg

Jhile Denham *as a*ay, Oudney and Clapperton made eploratorytrip into the desert *est of 4ur.u& to*ard the oasis of hat, the territory ofthe A33er !uareg tri"e On his pre%ious trip of 4ur.u&, Lyon had promised theA33er !uareg 0atita ag 8huden a ShePeld s*ord, and "efore he left 4ur.u&,Denham presented him *ith the promised s*ord 0atita promised to ser%e asa guide and protector for Oudney and Clapperton on their eplorations

Jhen Denham reached !ripoli, he found that the basha* *ould not pro%ideanother escort and Jarrington *as no help So Denham decided to return toLondon to complain in person to Lord Bathurst a"out usuf 8armanli(streatment of an oPcial British epedition @n other to counter Denham(scomplaint, usuf 8armanli arranged for an additional fee for a *ealthye..anese merchant named A"u Ba&r Bhu 8hallum, *ho *as planning toreturn to e..an *ith a party of F men to escort Oudney and Clappertonon to Bornu Out-foed "y the basha*, Denham returned to !ripoli Denham

http://www.thelongridersguild.com/clapperton-map.jpg

http://www.thelongridersguild.com/clapperton-map.jpg



then tra%eled *ith A"u Ba&r Bhu 8hallum and a party of 4eghara Ara"s "ac&to 4ur.u&

@n No%em"er $>> the Bornu mission *ith A"u Ba&r Bhu 8hallum(scara%an left 4ur.u&, tra%eling south across the desert to*ard La&e Chad

Clapperton and Oudney *ere "oth sic& *ith fe%ers they de%eloped in4ur.u& !here continued to "e disputes "et*een Denham and the t*o Scots,Oudney and Clapperton @n +anuary $>F the party reached Bilma, the capitalof the !e"u territory and the center of the salt trade mined from near"y saltla&es !he !e"u *ere under the rule of the !uareg !he !e"u did the saltmining and the !uareg could a portion as a ta inally in e"ruary the partyreached La&e Chad, *hich 8ry.a descri"es as 'a "ody of *ater the si.e ofS*it.erland ne%er "efore seen "y a *hite man) !he la&e, a main cara%anroutes to !ripoli, and ma3or cities *ere under the control of the &ingdom ofBornu, *hose capital, 8u&a*a, *as a fe* miles south*est of the la&e !heepedition proceded to 8u&a*a, *here they *ere recei%ed "y Bornu(s ruler,

Shei&h Alameen Ben 4ohammed El 8anemi

!he Europeans stayed in 8u&a*a for an entire year, *hile they sent outeploratory parties Both Oudney and Clapperton *ere sic& most of the time,*hile Denham indulged himself *ith pleasures pro%ided "y nati%e *omenDespite orders from the Colonial OPce against participating in raids tocapture sla%es, Denham accompanied a com"ined force of >, Bornusoldiers and 4eghara Aras to help the sultan of 4andara to the southeast of8u&a*a to counter an in%asion of ulani tri"esmen A"u Ba&r Bhu 8hallum(smoti%e *as to ta&e ne* capti%es as sla%es to transport "ac& to !ripoli @n theensuing "attle Bhu 8hallum *as &illed, and Denham "arely a"le to escape

*ith his life

4ean*hile, Clapperton and Oudney eplored the shores of La&e Chadin the hope of ;nding the source of the Niger 6i%er But the la&e had only oneri%er that fed it, and none that 9o*ed from it !he Niger 6i%er *as to the*est of La&e Chad, "ut the So&oto caliphate, ruled "y Sultan 4ohammedBello, lay "et*een Bornu and the ri%er @n Decem"er Oudney and Clappertondeparted 8u&a*a for the So&oto caliphate *ithout an armed escort As thecara%an approached the territory of the 0ausa near the e/uator, Oudney,*ho *as already sic& from tu"erculosis "efore he left Scotland, *orsened,and in +anuary $> he died

Clapperton continued to the sla%e-trading city of 8ano in 4uslimnorthern Nigeria today !here he %isited 0a33i 0at Salah, the go%ernor of thecity and %i.ier to Sultan Bello 0at Salah promised to accompany Clappertonto meet the sultan in So&oto, "ut he changed his mind after a re%erse hesuIered in trying to suppress a re"ellion "y a local chief So Clappertondeparted *ithout him to So&oto, > miles north*est of 8ano on the otherside of a 0ausa state hostile to the caliphate 0e arri%ed in 4arch $> and



http:??***redlandsfortnightlyorg?images?tripoli3pg

@n +uly $$ Laing departed for epedition into the interior 0e haschosen as his guide Shei&h Ba"ani, *ho *as a sla%e trader *ho &ne* thecara%an routes across the Sahara Shei&h Ba"ani too& Laing on a rounda"outroute from !ripoli to hadames 5a crossroads in the cara%an trade since6oman times7 in order to a%oid "andits 0e arri%ed in Septem"er after a$,-mile, t*o-month detour rom hadames Laing *as supposed toproceed using the !uareg 0atita ag 8huden as his guide But 0atita *ouldonly ta&e him as far as !uat 5the region of oases in the *estern part of theAlgerian Sahara &no*n also as @n Salah or @nsalah, today7, "ecause the

territory "et*een !uat and !im"u&tu *as controlled "y the Chaam"a Ara"sand t*o !uareg tri"es 5the 0oggar and the @fora7, "oth of *hom *ereenemies of 0atita tri"e, the A33er After spending more than a month at @nSalah, Laing decided to depart in +anuary $> across the !ane.rouft 5theheart of the desert7 to*ard the 0oggar 5the plateau in the central Sahara7*ith a party of only men and $ camels "ut *ithout an escort

Along the *ay, they *ere 3oined "y > armed 0oggar !uareg, *homthey *ere afraid to turn a*ay Se%eral days after they passed the oasis ofJadi Ahnet, the 0oggar !uareg surroundered Laing(s tent and attac&edLaing had suspected that Shei&h Ba"ani might ha%e "etrayed him, "ecause

he *as unmolested Despite his serious *ounds, Laing sur%i%ed the attac&,and his party continued *ith Laing tied to the saddle of his camel @n Aprilthey reached an oasis named A.aud, *here they *ere *elcomed "y Shei&h4o&htar of the 8unta Ara" tri"e Laing stayed there for three months *hilehe tried to reco%er from his *ounds But then the entire camp came do*n*ith dysentery, *hich &illed 4o&htar, Shei&h Ba"ani, and other mem"ers ofLaing(s party 4o&htar(s son, Sidi 4ohammed, *as anti-Christian anduncharita"le @n later summer Laing *as strong enough to lea%e A.aud *ith

http://www.redlandsfortnightly.org/images/tripoli.jpg

http://www.redlandsfortnightly.org/images/tripoli.jpg



an escort on the promise he *ould pay Sidi 4ohammed the e/ui%alent of$, Spanish dollars !hey headed south to the southern edge of the desert*ithin reach of !im"u&tu

@n August $> Laing entered !im"u&tu, not disguised as a 4uslim, "ut

as 'a Christian en%oy of the 8ing of England)2

0e presented him "eforecity(s go%ernor, Othman "in Bou"a&r !he go%ernor recei%ed him *ell, andLaing *as free to tra%el to 8a"ara, the port district on the Niger 6i%er Butrather than seeing the reported *ealth of !im"u&tu, the city had decay"ecause of periods of *arfare "et*een "lac& Africans, Ber"ers and Ara"so%er control of its trade routes 0e %isited the San&ore 4os/ue *ith itscollection of Ara"ic manuscripts and the uni%ersity, founded "y 4ali(s 4uslimrulers in the siteenth century, *hich *as still a center of @slamic learningJhen Laing arri%ed in !im"u&tu, the !uareg, *ho had controlled the city, had9ed in the face of an attac& "y the ulani satrap, Se&u 0amadu, *ho had notyet ta&en control of the city Laing stayed in !im"u&tu for more than a

month, until Shei&h Othman recei%ed a message from Sultan Bello tellinghim to send the 'Christian tra%eler) Othman told Laing that if he didn(t lea%eimmediately, he *ould pro"a"ly "e &illed "y ulani *arriors @n lateSeptem"er Laing left !im"u&tu, "ut instead of ris&ing his original purpose tofollo* the Niger do*nstream to its mouth, he departed for the Ashanti landsof Sierra Leone, from there to the *est coast of Africa, and e%entually "ac&"y sea to the 4editerranean Sea and !ripoli to re3oin his *ife But Laingne%er made it to !ripoli @nstead in August $> Shei&h Ba"ani(s nephe*,Al&hadir, and Bongola, a freed sla%e, "oth of *hom accompanied Laingappeared in !ripoli Bongola said that Laing had "een murdered "y Ara"s

4ean*hile, Clapperton departed for Africa in August $$ on the %+,Brazen along *ith a Scottish physician named Dr !homas Dic&son En routeit captured t*o Spanish sla%e traders oI the coast of Africa and freed itssla%es @n No%em"er it reached Jhydah, *here its physician Dr Dic&son *asput ashore to eplore the interior of Dahomey, "ut he *as &illed in a ;ght*ith a nati%e tri"e and &illed @n Decem"er the Bra.en dropped Clappertonand the rest of the epedition at the sla%e-trading station of Badagri romthere Clapperton *ith a British trader named 0outson as a guide departedinland on the Lagos 6i%er through friendly oru"a territory and then on footthrough dense rainforest for So&oto Knfamiliar *ith the climate of therainforest, Clapperton slept at night in the open, and he soon came do*n

*ith a fe%er caused "y mos/uito "ites Clapperton and other mem"ers of hisparty had to "e carried in hammoc&s, "ut *hen they reached the %illage of +annah 5+onah7 their carriers a"andoned them +annah *as &no*n for its*oodcar%ers as *ell as its sla%e traders

Despite the loss of se%eral mem"ers of his party, Clappertonproceeded to the northern "oundary of *estern Nigeria, *hich *as thefrontier of the oru"a territory !here he encountered *arriors sent "y the



sultan of 8atunga, *ho escorted them in +anuary $> to the to*n of8atunga, the capital of oru"aland !here 0outson left the party to return toBadagri As the ;rst *hite man to reach 8atunga, the local &ing, 4ansoleh,*elcomed him @n 4arch Clapperton crossed the 4oussa 6i%er into the landof the Borgu 5in northern Benin and north*estern Nigeria7 Outside the to*n

of 8aiama, the capital of Borgu, they met an escort of horse-mounted*arriors sent "y arro, the &ing of 8aiama

Clapperton and his party then proceeded to the 8ingdom of Ja*a,*hich *as at the intersection of roads lin&ing Ashanti and Dahomey to the*est of the Niger 6i%er *ith 0ausaland and Bornu to the east @n Ja*aClapperton had to deal *ith a rich, F-pound Ara" *ido* named <uma, *hoinsisted on marrying either Clapperton or his young Cornish ser%ant, 6ichardLemon Lander !hey managed to etradite themsel%es from this situationand proceed to Bussa, *here 4ungo #ar& had died !hey arri%ed there in4arch $> and sa* the Niger 6i%er for the ;rst time '@n any e%ent,) *rites

8ry.a, '4ungo #ar& had set a terri"le precedent that *as to hauntsu"se/uent eplorers Dri%en to the edge of sanity, #ar& had massacredmany Africans, forgetting that he, not they, *as the trespasser)

@n his tra%els Clapperton heard that the Niger 6i%er 9o*ed south to thesea, "ut his instructions *ere to go north to ;nd Sultan Bello in So&oto Jhenhe reached 8ano in +uly, he learned that *ar had "ro&en out "et*een theSo&oto caliphate and the &ingdom of Bornu Clapperton descri"ed in his 3ournals the ulani people, their 4uslim religion, the iron in the local hills, andthe utilitarian art of their "lac&smiths But the local go%ernor of 8ano, 0a33i0at Salah, *as suspicious that Clapperton might "e in league *ith their no*

enemy, the Bornu leader El 8anemi in 8a&a*a Jhen El 8anemi launched anattac& on 8ano, Clapperton surreptitiously left 8ano, lea%ing Lander "ehind"ound for So&oto on a camel through torrential rain 0e had to rest forse%eral days at +a.a on account of a sic&ness, "ut he *as met their "y SultanBello(s gadado 5prime minister7 *ho *as sent to escort him to So&oto !heyreached So&oto in Octo"er $>

'@n Clapperton(s a"sence, Ara" ad%isers had apparently con%incedBello that British eplorers *ere on a mission of con/uest, and thatClapperton particularly *as the representati%e of a great po*er that *oulde%entually sei.e his country and dispossess him,) says 8ry.a Bello also

*as suspicious of Clapperton(s plan to %isit El 8anemi, and he refusedpermission for Clapperton to proceed to 8u&a*a @n 8ano Lander recei%ed amessage that Clapperton *ished Lander to re3oin him in So&oto *ith all of his"aggage left there @n fact, the message came from Bello, not ClappertonLander reached So&oto in Decem"er to Clapperton(s surprise Bello insistedthat Clapperton sho* him the letter from 8ing eorge @= of England to El8anemi, and *hen he sa* that Clapperton *as "ringing gifts to 8anemi,Bello sei.ed Clapperton(s "aggage



Jhile held as de 'acto capti%es, "oth Clapperton and Lander camedo*n *ith illness Ne%ertheless, Clapperton continued to ma&e entries in his 3ournal, including a con%ersation he had *ith Bello ho* in the district ofKm"urm "elonging to his cousin +aco"a, the people ate human 9esh '@ said @

did not thin& any people eisted on the face of the earth that eat their o*n&ind as food R!he sultan said he had send them eat human 9esh, theysaid it *as "etter than any other1 that the heart and "reasts of a *oman*ere the "est part of her "ody) @n 4arch $>2 the sultan ga%e Clappertonand Lander permission to lea%e So&oto, "ut they *ere too sic& *ith malariato go any*here !he net month Clapperton died in Lander(s arms

Although Lander *as sic& *ith malaria as *ell, he decided not to carryout Clapperton(s dying *ish that he return "y the northern route to !ripoli@nstead, Lander decided to return the *ay he came, that is, to Badagri on the*estern coast of Africa 0ere arri%ed there in No%em"er $>2 0o*e%er, on

his return #ortuguese sla%e traders from Bra.il con%inced the &ing of Badagrithat Lander *as a spy !he &ing forced Lander to drin& a poison li/uid topro%e his innocence, "ut Lander tric&ed them "y /uic&ly returning to his hutto %omit the poison @n e"ruary $> a British "rig named +aria rescuedLander from Badagri @t too& him to the island of ernando #o, *here he metthe ne* go%ernor of Sierra Leone, Dion Denham But Denham li%ed only fora fe* more month, "efore he died in 4ay $> in reeto*n, Sierra Leone,from 'coastal fe%er) Lander returned to England, *here he pu"lishedClapperton(s 3ournals in $F Later than year Lander returned to Africa *ithhis "rother, *here they follo*ed the course of the Niger 6i%er to its mouth @n$F> he made a third trip to Africa, "ut *as &illed "y Africans in $F at the

age of t*enty-nine

http:??$"p"logspotcom?Gftu8O=cdc?!#ED>- aC@?AAAAAAAAAaT?csJL>$/g?s$?detailedGsenegalgif

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_YftuKO4Vcdc/TPED2-YaGCI/AAAAAAAAAaQ/c9sWL214xqg/s1600/detailed_senegal.gif






'Jhen the ri%alry "et*een Britain and Napoleonic rance spilled o%erinto Africa, eploration too& a ne*, political dimension,) *rites 8ry.a 'Jhilethe African Association(s eplorers pushed up the am"ia, rench tradersmo%ed up the Senegal)$ @n $> the rench SociHtH Hographi/ue oIered a

cash pri.e of $, francs for the ;rst epedition to go to !im"u&tu andreturn, there"y launching an international competition "et*een Britain andrance @n August $F a rench s/uadron arri%ed oI the coast of !ripoli anddemanded that usuf Basha* sign a treaty *ith rance under *hich he paidrance , francs part of *hich *as to repay rench creditors Also, !ripoli *as to restore to rance its status as 'most fa%oured nation) !heBritish consul Jarrington protested to the basha*, "ut to no a%ail 'usufBasha* reali.ed that he *as no* in deep trou"le,) says 8ry.a '0e could notraise the large indemnity re/uired "y the rench *hile his economy *as insuch a parlous state, not to mention the drain on his purse of perpetual tri"als&irmishes in his hinterlands Ne*s of the rench capture and occupation of

Algiers aroused fears of a ranco-Egyptian conspiracy to ta&e o%er !ripolitania, especially if the British, his only ally, deserted him)> '!he ro* *ith the rench *as the last "lo* for the 8aramanli dynasty, *hichhad ruled !ripoli for $> years,) says 8ry.a '@n $F, usuf 8aramanli *aso%erthro*n and !ripoli once again fell under direct !ur&ish rule)F

http:??eploringafricamatrimsuedu?images?colonialism$$3pg

http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/images/colonialism1914.jpg

http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/images/colonialism1914.jpg



'Deli"erate etension of European po*er pro"a"ly "egan *ith EmperorNapoleon @@ in $$,) *rites Jiedner '0e re%i%ed rance(s dormant interestin Senegal in order to enhance national glory and to generate a *a%e ofpopular loyalty at home) !he rench had esta"lished a trading post in4auritius in the se%enteenth century !he colony consisted of t*o ports--St

Louis and Da&arMand a string of trading posts along the Senegal 6i%er Fmiles into the interior @n $2 the rench o%ernor of Senegal, BriHre del(@sle, "egan pushing further up the ri%er *ith the intention of "uilding atrans-Sahara rail*ay lin&ing Algeria and Senegal "y *ay of !im"uc&tu andthen possi"ly "uilding a spur to the *estern Sudan 0o*e%er, this plan cameto naught in $$, *hen Colonel latters *as turned "ac& "y the !uaregs !he rench also had outpost to the south in the ulf of uinea, nota"ly atreaty port at Cotnonou on the coast of Dahomey and trading posts on the@%ory Coast #a&enham says, '@n "oth areas, rench authorities and"usinessmen *ere deeply suspicious of their British neigh"ours in SierraLeone, the old Coast and the Oil 6i%ers 5modern Nigeria7)

4uhammad es-Sado&, the Bey of !unis, as an Ottoman pasha *as a%assal of the !ur&ish sultan 0e *as a !ur&, not an Ara" 0is cousin, Ahmed,*as the ;rst 4uslim ruler to a"olish sla%e trade Sado&, appointed a t*enty-se%en-year-old +e* named 4ustapha "en @smael as his #rime 4inister !herench Consul in !unis, !hHodore 6oustan, had culti%ated a relationship *ith4ustapha, "ut this came to a sudden end in $, *hen a rench "an& too&control of a %ast coastal estate named the En;da that 4ustapha *anted forhimself !he Bey then "egan to fa%or the @talian Consul in !unisia, Licurgo4accio Sicily *as only ninety miles from !unisia, and it too had it sights on acolony there !he rench had made a considera"le in%estment in !unisia,

ha%ing constructed a telegraph line to Algeria, and in the process of "uildinga rail*ay to lin& the t*o countries 4ustapha attempted to ta&e possession of the En;da estate "y enlisting the help of a 4altese +e* *ho *as an Englishciti.en and *ho as a neigh"oring lando*ner claimed the pre-eminent right to"uy the estate 6oustan appealed to the rench prime minister +ules erryand his Ca"inet, *ho sent a rench "attleship, the riedland, to the !unisiancoast !he British ca"inet of Lord ladstone responded "y sending its o*n"attleship, the Thunderer , to counter the rench sho* of na%al force Bothships *ithdre*, "ut the aIair, according to #a&enham 'made the Britishappear to support the @talians)

'!unis *as the strategic &ey to Algeria,) *rites #a&enham '@t *as alsothe &ey to regenerating rance)2 @n April $$ rench forces crossed the"order from Algeria into !unisia &illing and *ounding 8roumir tri"esmen *hotried to defend their li%estoc& and corn;elds !he Bey appealed for help fromthe British, the @talians, and other European po*ers to no a%ail Nor did theOttoman sultan ma&e good on his promise of support !he Bey also sent forhelp from his "rother, Ali Bey, *ho had a camp at Sidi Salah near theAlgerian "order and *as allied *ith the 8roumirs Ali Bey, *ho *as heir



apparent to the !unisian throne, sent a message to the rench a"out theirintentions, and the rench responded that they had crossed the "order *iththe permission of his "rother Jhen Ali learned that the rench had"om"arded the frontier port of !a"arca and *ere ad%ancing along the coast,he decided to retreat rather than confront the unstoppa"le rench ad%ance

!he Bey(s other "rother, !ai", "etrayed him and *as *illing to accept arench protectorate !hree *ee&s after the rench in%asion, the Bey *asforced to sign the !reaty of Bardo that made !unisia, in the *ords of#a&enham, 'a rench protectorate in all "ut name) 4orocco and !unisia,unli&e Algeria, *ere protectorates under international treaties !he renchhad to act in the name of the Sultan of 4orocco and the Bey of !unisia @n$$> the Sultan of 4orocco turned o%er foreign aIairs, "ut not internalaIairs, to rance !his *as done through a rench resident-general *ithin thesultan(s court @n fact, the rench controlled "oth eternal and internal aIairsin 4orocco

@n No%em"er $ the rench o%ernor of Senegal, Colonel BriHre deL(@sle, sent Lieutenant-Colonel usta%e Borgnis-Des"ordes on a mission toconnect the upper Senegal 6i%er *ith the upper Niger 6i%er *ith a chain offorts and a telegraph and railroad line @n e"ruary $F Des"ordesesta"lished a stone fort at the Bam"ara %illage of Bama&o on the upperNiger 6i%er, *hich according to #a&enham *as 'the foundation stone of a%ast ne* rench empire in the *estern Sudan)

rench epansion into the interior of north*est Africa prompted Britainto do the same @n $2F and $2 they fought against the Ashanti, *homthey defeated, "ut they did not occupy their lands @n that year they

esta"lished the old Coast Cro*n Colony !he Ashanti *ere a militaryassociation esta"lished in the eighteenth century !he sym"ol of thefederation *as the olden Stool !he British thought it *as a throne andsought to o"tain it so that the Tueen could sit on it !he Ashanti consideredit a sacred o"3ect that no one should sit upon e%en their o*n ruler !heAshanti *ere no* surrounded "y the British to the north and along oldCoast and the rench *ho controlled @%ory Coast



http:??imagesnyplorg?indephpid`$>$>t`r

'!he con%entional *isdom at this period *as that the British 9ag *as ahandicap to British trade, states #a&enham 'At any rate, it could only follo*trade after se%eral generations, *hen life *as complicated enough todemand formal so%ereignty and "usiness *as "ig enough to carry thecosts) @n $22 an English merchant named C oldie !au"man 5later Sireorge !au"man oldie7 came to the Niger Delta to manage his "rother-in-la*(s trading ;rm, 0olland +ac/ues and Company 0e "egan to ac/uire Britishand rench trading enterprise under his Knited African Company @n $$eorge oldie and a group of in%estors recei%ed a charter for National

African Company to trade on the Niger 6i%er According to #a&enham, oldie'came from a family *hich had "een landed gentry on the @sle of 4an forgenerations !he oldie !au"mans had made their pile in the eighteenthcentury smuggling trade, "ut then settled do*n as con%entional s/uires,landlords and magnates)$ @n $> it "ecame the National AfricanCompany, Ltd Li&e its competitor, the rench E/uatorial Africa Company, hiscompany had its o*n army !he National African Company in +anuary $Fmet *ith the British oreign OPce *ith their concern that the rench mightesta"lish a monopoly on trade along the Niger 6i%er 0e*itt returned toLondon in April to lend his support to the eIort

Ed*ard 0e*ett, the British Consul for the Bights of Benin and Biafra,according to #a&enham, *as the 'unoPcial ruler of the Niger) 0is 'empire)etended from Lagos to the 6io del 6ey Jhen he arri%ed in Africa in $, hehad esta"lished control of the *arring African leaders #a&enham says that'ormal empire *as essential for t*o reasons: to "rea& the po*er of theAfrican middlemen *ho made it impossi"le for Europeans to trade safely andpro;ta"ly on the Oil 6i%ersMand to &eep out the rench) !he @"o &ing +a- +aof Opo"o *as at *ar *ith the people of Tua @"o #a&enham *rites that

http://images.nypl.org/index.php?id=1200124&t=r

http://images.nypl.org/index.php?id=1200124&t=r



'0e*ett could cite the attac&s on company property, as he cited 8ing +a-+a(satrocities, to sho* that informal empire *as not enough)>

oldie(s success alarmed rench minister of foreign aIairs, a"riel0anotau, a"out oldie(s net mo%e !he Conser%ati%e British prime

minister, 6o"ert Cecil, Lord Salis"ury, assured 0anotau that oldie hadpledged not to proceed further up the Niger 6i%er, and so the rench /uic&lyoccupied the to*n of Bussa '!he ne*s that the rench had hoisted thetricolor at Bussa reached London in April $2 and thrust this o"scure mud-*alled to*n on the "an&s of the Niger to the centre of international politics,)*rites #a&enham 'Bussa *as a strategic post on the ri%er immediately"elo* the rapids, gi%ing the rench access to the *hole middle and lo*erNiger)F

!he rench #rime 4inister LHon am"etta *as sending rench tradersto the region !he Compagnie ranbaise de l(Afri/ue E/uatoriale 5CAE7, a

su"sidiary of the rench ;rm Despre. and 0uchet, had esta"lished a stationon the Niger, and in $> the Senegal Company did the same CommandantAntoine 4attei, the Agent-eneral of the CAE departed from hishead/uarters at Bass at the center of the Niger delta and na%igated a coupleof steam"oats up the Niger 6i%er to the @slamic &ingdom of Nupe, one of theSudanic states of the So&oto Empire By $F there *ere thirty-three rench'factories) on the ri%er, more than the British had

@n Octo"er $ oldie "ought out the rench Company Britain hadesta"lished a protectorate o%er the entire Niger and Cameroon coast in$F, "ut oldie(s National African Company under*rite all the epenses

By Octo"er ran%ille Le%eson-o*er, the British oreign Secretary, that theOil 6i%ers "e made a royal protectorate under the Colony OPce as opposedto the oreign OPce But oldie had another idea, that *as, for the colony to"e administered under a royal charter to the National African Corporation !his *ould chec& the rench ad%ance in the Niger at no epense to theBritish go%ernment



colonies in Jest Africa, and this might promote an alliance "et*een ermanand rance urthermore, no* the erman pu"lic *anted their country to getin%ol%ed in the scram"le for Africa @n +uly Dr Nachtigal declared !ogo andCameroon as erman protectorates earing that the Cape Colony *as a"outto anne not only Angra #e/uena, "ut the entire coast north of the Orange

6i%er, erman too& possession of it in +uly as erman South*est Africa 5the6epu"lic of Nami"ia, today7

@n No%em"er $ to e"ruary $ a conference *as held in Berlinattended "y Britain, rance, ermany, Spain, #ortugal, Belgium and theKnited States !he conference aPrmed the doctrine of 'eIecti%e occupation)as the right to go%ern particular regions of Africa Britain recei%ed title to theNiger 6i%er Delta, rance to land north of the Congo 6i%er, and theindependent Congo ree States *as to "e administered in trust "y 8ingLeopold and his @nternational Association !his arrangement *as formali.edin $ "y the Berlin Act or Bismarc& stripping !ur&ey of !unis and

a*arding it to rance *ould de9ect rench attempts to reta&e Alsace andLorraine, *hich it lost in the ranco-#russia Jar #a&enham says thatBismarc& *anted the rench to ha%e 'a healthy ne* outlet for their energiesMmeaning one *here there *as no possi"ility of a clash *ith ermany) Knder the principle of UeIecti%e occupation) European po*ers claimed aterritorial so%ereignty in Africa if they had treaties *ith local leaders andesta"lished administrati%e rule there et many European countries onlycontrolled the trading posts on the coast At the Berlin Conference of $-$ organi.ed "y the erman Chancellor, Otto %on Bismarc&, rance,Britain, ermany, and #ortugal agreed to the so-called 'hinterland theory,)namely, that a colonial po*er *ith a coastal administration could lay claim to

an unlimited amount of territory in the interior As part of the agreement,rance and Britain agreed to di%ide the interior along a line running from Sayin Niger to Baroua on the northeast coast of La&e Chad *ith rance gettingthe territory north of the line and rance the land to the south !hus, Britainclaimed the Nile Basin and rance the "asin of La&e Chad



http:??***monitorcoug?image?%ie*?-?$F?high6es?FF$?-?ma*??-?*"%3pe?-?special$p3pg

@n $> the rench esta"lished another "ase in Dahomey in $> "ydefeated the nati%e 8ing Behan.in oldie hired rederic& Lugard in $ to

go to Borgu to negotiate treaties *ith the nati%e rulers on the lo*er Niger6i%er Lugard made a treat *ith the ruler of the to*n of Ni&&i, "ut as soon ashe returned to*ard the Niger, the rench came in from Dahomey, saying theLugard(s treaties *ere null and %oid !he British had nominal control of theAshanti, "ut the Ashanti territory etended only a couple of hundred milesinto the interior !he *ooded mountains of Kpper =olta to the north *erecontrolled "y Samori, the Dyula *arlord epelled from the *estern Sudan "ythe rench, *hose main eport *as sla%es @n Septem"er $ the renchcaptured Samori and sent him to eile in a"on, *here he died !hen, Le"onorgani.ed an attac& from the *est, north*est, and north on eorge !au"manoldie(s British National African Company(s pri%ate empire in the lo*er and

middle Niger 6i%er @n response, the British Colonial Secretary +osephCham"erlain in $-$ sent a force against the Ashanti capital of 8umasi'!hey found some s&ulls and other traces of human sacri;ce, a con%enientdisco%ery since their oPcial o"3ect *as to end the "loodthirsty reign of 8ing#rempeh,) #a&enham maintains 'But the main aim of the epedition *asnot humanitarian1 Cham"erlain *anted to con;rm British supremacy o%erAshanti and pre-empt rench encroachments)

Britain and ermany reached an agreement to esta"lish spheres ofin9uence in the <en3 Empire, *ith Britain recei%ing 'primary interest) in<an.i"ar @sland and the northern <en3 coast and ermany along the southern

coast @n $ ermany formally anneed !ogoland along the north*esterncoast of Africa !he erman and rench settlements along the coast pushedthe E*e people further inland erman epansion reached the "orders of theAshanti confederation #rempeh, the Ashanti leader or ashantihene,protested the infringement of Europeans on their lands @n $ the Britishcolonial go%ernor issued an ultimatum to the Ashanti that they reopen traderoutes, a"andon the tradition of human sacri;ce, and pay an indemnityJhen the Ashanti refused the British attac&ed 8umasi, the Ashanti capital !hey deposed #rempeh and *ent on a search for the old Stool, the sym"olof the Ashanti confederation, so that Tueen =ictoria as the '#rotectoress ofthe Ashanti) could sit upon it !his *as considered an insult "y the Ashanti

*ho resumed *arfare against the British By $$ the Ashanti *ere defeatedand #rempeh and his generals *ere imprisoned on Seychelles @slands in the@ndian Ocean !he Ashanti &ingdom "ecame a Cro*n colony in $>

Cham"erlain had come to the conclusion that he should "uy out Sir

eorge oldie(s 6oyal African Company, "ut he needed oldie(s support if;ghting *ere to de%elop *ith rance @n e"ruary $ Cham"erlain sent tothe Niger a Jest African rontier orce 5JA7 under the command of 4a3or

http://www.monitor.co.ug/image/view/-/1369060/highRes/343105/-/maxw/600/-/wbvjpe/-/special01px.jpg






red Lugard, *ho had dri%en the rench out of Kganda @n 4ay Lugar(ssecond in command, Lieutenant +ames Jillcoc&s *ith his 0ausa recruits,came in contact *ith rench forces at the %illage of 8ani&o&o, t*o miles fromthe rench post at 8iama But rather than ;ght, Jilloc&s and the renchoPcer echanged protests, then shoo& hands and dran& toasts to each other

@n +une $, rance and Britain signed the so-called Niger Con%entionin #aris Knder it Britain gained a so-called 'sphere) a"o%e the rapids at @lo,*hich included Bussa and most of Borgu as *ell as the empire of So&oto onthe north rance gained a narro* triangle from the eastern frontier ofDahomey to *estern Borgu as far of the city of Ni&&i Shortly after thesigning of this con%ention, the British go%ernment too& o%er oldie(s 6oyalAfrican Company

@n Decem"er $, after Cham"erlain had paid oldie(s NigerCompany _, to relin/uish control of Nigeria, Sir rederic& Lugard left

to "ecome the ne* 0igh Commissioner for the #rotectorate of NorthernNigeria Lugard launched a series of raids against the ulani in northernNigeria, follo*ed in $> *ith an in%asion of 8ano After destroying 8ano, hisforce proceeded against So&oto, the capital of the ulani federation !herethe defenders 9ed *ithout a ;ght @n +anuary Lugard informed the ColonialOPce that he intended to launch an epedition against the 4unshi, *ho had"urned the Niger Company(s post at A"insi on Benue 6i%er in southernNigeria and closed the ri%er to na%igation !he Secretary for the Colonies,Lord Elgin, ordered Lugard not to proceed Lugard *as prepared to defy thisorder, "ut in the north*est of Nigeria in the %illage of Satiru, a 4ahdi named4allam @sa led a re%olt against the British !he t*o political 6esidents, a

*hite oPcer and most of the "lac& mounted infantry *ere hac&ed to death@n 4arch $ Lugard di%erted a strong force to Satiru to a%enge the &illingsJith the help of the ne* British-appointed Sultan of So&oto, Lugard(s forces&illed a"out >, 5"y Lugard(s o*n estimate7 men, *omen, and children inthe Satiru #risoners *ere decapitated and their head put on spi&es Shortlyafter, Lugard resigned his position, and after a year he *as appointed theo%ernor of 0ong 8ong

!he ne* British prime minister, Arthur Balfour, *as in fa%or of a ne*policy of reconciliation to*ard rance !he reason *as according to#a&enham: '@t *ould end, once and for all, those dangerous disputes a"out

African territory *hich had "ede%iled relations "et*een the t*o countriese%er since the British had ta&en Egypt in $> @t *ould also help resol%e thestill more %ital /uestion of strategic defence !he British Admiralty *ereloo&ing for a na%al ally to help defend Britain and the Empire) @n April$ rance and Britain singed an entente rance agreed to gi%e Britain afree hand in Egypt !he t*o countries also agreed to rectify the "order ofNigeria A secret understanding allo*ed the rench to ta&e control of most of4orocco



@n $ Britain oPcially anneed Nigeria as a colony in the BritishEmpire !he former Bornu Empire *ith its ma3ority 8anuri 4uslim populationinitially constituted a so%ereign sultanate But in $F "oth the BornuSultanate and the So&oto Caliphate came under British rule !he British used

the educational institutions there to spread Christianity among thepopulation Nigeria achie%ed its independence in Octo"er $, and "ecomethe most populous country in Africa et the country *as di%ided into threema3or ethnic groups and more than t*o hundred minor tri"es !he 0ausa andthe ulani li%e in the north !he 0ausa are the descendants of the Sudanicpeople *ho esta"lished a t*elfth century empire and con%erted to @slam inthe fourteenth century !he @"o li%e in the southeast, and the oru"a in thesouth*est Both are African Negroes, many of *hom con%erted toChristianity !he @"o tended to "e the economic and political leaders of thecountry

@n $ the 0ausa re%olted against @"o domination and the slaughterthousands of 0ausa in and around 8ano, causing a million @"o see& refuge inthe south @n 4ay $2 the Eastern 6egion dominated "y the @"o seceded asthe @ndependent 6epu"lic of Biafra, *hich contained most of the petroleumresources of the country During the Ci%il Jar that resulted, Britain, Egypt,and the So%iet Knion "ac&ed the Nigerian go%ernment, *hile rance "ac&edthe Biafrans By the end of the *ar, it is estimated that "et*een one andthree million people *ere dead Bet*een $ and $, *ith a "rief period"et*een $2 and $F, Nigeria *as under a military rule During the $2sNigeria eperienced an oil "oom, and it 3oined the Organi.ation of #etroleumEporting Countries 5O#EC7 During the early $s ethnic con9ict de%eloped

as some of the minority ethnic groups in the Niger Delta, particularly theOgoni and the @3a*, felt they *ere "eing eploited "y foreign oil corporations56oyal Dutch Shell and the American Che%ron Corporation7 "ac&ed "y thecentral go%ernment

@n $ a 4uslim fundamentalist sect &no*n of the /an Tatsine 5'ollo*ers of 4aitatsine)7 initiated rioting in 8ano, the largest city innorthern Nigeria, resulting in four to ;%e thousand deaths !he Nigerianmilitary crac&ed do*n on the sect, &illing it leader 4aitatsine !heresentment that resulted led to the founding in >> of another @slamic sect&no*n as Bo#o %aram 5literally meaning, 'Jestern education is or"idden)7

in the city of 4aiduguri, the capital of the northeastern state of Borno @tsleader 4ohammed usuf, *ho *as a follo*er of the radical Sunni Sala;st@slam, esta"lished mos/ues and schools that attracted poor 4uslim familiesinto its %ision of esta"lishing an @slamic state or its ;rst se%en years Bo&o0aram pursued its agenda peacefully @n > some of his follo*ers had a%iolent confrontation *ith the local police in 4aiduguri o%er their refusal to*ear motor cycle helmets !he Bo&o 0aram in +uly retaliated "y attac&ingpolice station in Bauchi !he Nigerian military then surrounded the home of



4ohammed usuf, in *hich he and some of his follo*ers *ere "arricaded usuf *as arrested, "ut *hen he tried to escape from the local police station,he *as recaptured and pu"licly eecuted outside the police station "y theNigerian security forces !he %iolence then spread across se%eral states innortheastern Nigeria in *hich o%er a thousand people *ere &illed

@n >$ Bo&o 0aram reorgani.ed under a ne* leader, A"u"a&arShe&au, *ho is an ethnic 8anuri @n > She&au had sur%i%ed an attempt onhis life "y Nigerian security forces !*o years later Bo&o 0aram carried out aseries of "om"ing in Bauchi, <aria, and the KN head/uarters in A"u3a !heNigerian go%ernment declared a state of emergency in Borno state in 4ay>$F, and the rench military forced out of 4ali, *here they had "ecomeentrenched, "oth Bo&o 0aram and Al Taeda in the @slamic 4aghre" 5AT@47,*ith *hich they had "ecome allied @n No%em"er of that year, the KnitedStates designated Bo&o 0aram as a terrorist group @n April >$ Bo&o 0aram&idnapped >$ girls from a go%ernment secondary school in the primarily

Christian to*n of Chi"o& in the Nigerian state of Borno !he girls *ere tocon%ert to @slam and to marry soldiers in Bo&o 0aram @n +anuary >$ irstLady 4ichelle O"ama *eighed in on the &idnapped girls "y holding up a sign*ith the hash tag ']Bring Bac& Our irls) !he KS sent military forces tohelp ;nd the girls to no a%ail, and the Knited States has condemned theactions of Bo&o 0aram

But no* the eIort against Bo&o 0aram has "ecome part of theinternational Jar on !errorism Since >2 the @sraeli go%ernment has "eensending @sraeli-made arms to the Nigerian go%ernment But on 4arch ,>$, the 0erusalem Post reported that the O"ama administration in the

summer of >$ halted an eIort "y the @sraeli go%ernment of #rime 4inisterBen3amin Netanyahu to resell American-made Chinoo& helicopters to theNigerian go%ernment as a %iolation of KS Con%entional Arms !ransferpolicy2

!he Jar on !errorism paradigm, ho*e%er, o%erloo&s the ethnicdimension of this con9ict !he primarily 4uslim State of Bornu *asincorporated into British colony of Nigeria, *hich *as an arti;cial creation ofthe British com"ining many ethnic groups as *ell as the predominantly4uslim north *ith the predominantly Christian Niger Delta Jhile it(s truethat there *as a long history of 4uslims in the north ensla%ing "lac& Africans

in the south, it is also true that "oth the rench and the British engaged inthe !rans-Atlantic sla%e trade *ith the conni%ance of the coastal Africanethnic groups as middlemen @n fact, the art, music, dance, and religion ofthe oru"a and Dahomean people "rought to North America and the Jest@ndies as sla%es *ere instrumental in the formation of Afro-American culture@t *as only in the nineteenth century that Britain and rance a"olishedsla%ery and the sla%e trade in fa%or of colonialism and con%ersion of nati%epeoples to Christianity urthermore, the long term eIect of Christian



missionaries, *ho *ere in the forefront of British coloni.ation of Nigeria, *asto *orsen the relationship "et*een the 4uslim north and the Christian southof the country !hus, it is all too easy for the Jest to ta&e the moral highground in regard to capti%ity and forced con%ersion instead of understandingthe complicated interplay "et*een ethnicity and empire that shaped this

region



1 +ared Diamond, "uns1 "erms1 and ,teel2 The ates o' %uman ,ocieties 5Ne* or& and London: J J Norton, $27, p F22

2 6ichard +oel 6ussell, red Bo*erman 8niIen, and E%elyn Lord #ruitt, Culture 3orlds re% ed5London: 4acmillan, $7

3 Diamond, op cit, p F

4 @"id, p F22

5 @"id, p F

6 @"id, pp F-F

7 6o"ert arris !hompson, lash o' the ,&irit2 ('rican and ('ro-(merican (rt andPhiloso&hy 5Ne* or&: =intage Boo&s, $F7, pp F-

8 Donald L Jiedner, ( %istory o' ('rica ,outh o' the ,ahara 5Ne* or&: =intageBoo&s, $>7, p F

9 4el%ille + 0ers&o%its, The +yth o' the )egro Past 5$$1 6eprint, Boston:Beacon #ress, $7, p $

10 Diamond, op cit, pp F2, F

11 !homas # #a&enham, The ,cramble 'or ('rica2 The 3hite +an4s Con5uest o' the !ar#

Continent 'rom 6789 to 6:6; 5Ne* or&: 6andom 0ouse, $$7,p $2

12 #hilip D Curtin, The (tlantic ,lave Trade2 ( Census 54adison: Kni%ersity of Jisconsin #ress,$7, p $

13 Jiedner, op cit, p

14 ran& ! 8ry.a, The <ace or Timbu#tu2 =n ,earch o' ('rica4s City o' "old 5Ne* or&: 0arperCollins, >7, p $F

15 0ers&o%its, op cit, p F

16 Jiedner, op cit, p F

17 0ers&o%its, op cit, p F

18 Curtin, op cit, pp $-$

19 !hompson, op cit, p $F

20 Curtin, op cit, pp >, $>F

21 @"id, pp $>-$F

22 @"id, pp >->, $>-$F



23 !hompson, op cit, pp %, %i

24 0ers&o%its, op cit, p >

25 Alfred 4Htrau, >oodoo in %aiti , trans "y 0ugo Charteris 5Ne* or&:Shoc&en Boo&s, $2>7, p $>

26 6o"ert arris !hompson, ('rican (rt in +otion 5Los Angeles, Ber&eley, and London: Kni%ersityof California #ress, $27, pp ii, $F

27 4Htrau, op cit, pp $-$

28 eorge 6 i"son, 'ourd Ban3os: rom Africa to the Appalachians,)

$?$?>$,http://www.banjohistory.com/article/etail/1!"o#r!banjos!$rom!a$rica!to!the!appalachians

29 4egan Sulli%an, 'African-American 4usic as 6e"ellion: rom Sla%e Song to0ip 0op,)http:??***artscornelledu?&nightGinstitute?pu"licationspri.es?disco%eries?disco%eriesspring>$?Fsulli%anpdf

30 %. L Dillard, Blac# ?nglish2 =ts %istory and @sage in the @nited ,tates 5Ne* or&: 6andom0ouse, $2>7, pp FF, 2

31 Errol 0ill, The Trinidad Carnival2 +andate or a )ational Theatre 5Austin andLondon: Kni%ersity of !eas #ress, $2>7, p >

32 #a&enham, op cit, p $

33 @"id, p $

34 @"id, p $2

35 8ry.a, op cit, pp ii-iii36 !his is an ecerpt from <eading (bout the 3orld1 >olume ;, edited "y #aulBrians, 4ichael Blair, Douglas 0ughes, 4ichael Ne%ille, 6oger Schlesinger, AliceSpit.er, and Susan S*an and pu"lished "y 0arperCollinsCustomBoo#s

http:??pu"lic*suedu?"rians?*orldGci%?*orldci%reader?*orldGci%GreaderG>?leoG africanushtml37 8ry.a, op cit, p iii

38 @"id, p

39 @"id, p

40 @"id, p >

41 @"id, pp

42 @"id, p

http://www.banjohistory.com/article/detail/1_gourd_banjos_from_africa_to_the_appalachians


http://www.arts.cornell.edu/knight_institute/publicationsprizes/discoveries/discoveriesspring2001/03sullivan.pdf


mailto:[email protected]




http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/world_civ/worldcivreader/world_civ_reader_2/leo_africanus.html











43 @"id, p 22

44 @"id, p $F

45 @"id, p $>

46 @"id, $F2

47 @"id, pp >>->F

48 @"id, p $

49 @"id, p >$

50 Tuoted in i"id, p >>

51 @"id, p >$

52 @"id, p >2F

53 @"id, p >2

54 Jiedner, op cit, p $2

55 #a&enham, p $$>

56 @"id, p $$

57 @"id, p $

58 @"id, p $>

59 @"id, p $

60 @"id, p $>

61 @"id, p $F

62 @"id, pp $$, $>, $F

63 @"id, p $

64 @"id, p $$

65 @"id, p $F

66 @"id, p

the scramble for africa part 1-the slave

Documents