the rucksack land nav primer

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The RuckSack

A lone timber wolf greets

paddlers along the north shore

of Lake Superior, Canada

(Photo by Michael Neiger)

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By Michael A. Neiger (aka: LandNavMan), Marquette, MichiganWilderness tripper: backpacking, winter camping, swift-water canoeing

Web site URL: http://therucksack.tripod.com • E-mail: [email protected]

Contents copyright © 1984-2007 by Michael A. Neiger • All rights reserved.

Bush Skills

A Ruck Sack primer on .. .

Land

navigation:

Tactics & strategies

for using maps,compasses,

ranger pacing beads,

& GPS units to solve

complex navigational

problems in the bush

By Michael A. Neiger

http://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (1 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM

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The RuckSack

• Places to hike

• Land navigation

• Rations & stoves

• River fording

• Ultralight packing

• Links, books, & vendors

Paddlesports• Gear check-off list

• Places to paddle

• Swift-water safety


Winter-camping• Winter-camping skills

• Gear check-off list

• Ice safety & rescue

• How to dress warm

• How to sleep warm


Snowshoeing• Links, books, & vendors

X-C Skiing• Links, books, & vendors

Mountain biking• Places to ride


Bush skills• Bear safety

• Birding

• Bush kids

• Bush women

• Climbing & Caving

• Dayhiking

• Edible wild plants

• First aid

• Flora • Geology & gold panning

• How to dress warm

Copyright 1984 -- 2008-10-14

Last updated on October 14, 2008

I can’t rightly say

I’ve ever been lost,

but I’ve been

mighty perplexed

for two or three days runnin' -- Davy Crockett

1786-1836

A tired, old

Silva Ranger compass --

a bush traveler's favorite

(Photo by Michael Neiger)


http://therucksack.tripod.com/hikedestinations.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/rations.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/riverford.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/hikeultralight.htm

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http://therucksack.tripod.com/paddlegearlist.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/paddledestinations.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/paddleswiftwatersafety.htm

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http://therucksack.tripod.com/winterskills.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/wintergearlist.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/icesafety.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/dresswarm.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/sleepwarm.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/wintercampresources.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/snowshoeresources.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/xcskiresources.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bikedestinations.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bikeresources.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bearsafety.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/birding.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bushkids.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bushwomen.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/climbingcaving.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/dayhiking.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/edibleplants.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/firstaid.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/flora.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/geology.htm



http://therucksack.tripod.com/geology.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/flora.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/firstaid.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/edibleplants.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/dayhiking.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/climbingcaving.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bushwomen.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bushkids.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/birding.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bearsafety.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bikeresources.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bikedestinations.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/xcskiresources.htm

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http://therucksack.tripod.com/wintercampresources.htm




http://therucksack.tripod.com/wintergearlist.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/winterskills.htm

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http://therucksack.tripod.com/paddledestinations.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/paddlegearlist.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/hikeultralight.htm



http://therucksack.tripod.com/hikedestinations.htm



The RuckSack

• How to sleep warm

• Ice safety & rescue

• Journaling

• Knots & ropes

• Land navigation

• Lightning

• Low-impact travel

• Mammals

• Night ops • Night sky

• Old-time bush skills

• Outdoor fitness

• Photography

• Rations & stoves

• River fording

• Rip currents

• Road trip gear

• Search & rescue

• Sew & repair gear

• Swift-water safety

• Tracking man & beast

• Trail building & upkeep

• Water purification

• Weather forecasting

• Wilderness survival

Resources• Sources for gear

• The book finder

Travel info• Driving maps

• Road trip gear

• Roads & weather

• Tourism info

Site owner's info• Owner's e-mail

• Owner's bio

Contents of page

Land navigation team member info

Recommended equipment

How to waterproof & carry a map

How to prep a map for GPS/UTM use

How to set up a GPS unit for UTM use

Tactics & strategies in the bush

Pace counting

Aiming off

Declination

Handrailing

Geographic coordinate systems

Latitude/longitude sytem

Land navigation resources

Links

Land navigation

Orienteering

Books

Land navigation

Orienteering

Vendors Compass manufacturers

Map resources

Paper map vendors

Topographic

County

Plat maps

Digital map vendors

Maps on CD

Maps online




http://therucksack.tripod.com/journaling.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/knots.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/lightning.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/lowimpact.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/tracking.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/nightops.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/nightsky.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/oldbushskills.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/fitness.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/photography.htm



http://therucksack.tripod.com/ripcurrents.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/roadtripgear.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/searchrescue.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/sewing.htm



http://therucksack.tripod.com/trailbuilding.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/waterpurification.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/weatherforecasting.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/survival.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/vendors.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/bookfinder.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/drivingmaps.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/weather.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/travel.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/leaderbio.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav/latlon/latlon.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/leaderbio.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/travel.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/weather.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/drivingmaps.htm



http://therucksack.tripod.com/survival.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/weatherforecasting.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/waterpurification.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/trailbuilding.htm



http://therucksack.tripod.com/sewing.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/searchrescue.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/ripcurrents.htm



http://therucksack.tripod.com/photography.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/fitness.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/oldbushskills.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/nightsky.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/nightops.htm


http://therucksack.tripod.com/lowimpact.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/lightning.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/knots.htm

http://therucksack.tripod.com/journaling.htm





The RuckSack

All paths lead nowhere,

so it is important

to choose a path

that has heart.

-- Carlos Castaneda

Improvements make

straight roads;

but the crooked roads

without improvement

are the roads of genius.

-- William Blake

We shall not

cease from exploration

And the end

of all our exploring

Will be to arrive

where we started

And know the place

for the first time.

--Thomas. S. Elliot

1888-1965

Four Quartets:Little Gidding , 1942

The clearest way into the

Universe is through a forest

wilderness.

--John Muir

1838-1914

John of the Mountains, 1938

Aerial/satellite images

Online images

Hardcopy images

GPS resources

Backups for GPS units in the bush

Links

Books Magazines

Vendors

Manufacturers

Miscellaneous

Linear equivalents

Land survey equivalents

Angular equivalents Compute sunrise/set moonrise/set

Looking for

wilderness trippingequipment and

supplies?For 100's of sources for wilderness tripping

equipment and supplies, visit the sources for gear

page on this Web site.

Need helpfinding a book?






The RuckSack

There is a great deal of

unmapped country within us.

--George Eliot

1819-1880

Daniel Deronda

Look at this vigorous plant that

lifts its head from the meadow,

see how its leaves are turned to

the north, as true as the

magnet; this is the compass-

flower, that the finger of god

has planted here in the

houseless wild, to direct the

traveler's journey.

--Henry W. Longfellow1807-1882

Evangeline, 1847

I shall be telling this with a sigh--

somewhere ages and ages

hence; two roads diverged in a

wood, and I--I took the one less

traveled by, and that has madeall the difference.

--Robert Frost

1874-1963

The Road Not Taken,

1916, stanza 4

I think there is a fatality in it--I

seldom go to the place I set out

for.

--Laurence Sterne

1713-1768

Trying to buy a new or used copy of a book, but can't

locate one? Want to find a library somewhere in the

country that will lend you the book at no cost? Then

visit the handy book finder page on this Web site.

Recommend

a book, catalog,or Web site.If you know of a useful outdoor-related book, catalog,

or Web site not listed on this Web site, e-mail the

book's title, subtitle, author, publisher, date of

publication, and short description; or the catalog's

address and phone number; or the Web site's URL to

Michael Neiger at [email protected].

** Recommended

Top

Land nav team member information:

Equipmentrecommendations

for technical

land navigationhttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (5 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM







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As light and the day are free to

all men, so nature has left all

lands open to brave men.

--Caius Tacitus

Circa AD 55-117

History

Books are the compasses and

telescopes and sextants and

charts which other men have

prepared to help us navigate

the dangerous seas of human

life.

--Jesse Lee Bennett

1885-1931Books as Guides

Sails ripp'd, seams op'ning

wide, and compass lost

--William Cowper

1731-1800

On Rcpt of

My Mother's Picture

Though pleased to see the

dolphins play, I mind my

compass and my way.

--Matthew Green

1696-1737

The Spleen

Orienteering compass with sighting mechanism

A high-quality orienteering-style compass is essential for precise triangulation,

shooting long-distance field azimuths, and using as a map protractor & straight edge

for calculating route azimuths and distances.

An ideal one is the Brunton Nexus 54LU Combi (also sold as the Silva 54 Combi)

protractor-style compass with a unique prism optical sighting mechanism from

Kooter's Geology Tools http://www.egeology.com/54lu.html (http://www.egeology.

com)1-888-383-5219, $55 including shipping. (Note: This unique, precision

compass is extremely hard to find, but it is worth every penny if you can get your

grubby hands on one. It is much faster and easier to use than baseplate compasses

with mirrors. It is functionally accurate to 0.5 degrees. If you have trouble locatingit, try http://www.gps4fun.com, http://www.1sks.com, or search for it using the

Froogle Google search engine at http://www.froogle.com).

Ranger pace-counting beads

These simple, abacus-like units are extremely handy for complicated, multi-leg

routes that require continuous pacing or dead reckoning.

You can make your own or buy a set from Brigade Quartermasters, item no. SPC99

or RPC295 (avoid commonly available ceramic ones--they crack easily), 1-800-338-

4327, http://www.actiongear.com.


http://www.egeology.com/54lu.html

http://www.egeology.com/


http://www.gps4fun.com/

http://www.1sks.com/

http://www.froogle.com/

http://www.actiongear.com/


http://www.froogle.com/

http://www.1sks.com/




http://www.egeology.com/54lu.html



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Skill'd in the globe and sphere,

he gravely stands and, with his

compass, measures seas and

lands.

--John Dryden

1631-1700

Sixth Satire of Juvenal

Roamer UTM grid plotters

A roamer scale is essential for plotting UTM coordinates on topographic maps.

You can make your own or, if you're a regular on Sierra Club trips, request a free

one from Michael Neiger. (Note: Most of the commercially-made units are too big

for field use.)

For Michigan wilderness trips, you'll need roamer plotters for both 1:24000 and

1:25000 topographic maps. For Canadian wilderness trips, you'll need roamer

plotters for both 1:20000 and 1:50000 topographic maps.

Pencil or penA 0.5mm mechanical pencil (consistent width makes it more accurate than a regular

pencil) with an eraser, and wrapped with a rubber band to create friction and prevent

loss, is essential for annotating maps, plotting azimuths, and recording GPS data

such as plots, times, azimuths, landmarks, distances, and pacing info on notepaper.

A waterproof pen may be needed to mark on waterproofed maps. The Fisher Space

Pen is a proven foul-weather writing instrument and is available from Campmor, no.31655, 1-800-226-7667, http://www.campmor.com, or Forestry Suppliers, no.

49237, 1-800-647-5368, http://www.forestry-suppliers.com.

Waterproof notepaper

Waterproof notepaper is essential for recording GPS plot/time/azimuth/landmark/

distance/pace info when cutting complicated, multi-leg routes.http://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (7 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM

http://www.campmor.com/

http://www.forestry-suppliers.com/





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You could buy a small, pocket-size, waterproof notepad from Campmor, no. 31653,

1-800-226-7667, http://www.campmor.com, or Forestry Suppliers (lots of paper

choices), 1-800-647-5368, http://www.forestry-suppliers.com.

You could also make your own by simply waterproofing 3-by-5 cards or pieces of

heavy-duty paper, just as you did your topo maps.

Route measuring scale

A 12-inch-long piece of white, waxy (sticky) dental floss marked at one-klick (1000

meter) intervals (per map scale) is handy for rapidly measuring irregular routes on a

quad in the field.

To carry dental floss, tie it to the above pencil, wind the remainder around the

pencil, and secure the loose end under the rubber band.

Top


How to

waterproofhttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (8 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM







The RuckSack

& carry

maps in the bush

Maps, notepaper, and journals must be properly waterproofed and encased to

withstand the abuse of a long-range wilderness trip.

Moisture will turn unwaterproofed maps and other paper products into soggy, papier-

mache-like messes in short order. Likewise, maps not protected by a map case will

be torn to shreds by brush, rough handling, and repeated folding.

Commercial map treatments

The best way to waterproof and reinforce topographic maps is to use a commercial

map sealer such as Map Seal, Map Proof, Map Life, or Stormproof.

Map Seal

Aqua Seal

Trondak, Inc. (manufacturer)

1-425-290-7530

http://www.aquaseal.com/

Map Seal is available in 4-, 8-, 16-, and 32-ounce quantities.


h k k





The RuckSack

Recreational Equipment Inc. (REI) (vendor)

1-800-426-4840

http://www.rei.com/

Campmor (vendor)

1-800-525-4784

http://www.campmor.com

Map Proof

Nikwax (manufacturer)

1-425-303-1410

http://www.nikwax.com/

Summit Hut (vendor)

1-800-499-8696

http://www.summithut.com/

Mountain Gear (vendor)

1-800-829-2009

http://www.mgear.com

Altrec.com (vendor)

1-800-369-3949

http://www.altrec.com/

Map Life


Th R kS k

http://www.rei.com/




http://www.mgear.com/



http://www.mgear.com/




http://www.rei.com/



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Safety Central (vendor)

1-650-965-3509

http://www.safetycentral.com

Liberty Mountain (vendor)

1-800-366-2666

http://www.libertymountain.com

Stormproof

Martenson Co. (manufacturer)

P.O. Box 261

Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

Alternative map treatments

While acrylic products such as Minwax's "Polycrylic Protective Finish" Clear Satin

and Krylon's "Crystal Clear" acrylic spray paint are effective at protecting maps

from the elements, they should be avoided since they dry so hard the treated surfaceof the map actually cracks wherever it is folded.

Masonry and wood sealants, in particular Thompson's Water Seal, have been widely

used to weatherproof maps. While admittedly not as water repellent, strong, or

durable as some commercial map treatments, Thompson's Water Seal is effective on

quality paper, especially when combined with a map case such as a zip-lock.

Thompson's Water SealThompson's Company (manufacturer)


http://www.safetycentral.com/

http://www.libertymountain.com/

http://www.libertymountain.com/

http://www.safetycentral.com/



The RuckSack



The RuckSack

bands work very well.

Top


How to add

UTM grid linesto your maps

for on-the-go,

in-the-fieldGPS applications

To accurately calculate route azimuths as well as rapidly plot GPS coordinates in the

bush, it's essential that topographic maps are overlaid with the 1,000-meterUniversal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid.


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Make sure your maps have

1,000-meter UTM grid lines

While many maps come with the UTM grid pre-plotted, many do not. Take the time

to make sure your maps have these black easting (vertical) and northing (horizontal)

grid lines, both of which are spaced exactly 1,000 meters apart. Don't confuse this

grid system with the red horizontal and vertical section lines, which are spaced

about 1 mile apart.

Add 1,000-meter UTM grid lines if necessaryIf your maps are not overlaid with the UTM grid lines, draw them on by connecting

the short, light-blue tick marks along all four map margins. Do not confuse the blue

UTM grid tick marks with the black 10,000-foot State Plane Coordinate (SPC) grid

tick marks or the black latitude and longitude tick marks.

Your UTM grid lines must be exactly 1,000 meters apart. Double-check the

accuracy and interval spacing of your hand-drawn grid lines using the map scale inmap margin.

Draw each line using a .5mm mechanical pencil (reduces error created as regular

pencils dull and lay down wider lines) and a straightedge, such as a new, absolutely

straight (sight down it), nick-free (run your finger nail along edge) aluminum

yardstick available from a building supply store.


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Plot technical azimuths off UTM grid lines, not

section lines

In the field, you will use the easting (vertical) UTM grid lines for calculating exact

azimuths for challenging navigational situations requiring a high degree of accuracy.

We will not be using the meridians of longitude or the south-to-north red section

lines for calculating technical azimuths when we need dead-on accuracy.

The magnetic declination figures we use will be updated for the current year and

adjusted for use with the easting (vertical) UTM grid lines, not the meridians of

longitude or section lines.

While meridian of longitude lines, if pre-plotted, are fine for azimuth calculating,

they do not lend themselves to rapid, on-the-go plotting in the bush. The red, south-

to-north section lines are not suitable for technical azimuth plotting since they are

neither consistently straight nor predictable in orientation, even on the same quad.

Top


How to configure your

GPS unit for ahttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (16 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM

The RuckSack



UTM-based

Sierra Club trip

Always make sure your GPS unit is properly configured for the type of navigating

you will be doing or it will spit out inaccurate positional fixes.

Coordinate grid system

Select the 1000-meter Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid coordinate

system as it is much easier to use for quick, on-the-go land navigation that involves

integrating traditional route-finding tools such as topographic maps, compasses, and

ranger pacing beads. Do not select latitude-longitude, MGRS, etc.

Map datum (horizontal)

Check the margin of your map for the appropriate horizontal datum (do not use the

vertical datum).

Currently, most Michigan topographic maps use the 1927 North American Datum

(NAD 27). Some GPS units may break the North American Datum down furtherwith CONUS (CONtinetal US), Canada, etc. Future topographic maps may well use


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the NAD-83 or WGS-84 datums, which are identical to each other for our purposes.

Canadian topographical maps for Ontario generally use either NAD 27 (Canada) or

NAD 83. Newer maps may appear with the WGS-84 datum.

There are over a hundred (100) map datums, so get it right. If you select the wrong

one, your GPS unit will be outputting incorrect coordinates. Do not select WGS 84

(usually the default setting), Mexico, Timbuktu, etc., as these will result in incorrect

readings. For example, the difference between the WGS-84 and NAD-27 datums is

about 300 meters.

UTM grid zone

The UTM grid system splits the world up into 60, longitudinally-arranged zones.

Each zone is six (6) degrees of longitude in width, from east to west. Check the

margin of your map for the correct UTM zone number.

Michigan is covered by two zones: 16 and 17. The 84 degrees west meridian of

longitude represents the dividing line between zone 16 and zone 17. This meridian

of longitude lies along an imaginary, north-to-south line running through Michigan

communities such as Adrian, Saginaw, Standish, Atlanta, and De Tour Village, nearDrummond Island.


The RuckSack



The meridian

of longitude

at 84 degrees

west represents

the edge of

UTM zone 16

and zone 17,both of which

cover the state

of Michigan.

(Drawing by

Michael A. Neiger)

Zone 16 lies west of

this meridian of

longitude. Zone 17

lies to the east of this meridian of longitude. In other words, zone 16 covers the

western three-quarters of the Upper Peninsula as well as the western two-thirds of

the Lower Peninsula. Correspondingly, zone 17 covers the extreme eastern end of

the Upper Peninsula as well as the eastern third of the Lower Peninsula.

Unit of measure

Most GPS units have three units of measure: statute (tradition English mile measure;

usually the default), nautical (the nautical mile is slightly longer than the statute

mile), and metric (meters). Select the metric setting for the UTM coordinate system.

The statute and nautical units of measure will both produce inaccurate readingswhen used with the UTM grid coordinate system.


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UTM grid hemisphere

If your unit requires it, select the appropriate hemisphere, which for Michigan and

Canada will be the northern hemisphere. You may not have to specify this.

Field-check unit for proper setup

Once you arrive at the starting point for your wilderness trip, always proof-check

your GPS unit at a known location on the ground (e.g.: bridge, intersection,

confluence of two rivers, lake) and compare this positional reading with the same

known location on the topographic map. If you get in the habit of always doing this,

you will be able to catch any erroneous configuration before it is too late, deep in

the bush.

Top

Tactics & strategies:

Pace countinghttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (20 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM

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with Army Ranger

pace counting beads

Pace counting, or tally stepping as it is sometimes called, is an ancient technique.

Legionnaires in the Roman Army used it on the battlefield just as today's elite

warriors do. Ranger pacing beads were widely used in Vietnam and continue to be


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popular with Army Rangers, Army

Special Forces units such as the

Green Berets and Delta Force,

Navy Seals, and the British Army's

SAS (Special Air Service).

The photograph on the right depicts

several different types of

commercial and handmade pace

counting beads.

1. Homemade beads made from

leather disks, similar to hard,

rubber disks used by

Canadian forces, sold byCanadian Peacekeeper. Note:

Disk-type pace counting

beads are difficult to use in

the dark or with gloves since

you can't easily differentiate

between them by feel.

2. Beads made from

indestructible rubber-like cups, used by Army Rangers, sold by BrigadeQuartermasters. Very popular.

3. Homemade beads made from short sections of rubber tubing.

4. Unique beads made from miniature skulls, used by Airborne Infantry, sold by

U.S. Cavalry and Brigade Quartermasters. Very popular.

5. Homemade beads made from drilled-out, wooden, craft-shop beads.

6. Hard, ceramic beads, which crack much too easily, widely available at military

supply outlets.

7. Homemade beads made from craft-shop beads, which crack much too easily.


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Our English statute mile is based on the Roman soldier's mile. The Latin phrases

"mille passus," or "milia passuum," which meant a "thousand paces," were

eventually shortened to a "mile" in English. The average soldier laid down 5,000

"foot-lengths" or "feet" in a mile. Much like the pace we use today, a Roman pace

consisted of two steps equalling about 5 "foot-lengths."

Why count paces?

While pace counting is admittedly an arcane distance determination technique that is

seldom used by trail-bound hikers, it is an essential technique used by advanced-

level land navigators who travel cross-country through challenging wilderness. In

certain situations, a map and compass alone just aren't enough.

In his book, entitled "Orienteering," John Disley aptly writes that "more mistakes

are made in orienteering by wrongly estimating distance than from any other

reason." While most of us can quickly learn to travel in the right direction, few of us

have any idea of how far we have traveled.

Think about Disley's observation for a moment. Have you ever cut an azimuth

through the bush and wondered if you had missed your target, or perhaps not gone

far enough, when it did not materialize? Did you continue on another 10 minutes,then 20 minutes, hoping it would appear? Or did you backtrack? You could have

eliminated much of the guesswork in this situation by using a technique known as

"step-counting."

Pace counting with Ranger pacing beads is well suited for the complicated

navigational challenges faced by today's wilderness navigator. For example, pace

counting is essential for dead reckoning, where azimuth (or direction of travel) data

is combined with pacing (or distance traveled) data. With this technique, one canestablish his or her position in nondescript terrain, foul weather, or even in complete


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darkness. The "dead" in dead reckoning is derived from "ded.," an abbreviation of

"deduced." It's navigation by logical deduction. It does not necessarily mean it's a

deadly form of navigation.

Purchasing pacing beadsCommercially manufactured pace counting beads are hard to find. However, several

military supply outlets currently sell pacing beads configured for the metric

measurement system, which dovetails nicely with 1000-meter UTM grid system

used on CUPG wilderness trips lead by Michael Neiger.

Brigade Quartermasters

1-800-338-4327http://www.actiongear.com

Search "Ranger beads." Item no. RPC295: very tough, nearly indestructible rubber

beads that work well with gloves in cold weather. Item no. SPC9903: SPC9911, or

SPC9995; unique skull-type beads.

Canadian Peacekeeper

1-800-561-3040

http://www.canadianpeacekeeper.com Item no. 1020, uses unbreakable rubber disks, which may be difficult to use at

night or while wearing gloves.

Georgia-Outfitters.com

http://www.georgia-outfitters.com

Item no. 4594. fragile ceramic-type beads.

HSGear

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http://www.canadianpeacekeeper.com/

http://www.georgia-outfitters.com/

http://hsgear.safeshopper.com/25/cat25.htm?91

http://hsgear.safeshopper.com/25/cat25.htm?91

http://www.georgia-outfitters.com/

http://www.canadianpeacekeeper.com/




Fragile ceramic beads.

Major Surplus and Survival

http://www.majorsurplusnsurvival.com

Select "other miscellaneous." Fragile ceramic beads.

Omaha's Original G.I. Surplus

1-888-922-1493

http://www.omahas.com

Select "belts." Fragile ceramic beads.

PPCLI Regimental Kitshop

http://www.nucleus.com/~kitshop/netcat.htm

Item no. 4569.

Ranger Joe's

1-800-247-4541

http://www.rangerjoe.com

Item no. 0122, Fragile ceramic beads.

SpecWarGear

http://www.specwargear.com/

Select "gear" and "survival gear." Fragile ceramic beads.

U.S. Cavalry

1-888-888-7228

http://www.uscav.com

Item no. 18802, unique skull-type beads.

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http://www.majorsurplusnsurvival.com/

http://www.omahas.com/


http://www.rangerjoe.com/


http://www.uscav.com/

http://www.uscav.com/


http://www.rangerjoe.com/


http://www.omahas.com/

http://www.majorsurplusnsurvival.com/



To construct your own metric-measurement-based pacing beads, you'll need 13 3/8-

inch-diameter wooden beads, which you can buy at a craft shop, and a 33-inch-long

black nylon bootlace from K-Mart or Wal-Mart. Avoid using brittle plastic or

ceramic beads as they will shatter when they bang up against a rock.

Drill a hole, most likely about 3/16-of-an-inch in diameter, through each bead. The

hole should be sized so the bead fits snugly on a doubled-over section of the

bootlace. It's important that the bead not slide by itself on the bootlace; you should

have to pull it along with your fingers.

After folding the lace in half, thread on the beads, four in the top 1000-meter-klick

group (nearest the closed end of the bootlace) and nine in the bottom 100-meter-

march group. Use an overhand knot at each end to prevent the beads from coming

off.

Tie another overhand note in between the two groups of beads to keep them

separated. If you leave a large loop at the looped end, above the overhand knot

located over the four klick beads, you'll be able to use it for attaching the pacing unit

to your pack strap or a D-ring.

Configured for the metric measurement system, which is how it should be for a

CUPG wilderness trip lead by Michael Neiger, you'll be able to keep track of up tofive klicks of travel. Metric-based pacing beads are ideally suited for use with the

UTM grid system and a GPS unit similarly configured. Your finished pacing bead

apparatus should be arranged as follows:

Upper klick (kilometer) counter: four 1000-meter (one klick or kilometer)

beads

Lower march counter: nine 100-meter (1/10 kilometer) march beads


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English-based pacing bead setup

To reconfigure a set of metric pacing beads for use with the English measurement

system, or the statute mile, simply move two of what were the lower 100-meter

march beads to the upper group of what were the one-klick or 1000-meter beads.

The seven lower beads become 110-yard or 1/16-mile march beads and the six

upper beads become 880-yard or half-mile beads.

Configured for the English measurement system, which is not used on CUPG

wilderness trips lead by Michael Neiger, your finished pacing bead apparatus should

be arranged as follows:

Upper half-mile counter: six 880-yard (or 1/2 mile) beads

Lower march counter: seven 110-yard (or 1/16 mile) beads

Field-expedient counting system

A field-expedient pace counting system can be improvised by simply gathering up

several small pebbles or acorns and then moving them from one pocket to another

every 100 meters. Pebbles have long been used for reckoning. The English term

"calculate" is derived from the Latin word "calculus," a term that refers to a small

stone or pebble used for doing arithmetic or reckoning.

Another way of keeping track of your pacing is to make a small slash mark on a

piece of paper as you complete each 100-meter march. Or, you could tie a knot in a

spare bootlace or short piece of cordage.


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Using ranger pacing beads

For the purposes of pace counting, a pace is defined the distance between two foot-

strikes of the right foot. In other words, a pace is counted each time the right foot

strikes the ground, not each time the right and the left foot strikes the ground.

To use pacing beads configured for the metric measurement system, the averageadult male traveling on a flat, open trail can simply count the number of times his

right foot hits the ground and pull a lower 100-meter march bead every 66 paces,

which should equal 100 meters, assuming his pace is about 1.5 meters long. The

number of paces necessary to cover 100 meters for other pace lengths can be

determined by referring to the chart below.

When no lower 100-meter march beads remain to be pulled, simply pull down an

upper klick bead, which represents 1000 meters of travel, and then reset the 100-meter march beads by sliding all 9 back up.

Using pacing beads configured for the English measurement system is equally

simple. The only difference is that when you reach to pull down the eighth march

bead, which does not exist, simply pull an upper half-mile bead, resetting the lower

march beads to begin counting into the next half-mile segment. This setup will

allow you to keep track of up to 3.5 miles worth of pacing.

If you find you must make a lateral move to avoid an natural barrier or obstruction--

be it a swamp, cliff, or lake--always stop your forward pace counting and side step


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to one side at a right angle to your original azimuth.

When you've laterally cleared the obstacle, continue

counting paces as you walk parallel to your original

azimuth route. Once you're beyond the obstacle,

remember to stop counting paces and side step, at a

right angle, an equal number of paces back to your

original line of travel. Begin counting paces again when

you resume travel on your original azimuth.

If a geographical barrier or obstruction

blocks your route, simply move at

right angles to your original azimuth.

(Drawing by Michael Neiger)

Avoid walking directly behind or abreast of another

hiker as their pace may influence your rhythm and

throw off the accuracy of your pacing. Each time you come upon a knownlandmark, which you can confirm on your map, re-start your pacing counting to

ensure maximum accuracy. When traversing known distances, take advantage of the

opportunity to check the accuracy of your pace counting as well as your rate of

travel (minutes per klick).

With practice, pace counting will become nothing more than a subconscious,

background activity that will greatly increase your land navigation abilities.

Figuring your pace

One of the easiest ways to calculate your pace in the field is to simply mark the

location where your right toe (or heel) strikes the ground several times in a row and

then measure the distance between the strike marks to come up with a good average.If you've measured your boot length prior to the trip, you can use your boot in a heel-


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f hi d i l h Al l l i h



to-toe fashion to determine your pace length. Always calculate your pace with a

loaded rucksack in the bush you are about to traverse.

Once you know how long your pace is, consult the table below to determine how

many paces to count before pulling a 100-meter (or 110-yard) march bead. While

the march-bead pace figures in the table below are in meters, they'll work equally

well with the English measurement system since 100 meters equals 110 yards.

Pace Length Table

Pace length

or distance between

two right foot impressions

Number ofright foot paces

needed to cover

100 meters or 110 yards

6' 0" 55

5' 8" 58

5' 4" 62

5' 0" 66 (average male)

4' 8" 71

4' 4" 76

4' 0" 83

3' 8" 90

3' 4" 99

Always verify your pace length at the start of a trip as well as whenever the terrain,

rucksack load, or another factor affecting your pace length changes. Once fully

mastered, allow for at least a 10 percent error rate on flat open terrain.

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i f hi d Y ld l l l h h i l di



counting of every third pace. You could also recalculate the horizontal distance

advanced for each pace and then use a higher pace count for each 100-meter up- or

down-hill march.

Keep in mind that distances measured on a two-dimensional map account for

horizontal change only--they assume the terrain is flat. On the other hand, your in-

the-field pacing measurements over the same terrain may be longer if the area is

hilly since your pacing will take into account both vertical and horizontal influences.

Factors affecting pace

There are several factors that can influence the length of your pace and ultimately

the accuracy of your results. Make sure you monitor your pace length as conditionschange. Adjust your pace calculations accordingly.

Gradient: walking up or down grades will shorten pace.

Vegetation: weeds, brush, and downed trees will shorten pace.

Surface: loose sand, gravel, mud, standing water, boulders, snow, and ice will

shorten pace.

Weather: high winds will shorten pace.

Fatigue: as fatigue sets in, your pace will shorten. Load: a heavily-loaded rucksack will shorten pace.

Clothing: heavy clothing, bulky boots, or snowshoes slow pace.

Contouring (or traversing): walking sideways on a steep incline will shorten

pace.

Sight distance: darkness, snowfall, heavy rain, and fog will shorten pace.

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On waterproof paper, keep a running log for each leg of your route. It should

include: UTM coordinates, elapsed time, distance paced, directional azimuth, and

landmarks passed, with the time and paced distance noted. These bits of info will

allow you to hone your distance-measuring skills--both pace-based and elapsed-

time-based--as well as approximate where you are if you get disoriented.

Pacing v. Timing

While not as accurate as pacing, estimating distance traveled by the passage of time

is a very useful technique. The best way to establish your rate of travel is to keep

track of how long it takes to progress a certain known distance as determined by

pace counting during your hike. This will ensure that your rate of travel is relative to

the terrain and load at hand. With this information, you can calculate how long it

takes to traverse a klick (1000 meters) as well as a 100-meter march.

What about pedometers?

In his book, "The Essential Navigator: How to Find Your Way in the Outdoors,"David Seidman writes that pedometers are useless on all but firm, level ground. The

gadgets are just not suitable for clambering over deadfalls or traversing rugged

topography.

Top


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T ti & t t i




Aiming off

Aiming off is one of the most useful land navigation techniques available towilderness travelers. It is used when you're headed for a distant objective, a

waterfall for example, which is located near a linear or elongated feature, in this

case a twisty river.

Experienced land navigators aim off to one side or

the other of an objective located on a linear feature.

By doing this, they know which way to search for the

objective once they arrive at the linear feature and

don't see the objective.(Drawing by Michael Neiger)

For example, if you attempted the direct

route in the illustration and arrived at the

river, but did not see or hear the waterfall,

which way would you search for it? And,

how long would you look for it in one direction before self-doubt would drive you

to look in the other direction?

To get around this problem, experienced land navigators simply "aim off" to one

side of the waterfall. They don't try to hit it dead-on.

Aiming off involves the intentional addition or subtraction of several degrees of

offset--or purposeful error--to an azimuth so your line of travel to an objective

located on a linear feature takes you to the left or right of it, eliminating any

question of which way you need to search for it if you don't immediately see it.

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i i l ff d i i l d i i



intentional offset, and intentional deviation.

Why is "aiming off" necessary

Aiming off is necessary since it is nearly impossible to cut an azimuth without anylateral drift. For example, errors in cartography (map making), map interpretation,

compass design, compass sighting, and azimuth cutting may make it difficult to

accurately navigate directly to a distant objective that is not readily visible.

In addition, external magnetic forces created by wrist compasses, wire rim glasses,

watches, belt buckles, knifes, weapons, ammunition, jewelry, vehicles, fences, and

power lines can influence the accuracy of a magnetic compass, sometimes in a very

subtle, imperceptible manner. Watch out for this.

The longer the distance traveled or the more difficult the terrain, the more these

factors creep in to reduce the accuracy of azimuth cutting.

Average error in azimuth cutting

According to the experts, you should expect about three to five degrees of error--or

lateral drift--when cutting an azimuth with a conventional compass. For example:

In "The Essential Wilderness Navigator," David Seidman says that the average

error in cutting an azimuth through the bush is around 3 degrees.

W.S. Kals writes in the "Land Navigation Handbook" that operator error and

compass error across open terrain generally amounts to about 3 or 4 degrees.

According to Rick Curtis, author of "The Backpacker's Field Manual," anddirector of Princeton University's Outdoor Action Program, 3 to 5 degrees of


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lateral error is the norm



lateral error is the norm.

In the second edition of "Maps and Compasses," Percy Blandford says that 5

degrees of error in cutting an azimuth is common.

In "Finding Your Way in the Outdoors," Robert Mooers, Jr., says to expect

about 3 degrees of lateral drift.

When should you "aim off"

Aiming off is useful for reaching small, limited visibility objectives that happen to

be located on or near elongated, long-sided, or linear features.

Examples of linear or "catching" features that work well for locating hard-to-find

objectives such as campsites, waterfalls, cabins, caves, ponds, trail intersections,waterway confluences, and so forth include:

jeep trails

foot trails

railroad grades

creeks and rivers

valleys

shorelines utility lines

fence lines

edges of swamps

ditches

tree lines

ridgelines

cliffs and escarpments

firebreaks


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property lines



property lines

How much should you aim off?

When calculating how much offset to introduce, keep in mind that each degree ofoffset will shift an azimuth roughly 1/60--or 0.01745 for the more precise--of the

distance traveled.

If you're using the metric measurement system, such as the kilometer, each degree

of deliberate offset will shift an azimuth 17.45 meters to one side of an objective for

every klick (1,000 meters) of travel.

Use the aiming off table below to calculate:

How many meters of lateral offset on the ground will result from each degree

of compass offset.

How many degrees of compass offset you'll need to use to achieve a set

number of meters of lateral offset on the ground.

Aiming Off:

Lateral offset in meters per degree of offset for each klick (1000 meters).

Offset in

degrees

Distance traveled in meters

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

1 17 35 52 70 87

2 35 70 105 140 175

3 52 105 157 209 262

4 70 140 209 280 350

5 87 175 262 349 4366 105 209 314 419 524


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7 122 244 366 489 611



7 122 244 366 489 611

8 140 280 419 558 698

9 157 314 471 628 785

10 175 350 524 698 873

For those preferring to use the English measurement system, such as the statute

mile, each degree of deliberate offset will shift an azimuth about 92.14 feet to oneside of an objective for every mile (5280 feet) of travel.

Trigonometry behind aiming off

For those into trig--the problem-solving method developed long ago by the

Egyptians, Babylonians, and Greeks--the authors of several leading land navigationtextbooks recommend that you take the tangent of 1 degree and multiply it by the

distance traveled to determine how much offset will result from each degree of

change.

This recommendation notwithstanding, a closer look at the geometric problem

involved in aiming off seems to indicate the tangent solution is more appropriate for

right-angle-type problems, not the oblique-type triangle problem aiming off

involves.

Since aiming off involves an isosceles triangle--a non-right-angle triangle with two

equal-length sides--the more appropriate trigonometric function may be the sine. To

use the sine function to determine how much offset will result from the addition of

one degree, you would multiply the distance traveled by the sine of one degree

divided by the sine of 89.5 degrees.


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How much offset do the experts recommend?



How much offset do the experts recommend?

The experts recommend that you use an offset of somewhere between 2 and 11

degrees. For example:

In "The Essential Wilderness Navigator," David Seidman recommends that

you aim off by 5 degrees. In its "Map Reading" field manual, the U.S. Army uses 10 degrees of

deliberate offset in their example.

In his book, "The Green Beret's Compass Course," retired Special Forces Sgt.

Don Paul recommends that you use 2 or 3 degrees of lateral offset.

In "The Outward Bound Map and Compass Handbook," Gleen Randal says to

change your azimuth by 10 degrees.

In the "Land Navigation Handbook," W.S. Kals also recommends 10 degrees

of offset. In "Orienteering--Skills and Strategies," Ron Lowry and Ken Sidney suggest

using an offset of between 6 and 11 degrees.

In the second edition of "Teaching Orienteering," Carol McNeill, Jean Cory-

Wright, and Tom Renfrew appear to advocate aiming off between 3 and 7

degrees.

In the revised edition of "Orienteering," John Disley recommends an offset of

7 degrees or so.

In the second edition of "Maps and Compasses," Percy Blandford suggests anoffset of 10 degrees.

Keep in mind that if you don't use enough lateral offset, you may unknowingly find

yourself on the wrong side of your objective due to unintentional lateral drift, which

may result from a number of factors including inaccurate compass sighting and the

inability to walk a precise azimuth.

In other words, if you aim off by adding two degrees to your azimuth, but happen toexperience a lateral drift of minus three degrees, you'll unknowingly end up on the


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opposite of your objective Thinking you're on the intended side of your objective



opposite of your objective. Thinking you re on the intended side of your objective,

your search may be futile.

In general, the longer the distance, the more difficult the terrain, or the less precise

your azimuth cutting, the greater the amount of lateral offset you'll need.

Which way should you aim off?

Sea kayakers and wilderness canoeists will usually want to aim upwind or up-

current so they can paddle with the current or wind to their objective once the linear

feature is reached.

Snowshoers and cross-country skiers will likely want to aim for the uphill side oftheir objective so they can simply travel downhill to it and avoid an uphill struggle.

Everything else being equal, opt for the shortest route.

Handling obstructions while aiming off

If you're not running a precise, point-to-point azimuth offset, always veer around

obstructions and obstacles on the same side as you are intending to arrive at your

objective on. In other words, if you're aiming to hit a linear feature to the left of your

objective, always go around the left side of any obstruction blocking your path so

you don't accidentally "undo" the few degrees of offset you've built into your

azimuth and unknowingly end up on the wrong side of it.


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Top


Magnetic declination

Magnectic declination calculators

Magnetic Declination Calculator by the Canadian Geological Survey

http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geomag/field/mdcalc_e.php

Geomagnetic Data

by NOAA

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/jsp/Declination.jsp

Top

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di t t







coordinate systems Go to Latitude/longitude coordinate sytem page

Top

Land navigation links

Barry's Scouting Resource Page

http://members.tripod.com/~BFarns/index-compass.html

How to Use a Compass

http://www.learn-orienteering.org/old/

Map and Compass for Firefightershttp://www.nwcg.gov/pms/training/map_comp.pdf

A U.S. Government self-study course for wildland firefighters

Map Reading and Land Navigation (Army FM 3-25.26)

http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-25-26/

Complete online version of Army manual.

Maps and Compasses


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http://education.qld.gov.au/tal/kla/compass




http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/training/map_comp.pdf



http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/training/map_comp.pdf




http://education.qld.gov.au/tal/kla/compass/%20




http://education.qld.gov.au/tal/kla/compass

Topographic Symbols (Army FM 21-31)

http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/21-31/toc.htm

Complete online version of Army manual

U.S. Geological Survey

http://www.usgs.gov

Select "fact sheets," "mapping," and "fact sheets."

Top

Orienteering links

International Orienteering Federation

http://www.orienteering.org/

Orienteering Canada

http://www.orienteering.ca/

Swedish Orienteering Federation

http://www.orientering.se/t2.asp?p=29835

http://www.orientering.se

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http://www us orienteering org/



http://www.usgs.gov/




http://www.orientering.se/

http://www.orientering.se/







http://www.us.orienteering.org/





World of O

http://www.fi.uib.no/~jankoc/worldofo/

Top

Land

navbooks

Advanced Coastal Navigation AN-1 , 2nd edition (U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary)

Basic Coastal Navigation--An I ntroduction to Pil oting , by F. J. Larkin (Sheridan

House, 1993)

Basic Essenti als of M ap and Compass , 2nd edition, by Cliff Jacobson (ICS Books,

Inc., 1997)

Basic F ield Manual--Advanced Map and Aer ial Photograph Reading (U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1941)


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Basic Map Reading Ski ll s , by Peter W. Preksto (Creative Education, 1979)







p g , y ( , )

Basic M ap Reading , by Keith Gillard (Longman [England], 1990)

Be Expert with Map and Compass--The Complete Ori enteeri ng H andbook , by

Bjorn Kjellstrom (MacMillan General Reference, 1994)

Better Ways of Pathf inding , by Robert S. Owendoff (Stackpole Books, 1964)

Celestial Navigation , by Tom Cunliffe (Fernhurst Books, 2001)

Celestial Navigation in a Nutshell , by Hewitt Schlereth (Sheridan House, Inc.,

2000)

Celestial Navigation Quick and Easy--I n Your H ead Calculations of L atitude and

Longitude , by Roy T. Maloney (Dropzone Press, 2000)

Compass and M ap Navigator--The Complete Guide to Staying Found , by Michael

Hodgson (Globe Pequot Press, 2000)

Compass and Maps (Girl Scouts of the United States of America, 1973)

Concise Book of Map Reading , by Terry Brown and Rob Hunter (Gaga Publishing,

1980)

Contour , by Cecil McCallum and Andrew Baxter (Holmes-McDougall)

Contours , by C. Boxhall and E. G. P. Devereaux (Philip, 1965)

Cross-country Navigation , by Rod Phillips and Neil Phillips (Outdoor Recreation in

Australia, 1989)

Elementary Map Reading (War Office [London], 1943)


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Elements of Navigation--Prepared Especiall y for Home Study (International

Correspondence Schools, 1941)

Essential Wi lderness Navigator--H ow to Fi nd Your Way in the Great Outdoors ,

by David Seidman (Ragged Mountain Press, 1995)

Essentials of M ap I nterpretation--A Workbook , Palmyra M. Leahy and Robert E.Cramer, second edition (Kendall/Hunt, 1991)

Exerci ses in Map Reading and Map Analysis , by John E. Mulhauser (University of

Akron)

Explori ng and Finding the Way , by David Watkins and Meike Dalal (Usborne

[London], 1979)

Finding Your Way in the Outdoors--Compass Navigation, Map Reading, Route

F inding, Weather Forecasting , by Robert L. Mooers (Sedgewood Press, 1990)

Finding Your Way on Land or Sea--Reading Natur e's Maps , by Harold Gatty (S.

Greene Press, 1983)

Finding Your Way--The Ar t of Natural Navigation , by Jennifer Dewey and

Stephen Trimble (Millbrook Press, 2001)

Finding Your Way With Map and Compass (U.S. Geological Survey, 2000)

Finding Your Way Without Map or Compass , by Harold Gatty (Dover

Publications, Inc., 1999)

Green Beret' s Compass Cour se--The New Way to Stay Found (Not L ost)

Anywhere , by SSG. Don Paul (Pathfinder Publications, 1985)


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Have Map, Have Compass, Wi ll Travel--A Walker' s Guide to the Use of M ap and



p p p

Compass , by Kenneth R. Walpole (K. Walpole, 1999)

How to Navigate Over L and , Noel J. Hotchkiss (Stocker and Yale, 1991)

How to Read a Map--Using and Understanding Maps , by Scott E. Morris (Chelsea

House Publishers, 1993)

How to Teach Map and Compass Skil ls , by Robert P. Larkin (National Science

Teachers Association, 1976)

How to Teach with Topographic Maps , by Dana Van Burgh, Elizabeth N. Lyons,

and Marcy Boyington (National Science Association, 1988)

How to Use a Compass , by Kjetil Kjernsmos

I ntroduction to Topographic M ap Reading , by Kenneth C. Thompson (Southwest

Missouri State University Department of Geography, Geology, and Planning, 1992)

Fundamentals of Kayak Navigation , by David Burch (The Globe Pequot Press,

1999)

* * Land Navigation Handbook--The Sierr a Club Guide to Map and Compass , by

W.S. Kals (Sierra Club Books, 1983)

Land Navigation , by Bob Newman and Susan Newman (Menasha Ridge Press)

Land Navigation f or Outdoor Enthusiasts , by Bob Newman (Menasha Ridge

Press, Inc., 1995)

Land Navigation--Routefi nding Wi th Map and Compass , by Wally Keay and

Nicholas Gair (Duke of Edinburghsaward [London], 1989)


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Manual of M ap Reading (Ministry of Defence [Great Britian], 1973)



( y )

Manual of Map Reading and Land Navigation, second edition (Ministry of

Defence [Great Britain], 1988)

Map and Compass , by Cliff Jacobson (Globe Pequot, 2000)

Map and Compass--A Practical Modern Guide to Map Reading and the Day andNi ght Use of M odern Compasses , by John B. L. Noel (Simpkin Marshall, Ltd.

[London], 1942)

Map and Compass--Discover the Excitement , by Erkka Laininen (Sunnto Oy

[Finland], 1996)

Map and Compass Fundamentals--Or ienteeri ng , by Toy Martin and Dave Lotty

(Reed, 1976)

Map and Compass--I nstructor M anual , by Gail S. Ludwig (Missouri Department

of Conservation, 1983)

Map and Compass Manual , by Jackson L. Carter (Carter's Manual Company, 1954)

Map and Compass Ski ll s for the Secondary School , by Robert P. Larkin (National

Council for Geographic Education, 1976)

Map and Compass Study--Conservation and Envir onmental Ski ll s , by Frank G.

Patterson, V. Eugene Vivian, and Norma T. Vivian (Conservation and

Environmental Studies Center, 1969)

Map and Compass--The Pri nciples of Ori entation , by Charles Thoene (Edward

Stanford, Ltd. [London], 1955)

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3rd edition, edited by Joel Makower (Vintage Books, 1992)



Map, Compass, and Campfi re--A H andbook for the Outdoorsman , by Donald E.

Ratliff (Binfords and Mort, 1992)

Map, Compass, GPS--An I ntr oduction , by Robert Rutten (Outdoor

Communications, 2000)

Map Essentials--A Comprehensive Map Ski ll s Program (National Geographic

School Publishing, 2001)

Map Reading (EP Publishing, 1983)

Map Reading (National Learning Corporation, 1998)

Map Reading (Tac Ops) --A Self-teaching Device, by Donald E. Meyer (1950)

Map Reading , by Jack Rudman (National Learning Corporation)

Map Reading , by L. M. Sebert and Sandi Lamanna (Renouf Pub. [Ontario], 1984)

Map Reading , by Robert B Matkin (Dalesman, 1997)

Map Reading , by the Australian Fire Authorities Council (Addison WesleyLongman, 1996)

Map Reading FM 21-26 , by the Department of the Army (U.S. Government

Printing Office, 1969, 1983). Excellent.

Map Reading and Aeri al Photographs , by Brian O Cinneide and William

MacNamara (Educational Company [Dublin], 1986)

Map Reading and Land Navigation (Army FM 3-25.26)


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Map Reading and Land Navigation , by U.S. Army Infantry School (Desert

Publications, 1995)

Map Reading and Land Navigation , by William (Gordon Press Publishers, 1990)

Map Reading and the Troop Leading Procedure (MS 102), by USMA Staff(Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1993)

Map Reading Handbook , 2nd edition (TASMAP, Tasmania Department of

Environment, 1991)

Map Reading Skil ls , by Peter W. Preksto (Creative Company, 1979)

Map Reading Train ing Course , by Steve Depenbrok (Peace Corps)

Map Skil ls , by Brian Turk (UTP [Great Britian], 1983)

Map Skil ls , by Pam Robson (1998)

Map Skil ls , by Seymour Reit (Macmillan Educational Company, 1984)

Map Skil ls , four volumes (Phoenix Learning Resources, 1989)

Map Use--Reading, Analysis, and I nterpretation , 4th edition, by Phillip C.

Muehrcke and Juliana O. Muehrcke (JP Publications, 1998). Weighing nearly 3

pounds, this 650-page bible is chock-full of detailed map and nav info.

Maps and Compasses , 2nd edition, by Percy W. Blanford (Tab Books, 1992)

Mil itary Map Reading for the New Army , by W. Stanley Lewis and F.W. Morgan(Whitconbe & Tombs, 1945)


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Mil it S i MS 102 St d t T t M R di d th T L di



Mil itar y Science, MS 102, Student Text--M ap Reading and the Troop Leading

Procedures (West Point Military Academy, 1991)

Natur e is Your Guide--How to F ind Your Way on Land and Sea , by Harold Gatty

(Collins, 1977)

Navigation--F inding Your Way on Land and Sea , by Tony Gibbs (Franklin Watts,1975)

Navigation: Land, Sea, Air and Space , by Myron Kayton, editor (Institute of

Electrical & Electronics, 1990)

Never Get Lost--The Green Beret' s Compass Course , by Don Paul (Path Finder

Publications, 1991)

New Explorer' s Guide to Maps and Compass , by Percy W. Blandford (McGraw-

Hill Companies,1992)

Notes on Maps and Map Reading , by H. M. E. Brunker, second edition (W.

Clowes, 1905)

" On Track" Map Reading and Camping Guide--An Educational Resource

(Australian Navigation Skills and Accessory Services, 1994)

Ordnance Survey Map Ski ll s Book , by Chris Warn (Nelson and Ordnance

[London], 1991)

Outward Bound Map and Compass Handbook , by Glenn Randall (Lyons and

Burford, 1998)

Pathfi nder 's Handbook , by Christine Kennedy, Mark Smith, Pat Hancock, andWilliam Kimber (Somerville House Publishing, 1993)


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Piloting Seamanship and Small Boat Handling by Charles F Chapman (Motor



Piloting Seamanship and Small Boat Handling , by Charles F. Chapman (Motor

Boating)

Plan Your Route--The New Approach to M ap Reading , by Victor Selwyn (David

& Charles, 1987)

Primer of Navigation , fourth edition, by George W. Mixter (D. Van Nostrand Co.,Inc., 1960). Covers older, traditional at-sea navigation techniques.

Reading the Outdoors at Night , by Vinson Brown (Stackpole, 1982)

Route F inding--Navigating with M ap and Compass , by Gregory Crouch (Falcon

Press, 1999)

Sextant Handbook , by Bruce A. Bauer (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1995)

Sierra Club Wayfi nding Book , by Vicki McVey and Martha Weston (Sierra Club

Books, 1989)

Simple Map Reading , by Roger Smith (The Stationary Office [Edinburgh], 1997)

Simply Map-Reading , by Richard Neve (Telegraph [London], 1988)

Sniper Training and Employment TC 23-14 , by the Department of the Army (U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1969). Good nav info.

Spur Book of Map and Compass , by Terry Brown and Rob Hunter (Spur Books

[Great Britain], 1977)

Staying Found--The Complete Map and Compass Handbook , 2nd edition, by June

Fleming (The Mountaineers, 2001)


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Step in the Right D ir ection--A Basic Map and Compass Book , by Don Geary



(Stackpole, 1980)

Topographi c Map and Compass Use , by Michael Taylor (Cornell University

Instructional Materials Services, 1991)

Topographic Symbols (Army FM 21-31)


U.S. Army Map Reading and Land Navigation Handbook, by the Department of

the Army (The Lyons Press, 2004)

Using a Compass and Pacing , by Robert Bardon (Raleigh, North Carolina

Cooperative Extension Service, 2000)

Using a Map and Compass , by Don Geary (Stackpole Books, 1995)

Wilderness Navigation--F inding Your Way Using Map, Compass, Al timeter, and

GPS , by Bob Burns, Mike Burns, and Paul Hughes (Mountaineers Books, 1999)

Wilderness Route F inder- -The Classic Guide to Fi nding Your Way in the Wild , by

Calvin Rutstrum (University of Minnesota, 2000)

Wilderness Route F inder- -The Complete Guide to F inding Your Way in theWilderness , by Calvin Rutstrum (Collier Books, 1967)

You Can Be an Expert Wi th Compass and Map--The Orienteeri ng Handbook , by

Erik T. Hjalmar and Rigney J. Francis (American Orienteering Service, 1977)

You'l l Never Get Lost Again--Simple Navigation for Everyone , by Robert R.

Singleton (Winchester Press, 1979)

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Orienteeringbooks

Armchair Or ienteer ing--A Practical Guide to Reading Orienteeri ng Maps , byStott Wnifred (Manitoba Orienteering Association, 1992)

AskERIC L esson Plans--Orienteeri ng: Map Skil ls

Basic Or ienteer ing , Michael J. Riley and Robert Cremer (Contemporary Books,

1979)

Be Expert with Map and Compass--The Complete Ori enteeri ng H andbook , byBjorn Kjellstrom (MacMillan General Reference, 1994)

Camping and Orienteeri ng , by Michael Jay (Warwick Press, 1990)

Chall enge of Or ienteeri ng , by Gordon Pirie (Pelham [London], 1968)

Circular Ori enteeri ng , by Gerald Vinestock (G. Vinestock, 1980)

Complete Guide to Orienteeri ng in Nor th Ameri ca--A Comprehensive Manual for


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the Outdoorsman , by Berndt Bergland (Pagurian Press, 1979)



Complete Ori enteeri ng Manual , by Peter Palmer (Crowood Press, 1997)

D. Q.--A Basic M anual for Beginning Orienteers , by Jack Dyess (J & N

Enterprises, 1975)

Discoveri ng Orienteeri ng , by Tony Walker (Shire, 1973)

Discoveri ng Orienteeri ng and Wayfar ing , by Tony Walker (Shire, 1979)

Famil y Orienteeri ng--Fun and Fi tness With Map and Compass (Orienteering

Federation of Australia, 1980)

Female F itness on Foot--Walking, Jogging, Runni ng, Orienteeri ng , by Bob

O'Conner, Christine Wells, and Eldin Onsgard (Wish Publishing, 2002)

Get F it f or Ori enteeri ng , by Steve Bird (Nonington Press [England], 1996)

How to Use a Compass--Using an Orienteer ing Compass for Fun & Exploration

(SCIGO, 1992)

Learn Orienteeri ng (Rebard O-Kartservice [Norway], 1988)

Let' s Get Into Orienteer ing , by Toy. Martin and Robin Winterford (Aussie Sports

Books, 1991)

Map and Compass Fundamentals--Or ienteeri ng , by Toy Martin and Dave Lotty

(Reed, 1976)

Modern Or ienteeri ng Traini ng , by Wilfred Holloway (Holl-O-Lit Publishers, 1980)

Orienteering (A. & C. Black [London], 1995)


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Orienteering (Boy Scouts of America 1995)



Orienteering (Boy Scouts of America, 1995)

Orienteering (Nova Scotia Department of Education, 1978)

Orienteering (P.D. Hasselberg [New Zealand], 1980)

Orienteering , by Brian Martin Henley (E. P. Publishing & Scottish OrienteeringFederation, 1978)

Orienteering , by Brian Porteous (Oxford Illustrated Press, 1978)

Orienteering , by Carol McNeill (Crowood Press, LTD, 1996)

Orienteering , by D. J. Foster and R. R. McGraw (Curriculum and Research Branch,

Education Department [Melbourne], 1974)

Orienteering , by J. D. Watson, Laurence Ernest Liddell, and Hugh Chapman (E. P.

Publishing & Scottish Orienteering Association, 1973)

Orienteering , by John Disley (Stackpole Books, 1979)

Orienteering , by Hans Bengtsson (Ward Lock [London], 1978)

Orienteering , by Neil Champion (Heinemann Library, 2000)

Orienteering , by Roger Smith (State Mutual, 1981)

Orienteering , by Tom Renfrew (Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1997)

Orienteeri ng--A Mental Tr aining Workbook , by Gordon L. Underwood and

Stephen R. Bird (Nonington Press, 1997)


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Ori enteeri ng Book , by Steve Anderson (Anderson World, 1977)



Ori enteeri ng for F itness and Pleasure , by Norman Harris (World's Work, 1978)

Ori enteeri ng for Spor t and Pleasure , by George Atkinson and Hans Bengtsson

(Green, 1977)

Ori enteeri ng for Spor t and Pleasure , by Hans Bengtsson and George Atkinson(The Stephen Green Press, 1977)

Ori enteeri ng for the Young (International Orienteering Foundation)

Ori enteeri ng--Fun and F itness Wi th Map and Compass , by Peter C. Nicholls

(New South Wales Sport and Recreation Service, 1975)

Ori enteeri ng Handbook , by Anne Anthony (Hancock House, 1980)

Ori enteeri ng Handbook--Mankato State Un iversity Army ROTC , by Edward C.

Otto

Orienteeri ng Instructor' s Manual , by James Gilchrist and Lee Jack (Orienteering

Ontario, 1984)

Orienteeri ng--Instructor' s Manual , by Peter C. Nicholls (Martin Educational inAssociation with Orienteering Service of Australia, 1977)

Ori enteeri ng--I nstructor' s Resource Manual , by Wilf Wedmann, Jennifer Fenton,

and Bryna Kopelow (BC Recreation and Sport, Premier's Sports Awards Program,

1990)

Ori enteeri ng--Skil ls and Strategies , by Ron Lowry and Ken Sidney (Orienteering

Ontario, 1987)


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Ori enteeri ng--The Adventur e Game , by Ron Lowry (Orienteering Ontario, 1987)



Ori enteeri ng the Easy Way--A Practical Guide to Learni ng, Teaching, and

Practicing Orienteeri ng Skill s , by Brian Kendrick (B. Kendrick, 2000)

Ori enteeri ng--The Skil ls of the Game , by Carol McNeill (Crowood Press

[England], 1996)

Ori enteeri ng--The Sport of Navigating With Map and Compass , by Steven Boga

(Stackpole Books, 1997)

Orienteeri ng Training and Coaching , by Carol McNeil, et al. (British Orienteering

Federation, 1982)

Orienteeri ng--Traini ng for Perf ormance , by Ron Lowry and Ken Sidney

(Orienteering Ontario, 1986)

Outward Bound Orienteeri ng Handbook , by Martin Bagness (Ward Lock

[London], 1995)

Penguin Book of Ori enteeri ng , by Roger Smith (Penguin, 1983)

Rogain ing, Cross-country Navigation , by Neil Phillips and Rod Phillips (Outdoor

Recreation in Australia, 1982)

Rules of Foot Orienteeri ng (Irish Orienteering Association, 2000)

Ski ll s of the Game , by Carol McNeill (Corwood Press, 1996)

Start Or ienteeri ng (5-book series), by Carol McNeill and Tom Renfrew (Harveys,

1990)

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Teaching Orienteeri ng (Johnson Camping Inc 1991)



Teaching Orienteeri ng (Johnson Camping, Inc., 1991)

Teaching Orienteeri ng , second edition, by Carol McNeill, Jean Cory-Wright, and

Tom Renfrew (Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1998). An excellent, inside look at

the skill of orienteering.

Thi s is Orienteeri ng , by Jim Rand and Tony Walker (Pelham & BritishOrienteering Federation [London], 1976)

Trail Ori enteeri ng , by Anne Braggins (Harveys, 1993)

Venture Ori enteer ing (Boy Scouts of America, 1989)

Wilderness Navigation H andbook , by Fred Touche (Touche Publishing, 2004)

Worl d Class Or ienteeri ng , by Wilfred Holloway (Holl-O-Lit Publishers, 1980)

World of Orienteering (International Orienteering Federation [Finland], 1998)

Your Way With Map and Compass--Or ienteeri ng

Top

Land nav

equipment vendorshttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (58 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM

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A & E Orienteering

1-785-594-3516

http://www.aeorienteering.com/

Adventure GPS

1-888-477-4386http://www.gps4fun.com

Ben Meadows Company

1-800-241-6401

http://www.benmeadows.com

Compass Store 1-770-682-9885

http://www.thecompassstore.com/

866gaiters.com

1-888-424-8377

http://866gaiters.com/

Forestry Supplies, Inc. 1-800-647-5368

http://www.forestry-suppliers.com

Go Orienteering!, Inc.

1-866-424-8377

http://www.866gaiters.com

Moscow Compass


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http://www.moscompass.ru/

http://www moscompass ru/eng/index eng htm



http://www.benmeadows.com/




http://www.866gaiters.com/

http://www.866gaiters.com/




http://www.benmeadows.com/




http://www.moscompass.ru/eng/index-eng.htm






Russian-made compasses

Orienteering Unlimited, Inc.

http://www.orienteeringunlimited.com

Scarborough Orienteering 1-877-850-2420

http://www.orienteer.com/

Silverman's Ltd. (10-06)

2 Harford St.

Mile End

London E1 4PS

1-0171-790-5257

http://www.silvermans.co.uk

Unique British land nav gear

Waypoint Enterprises

1-888-412-2600

http://www.waypoint-ent.com

Additional sources for land navigational tools can also be found in the "general" and

"military" sections of the backpacking resources page of this Web site.


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Top


http://www.orienteeringunlimited.com/


http://www.silvermans.co.uk/

http://www.waypoint-ent.com/




http://www.silvermans.co.uk/


http://www.orienteeringunlimited.com/




Compass

manufacturers

Brunton Company

1-800-443-4871

http://www.brunton.com/

Note: In addition to distributing Brunton compasses, Brunton, as a subsidiary of

Silva Production AB (Silva Sweden AB) since 1996, also distributes Silva

compasses in the U.S. under the Nexus name.

Kasper-Richter (K&R) Compasses

http://www.kasper-richter.de/english/compasses.html

Moscow Compass



Nexus

1-800-443-4871


Note: Nexus compasses are Silva compasses distributed in the U.S. under the U.S.

trade name of Nexus by Brunton.

Pyser-SGI Limitedhttp://www.pyser-sgi.com/index.asp


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Precision military compasses from the United Kingdom






http://www.pyser-sgi.com/index.asp

http://www.pyser-sgi.com/index.asp








Recta AG

http://www.recta.ch

Note: Precision, Swiss-made compasses distributed by the Suunto USA.

Silva Sweden AB

http://www.silva.se/ Note: In the U.S., Silva Sweden AB compasses are distributed by Brunton under

the Nexus name. In the U.S., Johnson Outdoors, Inc. distributes compasses under

the name of Silva.

Silva (U.S.)

1-262-884-1500

http://www.silvacompass.com/

Note: Johnson Outdoors, Inc., distrubutes Silva compasses under the Silva name

in the U.S.

Sun Company

1-800-441-0132

http://www.suncompany.net

Compasses are listed under both "compasses" and "outdoor instruments."

Suunto USA

1-800-543-9124

http://www.suuntousa.com


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Top

http://www.recta.ch/

http://www.silva.se/


http://www.suncompany.net/

http://www.suuntousa.com/

http://www.suuntousa.com/

http://www.suncompany.net/



http://www.recta.ch/



Topographic

map vendors

Michigan 1:24000 & 1:25000 topo map vendors

United States Geological Survey

1-888-275-8747


Select "Map" link http://ask.usgs.gov/maps.html

for map ordering info.

MapMart

1-303-759-5050

http://www.mapmart.com/

Stocks paper quads; restocks daily with local USGS map office

Off-Route.com

1-775-787-7444

http://www.offroute.com

Sells unique, customized topographic maps for your trip.

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Federal Maps

1 888 545 8111


http://ask.usgs.gov/maps.html


http://www.offroute.com/

http://www.offroute.com/


http://ask.usgs.gov/maps.html




1-888-545-8111

http://www.fedmaps.com

Order free map index to determine which maps you need.

Allow several weeks for delivery.

Ontario 1:20000 color topo base map vendors

Ministry of Natural Resources

300 Water Street

P.O. Box 7000

Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 8M5

1-800-667-1940http://themnrstore.mnr.gov.on.ca

Click on "English" and "maps"

Order free map index to determine which maps you need.

Most detailed maps available.

Allow several weeks for delivery.

Top

County map vendorsMichi gan Recreational Travel At las


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Universal Map

1-800-829-6277

http://www.fedmaps.com/

http://themnrstore.mnr.gov.on.ca/


http://www.fedmaps.com/



1 800 829 6277

http://universalmap.com

This 11-by-17-inch book of maps is a recommended county map source for

wilderness trips since its maps include section numbers as well as township and

range information. It also includes many old roads and placenames. Simply

photocopy the appropriate maps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book

itself in your vehicle for easy reference when searching for the trailhead.

Michigan County Atlas

Universal Map

1-800-829-6277

http://universalmap.com

Note: This 11-by-17-inch book is no longer in print. It may be available used, or

via your local library.

This book of maps is highly recommended county map source for wilderness trips

since its maps include section numbers as well as township and range information. It

also includes many old roads and placenames. Simply photocopy the appropriate

maps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book itself in your vehicle for easy

reference when searching for the trailhead. However, this map lacks latitudinal and

longitudinal data, which is handy when trying to decided what topographic mapsyou need to buy for a bush trip.

Michigan County Map Guide (2000)

Michigan United Conservation Clubs (MUCC)

1-800-777-6720

http://www.mucc.org Note: This 11-by-17-inch book is no longer in print. It may be available used, or


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via your local library.

This book of maps is a recommended county map source for wilderness trips since

http://universalmap.com/


http://www.mucc.org/

http://www.mucc.org/





This book of maps is a recommended county map source for wilderness trips since

its maps include section numbers as well as township and range information. Simply

photocopy the appropriate maps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book

itself in your vehicle for easy reference when searching for the trailhead. However,

this map lacks latitudinal and longitudinal data, which is handy when trying to

decided what topographic maps you need to buy for a bush trip.

Michi gan Atlas & Gazetteer

DeLorme Mapping Company

1-800-561-5105

http://www.delorme.com

Note: While this 11-by-17-inch book of maps lacks critical section lines and

numbers as well as township and range information, its inclusion of latitudinal andlongitudinal data makes it very useful for deciding which topographic maps to buy

for a bush trip.

Mapbook of M ichigan Counties (1984)

Michigan Natural Resources Magazine

Michigan Department Of Natural Resources

P.O. Box 30034

Lansing, Michigan 48909

Note: This 11-by-17-inch book is no longer in print. It may be available used, or via

your local library.

This book of maps is highly recommended county map source for wilderness trips

since its maps include section numbers as well as township and range information. It

also includes many old roads and placenames. Simply photocopy the appropriatemaps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book itself in your vehicle for easy


http://www.delorme.com/




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DeLorme Mapping Company

1-800-561-5105

1-800 452-5931

http://www.delorme.com

MapTech

1-888-839-5551

http://www.maptech.com

See Terrain Navigator product

National Geographic Maps

1-800-962-1643

http://www.nationalgeographic.com

Select "maps"

Top

Digital maps online

Topographic maps

GIS Data Depot


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http://www.gisdatadepot.com


http://www.maptech.com/

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/



http://www.gisdatadepot.com/

http://www.gisdatadepot.com/



MapTech

http://www.maptech.com

Select "online maps"

TerraServer

http://www.terraserver.microsoft.com

TopoZone.com

http://www.topozone.com

Other maps online

Doyle's GIS Links Web Pagehttp://www.doylesdartden.com/gis/

Oddens' Bookmarks, Universiteit Utrecht

http://oddens.geog.uu.nl/index.php

UC Berkeley Library

http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/

University of Texas Library

http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps


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Top


http://www.terraserver.microsoft.com/

http://www.topozone.com/

http://www.doylesdartden.com/gis/







http://www.doylesdartden.com/gis/

http://www.topozone.com/

http://www.terraserver.microsoft.com/




Aerial/satellite images

Online images

Google Maps and Images

http://maps.google.com/maps

Satellite images of U.S. & Canada.

Use "local search" for detailed views

Michigan DNR Satellite Images

http://www.michigan.gov/dnr

Select "publications & maps" & "aerial imagery archive"

Hardcopy images

Michigan DNR


Select "publications & maps" & "aerial imagery archive"

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources

300 Water Street

P.O. Box 7000

Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 8M5

1-800-667-1940

http://themnrstore.mnr.gov.on.ca

Click on "English" and "air photos"


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Top

Know what to do

when your GPS unitmalfunctions

deep in the bush

As GPS units become commonplace among wilderness trippers, so does the

potential for trouble when one of them malfunctions. Like any essential electronic

device, it's not a question of "if" your global positioning system device will fail. It's

only a question of "when" it will fail, and if you'll know what to do.

Learn basic map & compass skills

If your safety depends on a GPS unit, you should be prepared to navigate without it

when it malfunctions deep in the wilderness. Carrying your GPS unit in a padded

case and knowing how to use the device are not enough.

You must also have a working knowledge of land navigation with map and

compass. Your rucksack should contain a GPS instruction manual, topographic map,




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(USGS) topographic maps, which cover a 6- by 8.5-mile area.



Experienced land navigators never enter the wilderness without these detailed, multi-

colored quads. Carry your waterproofed maps in clear-plastic zip-lock bags.

Carry a high-quality compassDetailed maps are of little value without a compass, so always carry an orienteering-

style compass. The large, see-through, plastic-based ones from Silva, Suunto, or

Brunton are the most useful and reliable.

Use the UTM grid system, not Lat/Lon

The cumbersome process of calculating and plotting latitudinal and longitudinal

coordinates in the field can be simplified by switching your unit's coordinate system

from lat/lon to the UTM coordinate system.

The UTM system is the hands-down favorite of experienced land navigators; it's

also very similar to the military's MGRS coordinate system.

Set up GPS unit properly

After switching coordinate systems, make sure you select the appropriate horizontal

map datum in your unit's setup menu. Check the margin of your map for the correct

datum setting.




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etc. Jot down your direction of approach and departure from each of these locations

too. It's also important to record any critical waypoints in your notes or plot them on



your map.

Practice calculating where you are

By taking regular notes, knowing how to use your GPS unit's UTM grid coordinate

system, and understanding the basics of map and compass land navigation, you'll be

able to quickly formulate an alternative plan when your GPS unit malfunctions.

You'll be able to approximate where you are relative to your last known position and

then determine which direction you need to proceed to return to your vehicle or

campsite.

Always carry a survival kit

As with any outdoor adventure, your last line of defense is always the survival kit

tucked deep in your rucksack and an approximate itinerary left with a trusted

person.

Learn more with these books

To learn more about GPS units and how to use the UTM grid coordinate system,

read the very inexpensive "Using GPS--GPS Simplified for Outdoor Adventures,"

by Bruce Grubbs (1999, Falcon Publishing Co., ISBN 1560448210) and "GPS Made

Easy--Using Global Positioning Systems in the Outdoors, third edition, by


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Lawrence Letham (2001, Mountaineers Books, ISBN 0898868025).

A th h i k th bj t i "A C h i G id t



Another, more comprehensive work on the subject is "A Comprehensive Guide to

Land Navigation with GPS," third edition, by Noel J. Hotchkiss (1999, Alexis,

ISBN 189268800X).

Learn more on the Internet

On the Internet visit http://www.usgs.gov ("fact sheets," "mapping," "fact sheets,"

and "The Global Positioning System"), http://www.maptools.com, and http://www.

joe.mehaffey.com.

To make your own UTM coordinate plotter, visit http://www.maptools.com.

Where to purchase equipment

Information about where to buy maps, compasses, UTM plotters, waterproof

notepads, and write-in-the-rain pens, is available elsewhere on this page.


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Top

GPS li k


http://www.maptools.com/

http://www.joe.mehaffey.com/










GPS linksGeocaching - The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site

http://www.geocaching.com/

GPS Navigator Magazine

http://www.gpsnavigatormagazine.com

Online magazine

James Associates GPS info page

http://www.macgpspro.com/links.html

Joe Mehaffey and Jack Yeazel's GPS Information

http://www.joe.mehaffey.com

http://www.gpsinformation.net/

Map Tools

http://www.maptools.com

Peter Bennett's GPS info pagehttp://www.vancouver-webpages.com/peter/index.html

Sam Wormley's GPS info page

http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/gps.html

University of Colorado at Boulder

Global Positioning System Overview

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html


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U.S. Geological Survey

http://www.usgs.gov


http://www.gpsnavigatormagazine.com/





http://www.vancouver-webpages.com/peter/index.html





http://www.vancouver-webpages.com/peter/index.html





http://www.gpsnavigatormagazine.com/






Select "fact sheets," "mapping," "fact sheets,"

and "The Global Positioning System."

Top

GPS books

Comprehensive Guide to Land Navigation wi th GPS , 3rd edition, by Noel J.

Hotchkiss (Alexis, 1999)

Global Navigation--A GPS User' s Guide , by Neil Ackroyd and Robert Lorimer(LLP, Inc., 1994). Sea navigation.

Global Positioni ng System--Theory and Practice , by B. Hofmann-Weuenhof,

Herbert Lichtenegger, and James Collins (Springer-Verlag, 2001). Technical

GPS (Basic Essentials Series) , by Scottie Barnes (Globe Pequot, 2000)

GPS for Everyone: How the Global Positi oning System Can Work for You , by L.


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Casey Larijani (American Interface Corporation, 1998). General overview of GPS

and it's implications for society in the future.



GPS I nstant Navigation--A Practical Guide From Basics to Advanced

Techniques , by Kevin Monahan, Don Douglass, and Reanne Hemingway-Douglass

(Fine Edge Productions, LLC, 1998). GPS for watercraft.

GPS Land Navigation--A Complete Guide For Backcountry Users of theNAVSTAR Satel l ite System , by Michael Ferguson (Glassford Publishing, 1997)

* *GPS Made Easy--Using Global Posit ioni ng Systems in the Outdoors , 2nd

edition, by Lawrence Letham (The Mountaineers, 1999)

GPS Manual: Principles and Appli cations , by Steve Dye (Baylin Publications,

1997). Technical.

GPS Navigation Guide--Using GPS with M ap, Compass, Computer & Radio

Tracking , by Jack W. Peters (2002)

GPS Primer , by Jerry Hnang (Acme Press, 1999)

Map, Compass, GPS--An I ntr oduction , by Robert Rutten (Outdoor

Communications, 2000)

Map Use--Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation (Wi th GPS) , 4th edition, by

Phillip C. Muehrcke and Juliana O. Muehrcke (JP Publications, 1998). Weighing

nearly 3 pounds, this 650-page bible is chock-full of detailed map and nav info.

Simple GPS Navigation: Sea, Air , Land , by Mik Chinery (Koen Book Distributors,

1994)

Understanding GPS: Pr inciples and Applications , by Elliott D. Kaplan, editor(Artech House, Inc., 1996). Very technical.




The RuckSack

GPSCity.com

1-866-477-2489

http://www gpscity com

http://www.gpscity.com/




http://www.gpscity.com

The GPS Store, Inc.

1-888-477-2611

http://www.thegpsstore.com/

Map Tools

http://www.maptools.com

Waypoint Enterprises

1-888-412-2600

http://www.waypoint-ent.com

Additional sources for GPS units can be found in the "general" and "military"sections of the backpacking resources page on this Web site.

Top

GPS

manufacturersFor a comprehensive list of GPS Receiver Manufacturers, System

Integrators, Equipment Suppliers, and Service Providers, visit http://


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gauss.gge.unb.ca/manufact.htm, which is maintained by the Canadian

Space Geodesy Forum and the University of New Brunswick






http://gauss.gge.unb.ca/manufact.htm











Brunton Company

1-800-443-4871


Eagle Electronics 1-800-324-1354

http://www.eaglegps.com

Marine units

Garmin International

1-800-800-1020

http://www.garmin.com/

Leadtek Research Inc.

1-510-490-8076

http://www.leadtek.com.tw

GPS for computers and PDAs

Lowrance Electronics, Inc.

1-800-324-1356

http://www.lowrance.com/

Magellan Systems Corp.

1-800-707-9971

http://www.magellangps.com/

Navman

1-866-962-8626http://www.navman.com


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GPS units for vehicles

NavTrak Inc


http://www.eaglegps.com/


http://www.leadtek.com.tw/



http://www.navman.com/

http://www.navman.com/



http://www.leadtek.com.tw/


http://www.eaglegps.com/




NavTrak, Inc.

1-541-344-6414

http://www.gps2000.com

Raymarine

(Formerly Raytheon Marine; Apelco)1-800-539-5539

http://www.raymarine.com

Marine units

Silva Sweden AB


Trimble Navigation Limited1-408-481-8000

http://www.trimble.com/

High-end mapping and GIS products

Top

Linear

equivalentshttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (84 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM

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http://www.gps2000.com/

http://www.raymarine.com/





http://www.raymarine.com/

http://www.gps2000.com/



Linear Equivalents

Mile Kilometer Yard Meter Feet Rod Chain Link

1 0.91 3 0.18 0.05 4.5

1.1 1 3.3 0.2 0.05 5

5.5 5 16.5 1 0.25 25

22 20.1 66 4 1 100

1/16 0.1 110 100 330 20 5 500

1/8 0.2 220 200 660 40 10 1000

1/4 0.4 440 400 1320 80 20 2000

3/8 0.6 660 600 1980 120 30 3000

1/2 0.8 880 800 2640 160 40 4000

5/8 1 1100 1000 3300 200 50 50003/4 1.2 1320 1200 3960 240 60 6000

7/8 1.4 1540 1400 4620 280 70 7000

1 1.6 1760 1600 5280 320 80 8000

1.25 2 2200 2000 6600 400 100 10000

1.5 2.4 2640 2400 7920 480 120 12000

1.75 2.8 3080 2800 9240 560 140 14000

2 3.2 3520 3200 10560 640 160 16000

Top

Land surveyhttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (85 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM

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equivalents



Land Survey Equivalents

Acres Mile by Mile Section Township Yard by Yard 1 70 x 70

40 1/4 x 1/4 1/16 440 x 440

160 1/2 x 1/2 1/4 880 x 880

640 1 x 1 1 1/36 1760 x 1760

23040 6 x 6 36 1

Top

Angularequivalents

Angular Equivalents

Degrees Part of circle Mils Grad


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1 1/360 17.8 1.1

3' (0.056) 1/6400 1 1/36

54' (0 9) 1/400 16 1



54' (0.9) 1/400 16 1

Top

Compute

sunrise & sunset,moonrise & moonset,

moon phase,

moon & sun position,twilight, and more

Compute sunrise, sunset, and twilight by city, or county, or latitude & longitude

http://www.cmpsolv.com/los/sunset.html


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Compute sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset, twilight, moon phases, altitude &

azimuth of sun or moon, etc.





U.S. Naval Observatory

http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/

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the great, fresh, unbligh ted, unredeemed wilderness.

— John Muir 1838-1914, Alaska Wilderness , 1890

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