The The RelativeRelative Significance of Gender Significance of Gender in Comparison to a Range of in Comparison to a Range of Personality Dimensions for Personality Dimensions for

Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal SensitivityNonverbal Sensitivity

10 Correlational Studies10 Correlational Studies

Hans Gerhard KlinzingHans Gerhard Klinzing Désirée DedeDésirée Dede

Bernadette Gerada AloisioBernadette Gerada Aloisio

ATEE Budapest August 2010ATEE Budapest August 2010

- Stereotypes- Stereotypes- Myth- Myth- Differences hypothesis - Differences hypothesis - Similarities hypothesis- Similarities hypothesis

Nonverbal competencies may reflect Nonverbal competencies may reflect possible gender differences more possible gender differences more clearly due to the fact that they clearly due to the fact that they are more difficult to control and are more difficult to control and

therefore more evident than therefore more evident than verbal onesverbal ones

Purpose of StudiesPurpose of Studies

To assess Gender differences and similarities To assess Gender differences and similarities in in Nonverbal Expressiveness Nonverbal Expressiveness and and Nonverbal Nonverbal SensitivitySensitivity

To assess Gender differences in other psycho-To assess Gender differences in other psycho-social domains in order to compare them to social domains in order to compare them to the abovethe above

To compare the strength of relationships To compare the strength of relationships between Gender and Nonverbal between Gender and Nonverbal competencies to that between Personality competencies to that between Personality dimensions and NV competencies dimensions and NV competencies

What has been done so farWhat has been done so far

Decoding abilityDecoding ability – 193 studies – 193 studies

3 meta-analyses with consistent results favouring 3 meta-analyses with consistent results favouring women: rwomen: rpbpb=0.20; 0.21; 0.25=0.20; 0.21; 0.25

Encoding ability Encoding ability – – 43 studies43 studies 35 US studies on single channels Mr35 US studies on single channels Mrpbpb=0.25; =0.25; 2 US studies on global measures r2 US studies on global measures rpbpb==0.12; 0.090.12; 0.09 5 German studies r5 German studies rpbpb=0.10; 0.14; =0.10; 0.14; no ES for other 3 no ES for other 3

1 Maltese study r1 Maltese study rpbpb=0.07 =0.07

Studies on Nonverbal Encoding Abilities, Hall Studies on Nonverbal Encoding Abilities, Hall (1984)(1984)

rrpbpb

Facial expressivenessFacial expressiveness 0.45 (5 studies) 0.45 (5 studies)

Social smiling: 0.30 (15 studies)Social smiling: 0.30 (15 studies)

GazeGaze 0.32 (30 studies) 0.32 (30 studies)

Receipt of gaze 0.31 (6 studies)Receipt of gaze 0.31 (6 studies)

ProxemicsProxemics

Distance of approach to othersDistance of approach to others

-Naturalistic situations -0.27 (17 studies)-Naturalistic situations -0.27 (17 studies)

-Staged -0.06 (8 studies)-Staged -0.06 (8 studies)

-Projective -0.07 (11 studies)-Projective -0.07 (11 studies)

Distance approached by others Distance approached by others

-Naturalistic -0.43 (9 studies)-Naturalistic -0.43 (9 studies)

-Staged -0.30 (5 studies)-Staged -0.30 (5 studies)

-Projective -0.39 (7 studies) -Projective -0.39 (7 studies)

Body movement and positionBody movement and position

-Restlessness -Restlessness -0.34 (6 studies) -0.34 (6 studies)

-Expansiveness -Expansiveness -0.46 (6 studies) -0.46 (6 studies)

-Involvement -Involvement 0.16(7 studies) 0.16(7 studies)

-Expressiveness -Expressiveness 0.28 (7 studies) 0.28 (7 studies)

-Self-consciousness 0.22 (5 studies)-Self-consciousness 0.22 (5 studies)

Vocal behaviour Vocal behaviour

-Amount of speech errors -0.33 (6 studies)-Amount of speech errors -0.33 (6 studies)

Amount of filled pauses -0.51 (6 studies)Amount of filled pauses -0.51 (6 studies)

Total Expression skillTotal Expression skill 0.25 (35 studies)0.25 (35 studies)

Women areWomen are

• slightly more accurate in slightly more accurate in encodingencoding facial facial expressionsexpressions

• gaze more and receive more gaze gaze more and receive more gaze

• approach others more and are approached approach others more and are approached more closer than men. more closer than men.

Hall found more similarities than differences for Hall found more similarities than differences for

touching behaviourstouching behaviours

Hall (1984; 1998), similar to Rosenthal et al. Hall (1984; 1998), similar to Rosenthal et al. (1979) judged the tendency for women to be (1979) judged the tendency for women to be more effective than men in nonverbal more effective than men in nonverbal decodingdecoding as one of the most consistent in as one of the most consistent in the field. According to these authors such the field. According to these authors such gender relationships represent a highly gender relationships represent a highly stable phenomenon across ages, decades, stable phenomenon across ages, decades, and numerous cultures.and numerous cultures.

Findings in Germany: low, not statistically Findings in Germany: low, not statistically significant differences significant differences

one study – higher nonverbal sensitivity for one study – higher nonverbal sensitivity for menmen

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

1. Are there significant gender differences among 1. Are there significant gender differences among students of education/student teachers forstudents of education/student teachers for

Nonverbal Expressiveness?Nonverbal Expressiveness?

Tested Nonverbal Sensitivity?Tested Nonverbal Sensitivity?

Self-rated Nonverbal Sensitivity?Self-rated Nonverbal Sensitivity?

Relationship between Tested and Self-Rated Nonverbal Relationship between Tested and Self-Rated Nonverbal Sensitivity?Sensitivity?

Relationship between Nonverbal Expressiveness and Relationship between Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity?Nonverbal Sensitivity?

Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Age?Age?

Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Semester Completed? Semester Completed?

2. How big are gender differences in nonverbal 2. How big are gender differences in nonverbal competencies relative to gender differences in competencies relative to gender differences in other psychological domains?other psychological domains?

3. How do relationships of Nonverbal 3. How do relationships of Nonverbal Expressiveness and of Nonverbal Sensitivity to Expressiveness and of Nonverbal Sensitivity to personality dimensions compare with personality dimensions compare with relationships of gender to the same nonverbal relationships of gender to the same nonverbal competencies?competencies?

PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS

675 undergraduate students studying education 675 undergraduate students studying education (m: 192; f: 483) in two large German Universities (m: 192; f: 483) in two large German Universities signed up to participate in the studies (age: M= signed up to participate in the studies (age: M= 23.84 years).23.84 years).

Data CollectionData Collection thethe Affective Communication TestAffective Communication Test (ACT, (ACT, a 13 item, a 13 item,

nine-point scale paper-and-pencil self-report developed by nine-point scale paper-and-pencil self-report developed by Friedman et al., 1980).Friedman et al., 1980).

thethe Profile of Nonverbal SensitivityProfile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS-test, a (PONS-test, a 45-minute black and white film and sound track with 220 two-45-minute black and white film and sound track with 220 two-second auditory and/or visual segments developed by Rosenthal et second auditory and/or visual segments developed by Rosenthal et

al., 1979).al., 1979).

Self-rating test of Nonverbal SensitivitySelf-rating test of Nonverbal Sensitivity (a six-(a six-item test item test developed by Rosenthal et al., 1979). developed by Rosenthal et al., 1979).

Freiburger Persoenlichkeits InventarFreiburger Persoenlichkeits Inventar ((FPI -FPI - Freiburger Personality InventoryFreiburger Personality Inventory, 114 items divided in nine factor-, 114 items divided in nine factor-analytic scales with 3 more scales developed on an item-analytic analytic scales with 3 more scales developed on an item-analytic basis developed by Fahrenberg, Selg, & Hampel 1978). basis developed by Fahrenberg, Selg, & Hampel 1978).

ResultsResults Nonverbal ExpressivenessNonverbal Expressiveness significant pooled differences between males significant pooled differences between males

and females favouring women (rand females favouring women (rpbpb=0.21, =0.21, p<0.01)p<0.01)

Nonverbal SensitivityNonverbal Sensitivity pooled rpooled rpbpb of 0.05 (n.s.) of 0.05 (n.s.)

Self-rated Nonverbal SensitivitySelf-rated Nonverbal Sensitivity very weak results for self-ratings of general and very weak results for self-ratings of general and

specific nonverbal sensitivity except for one specific nonverbal sensitivity except for one item (warmth)item (warmth)

Relationships between Tested and Self-Relationships between Tested and Self-Rated Nonverbal SensitivityRated Nonverbal Sensitivity

near zeronear zero correlations between self-reports of correlations between self-reports of generalgeneral and and channel-specificchannel-specific sensitivity and sensitivity and tested receiving accuracy for the total group tested receiving accuracy for the total group and the group without test-repeatersand the group without test-repeaters

Relationships between Decoding Relationships between Decoding (PONS) and Encoding Ability (ACT)(PONS) and Encoding Ability (ACT)

weak relationship with no differences between weak relationship with no differences between males and femalesmales and females

Relationship between Age and Relationship between Age and Nonverbal CompetenciesNonverbal Competencies

- weak but positive for encoding ability with a - weak but positive for encoding ability with a nearly significant difference favouring mennearly significant difference favouring men

- significantly negative but small (r=-0.13) for - significantly negative but small (r=-0.13) for decoding ability, with no significant differences decoding ability, with no significant differences between males and females between males and females

Relationship between Semester Relationship between Semester Completed and Nonverbal Completed and Nonverbal CompetenciesCompetencies

near zero without significant differences near zero without significant differences between males and females between males and females

Other Psychological Domains: Other Psychological Domains: Personality DimensionsPersonality Dimensions

weak median rweak median rpbpb of 0.11 (M=0.13) for gender of 0.11 (M=0.13) for gender differences in personality dimensions (assessed differences in personality dimensions (assessed with the FPI)with the FPI)

GenderGender differences in differences in Nonverbal ExpressivenessNonverbal Expressiveness (r(rpbpb=0.21) exceeded slightly those in =0.21) exceeded slightly those in Personality dimensions Personality dimensions

GenderGender differences in differences in Nonverbal SensitivityNonverbal Sensitivity (r(rpbpb=0.04/0.05), however, were slightly =0.04/0.05), however, were slightly exceeded by those inexceeded by those in Personality dimensionsPersonality dimensions (Mdn.r(Mdn.rpbpb=0.11)=0.11)

Relationships between Gender Relationships between Gender and and Nonverbal Competencies Compared to Nonverbal Competencies Compared to Relationships between Personality Relationships between Personality Dimensions Dimensions andand Nonverbal Nonverbal CompetenciesCompetencies

Nonverbal ExpressivenessNonverbal Expressiveness GenderGender was stronger than Personality was stronger than Personality

Dimensions in Nervousness (p=0.08), Dimensions in Nervousness (p=0.08), Aggression (p=0.003), Excitability (p=0.05), Aggression (p=0.003), Excitability (p=0.05), Dominance (p=0.003), Openness (p=0.007).Dominance (p=0.003), Openness (p=0.007).

Personality DimensionsPersonality Dimensions exceeded Gender in exceeded Gender in Calmness (n.s.), Sociability (p<0.0001), Calmness (n.s.), Sociability (p<0.0001), Inhibition (p=0.06), Extraversion (p<0.0001), Inhibition (p=0.06), Extraversion (p<0.0001), “Masculinity” (p=0.62). For Depression and “Masculinity” (p=0.62). For Depression and Emotional Lability, the r’s were of about the Emotional Lability, the r’s were of about the same magnitude same magnitude

Nonverbal SensitivityNonverbal Sensitivity

Gender and Personality Dimensions - very weak Gender and Personality Dimensions - very weak relations to Nonverbal Sensitivity (r’s from relations to Nonverbal Sensitivity (r’s from 0.0007 to 0.09) with no 0.0007 to 0.09) with no significantsignificant differences differences

in all casesin all cases

GenderGender weakly and weakly and nonsignificantlynonsignificantly (p>0.05)(p>0.05) exceeded Personality Dimensions in Depression, exceeded Personality Dimensions in Depression, Sociability, Calmness, Dominance, Inhibition, Sociability, Calmness, Dominance, Inhibition, Emotional Lability Emotional Lability && Masculinity; was of about Masculinity; was of about the same strength in Nervousness, Aggression the same strength in Nervousness, Aggression && ExcitabilityExcitability

Personality DimensionsPersonality Dimensions exceeded exceeded Gender in Gender in Openness and ExtraversionOpenness and Extraversion

Summary/ConclusionSummary/Conclusion

Investigation of relationships in consistent Investigation of relationships in consistent samples between gender and nonverbal samples between gender and nonverbal competencies directly compared to competencies directly compared to relationships between personality and the relationships between personality and the same nonverbal competencies so far not same nonverbal competencies so far not undertaken.undertaken.

Findings contribute to understanding the Findings contribute to understanding the relativerelative importance of gender for importance of gender for Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity, in comparison to a range of Sensitivity, in comparison to a range of personality and psycho-social dimensions.personality and psycho-social dimensions.

Findings question gender differences to be Findings question gender differences to be key in communication key in communication (in contrast to e.g., (in contrast to e.g., Anderson, 1998; Hall, 1978).Anderson, 1998; Hall, 1978).

Personality dimensions and nonverbal skill Personality dimensions and nonverbal skill can be improved can be improved (Klinzing, 2002; 2007; Klinzing (Klinzing, 2002; 2007; Klinzing

& Gerada Aloisio, 2009a).& Gerada Aloisio, 2009a).

Eventual deficits that create individual, Eventual deficits that create individual, rather than gender, differences can be rather than gender, differences can be overcome with training.overcome with training.

Hans Gerhard KlinzingHans Gerhard Klinzinghgklinzing@gmx.net

Bernadette Gerada AloisioBernadette Gerada Aloisiobernadette.gerada@gov.mt

Thank youThank you