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The Role of Car Use for Subjective Well-Being

Cecilia Bergstad Jakobsson (co-PI) Amelie Gamble

Tommy Gärling (PI) Olle HagmanMerrit Polk

University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden

Margareta FrimanLars E. Olsson

Karlstad University, Sweden

Dick EttemaUtrecht University, The Netherlands

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Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Definitions

SWB has a cognitive and an affective component.

The cognitive component is a global judgement of (current or past) satisfaction with one´s life. It is heavily influenced by and slightly influences domain satisfaction, e.g. judgments of satisfaction with one´s health, work, marriage and leisure.

The affectíve component (sometimes referred to as affective SWB) is identified with (current or past) mood which vary from positive to negative.

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Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Measurement

SWB is either measured by a single-item scale:”Taken all things together, how would you say your life is today? Would you say you are very happy, rather happy, or not happy at all?”(World Values Survey, Eurobarometer)

Or by a multi-item scale“In most ways my life is close to my ideal; The conditions of my life are excellent; I am satisfied with my life; So far I have achieved the important things I want in life; If I could live my life over again, I would change almost nothing.” (Satisfaction With Life Scale, SWLS; Diener et al.)

Mood is measured by self-report rating scales (but physiological methods may also be used):”Rate how positive-negative you feel at the moment/have felt previous week.” ”Indicate how frequently you have felt positive/negative previous week.”

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Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Determinants

Personality (50%) Higher for extravert than introvert people Higher for emotional stable than emotional instable peopleSocio-demographic variables (10%) Women more variable than men U-shaped relation to age (minimum at 40) Increases with education Increases with employment Negatively accelerated function of income Increases after marriage, decreases after divorce or death of spouseIntentional activities (40%) Increases with goal pursuit Increases with positive affect associated with activities Decreases with daily hassles (negative stress)

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Daily Travel and SWB (1)

satisfactionwith travel

travel timecost

reliabilitysafety

security mood

activity performance

SWB

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Daily Travel and SWB (2)

satisfactionwith travel

car use

psychological motives

socio-demographicvariables

car access

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Survey in September-November 2007

Sample

1,330 (44.3 %) randomly sampled Swedish residents:196 (19.6 %) from urban areas (>200,000)536 (53.6 %) from semi-rural areas (20,000 - 200,000) 543 (54.3 %) from rural areas (<20,000)

53.7% women/mean age 46.3 years

Singles without children 12.7% Single 19.8%Singles with children 5.1% Cohabiting 77.4%Cohabiting without children 34.3% Without children 47.0% Cohabuting with children 43.1% With children 48.2%

35.2% had a university degree

56.3% was full-time employed/69.8% mean employment degree

1,134 (85.2%) access to private cars

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Survey in September-November 2007

Questionnaire

Psychological motives for car use

Performance of out-of-home activities previous week

Affect associated with performance of the activities

Travel mode to the activities

Mood (previous week)

SWB (life in general)

Satisfaction with travel

Socio-demographic variables

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Survey in September-November 2007

Measures

Scales of instrumental-independence motives (11 items 0-6, M = 5.0/SD = 0.9, = .87)

Scales of affective-symbolic motives (14 items 0-6, M = 1.8/SD = 1.2, = .91) (0-6)

Number of weekly car trips (M = 11.2/SD = 8.7)

Percent car use as driver to activities (M = 69.4/SD = 33.0)

Percent car use as passenger to activities (M = 13.0/SD = 21.0)

SWB (SWLS, 6 items 0-6, M = 4.0/SD=1.3, = .92)

Weekly mood (SCAS, 2 items -3-3, M=4.0/SD = 1.3, > .75)

Satisfaction with activities (SAS, mean 4.5 items -3-3, M = 4.3/SD = 0.9, > .77)

Satisfaction with travel (STS, 5 items 0-6, M = 3.7/SD = 1.3, = .77)

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Study 1 Affective-symbolic and instrumental-independence motives for daily car use mediating effects of socio-

demographic variables on car use

Research QuestionTo what degree do instrumental-indepedence and

affective-symbolic motives mediate relationships between socio-demographic variables and daily car use?

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Study 1: Measures of psychological motives

Affective-symbolicTo what extent do you agree to that …I express myself through my car; Driving is sporty and adventurous; Driving is my hobby; The car gives me power in traffic; The car provides privacy; I enjoy driving a nice, good-looking car; I can distinguish myself from others;I get a kick out of driving; I am a bit in love with my car; Driving is enjoyable; The car gives me prestige; Driving is relaxing; I love driving fast; I love the drone of my engine and muffler.

Instrumental-indepenedenceTo what extent do you agree to that …The car brings me wherever I want; Driving saves a lot of time; Driving makes my life more easy; I can visit family and friends; Feelings of freedom the car gives me; Driving is comfortable; I am free to stop everywhere; I am not dependent on others; I get out; I can chose my own route; The car enables recreational trips and holidays.

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Study 1: Results (1)

Socio-Demographic Variables n beta beta

Instrumental-independence motive 1126 0.10Affective-symbolic motive 1127 0.08

Sex (man 1, woman -1) 1129 0.09 0.08* Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 -0.02

0.02Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 -0.10 -0.08Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1073 -0.01 0.01Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1073 0.14 0.15University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1134 -0.04 -0.02Employment (%) 1120 0.07 0.07Income (1-6) 1054 -0.04 -0.05 Urban (-1) vs semi-rural (1) residential area 1092 0.07

0.08Urban (-1) vs rural (1) residential area 1092 0.09 0.08*Number of cars 1119 0.12 0.10

Number of weekly car tripsR2

adj = .09 .11

*Partial mediation by instrumental-independence motive

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Study 1: Results (2)

Socio-Demographic Variables n beta beta

Instrumental-independence motive 1126 0.17Affective-symbolic motive 1127 0.04

Sex (man 1, woman -1) 1129 0.18 0.19* Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.01

0.04Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.05 0.07Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1073 -0.13 -0.11Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1073 0.09 0.10University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1134 -0.10 -0.07Employment (%) 1120 0.05 0.05Income (1-6) 1054 -0.08 -0.09 Urban (-1) vs semi-rural (1) residential area 1092 0.11

0.10*Urban (-1) vs rural (1) residential area 1092 0.11 0.09*Number of cars 1119 0.21 0.19

% car trips as driverR2

adj = .14 .18

*Partial mediation by instrumental-independence motive

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Study 1: Results (3)

Socio-Demographic Variables n beta beta

Instrumental-independence motive 1126 0.07Affective-symbolic motive 1127 0.04

Sex (man 1, woman -1) 1129 -0.22 -0.22 Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.02

0.04Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.05 0.07Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1073 0.10 0.09Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1073 -0.09 - 0.09University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1134 -0.04 -0.05Employment (%) 1120 -0.09 -0.09Income (1-6) 1054 -0.09 -0.09 Urban (-1) vs semi-rural (1) residential area 1092 0.03

0.03Urban (-1) vs rural (1) residential area 1092 0.07 0.07Number of cars 1119 -0.04 -0.02

% car trips as passengerR2

adj = .07 .08

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Study 2 Impact of Routine Out-of-Home Activities on SWB

Research QuestionDoes affect associated with performance of out-of-home routine

activities influence SWB? Is this effect mediated by mood?

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Study 2: Results (1)

Socio-Demographic Variables n betaSex (man 1 vs. woman -1) 1325 0.00Age (40 – 54 year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1322 0.00Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1322 0.06Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1316 0.06Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1318 0.01University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1319 0.01Income (1-6) 1211 0.10Employment (%) 1313 0.06Urban (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 -0.04Semi-rural (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 0.02

MoodM=4.0/SD=1.3

R2adj = .02

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Study 2: Results (2)

Socio-Demographic Variables n beta betaSex (man 1 vs. woman -1) 1325 0.00 0.04Age (40 – 54 year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1322 0.00 0.08Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1322 0.06 0.07Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1316 0.06 0.15Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1318 0.01 0.02University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1319 0.01 0.04Income (1-6) 1211 0.10 0.13Employment (%) 1313 0.06 0.10Urban (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 -0.04 0.01Semi-rural (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 0.02 0.04

SWBM=1.0/SD=1.3

R2adj = .07

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Study 2: Results (3)

MoodR2

adj = .30

MoodWork/schoolNon-durables purchaseOther purchasesSports/exercise/outingsHobby/religious/coursesVisiting relatives/friendsRestaurants/entertainmentPicking up/leaving childrenChildren’s leisure activities

n M SD1320 1.0 1.3 990 1.1 1.2 1108 0.8 1.1 787 1.2 1.2 639 1.9 1.1 402 1.6 1.3 848 1.8 1.1 558 1.9 1.1 289 1.6 1.2 243 1.2 1.3

beta 0.32 0.19 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.12-0.04 0.04 0.07

Socio-demographic variables (R2adj = .07)

SWBM=4.0/SD=1.3

R2adj = .43

beta

0.16 0.16 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.07-0.010.050.05

beta 0.25-0.02* 0.03*-0.01 0.00* 0.01*-0.02* 0.01 0.01* 0.01*

*Full mediation

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Study 3 SWB related to satisfaction with daily travel

Research QuestionDoes satisfaction with daily travel have direct and indirect (via satisfaction with activity performance) positive effects on SWB? Does car use play a more important role for this

than other travel modes?

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Study 3: Measure of satisfaction with travel

To what extent do you agree to that …

I am completely satisfied with my daily travel; My travel facilitates my daily life; When I think of my daily travel the positive aspects outweighs the

negative; I do not want to change anything regarding my daily travel; My daily travel makes me feel good

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Study 3: Results (1)

Satisfaction with travelM=3.7/SD=1.3

R2adj = .02

Socio-Demographic variables#cars in householdWeekly car use (%)Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1)Age (40 – 54 year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)Cohabitant (yes 1, no -1)Children (yes 1, no -1)University (1 vs. lower -1) educationEmployment (%)Income (1-6)Urban (1 vs. rural -1) residential areaSemi-rural (1 vs. rural -1) residential area

n beta1313 -0.021290 0.081325 0.051322 -0.051322 0.141316 -0.031318 -0.051319 0.011313 0.041211 0.031275 -0.031275 0.01

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Study 3: Results (2)

Satisfaction with travelSatisfaction with activities#cars in householdWeekly car use (%)Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1)Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)Cohabitant (yes 1, no -1)Children (yes 1, no -1,)University (1 vs. lower -1) educationEmployment (%)Income (1-6)Urban (1 vs. rural -1) residential areaSemi-rural (1 vs. rural -1) residential area

n beta beta1317 0.21 0.08*1298 0.521313 0.03 0.011290 -0.03 0.011325 -0.01 -0.051322 0.01 -0.011322 0.03 0.041316 0.09 0.06 1318 0.02 0.01 1319 0.01 -0.011313 0.05 0.061211 0.09 0.051275 -0.04 -0.031275 0.02 0.02

MoodM=1.0/SD=1.3

R2adj = .07 .31

*Partial mediation

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Study 3: Results (3)

Satisfaction with travelSatisfaction with activities#cars in householdWeekly car use (%)Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1)Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)Cohabitant (yes 1, no -1)Children (yes 1, no -1,)University (1 vs. lower -1) educationEmployment (%)Income (1-6)Urban (1 vs. rural -1) residential areaSemi-rural (1 vs. rural -1) residential area

n beta beta1317 0.23 0.15*1298 0.301313 0.06 0.051290 0.00 0.031325 0.03 0.011322 -0.08 -0.081322 0.04 0.041316 0.14 0.15 1318 0.02 0.01 1319 0.05 0.041313 0.09 0.101211 0.11 0.091275 0.02 0.021275 -0.05 -0.04

SWBM=4.0/SD=1.3R2

adj = .13 .21

*Partial mediation

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Conclusions

Affect associated with out-of-home routine activities accounted for 30% of the variance in mood and because of full mediation, 12% of the variance in SWB. Conversely, the socio-demographic variables account for 7% of the variance in SWB and 2% of the variance in Mood. This is close to what has been found in previous research. A new finding is that routine activities have such a large impact.

Satisfaction with daily travel increases Mood and SWB, partially because (= partial mediation) it facilitates activity participation, partly because of direct effects.

In the investigated sample car use plays some role for satisfaction with daily travel. Why not a larger role?

In the investigated sample instrumental-independence motives are more important than affective-symbolic motives for car use. Why?

Only a small proportion of the variance in car use was accounted for, more by the socio-demographic variables than the psychological motives which only (partially) mediated some of the relationship between sex and car use. Why?

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Overview of travel and SWBEttema, D., Gärling, T., Olsson, L. E., & Friman, M. (2009). Out-of-home activities, daily travel, and subjective well-being. Manuscript submitted for publication,

Svensk slutrapportJakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Bilens roll för människors subjektiva välbefinnande [The role of the car for people’s subjective wellbeing] (CFK rapport No. 2). Göteborg, Sweden: Center for consumer science, School of Business, Economics, and Law, University of Gothenburg.

Study 1Jakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Affective-symbolic and instrumental-independence psychological motives mediating effects of socio-demographic variables on daily car use (Göteborg Psychological Reports No. 39:3). Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg.

Study 2Jakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., Ettema, D., Friman, M., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Impacts of routine out-of-home activities on subjective well-being (Göteborg Psychological Reports No. 39:4). Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg.

Study 3Jakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., Ettema, D., Friman, M., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Subjective well-being related to satisfaction with daily travel (Göteborg Psychological Reports No. 39:5). Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg.

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