the role of rural women as vectors of entrepreneurship and
TRANSCRIPT
The Role of Rural Women as Vectors of Entrepreneurship and
Environment Management for Sustainable Development of Rural
Areas: A Case Study of Kakamega County, Kenya
January 2020
ONDIBA Hesborn Andole
The Role of Rural Women as Vectors of Entrepreneurship and
Environment Management for Sustainable Development of Rural
Areas: A Case Study of Kakamega County, Kenya
A Dissertation Submitted to
the Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences,
the University of Tsukuba
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Studies
(Doctoral Program in Sustainable Environmental Studies)
ONDIBA Hesborn Andole
i
Abstract
Rural women are active agents of economic growth, social change and
environmental protection in rural areas of Kenya. Past studies show that the traditional
gender roles made women to maintain direct contact with the local environment. This close
relationship with nature played vital roles for women in developing their extensive
knowledge about local flora and fauna. This knowledge helped them to engage in
sustainable resource management. However, we do not yet know to what extent traditional
norms have affected and motivated women’s entrepreneurial behaviors and environmental
management activities. This study examined rural women’s entrepreneurial behaviors and
social networking activities that influence their contribution to economic growth and
environmental conservation in Kakamega County.
The main part of this research was based on two questionnaire surveys and field
interviews. Both questionnaire surveys were administered in September and October 2017.
The first survey was administered among 153 rural women entrepreneurs in Kakamega
County. The second questionnaire survey was distributed to 180 rural women residing near
Kakamega Forest. Interviews were also conducted with nine key informants, including
elders to better understand the cultural and religious significance of the Kakamega forest. I
reviewed several community based organization (CBO) reports concerning the study area as
well as past publications on rural women and the environment with particular focus on
women’s network groups called chama. I found that women entrepreneurs in rural Kenya
face challenges stemmed from cultural and traditional practices. These cultural challenges
have induced rural women’s motivation to cooperate and network in order to empower
themselves in business and conservation initiatives through mutual-help group known as
chama. Their deep knowledge on the surrounding environment motivated them to participate
in commercial community conservation initiatives. At the market place about 77 percent of
the respondents participated in various social activities. These activities fostered business
growth and environment and waste management at the market place. About 97 percent of the
respondents attributed their business success to the help and inspiration from these social
networking groups. The respondents were inspired and motivated to entrepreneurship
because of these social activities at the market. About 98 percent of them agreed that they
started business to support their families financially. Through this they achieve financial
independence and earn respect in their families and society. I also found that social and
cultural norms influenced rural women’s decision making processes in choosing the type,
size, ownership, and location of their businesses. Rural women in Kakamega tended to
choose types of businesses that are associated with their traditional gender roles. About 53
percent of them preferred small farm retail businesses. Their deep knowledge on the
surrounding environment and farming techniques motivated them to pursue agriculture
based businesses. About 84 percent of the respondents preferred small-scale informal
enterprises. Chama provided the capital and training to these women entrepreneurs. In terms
of running their businesses, I found that education and labor availability substantially
influenced the performance of the respondents.
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Women entrepreneurs with a higher education level tended to be more creative and
confident when making business decisions.
Similarly, I found that Kakamega women customarily established Chama which
inspired them to participate in environmental conservation activities. About 98 percent of the
respondents agreed that they were motivated to participate in environmental conservation
activities because they could earn income from these activities. About 88 percent agreed that
they were driven by the desire to protect the environment. My interview with elders and
other women found that cultural and religious significance they attached to some plants and
sites in Kakamega Forest motivated them to strictly observe traditional conservation
customs. They also cultivated and preserved important medicinal plants to prevent their
depletion.
This study clarifies on how women inequality can be reduced, and their participation
in small businesses and conservation activities enhanced through their social networking
groups known as chamas. The findings contributes to the achievement of transformational
economic, environmental and social changes required for sustainable development of rural
areas citing rural women as key agents.
Keywords: Chama; Cultural norms; Entrepreneurial behavior; Environmental behavior;
gender; Kakamega Forest
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Table of contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... i
Table of contents ..................................................................................................................... iii
List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vi
List of figures ......................................................................................................................... vii
List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................. viii
Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Research objectives ....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Kakamega County ......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Literature review ........................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Structure of dissertation ................................................................................................ 5
Chapter 2 Cultural Challenges and Success Attributes for Rural Women in Kenya ............... 7
2.1 Introduction. .................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 7
2.3 Traditional gender biased practices in Kenya ............................................................... 8
2.3.1 Land and property ownership ................................................................................. 8
2.3.2 Rural women education .......................................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Home and business balance .................................................................................... 9
2.3.4 Restricted movement and discrimination ............................................................. 10
2.4 Kenya rural women success factors and attributes ...................................................... 10
2.4.1 Motivation ............................................................................................................. 10
2.4.2 Social networks chama .......................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Business success and management styles for women ........................................... 12
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2.4.4. Kenya women traditional gender roles .................................................................... 13
Chapter 3 Social Attributes for Rural Women’s Entrepreneural Behaviors in Kakamega
County, Kenya ..................................................................................................................... 135
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 15
3.2 Gendered entrepreneurial behaviors in rural society .................................................. 16
3.3 Materials and methods ................................................................................................ 16
3.3.1 Study area and data collection ............................................................................... 16
3.3.2 Rationale of questions ........................................................................................... 17
3.4 Results and discussions ................................................................................................ 18
3.4.1 Socio-demographic features .................................................................................. 18
3.4.2 Personal relationship and social attributes ............................................................ 18
3.4.4 Motivating factors ................................................................................................. 20
3.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 4 Entrepreneurial Behaviors and Perceptions that Influence Kakamega Women ... 23
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 29
4.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................ 30
4.2.1 Study area ............................................................................................................. 30
4.2.2 Data collection ...................................................................................................... 30
4.2.3 Rationale of questions .......................................................................................... 31
4.2.4 Correlation and multiple regression analysis ....................................................... 31
4.3 Results and discussion ................................................................................................ 31
4.3.1 Socio-demographic Features ................................................................................. 31
4.3.2 Entrepreneurial behavior and preferences ............................................................. 32
4.3.3 Factors affecting business performance ................................................................ 33
4.4 Summary .................................................................................................................... 385
Chapter 5 Drivers of Environmental Conservation among Women .................................... 356
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5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 42
5.2 Materials and methods ............................................................................................... 43
5.2.1 Study area .............................................................................................................. 43
5.2.2 Data collection ....................................................................................................... 43
5.2.3 Rationale of the questions ..................................................................................... 44
5.3 Results and discussion ................................................................................................ 44
5.3.1 Social-demographic features ................................................................................. 44
5.3.2 The Role of chamas in conservation activities ...................................................... 44
5.3.3 Motivation to join environmental chamas ............................................................. 46
5.3.4 Cultural and religious significance ........................................................................ 47
5.4 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 48
Chapter 6 Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................................... 62
6.1 Main findings ............................................................................................................... 54
6.2 Implications of these findings for women empowerement. ......................................... 63
References. ............................................................................................................................. 66
Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 75
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Markets and number of surveyed rural women entrepreneurs ............................. 25
Table 3.2 Socio-demographic of rural women entrepreneurs in Kakamega ......................... 26
Table 3.3 Marital status of the respondents by age group ..................................................... 27
Table 3.4 Social networking characteristics of the respondents at the market ...................... 28
Table 4.1 Multiple regression analysis of business performance factors .............................. 41
Table 5.1 Villages and number of surveyed rural women ..................................................... 52
Table 5.2 Socio-demographic characteristics of rural women in chama ............................... 51
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Structure of the dissertation ................................................................................... 6
Figure 3.1 Marital status of the respondents by age group ................................................. 270
Figure 3.2 Rating of spousal support by the respondents ..................................................... 23
Figure 3.3 Motivating factors of respondents’ entrepreneurial behaviors ............................ 24
Figure 4.1 Rural women business types in Kakamega County ........................................... 36
Figure 4.2 Effect of age on business revenue ....................................................................... 45
Figure 4.3 Effect of education level on business revenue..................................................... 41
Figure 4.4 Effect of entrepreneural experience on business revenue ................................... 47
Figure 4.5 The effect of the number of employees on business revenue .............................. 40
Figure 5.1 Study area ............................................................................................................ 49
Figure 5.2 Categories of chamas .......................................................................................... 50
Figure 5.3 Factors motivating rural women to join environmental chamas ......................... 59
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List of Abbreviations
CBOs Community Based Organizations
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FIDA Federation of Women Lawyers
ICIPE International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFC International Finance Corporation
ILO International Labor Organization
IPCKF Integrated Project on Conservation of Kakamega Forest
ITDG Intermediate Technology Development Group
KEFRI Kenya Forest Research Institute
KIFCON Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Programme
KIFCP Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Programme
KIPRA Kenya Institute for Public Research and Analysis
KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
MSEs Micro and small enterprises
NGOs Non-governmental organizations
SMEs Small and micro enterprises
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Past studies have shown that Africa has a diverse ethnic composition where
patriarchy dominates. The dominant patriarchal norms and practices in these societies have
led to gender inequality which has significantly contributed to the continent’s high poverty
rates and low rate of sustainable development (Bardasi, et al., 2007). The prevailing
patriarchal socio-cultural norms have also influenced the entrepreneurial and environment
management structures where women are the key players. (Bastian, et al., 2018).
Despite the patriarchal influence, rural women in Africa have a long history of
engaging in transformational collective actions to enhance their livelihoods. A study by the
World Bank (2000) argued that rural women are Africa’s hidden reserves for sustainable
development. In Morocco the Northern region of Africa, rural women come together in
cooperatives to achieve financial independence. They make use of their traditional
knowledge and skills of ethno medicine and fodder collection within these cooperatives in
ensuring food availability and sustainable management of natural resources (Montanari and
Bergh, 2019). In West Africa, there has been a tradition of women to form informal
networks between kin and ethnic groups. These networks empower them economically and
the bond that exists among them in these networks provide a social foundation for their
entrepreneurial activities and natural resources management (Meagher, 2006; Clark, 1994).
Clark (2010) highlighted how daughters, nieces and granddaughters of Asante and Ga ethnic
communities in Ghana maintained kinship network groups to sustain their trading activities,
interact and negotiate across ethnic lines for business purpose and natural resource use. In
the Southern region, the Batswana rural women have formed village-based women groups
that encourages sharing of valuable information on finances, job opportunities and
environmental issues. The group members were relatives and close friends from the same
village (Mooko, 2002).
In Kenya the East African region, rural women are active agents of economic
growth, social change and environmental protection in rural areas. Their agency emerged
despite permeating traditional patriarchal norms (Muthuki, 2006). These norms have
engendered gender-based stereotypes and discrimination against women, often denying their
equitable access to opportunities, resources, assets and services. Rural women are
constrained and remained vulnerable (Nchimbi, 1999). Here the question arises as to what
extent traditional norms affected and motivated women’s entrepreneurial behaviors and
environmental management activities?
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The national micro and small enterprise (MSEs) baseline survey by the Central
Bureau of Statistics (GoK, 2004) showed that rural women in Kenya tended to operate
businesses that are associated with their traditional gender roles such as agricultural retails
and services. In remote agricultural regions, women typically sold their home garden crops
at outdoor markets, retail shops (kiosks) and groceries in shopping centers. They appeared to
be driven by the need to provide for their families (Naituli et al., 2006).
Regarding their participation in environmental conservation, past studies showed
significant connection to traditional norms. Traditional women engaged in farming,
collecting firewood and fetching water. These roles required sustainable resource
management (Aye, 2018; Makhabane, 2002; Pickering and Davis, 2012; Lambrou and
Piana, 2006; Etta, 1999). For example, some women acquired extensive knowledge about
local flora and fauna and contributed to the health of the community as traditional medicine
women. Others worked as farmers or water resources managers (World Bank, 1991; Akwa
et al., 2008). Dankelman and Davidson (2013) observed that rural women were capable to
deal with environmental crises by using traditional knowledge and social networking skills
(Were et al., 2008; Muthoni and Wangui, 2013).
Several studies on gender and rural development showed that fostering female
entrepreneurship and networking activities in rural areas had great economic, social, cultural
and environmental benefits (Allen et al., 2008). In Kenya, most case studies on women
focused on subordination, challenges and growth (Ahl 2004). Huysentruyt (2014) and
Amine and Staub (2009) suggested more research to be done to understand how women who
engage in entrepreneurial and conservation activities despite patriarchal community
traditions and social norms. What can we learn about entrepreneurship generally by studying
female entrepreneurs from a given socio-cultural background? How can we promote women
participation in environmental management in this socio-cultural setup?
1.2 Research objectives
This study seeks to examine rural women’s entrepreneurial behaviors and social
networking activities that influence their contribution to economic growth and
environmental conservation in Kakamega County. More specifically, this research also
aimed to focus on the following aspects. To examine women’s behaviors and attributes that
influences their success in entrepreneurship and environment conservation activities in
Kenya.
i. To examine women behaviors and attributes that influence their success in
entrepreneurship and conservation activities in Kenya.
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ii. To investigate social attributes and factors that influence entrepreneurial and
social networking behaviors in Kakamega County.
iii. To examine rural women’s entrepreneurial behaviors that are pertinent to
starting and running small businesses in Kakamega County.
iv. To investigate factors that influence rural women’s conservation behaviors
and activities in Kakamega County.
1.3 Kakamega County
Kakamega County is in the western region of Kenya with the population of 1,660,651,
of which 52 percent is female. It is the second most populous county after Nairobi County
and the most populous rural county in Kenya. About 85.5 percent of the area is rural (Muller
and Mburu, 2009; Ouma et al., 2011). It has been ranked among the poorest in Kenya with a
poverty incidence of 49.2 percent. About 809,500 people live below the poverty line and
women are mostly affected. Small-scale farming is the main economic activity. Farmers
mainly grow maize, beans, millet, sunflower, soya beans, groundnuts, sugarcane and
cassava. Most of these farms are run by women (CGoK, 2015; KIPRA, 2013). The
Kakamega rainforest within Kakamega County plays significant roles in cultural and
religious practices of the Luhya community, the majority ethnic group here. Women are the
primary users of the forest resources (Omare et al., 2013).In the past years, the Luhya
women in Kakamega have demonstrated to be one of the most successful in networking
activities and chama for entrepreneurship and natural resource management. This is because
of the Luhya culture and practices that emphasizes on unity and loyalty among (Omare et al.,
2013).
1.4 Methodology
The main part of this research was based on two questionnaire surveys and field
interviews. The questionnaire surveys were administered in September and October 2017.
The first questionnaire was distributed to 153 rural women entrepreneurs at major markets in
the county. The second questionnaire was distributed to 149 rural women who belonged to
chama near Kakamega forest. Interviews were also conducted with nine key informants,
including Luhya elders and religious leaders to better understand the cultural and religious
significance of the Kakamega forest. In order to better understand the significance of the
data I collected, I reviewed past publications on women small and micro enterprises (SMEs),
informal businesses and women network groups in Kenya. I also examined reports of the
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International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) that focused on the
Integrated Project on Conservation of Kakamega Forest (IPCKF), Kenya Indigenous Forest
Conservation Programme (KIFCP), Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG)
and several Community Based Organizations (CBOs) reports.
1.5 Literature review
Many researchers in gender studies and entrepreneurial behaviors have investigated
specific gender differences in performance, business networks, business management and
finance (Carter et al., 2001). McManus (2001) suggested that gender differences in network
structures and networking behaviors partly influence decisions to start and grow a business.
Others similarly argued that in general gender plays a role in business performance or
success (Anna et al., 2000). Bird and Brush (2002) argued that the creation of venture is
gendered in and of itself. Previously, studies on business processes and behaviors had been
male-centered and left women’s roles underexplored. Ahl (2004) suggested to go beyond
gender comparison or victim narratives that emphasized the subordination of women.
Somewhat heeding on these research suggestions, this study seeks to better understand
women’s behaviors that influence their success in businesses.
Several studies have also discussed success and challenging factors of women
entrepreneurs (Muthathai, 2017; Kamweru, 2011; Bindra, 2006; Odinga, 2012). Muhammad
Yunus, professor of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, discovered in his research
that entrepreneurship was by no means a rare quality among women. He was convinced that
loans would more effectively alleviate poverty than charities. In the 1980s, he established
the Grameen Bank to provide small loans to rural women and the poor who had no
collateral. When loans were given to a group of women in a community, motivation towards
repayment tends to be high. Currently, the repayment rate runs at 98.4 percent (Yunus et al.,
2010).
In Kenya, most case studies on women and SMEs have focused on financing,
challenges and growth. Macharia (2012) showed that SMEs largely depended on the
availability of informal financing schemes. Kamweru (2011) similarly argued that women in
SMEs faced challenges to obtain money largely because of the absence of collateral.
Muthathai (2017) pointed out that the general education level of Kenyan women in small-
scale businesses is still low in comparison to men, thus affecting the further growth of their
businesses. Business support agencies tended not to support the growth of women-owned
enterprises in Kenya (Bindra, 2006). Odinga (2012) revealed that a limited access to
financial and credit organizations slowed the growth of women-owned SMEs within
Kakamega Municipality. However, we do not yet know the extent to which traditional
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customs influenced women’s entrepreneurial practices. These studies have also not shown
the extent to which Kenyan women have succeeded in SMEs. According to the World Bank
report (2001) on SMEs, women made up nearly 50 percent of SME owners and 40 percent
of smallholder farm managers in Kenya. It estimated that about one-third of all formal SMEs
in emerging markets were under female leadership ( IFC, 2012).
Scholars in anthropology, ethnobotany, gender studies and sociology have also
examined women’s roles in environmental conservation from different but somewhat
overlapping perspectives (Griffin, 1978; Ortner, 1974; Merchant, 1980). Finding my
inspiration from these diverse approaches, my research adopted an interdisciplinary one to
examining women’s driving factors for conservation. As I discuss women’s roles in
collecting, selling, and preserving medicinal plants, my research is somewhat related to
applied ethnobotany, which investigates the intersections between traditional botanical
knowledge and agroforestry (Martin, 1986; Cotton, 1997). For Kakamega women, the
location of sacred places has long influenced their behaviors considerably. This aspect is
what many anthropologists have examined before in many parts of the world (Bell, 1983;
Sheridan, 2009). Similar to what cultural anthropologists did in Kenya and elsewhere, I
conducted field interviews to better understand traditional women’s perceptions about
conservation. My examination on women’s business behaviors are linked to gender studies
or behavioral psychology that focus more contemporary women’s social networking
activities (Diamond and Orenstein, 1990; Mies and Shiva, 1993). In seeking to have an in-
depth understanding about traditional women in Kakamega County, this interdisciplinary
approach sounded most convincing direction for us to pursue.
1.6 Structure of dissertation
This dissertation consists of six chapters. Chapter one clarifies my research
objectives and the general methodology. The second chapter examines cultural challenges
Kenya’s rural women face due to patriarchal traditions and practices. It further highlights
how local customs, including culturally engraved gendered bias, have actually influenced
women in empowering themselves through social networks and entrepreneurship. The third
chapter investigates social attributes and factors that influence entrepreneurial behaviors
among rural women in Kakamega County. The fourth chapter examines rural women’s
entrepreneurial behaviors and perceptions that are pertinent to starting and running small
businesses in Kakamega County. In particular here, I try to better understand how women
entrepreneurs decided to start and run businesses, and how culturally engraved gender bias
has affected their decision-making. The fifth chapter investigates what factors influenced
rural women’s pro-environmental behaviors and conservation activities. In this chapter I
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focus on those rural women who leave near the Kakamega forest. The last chapter
summarizes the key findings and their significance. Figure 1.1 shows the relationship and
link between these chapters.
Figure 1.1 Structure of the dissertation1
1 This table shows the relationship and link between the chapters. The continuous line is the positive influence,
the dashed line is the circumstantial influence.
Chapter 3&4
Chapter 1&2
Chapter 2 Chapter 4&5
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Chapter 2 Cultural Challenges and Success Attributes for Rural Women in Kenya2
2.1 Introduction
The patriarchal nature of Kenyan society has brought about serious challenges for
Kenyan women, especially in rural areas. These challenges are mainly stemmed from
cultural and traditional practices. In these practices, women have been socially subordinated
to men. This social upbringing has significantly affected their attitudes toward venturing into
business and participating in environmental actions (Nchimbi, 1999). Then the question
arises as to how do rural women cope with community traditions and social norms?
This chapter examines cultural challenges Kenya’s rural women have faced under
patriarchal traditions and practices. In particular, I examine how these traditions and
practices have actually induced women to work together and empower themselves through
social networks enhancing their entrepreneurial activities and environment management.
In the following discussion, I focus on four major cultural challenges rural women have
faced in rural Kenya. These are land and property ownership, rural women education, home
and business balance and restricted movement and discrimination. I argue that despite these
challenges or because of them, Kenyan women found motivation and inspiration to fight
against social inequality by empowering themselves through social networking groups.
2.2 Methodology
This chapter is based on my analysis of published works that are related to social
cultural factors affecting women, women SMEs, and network groups in Kenya. I also
examined the Matrimonial Property Act (2013). Other valuable information came from the
reports of the Federation of Women Lawyers (FIDA), the Ministry of Gender, Children and
Social Development, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
and local Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) like the Global Giving Organization. I
analyzed challenges based on land and property ownership and inheritance, women
education, household responsibilities, and women’s restrictions. Also, I conducted literature
review to examine how women have overcome these challenges to thrive in their businesses.
2 Part of this chapter was presented and published in a conference proceeding paper in the 3rd International
Conference on Regional Challenges to Multidisciplinary Innovation, Nairobi-Kenya. October, 2017. Vol. 1,
No. 3, pp. 10-15. http://globalilluminators.org/conferences/rcmi-2017-kenya/rcmi-full-paper-proceeding Also,
part of this chapter was presented and published in a conference proceeding paper in the World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology; International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering Vol.
12, No. 10. Tokyo-Japan. October, 2018. http://waset.org/pdf/books/?id=97245&pageNumber=129
8
2.3 Traditional gender biased practices in Kenya
2.3.1 Land and property ownership
Kenya's customary laws and practices are largely based on patriarchal norms, in
which men own land and property (Karanja, 1991; Stamp, 1991). Women’s property
ownership, inheritance and management have long been deterred by these traditions
(Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development, 2010). The Kenyan government’s
baseline survey found that 32 percent of households were headed by women who also
provided 70 percent of labor in agriculture. However, women owned only about one percent
of registered land titles, while about five percent of registered titles were jointly held with
men (GoK, 2004).
The customary law of an individual's particular ethnic group could be applied in
cases of devolution of property, marriage and divorce (Cooper, 2012). Tribal authorities vest
property ownership to male family head who customarily pass it to their sons. Married
women can seldom stop their husbands or sons from selling this property. When they
divorce or separate from their husbands, they lose access to the land and property (FIDA,
2017).
For most women and men to start and expand businesses, it is important to have
rights to land and properties that can be collateral for credit and loan in Kenya. Past studies
emphasize that women entrepreneurs faced tremendous challenges to receiving long-term
credit without collateral. As a result, they chose high cost short-term options (Mwobobia,
2012; Gichuki et al., 2014). On the other hand, as they play the critical role in managing
community land and natural resources, the limitation on land ownership affects their
conservation and resource management practices (Etta, 1999; Makhabane, 2002; Pickering,
and Davis, 2012).
In 2013, the Government of Kenya passed the Matrimonial Property Act to help
women to acquire land rights. It emphasizes equal rights for women under the Constitution
on the ownership of property acquired during the subsistence of the marriage. The act also
grants women to register their property (Matrimonial Property Act, 2013). However, legal
experts and women’s right advocates point out that patriarchal customary laws often
override national legislation (FIDA, 2017).
2.3.2 Rural women education
As Kenya is largely male-dominated society, females continue to be excluded from
public education opportunities, somewhat similar to other rural communities in Africa
(Bunyi, 2012). Parents would prefer to invest in their sons’ education because sons are to
inherit and manage family properties. For them, education for girls means loss as their girls
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eventually leave the family after marriage (Odaga and Heneveld, 1995). Also, in rural areas,
daily household chores like fetching water, collecting firewood, childcare and farming
activities are critical for the survival of families (Chege and Sifuna, 2006). The cultural
norms require girls to spend much time with their mothers and learn how to be good future
wives. In this light, education has been linked to infertility as it reduces women’s child
bearing age range (Ikamari, 2005).
Some parents fear that western education would instill foreign values and behaviors
that contradict cultural norms (Chege and Sifuna, 2006). Even in some communities where
women education is accepted, parents do not encourage “too much” education for the girls.
They fear that high education makes it difficult for them to find husbands. Some Islamic
religious leaders and traditional church elders prefer religious education for girls (Murenga,
1998).
Past studies show that a large number of rural women entrepreneurs in Kenya were
not highly educated and skilled. Muthathai (2017) points out that the low education level of
Kenyan women negatively affected the further economic growth and sustainable
environmental management practices. Many researchers argue that more educated and
trained women are more likely to be successful in the SME sector and have climate smart
farming solutions to counter the adverse environmental conditions. (Ongori and Migiro,
2011; Siwadi and Mhangami, 2011; Mwania, 2015).
Family heads view girls as an important source of income, and poor families in
particular prioritize this need over education one. Recent urbanization has increased the
demand for household laborers, and poor households have sent their daughters to cities as
house workers (commonly referred to as ‘maids’). Some parents would arrange marriage for
their daughters in order to acquire dowries as cattle or cash (Shadle, 2003).
2.3.3 Home and business balance
Another challenge women entrepreneur’s face is their multiple responsibilities.
Traditionally, Kenyan women perform roles of wife, mother, child bearer, caretaker and
food provider (Karani, 1987). Culturally, domestic responsibility falls largely on women,
and this can be the same even when they engage in entrepreneurship. The dual role causes
stress to women entrepreneurs and their participation in environmental actions (Mwobobia,
2012). Women business owners and those in conservation groups have struggled for
balancing work and family commitments. Heavy household responsibilities have limited
women’s chances of entrepreneurial success or general career advancement (Muasya, 2016).
Studies show that women’s household responsibilities have been the biggest obstacle to
business and environmental management. However, this has also been a source of
10
motivation for them to start business and network beyond their household activities. They
would start business because of family needs while men for economic reasons (Buttner,
1993).
2.3.4 Restricted movement and discrimination
Traditional customs in Kenya restrict women to interact with other males even
though it is necessary for business (Mwobobia, 2012). During my survey in Kakamega
County, Luhya women told me that they were expected to obtain husbands’ permission for
leaving their houses for market. Women are not allowed to network with men outside their
households. Some women entrepreneurs reported that even calling customers or suppliers in
evening hours had caused suspicion and criticism from their husbands. Male entrepreneurs
or service providers also prefer dealing with men.
In my field survey, I observed that women had difficulty in accessing credit and loan
for their businesses due to gender discrimination. In discussing loans at bank, bank officials
often ignored them and instead talked to their husbands. What inhibited these women from
borrowing money included high bank charges, the requirement to show business records,
long processing before approval, collateral, and male member’s guarantee. Instead of relying
on banks, many women chose microfinance organizations although the amount of loan
tended to be small with high interest rates. The duration of loan periods tended to be short
without a grace period. Therefore, most women entrepreneurs I interviewed chose multiple
short-term loans for their businesses. This required a great amount of trust among group
members.
2.4 Kenya rural women success factors and attributes
2.4.1 Motivation
The socio-cultural circumstances discussed above were increasingly viewed as
obstacles among women in Kenya as early as the 1970s when a number of women began to
fight gender discrimination. One example is Professor Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt
Movement in 1977. This movement’s goal was to help rural women by improving the
environment on which they depended, including water, food, fuel, and medicine, by planting
trees. Her movement has empowered a whole new generation of women in Kenya and
elsewhere (Muthuki, 2006).
Olomi (2001) argues that the major reason for women to engage in entrepreneurship
was to supplement income or meet basic household needs, but more recently, this reason is
less influential. As a result of globalization, state corporations for telecommunication, water
supplies, and railways were privatized for efficiency and better service provision. With
11
privatization came new technology and leadership that steered companies toward customer-
oriented services.
On the other hand, a large number of unskilled and semi-skilled employees was laid
off (Shaka, 2013). Flooding of Kenyan markets with cheap products from China has also
made local companies to lay off workers. For instance, in 2015, Devki Group, which
operated a steel mill in Ruiru town in Kiambu County, produced 10,000 tons of steel a
month whereas it used to produce between 20,000 and 25,000 tons. It terminated
employment contracts with more than 2,000 people (Gachiri, 2015). Wives of these laid-off
workers decided to start businesses to generate some income and support the family.
Another salient motive for women to pursue entrepreneurship is something to do
with social status. Kenyan women believe that they earn respect and trust from their
husbands and others when they are self-employed. Some women reported that there was no
harassment from their husbands when they generated income partly because they feed the
family. In some cases, men feel threatened by women’s economic success (Odinga, 2012).
The devolution of power and responsibilities from the national government to 47 County
governments in 2013 has led to the development of infrastructure and rise in business
opportunities in rural areas. Rural women were motivated to seize these opportunities and
earn income. Today, entrepreneurship in Kenya is regarded as the best option and avenue for
gainful employment for rural women (Hassan and Mugambi, 2013).
2.4.2 Social networks chama
Kenya, like many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, has a vibrant history of
mutual-help groups. The early self-help groups in Kenya were founded by Kikuyu women in
the late 1940s. The Kikuyu is one of the major ethnic groups in the country. These women
established schools without help from British colonists as part of their buttressing effort for
African independence (Okello, 2011). Then Kenya independent schools and the spirit of
voluntarism emerged in the latter half of the twentieth century as the driving force for
various grassroot movements with mutual-help principles.
Mutual-help groups tend to be small and informal. The number of these groups grew
from 18,000 in 1995 to more than 50,000 in 2005 (GoK, 2004). Most of these groups were
dominated by women. Some groups focus on financial arrangements while others initiate
savings and credit or revolving funds popularly known as “merry-go-round.” The benefits
from organizing these groups include the effective mobilization of savings and credit
facilities in pursuit of enterprise activities (Anand, 2002). Mutual-help groups have enabled
the poor women to accumulate capital by way of small savings and establish enterprises
12
independently without relying on their husbands (Shylendra, 2004). By exercising joint
liability many groups of poor women have overcome the problem of getting collateral.
In Kenya, the term chama has been commonly used to describe these mutual-help
groups. Njoroge argues that almost every adult Kenyan woman belongs to at least one or
two chamas (Njoroge, 2015). The members contribute an agreed amount of money,
sometimes as little as 100 Kenyan shillings or about US$1. Rural women, for example, join
a chama to buy common materials, such as water tanks, livestock and roofing sheets. The
chama members accumulate money until they have enough to buy desired items. These
women also discuss and materialize business ideas. Some chamas have grown bigger and
operated as savings and credit cooperative societies or microfinance companies. Other
chamas invest in real estate and other big businesses in and outside Kenya (Mugwe, 2011).
2.4.3 Business success and management styles for women
Women’s perceptions on businesses differ somewhat from those of men (Naituli et
al., 2006). While men mainly treat their businesses as for-profit entities, women tend to
incorporate aspects of social well-being into business (Sharma, 2008). They appear not to be
solely driven by profits per se but rather by the need to provide for their families (Naituli et
al., 2006). Hilda (2007) contends that all women entrepreneurs have a common ideology of
success. Being a good role model for other women, or being happy and independent with the
flexibility to spend more time with children and spouses are high on the list of their success
indicators.
Management studies point out that woman managers in general are more process
oriented. They are concerned with how their actions affect others. They appreciate diversity
but stress teamwork. They tend to emphasize democratic participation by all, using multi-
directional authority to energize others to actively participate. They have also been
characterized as showing passionate commitment to collective action and change (Rosa and
Daphne, 1994). The World Bank (2001) similarly shows that women business owners are
highly motivated by community needs, and favor collaborative management approaches.
A U.S. study demonstrates that women-owned companies are more likely to be
family friendly, offering flextime and job-sharing benefits (NFWBO, 1999). Buttner and
Moore (1997) identify among women entrepreneurs an interactive leadership style. The
interactive style demonstrates greater care for staff welfare, pay more attention to personal
empowerment than institutionalized power. Another study explores the psychological
aspects of women’s success attributes in the areas of social networking and empathy. It
demonstrates a better performance of companies created and run by women because of their
13
ability to communicate effectively with employees, suppliers and customers (Valencia,
2006).
Some female business leaders have also started educating the next generation
business women in Kenya. For example, Tabitha Karanja, the founder and CEO of Keroche
Breweries, is one of Kenya's leading entrepreneurs. It has managed to penetrate into the beer
industry that had been a deeply entrenched male dominant enterprise. Through the Keroche
foundation young entrepreneurs are mentored, inspired, connected and guided towards
overcoming personal and business challenges that plague new businesses (Ellis and Leposo,
2013).
2.4.4. Kenya women traditional gender roles
Cultural constructions of gender roles that derives responsibilities and resource
accessibility have disadvantaged Kenyan women`s participation in environment
management and conservation (Muthuki, 2006). These gender roles on the other hand have
enhanced rural women`s knowledge on environment and motivated them to network and
enhance their participation in community conservation initiatives and commercialization of
Forest and other natural resources products (Etta, 1999; Aye, 2018).
The Past studies showed that women contribute more than men in environmental
conservation activities. This is because majority of rural women depend on these Forests for
their livelihoods and they are therefore motivated to protect them (Pandolfelli, et al., 2007).
In Kenya, for example, Green Belt Movement founded by the late Professor Wangari
Maathai empowered rural women and girls to actively participate in conservation of
Forests and planting of trees. Through this movement, she was able to inspire many
women and girls to utilize their potential and participate in issues that directly affects their
lives (Muthuki, 2006).
2.5 Summary
Gender biased cultural beliefs and practices in Kenya have brought about economic
and social challenges to rural women. These traditions have deterred them from owning land
and property, excluded them from education, assigned them heavy household
responsibilities and restricted there movement. On the other hand, these experiences have
induced rural women’s motivation to cooperate and organize. Their deep knowledge on the
surrounding environment motivated them to network and enhance their participation in
community conservation initiatives and commercialization of Forest and other natural
resources products.
14
More extensive involvement of women in SMEs can not only empower women and
the poor but also improve economic and social conditions by diversifying business
techniques and heightening the resilience of the economy. The diversification of business
actors is important especially when Kenya suffers from global competitions. Also,
considering the historically rooted and ubiquitous self-help groups in Kenya, women have
great potential to considerably strengthen its economy.
15
Chapter 3 Social Attributes for Kakamega Women’s Entrepreneurial Behaviors3
3.1 Introduction
In sub-Saharan Africa, poverty, gender inequality, and other social attributes have
greatly affected the outlook of rural entrepreneurship. By the mid-21st
century, its rural
population is projected to increase by 63 percent (IFAD, 2011). This population growth
means a massive expansion of the labor force for non-agricultural sectors (Mills et al.,
2017). Many rural farmers have adopted non-farm jobs, leading to the overall decline in the
poverty rate from 49.7 percent in 2005 to 40.1 percent in 2015. For example, farmers
worked as blacksmiths, pottery makers, carpenters, and tailors.
In Kenya, this diversification of small businesses is called jua kali (KNBS, 2017). Here
women have proved to yield outstanding results (Anthopoulou, 2010) by networking and
negotiating (Davis et al., 2012). Considering this, I wanted to find out how Kenya’s rural
women decided to start and run businesses. I also wanted to know how poverty stricken
women without education opportunities can still be better empowered without drastically
changing cultural norms and social discrimination.
So far rural women’s entrepreneurial success in rural Kenya has gained scant
attention. Some studies did show dire conditions of gender discrimination and poverty, but
we still do not know much about what motivates these women to engage in businesses
(Amine and Staub, 2009; Chelogoi and Nyagar, 2013; Huysentruyt, 2014). We do have a
number of studies on women entrepreneurs’ behaviors in developed countries, but the
number of those on African countries is comparatively small, raising the question as to the
extent to which the cases in developed countries are applicable to rural Kenyan cases (De
Vita et al., 2014). Much focus has been placed on urban women rather than rural women
(Rutashobya and Nchimbi, 1999; Brush et al., 2009; Magesa et al., 2013; Gichuki et al.,
2014).
Thus, this chapter seeks to investigate social attributes and factors that influence
entrepreneurial behaviors among rural women in Kakamega County. This chapter is mainly
based on the original questionnaire survey and field interviews. In the following discussion,
however, I first examine past researches on women entrepreneurship to locate this study
within contexts of gender, rural sustainability and entrepreneurship studies. I then introduce
the study area so that my case study can be better understood.
3Part of this chapter was published in the Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, Springer. Vol. 9, No.
1, pp. 1-10. January, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-018-0123-5 . Also Part of this chapter was presented
and published in a conference proceeding paper in the International Conference for Social Sciences and
Humanities held at the University of London Union, London UK. Vol. 11 No. 3 pp. 257-261. November, 2018.
http://www.universitypublications.net/proceedings/1103/html/U8K186.xml
16
3.2 Gendered entrepreneurial behaviors in rural society
Past studies show that gender differences influence business decisions and
performance (McManus, 2001; Anna et al., 2000; Bird and Brush, 2002). These studies have
examined the relationship between entrepreneurship and gender from two angles. One
examined how gender affects entrepreneurial processes and societal legitimation (Singh et
al., 2010). Another angle sees how entrepreneurship affects the gendered system (Al-Dajani
and Marlow, 2013). Ahl (2004) suggested that researchers on female entrepreneurs should
go beyond gender comparison or the illustration of the subordinated status of women.
Somewhat heeding on this research suggestion, this paper seeks to better understand factors
that trigger entrepreneurial behaviors among rural women.
As discussed in chapter 2, one of the factors that influences female entrepreneurship
in Kenya’s rural areas is patriarchal society. With the ubiquitous cultural tradition of the
bride dowry system, men feel entitled to take dominant roles in decision-making. However,
as stated earlier in the previous chapter, Kenyan women began to fight against social
inequality and laid out the foundation for more women to establish businesses. For example,
the late Professor Wangari Maathai and her Green Belt Movement focused on empowering
rural women and girls by enhancing the environment. Although this movement was not
specifically related to entrepreneurship, it laid the foundation for a new generation of women
to engage in businesses (Muthuki, 2006).
3.3 Materials and methods
3.3.1 Study area and data collection
Kakamega town is the capital and commercial hub of Kakamega County. Its
Kakamega municipal market is the largest in the Western Region. Rural women in the
County come to this town to sell their farm products. Others set up kiosks in the central
business district. Wednesdays and Saturdays are market days that bring a large number of
traders together.
The Luhya are the dominant tribe here. The Luhya tribe has practiced polygamy. A
man gains respect based on the number of wives he has. This is partly because only a very
wealthy man can afford to pay dowry (bride price) for multiple wives. The dowry was paid
in the form of cattle, sheep, or goats. Today, polygamy is no longer widely practiced, but
dowry payment still exists. Wife inheritance is also practiced where a man marries his older
brother’s wife when the brother dies (KIG, 2015).
Every day, Luhya women busily fetch fuel wood from the Kakamega Forest and
attend to household chores. Many manage family farms themselves as their husbands are
away to find work in Nairobi. In Kakamega, women at best have usufruct rights to land
17
(Ireri, and Ngugi, 2016). Most Kakamega women entrepreneurs do not even have secondary
education (Chege and Sifuna, 2006; Odinga, 2012).
In 2013, the Kenyan government began to devolve its administrative power by
empowering local authorities. County governments have taken jurisdiction over more
economic resources. As a result, a number of new opportunities have emerged for local
businesses. The County government began to improve infrastructure that created more jobs.
The establishment of the Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology in 2007 has
allowed more women to sell their products to university staff and students.
For data collection, the questionnaire survey was administered. I first conducted a
preliminary field study in August and September 2017 to make sure that all our questions
were understandable within the local context. In order to better design the questionnaire and
understand the significance of the data collected, I reviewed past publications on women
SMEs, informal businesses and women network groups in Kenya. I also examined reports of
the Kenyan government, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) and local Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) like the Global Giving
Organization. I interviewed Kakamega County officials to have more thorough information
about the County and its economic activities.
After this preliminary survey, the finalized questionnaire was administered in
September and October 2017 among 153 rural women entrepreneurs at major markets in the
county. I used the simple random sampling method. This survey was conducted at
Kakamega municipal market, Shianda market, Khayega market and Mumias market (Figure
3.1 and Table 3.1).
I selected these markets on the basis of the population density and land use
classification. These markets are located in Kakamega Central, East and South regions,
where the majority of markets and shopping centers are located. These regions have
intensive small-scale farming (KNBS, 2017).
3.3.2 Rationale of questions
The questionnaire focused on three sets of questions. The first part covered the socio-
demographic characteristics of the respondents. These questions were asked so as to
understand the population characteristics of the respondents. The responses would further be
classified in different demographic groups and enhance cross tabulation and comparison of
responses based on their social-economic characteristics. The second part asked questions
aimed to identify attributes that drove the respondents to pursue entrepreneurship. These
questions were asked so that rural women’s relationships and social attributes which
triggered entrepreneurial behaviors were well understood. These attributes were considered
18
both in their households and at the market place. The third set of questions were asked to
identify what motivated rural women into entrepreneurship. These questions were meant
toassess factors that motivated the respondents to start business ventures and their
perceptions about doing business. All of the respondents were women entrepreneurs of
Kakamega County.
3.4 Results and discussions
3.4.1 Socio-demographic features
The first part of my survey identified socio-demographic characteristics of the
respondents (Table 3.2). I found that my respondents were mostly younger than 40 years old.
About 80 percent of the total respondents had the household size from one to five members.
Households with greater than five members were mostly polygamous. About the marital
status, 66 percent of the respondents were married, and most of them were living in their
husband’s rural homes. Those between 31 and 40 years old consisted of 43 percent (Table
3.2). The age range of 21 to 30 years old had 25 percent of the total respondents, who were
mostly well-trained jobless women. Those between 41 and 50 years old consisted of 27
percent. These three age groups constituted the vast majority of our respondents.
The majority of the respondents had monthly revenue of between 20,001 to 30,000
Kenya shillings. This monthly income in Kenya’s rural areas comfortably put rural women
in middle class income earners. Most of them were able to cater for the household expenses,
expand their businesses and support their friends through the chama.
The education background of the respondents varied, but tended to be up to the
secondary education level. Those respondents without formal education were about five
percent. These women did not adequately read and write, but they could fluently converse
and count in the local language and basic Swahili. About 31 percent had received up to
primary education, and 21 percent received secondary education. Most of these women also
could read, write and converse in Swahili with little English. They had also undergone
informal training and acquired vocational skills that included basic accounting and computer
skills, tailoring, and catering. The training was typically initiated by their mutual-help
groups or chama as well as religious groups and NGOs like the Global Giving Organization.
About 21 percent of the respondents had university education. Most of them had engaged in
business as professionals or as part-time workers.
3.4.2 Personal relationship and social attributes
The second part of the questionnaire aimed to identify attributes that drove the
respondents to pursue entrepreneurship. As women in Kakamega normally cannot engage in
19
market business without permission from their husbands, I first identified the distribution of
married women in age groups (Table 3.3). In each age group, the vast majority of the
respondents were married currently or in the past whereas less than 10 percent, mostly the
young generation, was single. Between 41 and 50 years old, 85 percent was widowed. This
means that almost all respondents were married before 30 years old. Those in their forties
somehow separated from their husbands and pursued business options.
In the questionnaire, I asked the currently married respondents to rate their spouses’
support towards their entrepreneurial activities. About 59 percent of them responded that the
support of their spouses was either good or very good (Figure 3.2). Only about 15 percent of
the married respondents rated the spousal support as poor or very poor. This shows that
husband’s support motivated women in operating businesses. Nevertheless, they agreed that
it was not easy to obtain support from husband.
This support from husband does not mean financial support. The respondents who
had spousal support said that it was not possible for their husbands to fund their businesses
because their husbands were already burdened with household expenses. In our field visits,
we also observed that women entrepreneurs were generally discouraged from doing business
if they asked their husbands for money.
Another question focused on the roles social networking played for women in
pursuing businesses. At market places in Kakamega, I observed that women customarily had
established networks to find new business opportunities. They engaged in several social
activities, of which chama was the most famous one. Their activities include organizing
meals together or cleaning market places. So, I tried to clarify Kakamega women’s active
participation in market transactions.
I found that about 77 percent of our respondents had participated in various social
activities at the market place (Table 3.4). About 86 percent of the respondents belonged to at
least one chama at the market place (Table 3.4). About 97 percent of the respondents
attributed their business successes to these social networking groups. About 93 percent had
obtained business inspiration by meeting people at the market and participating in social
networking activities. They were motivated when they saw successful rural women
entrepreneurs who belonged to the same social class and had overcame similar challenges.
Similar to these findings, Jack and Anderson (2002) argued that rural women often
demonstrated strong social networking skills. Rather than competing, many rural businesses
cooperated (Steiner and Cleary, 2014).
20
3.4.4 Motivating factors
The third part of my survey aimed at assessing factors that motivated Kakamega
rural women to start business ventures. Figure 3.3 shows that 98 percent of the respondents
either strongly agreed or agreed that they started business to support their families
financially. Traditionally, men were expected to meet all the financial needs of their
families. However, due to the rising inflation rate, unemployment and growth in household
sizes, rural women decided to support their husbands.
Women also wanted to achieve financial independence. About 97 percent of the
respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they started business to own property. As
mentioned before, the Luhya traditionally restricted women to inherit property, but our field
observation revealed that their companies, which are legal persons but gender neutral,
helped them acquire land, houses, cars and other properties.
Another important factor was women’s desire to maintain social networks. About 84
percent of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they started business for
networking. Social groups at the market place provided a platform for them to share their
family experiences and learn from others. About 50 percent of the respondents either
strongly agreed or agreed that they engaged in entrepreneurship to earn respect in society.
They also earned respect and trust from their husbands when they supported their husbands
financially.
3.5 Summary
From this research social characteristics both at household and market significantly
affected the decision of rural women to start and operate businesses in Kakamega County.
Among married women, spouse’s support was an important factor to engage in business. At
market, rural women established social networks like chamas that often inspired them to
find new business opportunities or improve their on-going businesses. About 86 percent of
the respondents belonged to at least one chama and about 97 percent attributed their
business success to these chamas. About 98 percent of the respondents agreed that they were
motivated to start business to support their families financially. They also wanted to achieve
financial independence and were inspired to own property. About 84 percent of the
respondents agreed that they started business to maintain social networks. This social
network were not only business oriented but helped in the management of shared natural
resources that were vital for their agricultural based businesses. The networks also helped in
management of waste and business environment at the market place.
After establishing what influences these rural women to start and run businesses, the
question is what are their preferences and perceptions when running these businesses?
21
Therefore, the next chapter examines business behaviors, perceptions and factors that
influence business performance and sustainability of rural women entrepreneurs.
22
Figure 3.1 Surveyed markets
23
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Very Good Good Average Poor Very poor
Sup
po
rt f
rom
sp
ouse
(%
)
Scale
Figure 3.2 Rating of spousal support by the respondents4
4 This figure shows the responses given by married women on how they perceive the support they received
from their husbands. The support was for their business and networking activities.
24
Figure 3.3 Motivating factors of respondents’ entrepreneurial behaviors5
Number of respondents, n = 153
5 This figure is a summary of what motivated the respondents to start businesses.
24% 16%
3%
5%
3%
10%
0.65%
11%
3.92%
5%
42%
41%
48%
34%
93%
8%
56%
36%
59%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
SUPPORT FAMILY FINANCIALLY
EARN RESPECT IN SOCIETY
OWN PROPERTY
NETWORKING & SOCIALIZING
DESIRE TO EARN MORE MONEY
STRONGLY DISAGREE DISAGREE NOT SURE AGREE STRONGLY AGREE
25
Table 3.1 Markets and number of surveyed rural women entrepreneurs6
6 This table shows the markets where the questionnaire survey was done. Kakamega Municipal market is
within Kakamega town while Mumias,Khayega and Shianda are village markets.
Markets Number of respondents %
Kakamega Municipal market 81 53
Mumias market 41 27
Khayega market 18 12
Shianda market 12 8
26
Table 3.2 Socio-demographic of rural women entrepreneurs in Kakamega
Characteristics Number of
respondents
%
Age
21-30 years old
38
25
31-40 66 43
41-50 41 27
above 50 8 5
Marital status
Single 29 19
Married 101 66
Divorced/widowed 23 15
Education Level
None 8 5
Primary 47 31
Secondary 36 23
Diploma/certificate 30 20
Undergraduate 20 13
Postgraduate 12 8
Household Size
(1-5) 121 79
(6-10) 28 18
(11-15) 4 3
Revenue from Business (Kes)
0-10,000 33 22
10,001-20,000 37 24
20,001-30,000 41 27
30,001-40,000 24 16
40,001-50,000 10 6
Over 50,000 8 5
27
Table 3.3 Marital status of the respondents by age group7
7 This table summarizes the different marital status of different age groups of the respondents.
Age Marital status (%)
Married Single Widowed Divorced Total
21-30 14 10 0 1 25
31-40 34 8 1 0 43
41-50 14 0 85 5 27
Above 50 4 1 0 0 5
Total 66 19 9 6 100
28
Table 3.4 Social networking characteristics of the respondents at the market8
8 This table shows the yes/no responses given by the respondents on the importance of chama activities at the
market place.
Characteristics Number (%)
Yes No
Participate in social activities 118 (77%) 35 (23%)
Members of chama 132 (86%) 21 (14%)
Contribute to business growth 148 (97%) 5 (3%)
Business inspiration from people 142 (93%) 11 (7%)
29
Chapter 4 Entrepreneurial Behaviors and Perceptions that Influence Kakamega
Women9
4.1 Introduction
Small and medium entrepreneurship in Kenya has empowered rural women in
improving their wealth and social status (Hassan and Mugambi, 2013). For example, more
than 70 percent of all new businesses were established by Kenyan women. They now own
more than 8.5 million small businesses, employing more than 17 million people (Mung’atu
and Mbithi, 2015). This success is attributable to their motivation and entrepreneurial
behaviors. Then the question is as to how women entrepreneurs decide to start and run their
businesses and to what extent predominantly patriarchal society influences their decisions
(De Bruin et al., 2007).
The more recent body of gender studies has argued that entrepreneurs are born with a
stable set of personality characteristics (Chell, 2008; Van Dam et al., 2010). Jennings and
Brush (2013) reviewed the past literature on women entrepreneurs and concluded that most
studies investigated the entrepreneurial processes of women and the psychological and
contextual factors that support or hinder their business activities. However, research on
female entrepreneurial behaviors, perceptions and motivations that influenced their decision-
making has not gained much attention.
Past studies also emphasized education as an important success factor in terms of
income and growth (King and McGrath, 2002; World Bank, 2007; Wanjohi and Mugure,
2008; Odinga, 2012), but we do not yet know the extent to which education similarly
determines success in rural Kenya. As Kenya is largely male-dominated society, females
continue to be excluded from education as explained in chapter 2. Traditional communities
in Kakamega County, somewhat similar to other rural communities in Africa, have limited
women’s business opportunities (Bunyi, 2012). Muthathai (2017) pointed out that the low
education level of Kenyan women negatively affected the further growth of their businesses.
However, in my field survey, I found that women had been doing relatively well. I wanted to
find out the extent to which education affected their businesses.
This chapter examines rural women’s entrepreneurial behaviors and perceptions that
are pertinent to starting and running small businesses in Kakamega County, Kenya. I look at
how socio-demographic characteristics, such as age, education, entrepreneurial experience
and labor availability, influence women’s decisions. In particular, I try to better understand
how women entrepreneurs decided to start and run businesses, and how culturally engraved
9 Part of this chapter was accepted to be published in the Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, Elsevier. Vol.
42, No. 1, January 2021.
30
gender bias has affected their decision-making. In the following discussion, I first introduce
past researches that led me to design my field and questionnaire surveys.
4.2 Materials and methods
4.2.1 Study area
The sugar industry has been the major economic driver in Kakamega County. The
Mumias Sugar Company in the village of Mumias is the largest sugar producing firm in
Kenya and East Africa. However, the locals do not entirely depend on the sugar industry
economically. Small-scale farming is widely practiced in Kakamega County. Farmers here
mainly grow maize, beans, millet, sunflower, soya beans, groundnuts, and cassava. The
rising population growth in the County has increased the demand for agricultural
commodities and other services exponentially.
Kakamega residents also explore emerging entrepreneurial opportunities in
Kakamega town and other village shopping centers (CGoK, 2015). The local majority, the
Luhya Tribe, is known to have excellent weaving, pottery and carving skills. Their
soapstone carvings, baskets, mats and furniture can be found on sale in curios shops around
Kakamega and other parts of the County.
The Luhyas have actively traded in such nearby Counties as Bungoma County and
Trans Nzoia County, both bordering Uganda. Towards east, Kakamega traders have dealt
with merchants in Siaya and Busia counties that are connected to east African countries.
Kakamega town has many banks such as the National Bank, Co-operative Bank, Kenya
Commercial Bank, Barclays Bank, Equity Bank, Family Bank and the Kenya Women
Microfinance Bank (KWFT) among others (KIG, 2015).
4.2.2 Data collection
In August and September 2017, I conducted the preliminary fieldwork prior to
administering the questionnaire survey. The preliminary study aimed to make sure that all
our questions were understandable within the local context. After this preliminary study, I
revised the questionnaire and distributed it to 180 women entrepreneurs at major markets in
the County, including Kakamega municipal market, Shianda market, Khayega market and
Mumias market. I used the simple random sampling method. I collected 153 fully filled
questionnaires. In order to better understand the significance of the data I collected, I
reviewed past publications on women SMEs, informal businesses and women network
groups in Kenya. I also examined reports of the Kenyan government, the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and local Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs) like the Global Giving Organization.
31
4.2.3 Rationale of questions
The questionnaire focused on two sets of questions. The first part covered the socio-
demographic characteristics of the respondents. These questions were asked so as to
understand the population characteristics of the respondents. The responses would further be
classified in different demographic groups and enhance cross tabulation and comparison of
responses based on their social-economic characteristics. In the second part of the
questionnaire I asked the respondents to identify some of their preferences in deciding
business scale, type, location, and ownership. These questions sought to understand their
decisions to start and run business.
4.2.4 Correlation and multiple regression analysis
The third part meant to assess how age, education, experience and labor affected
their business performance. A hypothesis test was done to test the validity of our null
hypotheses (H0) for each of the variables. To establish the strength of relationship between
women entrepreneurs’ age, education level, experience, number of employees and monthly
business income, a correlation analysis was done. The correlation coefficient r was used to
measure the strength and direction of the linear relationship between the variables on a
scatter plot.
I also assessed and ranked the influence of age, education, experience and labor on
income by using multiple regression analysis. A p value was used to determine the
significance of the results and whether to accept or reject the null hypotheses (H0). A small p
value (typically ≤ 0.05) indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis. A large p value
(> 0.05) indicates weak evidence against the null hypothesis. A p value that is very close to
the cutoff (0.05) can be interpreted in either way (Hogg & Craig, 1995).
4.3 Results and discussion
4.3.1 Socio-demographic features
In the first part of my questionnaire survey, I identified the socio-demographic
characteristics of the respondents. I found that 43 percent of them were aged between 31 and
40 years old. About 66 percent of the respondents were married. Regarding the education
level, 31 percent of them had attained primary education whereas 13 percent had university
education and eight percent post-graduate degrees. The monthly revenue ranged from 10,000
to 30,000 Kenya Shillings (Kes). This range was sufficient to meet monthly basic needs in
rural Kakamega. Most of the respondents engaged in business when their children were
growing and household expenses rising.
32
4.3.2 Entrepreneurial behavior and preferences
In the second part of the questionnaire I asked the respondents to identify some of
their preferences in deciding business scale, type, location, and ownership. I found that 53
percent of the respondents chose and operated small farm retail businesses that required little
or no startup capital (Figure 4.1). Typically these women harvest farm products from their
family farms and brought them to a market for selling. Some of them set up groceries at a
shopping center and mainly sold traditional vegetables and grains that they best understood
how to cook. They sometimes explained to customers about possible recipe for their
merchandize. These women also used traditional preservation techniques (e.g., salting,
smoking, drying, and use of granaries). These help reduce the loss of perishable products.
Retail shops were the second most preferred business type among the respondents (20
percent). They set up kiosks mostly at their homes so that these women can attend to other
household chores. Family members are sometimes mobilized for this business. Similar to
farm shops, kiosks require a small amount of start-up capital, which can be easily obtained
from their chamas. At kiosks, women sell daily household products, such as sugar, salt and
cooking oil that have high cash turnover.
Regarding education of the respondents, about 21percent of them had university and
post-graduate degrees. These are mostly young women who preferred to establish salon,
boutique or restaurant. These businesses required a relatively substantial amount of capital.
They borrow from microcredit organizations, such as the Kakamega Branch of the Kenya
Women Microfinance Bank (KWFT). The KWFT encourages group initiatives, where
Kakamega women take up loans and collectively monitor business progress (KWFT, 2018).
In terms of locating their businesses, 56 percent of the respondents chose places
where they could easily walk or cheaply commute from their homes. They also located
businesses where they thought they could get customers. Most of them sold their products
during peak hours or market days. Some set up temporary stands near the university entrance
or government offices at peak hours.
Overall, about 84 percent of the respondents operated their businesses locally. This is
because they had limited financial capacity, time, and management skills. About 58 percent
of them were not interested in selling their products abroad partly because they felt that they
were not confident to engage in international trade. However, about 42 percent of the
respondents, who had undergone professional training on value addition under chamas,
expressed their interests in selling their products abroad. After their training, they began
selling milk products, fruit juices and jam.
On these new venture efforts, I interviewed some women. For example, Ms. Phylis
Wabuti leads Silver-spring omen chama in Shianda village. She helps her members to get
33
loans from the KWFT. Her chama educates its members about available market
opportunities nationally and internationally. It also informs about how her chama members
may add values to their products. Similar to other chamas hers has collaborated with NGOs
like the Kenya Alliance for Rural Empowerment (KARE) in implementing internationally
funded projects. This type of experience inspired chama members to widen their business
scope to international markets.
Regarding business ownership, about 82 percent of the respondents fully owned their
businesses. These women preferred making independent decisions about their businesses. In
particular, married women were largely constrained within household chores, and owning
businesses allowed them to be flexible with their time management.
I also found that about 11 percent of the respondents were involved in joint ownership or
partnership businesses. Young highly educated women preferred partnership in starting their
businesses so that they could operate relatively large-scale businesses. They opened such
shops as pharmacy, bookstore, fashion design and salon. Some older women also chose joint
ownership business through chama.
4.3.3 Factors affecting business performance
The third part aimed to assess factors that affected the business revenue or
performance of their businesses. The factors I considered were age, education, business
experience and labor. I found that the p-value for the respondents’ age (.8061) was greater
than the cutoff (.05). This means that their age was not a major factor for our respondents’
business performance. The r value (.1594) from the correlation analysis also showed a weak
positive correlation between age and business performance. The scatter diagram (Figure 4.2)
shows an almost horizontal trend line between the two variables.
In my interviews, I found somewhat contradictory results. I was informed that young
women in Kakamega demonstrated better business performance because they could collect
business information faster than older ones did. This was because they could surf through
the Internet easily and obtain information about business opportunities. Many of them had
adopted mobile money transfer applications like m-pesa and m-shwari that increased their
business revenue and allowed an access to loan. Many NGOs have targeted young
entrepreneurs in offering training for business management skills. On the other hand, old
women could take advantage of their vast past experience. They have a wealth of traditional
knowledge about processing, storage and handling particular products. They also have
extensive networks among business owners and loyal customers. These reasons made it
possible for business performance to go either way.
34
The p value for education (Table 4.1) gave me strong evidence to reject the null
hypothesis (H0). The lowest p value showed that education was the most influential factor on
business performance. The r value (.6427) showed a moderate positive correlation between
the respondents’ education level and their incomes from businesses. The scatter diagram
(Figure 4.3) showed a steep ascending trend line between the two variables. This affirms that
the business revenue increases when the level of education increases. This corresponds with
the study by the World Bank (2007).
I similarly observed in my field survey that women with higher education created
competitive business advantage. For example, those who sold fruit also made fruit juice in
branded packages. Those involved in milk production had set up a value chain system to
produce yoghurt and other milk products. Those in the salon industry created new hair styles
that attracted more diverse customers. Those women in hotel and restaurant businesses
introduced a wide range of menus. Most of these women had secondary education and went
on in some stage of their career path, to receive certificate, diploma or degree for specialized
training. Previous studies found similar phenomena in other parts of Kenya (Ongori and
Migiro, 2011; Siwadi and Mhangami, 2011; Mwania, 2015).
In the questionnaire, I also wanted to find out if entrepreneurial experience affected
business revenue. The result shows that entrepreneurial experience had an insignificant p
value (.7940), rejecting the null hypothesis (H0). The r value (.1733) shows a weak positive
correlation between entrepreneurial experience of the respondents and business income. The
scatter diagram (Figure 4.4) shows a weak ascending trend line between the variables. This
affirms the slow rate of business performance growth with respect to business experience.
Most respondents with many years of business experience tended to have little education.
They started their businesses in the 1950s when most parents did not educate girls. With
rapid urbanization and modernization in Kenya, consumers’ needs have undergone
tremendous changes. Those experienced and less educated women could not catch up with
these changes.
In terms of labor, I attempted to find out if the number of employees influenced
business revenue among Kakamega business women. The p-value showed the second most
important factor that affects the business performance of the respondents. The r value
showed a strong positive correlation between the number of employees and business
success. The scatter diagram (Figure 4.5) showed a steep ascending trend line that depicted a
high revenue increase when the number of employees increases in a business venture.
From my field interview, I found that women entrepreneurs could not spend the whole day
for their business operation as they had a number of household chores. They employed
workers temporarily during peak hours. This was a common practice especially in restaurant
35
and catering businesses. Part-time workers typically deliver meals and snacks to government
offices and public places. We also observed that some experienced business women hired
young talented employees to revitalize their businesses.
4.4 Summary
From this chapter I conclude that education background and labor strongly
determined the business revenue of Kakamega women. Also, I found that behind these two
influential factors, social and cultural norms existed and influenced rural women’s decision
making processes in choosing the type, size, ownership, and location of their businesses.
Although Luhya culture and traditions have limited women’s opportunities for education,
women found business opportunities by running small farm shops and kiosks. Their deep
knowledge on the surrounding environment and farming techniques motivated them to
pursue agriculture based businesses. My findings largely correspond with the Central Bureau
of Statistics survey that showed rural women in Kenya tended to operate businesses that are
associated with their traditional gender roles.
However, I also observed some changes in modernizing rural society. As we have
seen above, an increasing number of young women are receiving higher education. These
educated women received wide-ranging information about business opportunities that helped
them decide to establish relatively larger-scale businesses. As a result, they increased
revenue tremendously. I also found that business experience did not appear to affect
business performance of the respondents. For those relatively uneducated women, mutual
help organizations like chamas increased their chances of success; therefore, most rural
women chose to belong to chamas. Chamas also helped educate and inform business
women. So far, within a traditional social framework, chamas can be the viable option for
Luhya women to succeed in businesses, but, in the future, institutionalized support for
women’s education and empowerment can further expand and enrich the economy in
Kakamega County and beyond.
36
Figure 4.1 Rural women business types in Kakamega County 10
10
This figure ranks the different categories of businesses preferred by rural women in Kakamega County.
53
20
16
4
7
Farm shop Retail Salon and
botique
Hotel and
restaurant
Others
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Wom
en B
usi
nes
s (%
)
37
Figure 4.2 Effect of age on business revenue11
11
This figure shows the scatter diagram with a trend line between age and business income of the respondents.
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
20 30 40 50 60
Mon
thly
Bu
sin
ess
Rev
enu
e(K
shs)
Age of Respondent (years)
38
Figure 4.3 Effect of education level on business revenue12
12
This figure shows the scatter diagram with a trend line between education level and business income of the
respondents
-20,000
-10,000
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mon
thly
B
usi
nes
s R
even
ue(
Ksh
s)
Years of Education
39
Figure 4.4 Effect of entrepreneurial experience on business revenue13
13
This figure shows the scatter diagram with a trend line between experience and business income of the
respondents
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mon
thly
Bu
sin
ess
Rev
enu
e(K
shs)
Years of Running Business
40
Figure 4.5 The effect of the number of employees on business revenue14
14
This figure shows the scatter diagram with a trend line between labor and business income of the respondents
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
0 5 10 15
Mon
thly
Bu
sin
ess
Rev
enu
e (K
shs)
Number of Employees
41
Table 4.1 Multiple regression analysis of business performance factors15
15
This table shows the results of multiple regression analysis of age, education, experience and labor against
business income of the respondents.
Variables Coefficients Standard
Error
t Stat P-value Lower
95%
Upper
95%
Intercept -5643.1 1442.8 -.3912 .6971 -3452.3 2324.1
Age -85.5 347.2 -.2465 .8061 -780.8 609.6
Education 2595.0 519.2 4.9985 5.8E-06 1555.4 3634.7
Experience -166.2 633.8 -.2622 .7940 -1435.4 1102.9
Labor 3667.0 831.0 4.4125 4.6E-05 2002.8 5331.1
42
Chapter 5 Drivers of Environmental Conservation among Women at Kakamega
Forest16
5.1 Introduction
In 1992, the Rio Declaration (Principle 20) stated that "women have a vital role in
environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential
to achieving sustainable development" (Rio Declaration, 1992). Since then environmental
management actions have reiterated the importance of women's participation. Nevertheless,
in patriarchal societies that persist in Kenya and elsewhere still tend to favor men’s
dominance over women. Then the question arises as to what motivates these rural women to
actively participate in environmental management and conservation in a gender biased
society?
The past studies showed that one of the factors that drove some women to participate
in environmental conservation was related to their traditional roles. Traditional women
engaged in farming, collecting firewood and fetching water. These roles required sustainable
resource management (Etta, 1999; Makhabane, 2002; Pickering, and Davis, 2012; Lambrou,
and Piana, 2006; Aye, 2018). Similarly, some studies on rural women emphasized their
direct contact with the local environment as a driving factor to engage in conservation. For
example, some women acquired extensive knowledge about local flora and fauna and
contributed to the health of the community as traditional medicine women. Others worked as
farmers or water resources managers (World Bank, 1991; Akwa et al., 2008). Dankelman
and Davidson (2013) observed that rural women were capable to deal with environmental
crises by using traditional knowledge and social networking skills (Were et al., 2008;
Muthoni, and Wangui, 2013).
However, we still do not know what drives rural women to participate in
environmental conservation activities. Thus, this Chapter seeks to investigate what factors
influenced rural women’s pro-environmental behaviors and conservation activities. It
focuses on those rural women who live near the forest in Kakamega County. This chapter is
mainly based on the original questionnaire survey and field interviews with key informants.
In the following discussion, I discuss the results of my surveys. However, before doing so, I
first introduce our theoretical framework, the study area and my methodology so that the
significance of my case study can be better understood to readers.
16
Part of this chapter was presented and published in a conference paper proceedings of International
Conference on economic policy, Entrepreneurship Growth and role of Social Sciences, Singapore, Vol. 2 No. 8
June , 2019. https://research-cluster.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/updated-proceeding.pdf Also part of
this chapter is under peer review process in the Journal of social science and humanities, Elsevier.
43
5.2 Materials and Methods
5.2.1 Study area
The study was conducted in three villages: Buyangu, Lirhanda and Malava. These
villages are located within about six km to the Kakamega forest (Figure 5.1). Buyangu and
Malava villages are located in the north of the Kakamega forest. Lirhanda village is located
in the west of the forest. Malava and Lirhanda areas belong to forest reserves and fall under
the jurisdiction of the Kenya Forest Service. Many tourists visit these three villages (KEFRI,
2009). Buyangu, Lirhanda and Malava villages have attracted livelihood enhancement
projects. The villagers were also involved in a project to conserve the Kakamega forest
(KIFCON, 1994).
The Kakamega forest is located 150 km west of the Rift Valley at an altitude of
1460-1765 meters above the sea level (Mitchell, 2004). In 1995 the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recognized it as the third highest conservation priority site
in Kenya partly because it was the water catchment for Lake Victoria and supported more
than 300 species of birds, 32 species of snakes, seven species of primates, and 400 species of
butterflies (Zimmerman, 2001). Local people used the forest for collecting fuel wood, grass
for thatching and medicinal plants. They also performed important religious ceremonies
there. This forest is protected as a national reserve and managed by the Kenyan Wildlife
Service. It is primarily old-growth forest with many trees more than 100 years old,
supporting rich biological diversity (Kiplagat et al., 2008; Omare et al., 2013).
5.2.2 Data collection
The main discussion in this paper is based on field interviews and the questionnaire
survey. The questionnaire survey was administered in September and October 2017. Before
this, I conducted a preliminary field study to better understand the local context. The
questionnaire was distributed to 180 rural women randomly in the above mentioned three
villages. I collected 149 fully answered questionnaires (Table 5.1), including five Luhya
religious leaders and four Luhya elders.
In order to better understand the significance of the data I collected, I reviewed past
publications on rural women and the environment with particular focus on women’s network
groups called chama. I also examined reports of the International Centre for Insect
Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) that focused on the Integrated Project on Conservation of
Kakamega Forest (IPCKF), Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Programme (KIFCP),
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) and several Community Based
Organizations (CBOs) reports.
44
5.2.3 Rationale of the questions
The questionnaire focused on three sets of questions. The first set of questions
attempted to identify the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. These
questions were asked so as to understand the population characteristics of the respondents.
The responses would further be classified in different demographic groups and enhance
cross tabulation and comparison of responses based on their social-economic characteristics.
In the second part, I asked my respondents which chama they belonged and what activities
they were involved in. These questions sought to understand the role chama played in
driving women to participate in conservation activities around the Kakamega forest. Rural
women in Kakamega form these self-help groups that empower and improve their economic
and social status. The third set of questions prompted the respondents to rank factors that
triggered them to join these chamas. These questions aimed to assess factors that motivated
the respondents to participate in conservation activities. All of the respondents were female
residents of Kakamega County. Also, in-person interviews were conducted at various
locations at Kakamega’s markets to examine the cultural and religious significance of the
Kakamega forest. In these interviews, I first asked the elders importance of Kakamega forest
in the Luhya cultural traditions. I also asked them the role women plaid in protecting these
cultural activities.
5.3 Results and Discussion
5.3.1 Social-demographic features
In the first part of my questionnaire survey, I identified the socio-demographic
characteristics of the respondents. I found that about 70 percent of my respondents were
younger than 40 years old (Table 5.1). The age range of 31 to 40 years old constituted the
vast majority of my respondents. About 73 percent of the respondents were married. When I
conducted the survey, most of them were living at their husband’s homes, engaging in
subsistence farming. The education background of the respondents varied. About 30 percent
of them had attained secondary education whereas 19 percent had university education.
Chamas had been integral part of their business activities, as 88 percent of them had up to 10
years of experience in chama activities. About 71 percent of the respondents were
entrepreneurs, of which 62 percent sold agricultural products cultivated at their farms. They
also sold non-timber forest products (NTFPs) from the Kakamega forest.
5.3.2 The Role of Chamas in conservation activities
The second part of the questionnaire aimed to understand how chamas influenced
pro-environmental behaviors among the respondents. Those chamas the respondents
45
belonged focused on agribusiness, resource management, clean-energy and welfare. I asked
my respondents which chama they belonged and what activities they were involved in. The
result (Figure 5.2) shows that 38 percent belonged to those chamas that focused on
agribusiness support. These agribusiness chamas supported farmers to cultivate and
domesticate some indigenous plants from the Kakamega forest. Those women whose farms
were adjacent to the forest were particularly involved in domesticating indigenous
vegetables and hunting wild mushroom to sell at markets, curio shops or directly to tourists.
During my survey in Buyangu, Lirhanda and Malava villages, I observed that one
agribusiness chama worked with the ICIPE to cultivate and process traditional medicinal
plants from the Kakamega forest. We also interviewed women who belonged to a chama
called Shabwali that commercially cultivated Ocimum kilimandscharicum, well-known fever
treatment plant. This plant is found in the southern part of the Kakamega forest. Other
women I interviewed belonged to Kasali Wajane that was engaged in commercial
cultivation of traditional medicine plants. These harvested medicine plants were then sold to
two processing plants (Muliru Enterprise and Mondia Whytei Enterprise) located near the
Kakamega forest. These processing plants were also managed by Kakamega women.
Some women I interviewed from the Iguhu silkworm chama were involved in
sericulture. Even though they experienced some resistance from the community for this
unique venture, they affirmed that they had gained more profits as compared to maize and
sugarcane farming. The ICIPE sells silk worms at affordable price to women in agribusiness
chama. It later buys cocoons from these women for export. The Kenyan government in
partnership with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) established the
National Sericulture Research Centre at the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research
Organization (KALRO) stations at Kakamega which provides training and extension
services to women in silkworm farming.
Another prominent type of chama I found was resource management chama that
constituted 25 percent of the respondents (Figure 5.1). This chama basically aims to control
and manage the use of shared resources. At the household, the Luhya women (prominent
local tribe) are responsible for domestic water collection and management. They wait in long
line for their turn. Many Kakamega women and children have suffered from water-borne
diseases like cholera, diarrhea and typhoid. These problems drove them to come together
and manage water sources in the village. They organized some activities to clean up water
collection points and mobilize funds to plaster open springs. Some resource management
chama members participated in activities organized by the Kakamega Forest Heritage
Foundation to enhance conservation in the Kakamega forest. These activities include tree
planting day and the Kakamega forest marathon.
46
About 19 percent of the respondents were members of clean energy chamas. Here
women took advantage of various government and NGO’s vocational training programs.
After completing their training, they utilized the skills to improve their household energy
management. Luhya women traditionally spent hours to collect fuel wood in the Kakamega
forest as their traditional three-stone cooking method requires a large amount of fuel wood.
As a result, they had suffered from smoke and hard labor. This problem induced some
chama members became motivated to adopt clean and efficient cooking technologies. For
example, an Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), an NGO training chama
for women, has facilitated the production and installation of energy saving cooking devices
in rural homes. Some were made by a mixture of clay and cow dung in the kitchen areas,
while others were eco-friendly jikos or cooking stoves. The Global Giving Foundation was
also involved in training women to make Mwangabora solar lamps from recycled materials
as part of business opportunities.
Welfare chamas constituted about 17 percent of the respondents. One of the
respondents explained to me about how one welfare chama helped a poor family by setting
up a hygienic latrine. This was done in collaboration with Quakers church that dominates the
region. Welfare chamas helped their members whenever they faced with some social,
economic or environmental problems. Similar to this discussion on chamas, Jack and
Anderson (2002) argued that rural women often demonstrated strong social networking
skills. Rather than competing, many rural women cooperated each other to enhance their
economic and welfare activities (Steiner and Cleary, 2014).
5.3.3 Motivation to join environmental chamas
The third part of our questionnaire survey aimed to assess factors that motivated
Kakamega women to join chamas for conservation activities. Out of the 149 respondents,
107 (72 percent) respondents belonged to chamas that were involved in conservation
activities. I asked these respondents to rank factors that triggered them to join these chamas.
Figure 5.3 shows that 98 percent of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that
they joined these chamas to earn income. Traditionally, men were breadwinners of their
families, but, with the rising cost of living and growth of household size, rural women took
income generating activities. In particular, the poverty rate in this County is high. As
conservation research activities and tourism by government organizations and NGOs have
increased in the Kakamega forest, Kakamega women seized opportunities to provide their
assistance to these organizations as they knew very well about the forest and its biological
resources.
47
Another important motivating factor was rural women’s desire to protect the
environment. About 88 percent of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they
joined chamas to protect the environment and prevent pollution. This result corresponds
with that of Akwa (2008), who found that rural women in Nigeria were motivated to protect
and care for natural resources as they knew that their lives depended on a healthy
environment.
The responded also wanted to find business opportunities by participating in
conservation activities. About 85 percent of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed
that they joined chamas for this purpose. About 71 percent of the respondents were
entrepreneurs (Table 5.1) who depended on the Kakamega forest. Some respondents
cultivated traditional plants from the Kakamega forest to sell to the market, including
Tsimboka (pig weed or Amaranthus sp.), Lisustsa (black nightshade or Solanum nigrum) and
murere (jute plant or Corchorus olitorius). Another popular medicinal product from the
Kakamega forest is Mukombero (Mondia whitei). Women harvest its root to sell at market as
medicine. Some respondents trapped Harlequin Quail (Coturnix delegorguei or Isindu in
Luhya language) that is one of the famous and expensive delicacies in the County.
Another important factor was women’s desire to maintain social networks. About
79% of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they joined chamas to network
and socialize. The conservation project for the Kakamega forest brought together several
women from different chamas; thus, providing a platform to expand social networks. Some
of the respondents were happy to have interacted with foreign researchers and tourists who
had sought their services in the Kakamega forest. About 57 percent of the respondents either
strongly agreed or agreed that they joined chamas to benefit from the education training
offered by NGOs and the government. Through the training they gained more skills and
knowledge about environmental conservation.
5.3.4 Cultural and religious significance
To better understand the cultural and religious significance of the Kakamega forest I
interviewed Luhya religious leaders and elders. I found that the Luhya community has
respect and reverence to some plants and animals in the Kakamega forest because of their
cultural and religious significance. Traditional medicine men and women in the Luhya
community, use various plants from the Kakamega forest to heal diseases like stomach-ache,
malaria and deworming. Our respondents gave us examples of plants in the Kakamega
forest. For example, they used leaves of Lumetsani (Leucas argentea) to cure stomach-ache.
Roots of Mghobari (Acacia montigena) were used for deworming. Luhya midwives used
Mubonebone (Rinicus comunis) for bleeding mothers after birth. Some women possessed
48
special knowledge to diagnose and administer herbs as well as to produce and preserve the
medicine.
I also found that certain plants were planted for specific purposes. Some plants in
homesteads mark grave sites. Certain trees symbolize family totems so that it was taboo to
cut them. Euphobia tirucalli or shinakozi was used for demarcating land boundaries and
solving land disputes. It was taboo to cut this tree. As men travelled to the cities to look for
employment, women were left to take care of these trees and boundaries in their homesteads.
Some women stated that, during dry seasons, they prioritized watering these plants.
Kakamega women were also tasked with teaching their children about the taboos and totems
surrounding these indigenous plants. Mies and Shiva (1993) similarly argued that women’s
knowledge and care of nature were derived from their childcare activities and interaction
with nature. Others found that women’s daily activities required them to sustainably manage
the surrounding flora and fauna (Diamond and Orenstein, 1990; Aye, 2018).
In my field interview, a few respondents told me that some specific sites and plants
inside and around the Kakamega forest were regarded as sacred. Luhya women do not cut
any plants or fetch firewood found at sites called Khuluhya. Khuluhya are sacred sites where
elders sit to solve communal issues. Some sites on the Isiukhu and Yala rivers that run
through the Kakamega forest are used for cleansing and baptism. Luhya women are not
allowed to draw water or wash at these sites. Some sacred plants like Mukumu (Figus
thoningii) and Murembe (Erithrina tomentosa) are preserved and protected by the Luhya
women.
5.4 Summary
Overall, I found that the need to earn income and the desire to protect the
environment strongly motivated Kakamega women to engage in conservation activities.
Also, I found that behind these two driving factors, Kakamega women customarily
established networking groups called chama that inspired them to participate in
environmental conservation activities. These chamas focused on agribusiness, resource
management, clean-energy and welfare. Women’s conservation behavior was also cultivated
by Luhya culture, in which women protected religiously significant plants and sites in the
Kakamega forest. They maintained control over the sustainable utilization of plants in the
forest. So far, Kakamega women have successfully participated locally in the conservation
of natural resources and environmental management. Chamas can be the option to expand
and enrich rural women’s participation in environment decision-making at national and
global levels. Reflecting on these findings, I overall found that traditional women’s
conservation activities is the rich but yet under-studied field
49
Figure 5.1 Study area17
17
This figure shows villages surrounding Kakamega forest where the survey was conducted.
50
Figure 5.2 Categories of chamas18
18
This figure shows the different categories of chamas that the respondents belong to.
38%
25%
19%
17%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
Agribusiness Resource
management
Clean-energy Welfare
Res
pon
den
ts
Chama category
51
Figure 5.3 Factors motivating rural women to join environmental chamas19
19
This figure shows the different factors that motivated the respondents to join environmental chamas.
3%
2%
7%
4%
35%
11%
5%
8%
8%
10%
14%
27%
59%
36%
48%
84%
61%
26%
21%
31%
Earn income
Environmental
concern
Business
opportunities
Education &
Training
Networking
avenue
Strongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure Agree Strongly Agree
52
Table 5.1 Villages and number of surveyed rural women 20
20
This table shows the number of respondents in each of the three villages near the Kakamega forest.
Area Number of respondents %
Buyangu 69 46
Lirhanda 43 29
Malava 37 25
53
Table 5.2 Socio-demographic characteristics of rural women in chama
Characteristics N %
Age
(21-30)
27 18
(31-40) 77 52
(41-50) 34 23
above 51 11 7
Marital Status
Single 25 17
Married 109 73
Divorced/widowed 15 10
Education Level
Primary 42 28
Secondary 44 30
Diploma/certificate 21 14
Undergraduate 29 19
Postgraduate 13 9
Years in Chama
(1-5) 86 58
(6-10) 45 30
(11-15) 17 11
(Above 15) 1 1
Economic Activity
Entrepreneurs 106 71
Non Entrepreneurs 43 29
54
Chapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Main findings
The previous chapters have examined rural women’s entrepreneurial behaviors and
success attributes as well as factors that influenced their conservation behaviors. This
chapter discusses main findings in the previous chapters and recommendations.
In Chapter 2 I found that women entrepreneurs in rural Kenya face challenges stemmed
from cultural and traditional practices. These traditions have deterred them from owning
land and property, excluded them from education, assigned them heavy household
responsibilities and restricted their movement. On the other hand, these cultural challenges
have induced rural women’s motivation to cooperate and network in order to empower
themselves through mutual-help group famously known as chama. By exercising joint
liability through chama, many groups of poor women have overcome the cultural problem of
getting collateral. They have accumulated capital by way of small savings and establish
enterprises independently. They have also successfully participated in commercial
conservation initiatives because of their good understanding of the surrounding flora and
fauna. Considering the historically rooted and ubiquitous mutual-help groups in Kenya,
women have great potential to considerably strengthen its economy.
In Chapter 3 my questionnaire survey with women entrepreneurs in Kakamega
county affirmed that similar social backgrounds enhanced cooperation in starting and
operating business among rural women. At the market place about 77% of the respondents
participated in various chama activities. These activities fostered business growth and
equitable management and sharing of natural resources which are major product source of
their agriculture based businesses. About 97% of the respondents attributed their business
success to the help and inspiration from these social networking groups. The respondents
were inspired and motivated to entrepreneurship because of these social activities at the
market. About 98% of them agreed that they started business to support their families
financially. Through this they achieve financial independence and earn respect in their
families and society.
In chapter 4 I examined how rural women’s socio-demographic characteristics such
as age, education, entrepreneurial experience and labor availability influence entrepreneurial
behavior and performance in Kakamega County. I found that Social and cultural norms
influenced rural women’s decision making processes in choosing the type, size, ownership,
and location of their businesses. Rural women in Kakamega tended to choose types of
businesses that are associated with their traditional gender roles. About 53 percent of them
preferred small farm businesses that depended on their daily farming activities. This
55
motivated them to participate in conservation initiatives to protect their businesses. About 56
percent preferred locating their businesses in a walking distance from their homes. About 84
percent of the respondents preferred small-scale informal enterprises. Chama provided the
capital and training to women entrepreneurs. In terms of running their businesses, I found
that education and labor availability substantially influenced the performance of the
respondents. Women entrepreneurs with a higher education level tended to be more creative
and confident when making business decisions.
In Chapter 5 I investigated factors that influenced rural women’s conservation
behaviors and activities in Kakamega County. Similarly, I found that Kakamega women
customarily established chamas that inspired them to participate in environmental
conservation activities. About 98% of the respondents agreed that they were motivated to
participate in environmental conservation activities because they could earn income from
these activities. About 88% agreed that they were driven by the desire to protect the
environment. My interview with elders and other women found that cultural and religious
significance they attached to some plants and sites in the Kakamega forest motivated them to
strictly observe traditional conservation customs. They also cultivated and preserved
important medicinal plants to prevent their depletion.
6.2 Implication of these findings for women empowerment
Overall, the above findings indicate that rural women in Kenya are not simply
victims of cultural subordination; rather they have demonstrated agency for economic
development and environmental sustainability. The social cultural environment serves
simply not as barriers for their actions. The gender biased cultural beliefs have induced
success attributes among them in order to empower themselves and enhance their social
status. This study clarifies on how women inequality can be reduced, and their participation
in small businesses and conservation activities enhanced through their social networking
groups known as chamas. The findings contribute to the achievement of transformational
economic, environmental and social changes required for sustainable development of rural
areas citing rural women as key agents.
There is still lack of rural women full contribution to Kenyan economy and
environment management due to the gender related barriers. The rural areas where most of
the women live have also been left behind in development and much focus has been placed
in urban areas. Extensive involvement of women in SMEs can not only empower women
and the poor but also improve economic and social conditions by diversifying business
techniques and heightening the resilience of the economy. Below I discuss some
56
recommendations that may enhance women participation in rural economic development
and environment management.
1.So far, within a traditional social framework, chamas can be the option for rural women in
Kenya to succeed in businesses and environmental management, but, in the future,
institutionalized support for women’s education and empowerment can further expand and
enrich the rural economy and environment in Kakamega County and beyond. Chamas can
be the option to expand and enrich rural women’s participation in environment decision-
making at national and global levels.
2.In order to reduce gender inequalities in patriarchal society, international organizations and
the national government should create income generating opportunities for women in
chama. This should majorly focus on increasing credit facilities and market opportunities for
women entrepreneurial activities. As from my findings, women’s status in the society
depends on how much income they generate as this also gives them some independency
from their spouses. Husbands would respect their wives if they brought some income in the
households.
3.From my findings, the factors with greatest influence on women business performance are
education and number of employees. In order to improve the performance of SMEs, the
government should invest in girls and women education. This will enhance their business
management skills and technologies that will enable their business compete effectively in
the modern market. The government should also enhance security at the market places to
give more time for women to sell their products for long hours.
4.Rural women’s traditional knowledge on medicinal herbs, water resources and biodiversity
conservation practices should be documented and incorporated in the current Kenya’s
education system to enhance sustainable livelihood and rural development. This can also be
utilized as business ideas and developed into various women enterprises.
57
Acknowledgement
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Kenichi Matsui
for accepting me in his laboratory and guided me throughout my research. I thank my sub-
supervisors, Professors Watanabe Kazuo, Zhongfang Lei, and Mitsuru Hirota for their
guidance and critical comments that improved this dissertation. I am also grateful to my
evaluation committee members, Professors Helmut Yabar, Keiko Yamaji and Yokoi
Tomoyuki for their great suggestions, comments and thoughtful questions.
Much appreciation to the staff of the Doctoral Program in Sustainable Environmental
Studies at the University of Tsukuba. I extend my gratitude to the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) for providing me with
scholarship. Through this scholarship I was able to finish my doctoral studies in time.
I acknowledge generous support provided by the County government of Kakamega through
the County director of environment Mr. Peter Mathia. I thank all the Kakamega women and
elders, especially Ms. Vivian Namayi of Soroptimist International women club for helping
me access many rural women in Kakamega County.
\
\
58
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Appendix 1. Improving Women Entrepreneurship in Kakamega County, Kenya.
The aim of this questionnaire is to improve women entrepreneurship in Kakamega County,
Kenya. This research will be used primarily to write my doctoral thesis and identify
measures to improve women businesses in future. For this purpose I need your opinion about
how business is operated and what need to be considered in future so that women thrive in
business.
Instruction: Circle response codes and indicate details where necessary.
Locality Name……………………………………. Date…………………………….
SECTION A: SOCIO ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
Personal Information
Household Information
Q1. Age Q2. Marital
status
Q3. Level of
academic
qualification
Q4. A part
from business
do you have
other sources
of income?
Q5. What is your
average annual
income?
“000”
1. 21-30 years
2. 31- 40 years
3. 41-50 years
4. Above 51
years
1. Single
2. Married
3. Divorced
4. Widowed
5. Others
(Specify)-----
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Certificate
4. Diploma
5. Undergraduate
6. Postgraduate
1. No
2. Yes
(Specify)……
………………
…….
1. Up to Kshs. 240
2. Kshs. 240.001- 480
3. Kshs. 480.001- 720
4. Kshs. 720.001-960
5. Kshs. 960.001-1200
6. Above Kshs. 1200
Q6.
Relationship to
Household head
Q7. How many
people live in
your household
Q8. If married
do you live with
your spouse?
Q9. Reason for
not living with
spouse
Q10. What is the
average annual income
of household?
“000”
68
SECTION B: BUSINESS CHARACTERISTICS
Business Motivation
1. Head
2. Spouse
3.Daughter
4.Sister
5. House girl
4. Other……
M:
F:
1. Yes (skip
Q9)
2. No (go to
Q9)
1. Spouse
working in city
2. Spouse is
abroad
3. Polygamy
4. Other……
1. Up to Kshs. 240
2. Kshs. 240.001- 480
3. Kshs. 480.001- 720
4. Kshs. 720.001-960
5. Kshs. 960.001-1200
6. Above Kshs. 1200
Q1.What is the
category of your
business? Why
did you choose?
Q2. How long
have you been
running this
business?
Q3. Who
owns the
business?
Q4. What is the
size of your
enterprise?
Why?
Q5. What is your
monthly income from
business?
1. Retail shop
2.Farm shop
3.Salon and
Boutique
4.Hotel and
restaurant
5. Educational
institutions.
6. Multiple
7. Others
(Specify)….
1.Upto 1 year
2. 2-4 years
3. 5-7 years
4. 8-10 years
5. 11-20 years
6. 21 years and
above
1. Self
2. Spouse
3. Parents
4. Relative
5. Partnership
(Specify)……
……..
6. Others
(Specify)……
….
1. Micro (1-9
employees)
2.Small (10-49
employees)
3.Medium(50-
249
employees)
4.Large(250
employees)
1. Up to Kshs. 20,000
2. Kshs. 20,001- 40,000
3. Kshs. 40,001- 60,000
4. Kshs. 60,001-80,000
5. Kshs. 80,001-
100,000
6. Above Kshs.
100,000
Q6.Do you agree that you started this business because of the following reasons?
Reason 1. Strongly
agree
2. Agree 3. Not
sure
4.Disagree 5. Strongly
Disagree
1 Support family financially
69
SECTION C: WOMEN NETWORK GROUPS
Q11.Are you a
member of any
Chama?
Q12. How
many chamas
do you
subscribe to?
Q13.Are they
important in
running of your
business?
Q14. What is
the gender
composition of
your chama?
Q15. Are all
members of your
chama
entrepreneurs?
1. Yes
2. No (Stop
here)
1. Yes
2. No
1. Women only
2. Mostly
women
3. Equal number
of Men and
1. Yes
2. Most of them
3. least of them
4. None of them
2 Earn respect in society
3 Own property
4 Networking and socializing
5 Desire to earn more money
6 Others (specify)……………
Q7. How do you
rate spouse
support in your
business?
Q8. Which of the following
best describes your business?
Q9. Is this
business the first of
your own?
Q10.If No what
happened to the
previous one?
1. Very poor
2. Poor
3.Average
4. Good
5. Very good
1.I have created the current
business myself
2. It’s a family business
3. It’s a business I have
bought
1. Yes
2. No
1. Went out of
business
2. It is still
successful
3. Sold
4. Other
(specify)……
70
women.
Interviewer’s Name………………………
Place……………………………………….
Date………………………………………..
Sign………………………………………
Q16.Do you agree that you joined this chama because of the following reasons?
Reason 1. Strongly
agree
2. Agree 3. Not sure 4.Disagree 5. Strongly
disagree
1 Financial support
2 Social and moral support
3 Opportunities for business
4 Education and training
5 Networking avenue
6 Others (specify)……………
71
Appendix 2. The Role of Women Networking Groups in SMEs Growth and
Conservation of Kakamega Forest in Kakamega County
The aim of this questionnaire is to find out how Chama’s can be effectively used to develop
and support women business and conservation activities in Kakamega County, Kenya. This
research will be used primarily to write my doctoral thesis and identify measures to improve
Chama’s in future. For this purpose I need your opinion about how Chama’s are operated
and what need to be considered in future so that women thrive in business.
Locality Name……………………………………. Date…………………………….
A. Profile of Respondent
1. Age (write in the box) 2. Name of Chama
……………………………………
3. Education level: Primary [ ] Secondary [ ] Diploma/certificate [ ] Undergraduate [ ]
Postgraduate [ ]
4. Marital status: Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ] Others………[ ]
5. For how long have you been engaged in chama activities?
6. Are you an entrepreneur? Yes [ ] No [ ]
72
7. If yes, what kind of business are you involved
in?…………………………………………..
B. Network Group Activities
8. What type of chama are you in?..................................................................
9. How would you classify your chama?............................................
10. What kind of activities is your chama involved in?.........................................
11. How are these activities beneficial to you?.........................................
12. Does your chama have a constitution? Yes [ ] No [ ]
13. Is your chama registered? Yes [ ] No [ ]
14. If yes please indicate category:
Support group [ ] Society/sacco [ ] Community Based Organization [ ] Partnership [
] Company [ ] Others…………………………[ ]
15. What one major thing do you consider before admitting one to your chama?
.......................................................................................................................................
73
16. How do you select leaders in your chama? Election [ ] Consensus [ ] Rotational [ ]
Others………………………….[ ]
Motivation to join chama
C. Network Group Activities
18. How often do you meet? Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] Bi annual [ ] Annual [ ]
Others……………..[ ]
19. Does your chama have a permanent meeting place? Yes [ ] No [ ] If no proceed to
21
20. If yes, please state the place: ……………………………
17. What drove you to join chama?
Reason 1. Strongly
agree
2. Agree 3. Not sure 4.
Disagree
5. Strongly
disagree
1 Earn income
2 Environmental concern
3 Opportunities for business
4 Education and training
5 Networking avenue
6 Others (specify)……………
74
21. Where do you hold your meetings? Within Kakamega [ ] Western region [ ] Other
regions………………………… [ ] Both……………………………. [ ]
22. What special interest does your chama focus on? ................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………..
23. What type of events has your chama organized in the past?
.................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
Interviewer’s Name………………………… Place…………………………..
Sign………………………………… Date……………………………
75
Appendix 3. Permission to conduct research