the science of water : concepts and applications · contents well systems 32 well site requirements...
TRANSCRIPT
Third Edition
THE
SCIENCE
OF
WATER
Concepts and Applications
Frank R. Spellman
zO\ CRC Press\Cf*" J Taylor &Francis Croup
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business
Contents
lb the Reader xvii
Preface xix
Author xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Still Water 3
Setting the Stage 5
Historical Perspective 7
Thought-Provoking Questions 8
References and Recommended Reading 8
Chapter 2 All about Water 9
How Special, Strange, and Different Is Water? 9
Characteristics of Water 10
Inflammable Air + Vital Air = Water 11
Somewhere between 0° and 105° 11
Physical Properties of Water 12
Capillary Action 12
Water Cycle 13
Specific Water Movements 14
Q and Q Factors 15
Sources of Water 17
Watershed Protection 18
Multiple-Barrier Concept 18
Watershed Management 19
Water Quality Impact 20
Watershed Protection and Regulations 20
Watershed Protection Plan 21
Reservoir Management Practices 21
Potable Water 21
Key Definitions 22
Surface Water 23
Location! Location! Location! 23
How Readily Available Is Potable Water? 23
Advantages and Discharges of Surface Water 26
Surface Water Hydrology 26
Raw Water Storage 27
Surface Water Intakes 27
Surface Water Screens 28
Surface Water Quality 29
Groundwater 29
Aquifers 29
Groundwater Quality 31
Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water 31
v
Contents
Well Systems 32
Well Site Requirements 33
Types of Wells 33
Shallow Wells 34
Deep Wells 34
Components of a Well 34
Well Evaluation 36
Well Pumps 37
Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements 37
Well Log 38
Well Maintenance 38
Well Abandonment 38
Water Use 39
Water Content of Crops, Goods, Beverages, Animals, and Industrial Products 40
Thought-Provoking Question 40
References and Recommended Reading 40
Chapter 3 Water Hydraulics 43
Terminology 43
What Is Water Hydraulics? 43
Water Balance 44
Basic Concepts 44
Stevin's Law 45
Density and Specific Gravity 46
Force and Pressure ' 48
Hydrostatic Pressure 49
Effects of Water under Pressure 49
Head 50
Static Head 51
Friction Head 51
Velocity Head 51
Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 51
Pressure and Head 52
Head and Pressure 52
Flow/Discharge Rate: Water in Motion 52
Area and Velocity 54
Pressure and Velocity 54
Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli's Theorem 55
Conservation of Energy 55
Energy Head 55
Piezometric Surface 55
Head Loss 56
Hydraulic Grade Line 57
Bernoulli's Theorem 57
Bernoulli's Equation 58
Hydraulic Machines (Pumps) 60
Pumping Hydraulics 61
Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 62
Contents vii
Friction Head Loss 64
Flow in Pipelines 64
Pipe and Open Flow Basics 64
Major Head Loss 66
Minor Head Loss 68
Basic Pumping Hydraulics 68
Piping 68
Piping Networks 68
Energy Losses in Pipe Networks 69
Pipes in Series 69
Pipes in Parallel 70
Open-Channel Flow 70
Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 71
Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 71
Open-Channel Flow Calculations 73
Open-Channel Flow: The Bottom Line 74
Flow Measurement 75
Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way 76
Basics of Traditional Flow Measurement 76
Flow Measuring Devices 77
Open-Channel Flow Measurement Using Hydraulic Structures 85
Thought-Provoking Questions 88
References and Recommended Reading 89
Chapter 4 Water Chemistry 91
Chemistry Concepts and Definitions 91
Concepts 91
Definitions 92
Chemistry Fundamentals 94
Matter 94
Content of Matter: The Elements 95
Compound Substances 96
Water Solutions 98
Water Constituents 99
Solids 99
Turbidity 100
Color 100
Dissolved Oxygen 100
Metals 101
Organic Matter 101
Inorganic Matter 102
Acids 102
Bases 102
Salts 103
pH 103
Optical Phenomena: Water and Light 104
Common Water Measurements 106
Alkalinity 107
Water Temperature 107
vjjj Contents
Specific Conductance 107
Hardness 108
Water Treatment Chemicals 108
Disinfection 108
Coagulation 109
Taste and Odor Removal 109
Water Softening 110
Recarbonation 110
Ion Exchange Softening 110
Scaling and Corrosion Control Ill
Chemical Drinking Water Parameters Ill
Organics 112
Synthetic Organic Chemicals 113
Volatile Organic Compounds 113
Total Dissolved Solids 113
Fluorides 113
Heavy Metals 114
Nutrients 114
Thought-Provoking Question 115
References and Recommended Reading 115
Chapter 5 Water Biology 117
Biology and Microbiology: What Are They? 117
Water Microorganisms 118
Key Terms 118
Microorganisms in General.., 119
Classification of Organisms 119
Differentiation 121
Cells 121
Types of Cells 122
Bacteria 124
Structure of the Bacterial Cell 125
Bacterial Growth Factors 128
Destruction of Bacteria 128
Waterborne Bacteria 129
Protozoa 130
Microscopic Crustaceans 131
Viruses 132
Algae 132
Fungi 133
Microbiological Processes 133
Pathogenic Protozoa 134
Giardia 134
Cryptosporidium 140
Basics of Cryptosporidium 141
Cyclospora 144
Thought-Provoking Questions 145
References and Recommended Reading 145
Contents lx
Chapter 6 Water Ecology 149
Setting the Stage 150
Key Definitions 151
Levels of Organization 152
Ecosystems 153
Biogeochemical Cycles 154
Carbon Cycle 154
Nitrogen Cycle 155
Sulfur Cycle 156
Phosphorus Cycle 156
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 158
Food Chain Efficiency 159
Ecological Pyramids 160
Productivity 161
Population Ecology 162
Stream Genesis and Structure 166
Water Flow in a Stream 168
Stream Water Discharge 169
Transport of Material 169
Characteristics of Stream Channels 170
Stream Profiles 170
Sinuosity 170
Bars, Riffles, and Pools 171
Flood Plain 171
Adaptations to Stream Current 174
Types of Adaptive Changes 175
Specific Adaptations 176
An Overview of Benthic Life 176
Benthic Plants and Animals 177
Benthic Macroinvertebrates 177
Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates 178
Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web 179
Units of Organization 180
Insect Macroinvertebrates 180
Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) 180
Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera) 181
Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) 182
True Hies (Order: Diptera) 183
Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) 184
Water Strider ("Jesus Bugs") (Order: Hemiptera) 186
Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) 186
Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) 187
Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates 188
Oligochaeta (Family Tuificidae, Genus Tubifex) 189
Hirudinea (Leeches) 189
Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail) 189
Thought-Provoking Questions 190
References and Recommended Reading 190
x Contents
Chapter 7 Water Pollution 191
Sources of Contaminants 192
Radionuclides 194
Chemical Cocktail 194
Byproducts of Chlorine 195
Existing Regulations 197
Flocculants 198
Groundwater Contamination 198
Underground Storage Tanks 199
MtBE 199
Industrial Wastes 201
Septic Tanks 201
Landfills 202
Agriculture 202
Saltwater Intrusion 203
Other Sources of Groundwater Contamination 203
Self-Purification of Streams 204
Balancing the Aquarium 204
Sources of Stream Pollution 205
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 207
Water Supply, Use, and Wastewater Treatment 209
Animal Feeding Operations and Animal Waste Treatment 210
Thought-Provoking Question 213
References and Recommended Reading 213
Chapter 8 Environmental Biomonitoring, Sampling, and Testing 215
What Is Biomonitoring? 215
Biotic Index in Streams 217
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Biotic Index 218
Biological Sampling in Streams 218
Sampling Stations 220
Sample Collection 221
Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment 222
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams 223
Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment 225
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams 228
Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment 231
Post-Sampling Routine 233
Sampling Devices 233
Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor 233
Winkler Dissolved Oxygen with Azide Modification Method 233
Sampling Nets 234
Sediment Samplers (Dredges) 234
Plankton Sampler 235
Secchi Disk 236
Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment 236
Biological Sampling: The Bottom Line 236
Drinking Water Quality Monitoring 237
Is the Water Good or Bad? 237
Contents x'
State Water Quality Standards Programs 239
Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program 239
General Preparation and Sampling Considerations 240
Test Methods 244
Titrimetric Methods 244
Colorimetric Methods 244
Visual Methods 244
Electronic Methods 245
Dissolved Oxygen Testing 245
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing 250
Temperature Measurement 253
pH Measurement 254
Turbidity Measurement 255
Orthophosphate Measurement 257
Nitrates Measurement 260
Solids Measurement 261
Conductivity Testing 266
Total Alkalinity 267
Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing 268
Apparent Color Testing and Analysis 276
Odor Analysis of Water 277
Chlorine Residual Testing and Analysis 278
Fluorides 279
Thought-Provoking Questions 279
References and Recommended Reading 279
Chapter 9 Water Economics 281
Introduction 281
Microeconomic Concepts 282
Water's Price, Cost, Value, and Essential Nature 284
Average, Marginal, and Total Economic Values 285
Why Water Prices May Fail to Encourage Efficient Use 286
Marginal Product Value of Water 287
Long-Run vs. Short-Run Values 288
Dimensions of Water That Influence Its Value 288
Macroeconomic Concepts 289
Sector View of the Economy 289
Water Use in Major Economic Sectors 289
Water Use and Sector Interactions 290
Water Use in an Open Economy 291
Thought-Provoking Questions 293
References and Recommended Reading 293
Chapter 10 Water Use and Availability 295
Off-Stream Water Use 295
Public Supply and Domestic Self-Supply 296
Water Use and the Public Supply 298
Future Supply 299
Future Demand and Availability 301
xii Contents
Value of Water Use 302
Why Domestic Water Rates May Fail to Encourage Efficient Use 302
Demand Elasticity for Domestic Water 303
Values from Water Transfer Programs 304
Methods for Valuing Water Supply Reliability 304
Methods for Valuing Domestic Water Quality 305
Off-Stream Water Use by Agriculture 306
U.S. Agricultural Sector 306
U.S. Agriculture in a Global Context 309
Livestock 314
Aquaculture 317
Supply and Pricing Issues 317
Water Quality Issues 328
Value of Water Use by Agriculture 330
Off-Stream Water Use by Manufacturing 331
U.S. Manufacturing Sector 331
Water Use by Manufacturing 333
Value of Water Use by Manufacturing 337
Off-Stream Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 340
Mining 340
Energy Resource Extraction 341
Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 342
Value of Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 347
Off-Stream and In-Stream Water Use for Electric Power Generation 347
Generating Capacity and Generation 348
Distribution of Generation by State 349
Economic Importance of the Electric Power Generation Sector 349
Projected Future Generation 351
Water Withdrawals 352
Water Use in Cooling for Thermoelectric Power Generation 352
Hydropower 354
Water Resource Constraints 355
Water Quality Constraints 356
Interaction with Other Uses of Water 356
Challenges to Estimating the Value of Water 357
Estimates of the Value of Water in the Electric Power Sector 358
In-Stream Water Use by Commercial Fishing 359
Landings and Ex-Vessel Revenues 359
Employment 360
Links to Other Economic Sectors 360
U.S. Commercial Fishing and the Global Economy 361
Commercial Fishing and the Environment 361
Fisheries Regulation 361
Habitat Quality 362
In-Stream Water Use by Commercial Navigation 366
Cargo Shipping 366
Passenger Transportation 368
Economic Importance 369
Water Use by Commercial Navigation 370
Infrastructure Requirements of Commercial Navigation 370
Potential Effects of Climate Change on Navigation in the Great Lakes 372
Contents xii'
Influence on Other Uses of Water 373
Value of Water Use by Commercial Navigation 374
In-Stream Water Use by Recreation and Tourism 374
Travel and Tourism Industry 376
Water-Based Recreation: Participation and Expenditures 377
Overview of Water-Based Recreation 382
Competition in Recreational Water Use 382
Long-Term Challenges 383
Water Quality Issues Affecting Recreational Water Use 384
Market Value of Water Use 386
Non-Market Value Estimates for Water-Based Recreational Activities 386
Impact of Water Supply on Non-Market Recreational Use Values :. 387
Impact of Water Quality on Non-Market Recreational Use Values 389
Thought-Provoking Questions 391
References and Recommended Reading 392
Chapter 11 Water Treatment 401
Introduction 401
Dr. John Snow 401
Cholera 401
Flashback to 1854 London 402
From Pump Handle Removal to Water Treatment (Disinfection) 403
Conventional Water Treatment 403
Waterworks Operators 404
Purpose of Water Treatment 404
Stages of Water Treatment 405
Pretreatment 405
Aeration 406
Screening 406
Chemical Addition 406
Chemical Solutions 407
Chemical Feeders 409
Iron and Manganese Removal 411
Hardness Treatment 413
Corrosion Control 414
Coagulation 417
Flocculation 420
Sedimentation 420
Filtration 420
Disinfection 425
Thought-Provoking Questions 433
References and Recommended Reading 433
Chapter 12 Water Treatment Calculations 435
Introduction 435
Water Source and Storage Calculations 435
Water Sources 435
Water Source Calculations 436
Water Storage 442
xjv Contents
Water Storage Calculations 442
Coagulation, Mixing, and Flocculation Calculations 444
Coagulation 444
Mixing 444
Flocculation 445
Coagulation and Flocculation General Calculations 446
Determining Percent Strength of Solutions 449
Determining Percent Strength of Liquid Solutions 450
Determining Percent Strength of Mixed Solutions 450
Dry Chemical Feeder Calibration 451
Solution Chemical Feeder Calibration 452
Determining Chemical Usage 453
Paddle Flocculator Calculations 454
Sedimentation Calculations 455
Tank Volume Calculations 455
Detention Time 456
Surface Overflow Rate 457
Mean Flow Velocity 457
Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate) 458
Percent Settled Biosolids 459
Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) 459
Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) 462
Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) 463
Particle Settling (Sedimentation) 463
Overflow Rate (Sedimentation) 466
Water Filtration Calculations 467
Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) 468
Filtration Rate 469
Unit Filter Run Volume 471
Backwash Rate 472
Backwash Rise Rate 473
Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) 473
Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) 474
Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) 474
Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing 475
Percent Mudball Volume 476
Filter Bed Expansion 476
Filter Loading Rate 477
Filter Medium Size 478
Mixed Media 478
Head Loss for Fixed Bed Flow 479
Head Loss through a Fluidized Bed 480
Horizontal Washwater Troughs 482
Filter Efficiency 483
Water Chlorination Calculations 483
Chlorine Disinfection 483
Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) 484
Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 485
Breakpoint Chlorination Calculations 487
Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Feed Rate 488
Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate 490
Contents xv
Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions 490
Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite 491
Calculating Percent Strength Using Liquid Hypochlorite 491
Chemical Usage Calculations 492
Chlorination Chemistry 493
References and Recommended Reading 494
Glossary 495
Index 511