the relations between eu and libya

8/12/2019 The Relations Between EU and Libya

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The relations between EU and Libya

I. Mechanisms

I.1 General ContextI.2 Early History I.2.1 Greek influence

- I.2.2 Roman influence

- I.2.3 ra! influence

- I.2." #ttoman influence

I.3 $i!ya an% the E&I.3.1'efore in%e(en%ence- I.3.2)he $i!yan Monarchy

II. )ra%e an% the economy

II.1 *hy is $i!ya im(ortant for the E&+ ,orein relations

II.2 ,orein irect in/estment

II.3$a!or

II." Ho0 to %eal 0ith $i!ya uttin an en% to illeal immiration

III. $i!ya an% the E& Ho0 far can relations o+

III.1*hat has the E& !een %oin to su((ort the $i!yan (eo(le+

- %ecisi/e humanitarian res(onse

- (artnershi( for %emocracy an% share% (ros(erity

- ne0 an% am!itious Euro(ean eih!orhoo% olicy

- ialoue an% enaement 0ith the )rans ational Council

III.2 oes $i!ya really nee% E& (eacekee(ers+ 4Richar% Go0an5

III.3 *hy the E& is a!sent on $i!ya+

- eotiatin 0ith $i!ya

- i/i%e% 0e fail


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- En% of E6 4Economic 6ocial olicy i/ision5

I7. Relations !et0een $i!ya an% E& in Muammar al-Ga%%afi8s eraI7.1 Rise of Ga%%afi8s rulin 419:9-19;;5I7.2Rise of Ga%%afi8s notoriety< reforms an% the !einnin of (ariah 419;;-

19=95I7.3)he (ariah (erio% an% the common enemy 419=9 2>>35I7."Ga%%afi as an international (ositi/e an% a((reciate% fiure an% the

!einnin of the %ecline 42>>3-2>115I7.?)he reat %ecline of 'rotherly $ea%er Colonel Muammar al-Ga%%afi

an% the Great 6ocialist eo(le8s $i!yan ra! @amahiriya 42>115

The relations between EU and Libya

V. Mechanisms

I.1 General Context

$i!ya< like so many )hir% *orl% countries< is still strulin 0ith its (ast. Its ne0 lea%ers are

constantly emulatin its ol% lea%ers< its ne0 !attles are a continuation of ol% 0ars< an% its

ne0 achie/ements are the lorification of (ast achie/ements1.I %eci%e% to !ein this cha(ter

0ith the Auote of Mansour #. El-Bikhia !ecause it !est hihlihts the close connection

!et0een the (ast an% the (resent of $i!ya< 0hich in my o(inion is an interlinke% (rocess.

,rom my (oint of /ie0< the (resent-$i!ya is mirrorin the (ast $i!ya.

$i!ya 4the Great 6ocialist eo(le8s $i!yan ra! @amahiriya5 is a country that is much

%iscusse%. #il economy< orth-6outh tra%e< international relations an% *estern soli%arity=< (. 39*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>;< (. =10Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< (. 11


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In "31 '.C. the Greek (o(ulation ha% !een forme% four more cities. 'esi%e Cyrenaica< there

0ere 'arce 4l Mar5< Euhes(eri%es 4later 'erenice< (resent-%ay 'enhaKi5< )euchira4later

rsinoe< (resent-%ay )ukrah5 an% (ollonia 46usha5811. ll these ? cities are kno0n un%er

the name of enta(olis.

,or a lon (erio% of time< the citiKens of enta(olis (ositi/ely hel% out in/asions from the

East !y the Ey(tians an% from the *est !y the Carthainians at the same time. 'ecause of

the forceful interur!an conflicts< they coul% !arely ha/e a mutual front aainst their ri/als.

ue to their insecurity< the ersian army le% !y Cam!yses III conAuere% them in ?2? '.C.

,or t0o centuries enta(olis 0as un%er ersian %omination< !ut in 331 'C lexan%er of

Mace%onia reaine% it an% annexe% it to the Greek territory.

In ;" 'C the reion of Cyrenaica 0as create%< an% in :; 'C it 0as attache% to Crete as aRoman (ro/ince. 'ut Cyrene ha% to en%ure se/ere %estruction throuhout the @e0ish riot> Em(eror iocletian %etache% Crete from Cyrenaica< creatin &((er $i!ya an%

$o0er $i!ya.

)he im(act of the Cyrenaica %isor%er %i% not im(ress the Greeks of enta(olis. Cyrenaica

%e/elo(e% from the (ro%uction of rain< 0ine< 0ool< an% from stock!ree%in as 0ell as from

sil(hium< an her! that re0 only in Cyrenaica an% 0hich 0as 0i%ely rear%e% as an

a(hro%isiac12. Cyrene !ecame an im(ortant intellectual an% cultural city< an% it 0as famous

for its architecture< aca%emies an% me%ical school.

I.2.2 #oman in!l"ence

'elonin to the *estern Me%iterranean< the Roman Em(ire exercise% for four centuries 4the1st to the ?thcentury of the Christian era5 the (artial %ominance of the north si%e-6aharan

frica on 0hich the Roman ci/iliKation has left %ee( scars. &n%er the Roman rule< $i!ya

enoye% a hue (ros(erity< %ue to the ax Romana. LN< )ri(olitania an% Cyrenaica 0ere11Helen Cha(in MetK. $i!ya< Bessiner u!lishin< 2>1>< (. 2312Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< (. 12


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(ros(erous Roman (ro/inces an% (art of a cosmo(olitan state 0hose citiKens share% a

common lanuae< leal system< an% Roman i%entity813.

&n%er Em(eror uustus< the Romans foun%e% im(ortant cities in orth frica. 6a!ratha>:< (. =


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communities of the 6outh that remain faithful to the se%entary lifestyle a%o(te% for t0o

centuries< 0hether in 6irte or in the maor /alleys of 6outh )ri(oli.

)he (resence of $i!yan inscri(tions enra/e% in Roman characters ensure% the strenth of

cultural an% economic contact 0ith the Me%iterranean 0orl% in an authentically $i!yan(o(ulation. )he contacts !et0een the coast an% the interior 0ere easier since the en% of the

0ar of ;>s an% o(enin the roa% to @ufra 4Giofra5. 'ut at the same time< the Romans asserte%

their control o/er 6irte !y su!ectin asamonians.

'y the fifth century ..< $i!ya 0as %i/i%e% as a result of reliious contro/ersy. )he

theoloical !attle that eru(te% !et0een Rome8s $atin (atriarch an% lexan%ria8s Co(tic

(atriarch %i/i%e% the country< 0ith )ri(olitania follo0in Rome an% Cyrenaica follo0in

lexan%ria81:.)he s(rea% of Christianity into the frican territory confuse% more the existinsituation in the first an% secon% centuries. )his reliion came to !e seen as a %isareement

an% a lot of 'er!ers con/erte% to it in or%er to challene the Roman faith. In the fourth

century the onatists< 0ho %i%n8t !elon to the Catholic faith !ut they share% common

lorifications< torn the Christians in orth frica. *ithin the 'er!er territory< there 0ere

riots for almost a century.

)hese reliious strules %ecrease% Rome8s authority in orth frica< an% the 7an%als ha%

the o((ortunity to inter/ene. )his Germanic tri!e came in orth frica in "29. t that time 6(ain forces ca(ture% )ri(oli< a!olishe% the city an% constructe% a

military !ase.

'ar!arossa 4Bhair a% in5 conAuere% liers in 1?1>< ha/in as ali!i its %efense from the

6(aniar%s. 'ar!arossa su!seAuently reconiKe% the so/ereinty of the #ttoman sultan o/er

21Helen Cha(in MetK. $i!ya< Bessiner u!lishin< 2>1>< (. 2=22Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< (. 19


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the territory that he controlle% an% 0as in turn a((ointe% the 6ultan8s reent in the

Mahre!823.

In 1;11< the )urkish officer hme% Baramanli conAuere% )ri(oli. &sin the ains from

(iracy< he (rocee%e% an acti/e forein (olicy 0ith the Euro(ean (o0ers< an% also heesta!lishe% an army an% exten%e% his %omination o/er Cyrenaica. In 1=3?< the Baramanlis

ha% to ca(itulate to the #ttoman rule aain82".

)he #ttoman 6ultan Muhamma% II sent in 1=3> )urkish troo(s to )ri(oli in or%er to re-

esta!lish the #ttoman rule in )ri(oli. )he a%ministrati/e system im(ose% !y the )urks 0as

ty(ical of that foun% else0here in the #ttoman Em(ire. )ri(olitania< as all three historic

reions 0ere collecti/ely %esinate%< !ecame a )urkish 7ilayet 4(ro/ince5 un%er a *ali

4Go/ernor-General5 a((ointe% !y the 6ultan. )he (ro/ince 0as com(ose% of four 6anaks4su!-(ro/inces5< each a%ministere% !y a Mutasarrif 4$ieutenant Go/ernor5 res(onsi!le to the

*ali. )hese su!-(ro/inces 0ere each %i/i%e% into a!out 1? %istricts< 0ith executi/e officers

from the o/ernor-eneral %o0n0ar%s !ein )urks82?. 'ut this system 0as ne/er

im(lemente% throuhout the country.

In 1=;9< )ri(olitania 0as isolate% from Cyrenaica. In the 19 thcentury< the corru(tion< the

re(ression an% the re/olt characteriKe% $i!ya as a 0hole. It 0as calle% the sick man of

Euro(e8. )he #ttoman a%ministrati/e or%er 0hich 0as set u( in 1=3? laste% until the )reaty

of #uchy of 1? #cto!er 1912. )he treaty coerce% the #ttoman Em(ire to 0ith%ra0 from

)ri(olitania.

)o sum u(< $i!ya ha% a lo0-(ro%uction of its aricultural sector. It has ne/er ha% the

necessary aricultural !ase for its (o(ulation to sur/i/e< an% 0e can fiure it out throuh the

fact that it 0as al0ays un%er (o(ulate%. )he interest for $i!ya has !een enhance% !ecause of

23*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>;< (. 1>

24@uliette 'essis< $a $i!ye Contem(oraine< $8Harmattan< aris< 19=:< ( 1;25*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>;< (. 11


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the coloniKation (rocess< rather than the in%ustrial (ro%uction. Moreo/er< its economy 0as

!ase% on the country8s eora(hic tra%in (osition.

urin its history< this country has !een le% !y reliious rather than secular lea%ers. ue to

the fact that the constitution of $i!ya 0as create% only after the 2n%

*orl% *ar< it comes asno sur(rise that its lea%ers 0ere a!le to im(ose their force 0ith no maor constraints. )he

%ictatorial lea%ers o/erne% this country in an erratic an% eccentric 0ay< often lea%in to

harmful (olitical an% economic effects for this (eo(le.

)his nation has ne/er ha% one unifyin lea%er for all its (ro/inces. )ri(olitania< Cyrenaica

an% ,eKKan %e/elo(e% se(arately from one another< each ha/in its o0n historical

ex(eriences an% tra%itions. 'ecause of this clear %i/ision !et0een the three (ro/inces< $i!ya

coul% not resist the external threat. E/en after its unification< $i!ya suffere% !ecause of itsse(aration an% this ma%e the %istri!ution of resources uneAual< !ut %es(ite this situation the

three (ro/inces ha/e al0ays remaine% interconnecte%.

I.$ Libya and the EU

I.$.1 (e!ore inde)endence

Italy 0as one of the last Euro(ean (o0ers to enae in im(erial ex(ansion. )he Italian city-

states 0ere not unite% until the secon% half of the nineteenth-centuryF conseAuently< Italy 0as

una!le to ex(loit effecti/ely the early colonial o((ortunities frica offere% other Euro(ean

states82:. Rear%in the historical riht an% national (ri%e< a lot of Italians sa0 this ex(ansion

as the !est solution to many internal issues. #thers sa0 $i!ya as an i%eal reion for

countrymen 0ho 0ante% to emirate.

#n 2; 6e(tem!er 1911< Italy< seekin to !uil% its o0n em(ire %eclare% 0ar aainst the

#ttoman Em(ire in or%er to conAuer the t0o reions of $i!ya< )ri(olitania an% Cyrenaica.

)he military o(erations starte% on 29 6e(tem!er. )o!rouk 0as occu(ie% on " th #cto!erth#cto!er. &n%er the terms of a (eace treaty 0ith )urkey

that allo0e% the 6u!lime orte certain rihts< inclu%in reliious su(er/ision< #ttoman troo(s

0ere 0ith%ra0n from $i!ya in 191282;.

In 1913< )ri(olitania 0as un%er Italian rule< also ,eKKan 0as in/a%e% !y the Italians< !ut !yearly 191"< the 'e%ouins resiste% the Italian in/asion. In (ril 191?< $i!yan troo(s un%er

Italian comman% mutinie% at Dasr 'u Ha%i< stimulatin further re/olts throuhout the reion.

)he lea%er of the initial re/olt< Rama%an al-6u0ayhili< in/ite% the su((ort of #ttoman an%

German military a%/isors< an% his hometo0n< Misrata< !ecame a German !ase< shelterin

su!marines< recruitin mercenaries an% raisin taxes82=.

'et0een 191? an% 191=< #ttoman influence rea((eare% in $i!ya. urin the 1st*orl% *ar

Italy 0as on 'ritain8s si%e< an% )urkey on Germany8s si%e. )he 6anusi lea%er 6ayyi% hme%al-6harif 0ante% to (rotect the #r%er8s tra%e system an% attacke% the 'ritish forces in

*estern Ey(t. He faile% an% %ie% in that e(iso%e. 6ayyi% Mohame% I%ris 4later Bin% I%ris I5

acce%e% to the throne an% he starte% neotiations 0ith 'ritain. 'y the time that a truce 0as

sine% in 191:< 'ritain 0as con/ince% that the 6anusi hea% ha% !een ma%e to un%erstan%

thorouhly that he 0as to !e reconiKe% only as the reliious lea%er of his sect an% not as

chief of a (olitical entity< an% secon%< that he must make (eace 0ith !oth (o0ers 4'ritain an%

Italy5 or 0ith neither. &n%er the truce< the 6anusi 0ere to reconiKe de facto Italian or%er in

the to0ns< 0hile the Italian a%ministration reconiKe% the de facto rule of the #r%er in the

country829.

)he neotiations resulte% in t0o areements l-Ou0aytina in (ril 191: an% krama in

(ril 191;. Exce(t the fact that the Italian so/ereinty 0as reconiKe% o/er the coast an% the

6anusi so/ereinty in the hinterlan%< most im(ortantly< the areements a/e the (eo(le of

Cyrenaica a %eree of autonomy at a time 0hen the Italian o/ernment 0as res(onsi/e to the

li!eral (rinci(les a%/ocate% !y resi%ent *oo%ro0 *ilson. It 0as an autonomy %e(en%enton Italian financial su((ort an%< as it turne% out< of short %uration as it 0as soon follo0e% !y

the !rutal (olicies of the ,ascist reime83>.27$ilian Crai Harris. $i!ya Da%hafi8s Re/olution an% the Mo%ern 6tate< *est/ie0 ress< 19=:< ( ?28Geoff 6imons< $i!ya- the strule for sur/i/al< 6t. Martin8s ress< e0 Pork< 199:< ( 11:29Ruth ,irst. $i!ya< )he elusi/e re/olution< fricana u! Co< 19;?< ( "=30Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< ( :;


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'y 191= the in%e(en%ence of )ri(olitania 0as %eclare%. In 192> the Italians reconiKe%

6ayyi% I%ris as the mir of Cyrenaica< an% in 1922 I%ris 0as reconiKe% as the mir of all

$i!ya. I%ris kne0 that the Italian (o0er 0ill %isaree 0ith this %ecision< so he fle% to Ey(t @une 19"> on the German si%e. )here ha/e !een ma%e

contacts !et0een $i!yan nationalists an% 'ritish authorities in Ey(t. I%ris< 0ho 0as still in

Ey(t< 0as su((orte% !y rou(s of $i!yans from Cyrenaica an% )ri(olitania rear%in his

lea%ershi(. conference of $i!yan lea%ers met in Cairo in uust 19">< %eclarin su((ort

for the llies an% rantin to I%ris the authority to neotiate 0ith 'ritain for $i!yan

in%e(en%ence832. urin the 0ar< the $i!yan ra! ,orce 0as un%er the 'ritish comman%.

)he 6anussis acce(te% 0artime colla!oration 0ith the Great 'ritain< ho(in that if the llies

0ill 0in the 0ar< they 0ill treat $i!ya fa/ora!ly.

*ithout ha/in the $i!yan in%e(en%ence< I%ris 0ante% to !e un%er the (rotection of Great

'ritain< !elie/in that 'ritish (rotection 0as /ital. #n 2; uust 19">< he 0rote to Colonel

'romilo0< the 'ritish officer assine% res(onsi!ility for the 6anusi military force< (ro(osin

these minimum con%itions

1. Great 'ritain to rant $i!yans internal in%e(en%ence

2. $i!ya to ha/e its o0n o/ernment hea%e% !y a Muslim Emir acce(ta!le to the 'ritisho/ernment

31$ilian Crai Harris. $i!ya Da%hafi8s Re/olution an% the Mo%ern 6tate< *est/ie0 ress< 19=:< ( ;32I!i%.


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3. Great 'ritain to hol% the (rotectorate o/er $i!ya an% %irect the oraniKation of its financialan% military affairs until it reache% a hiher< social an% cultural le/el.833

In 19"1< the 'ritish forces un%er General rchi!al% *a/ell o/erran only Cyrenaica< !ut theItalian forces counterattacke%. In o/em!er< un%er General 'ernar% Montomery< the 'ritish

=thrmy succee%e% in takin !ack Cyrenaica. )he 'ritish (o0er ha% no0 )ri(olitania an%

Cyrenaica un%er its control. It ha% !een %eclare% that Cyrenaica 0oul% ne/er aain !e

allo0e% to fall un%er Italian control< !ut no similar (romise ha% !een ma%e a!out )ri(olitania

LN83". )he situation in ,eKKan 0as /ery %ifferent. It 0as occu(ie% !y the ,rench ,orces

un%er the comman% of General $eclerc in ecem!er 19"2.

E/en un%er a 'ritish (rotectorate the $i!yan in%e(en%ence seeme% unlikely. 6ome (olitical(arties from )ri(olitania 0ere afrai% of the fact that their reion coul% fall aain un%er Italian

rule !ecause of the 'ritish. In 19": they forme% the &nite% ational ,ront un%er the

comman% of 6elim Muntasser. )he ,ront (ro(ose% unity an% in%e(en%ence for $i!ya un%er

the 6anussis as the only (ractical alternati/e to Italian colonialism.8 3?In @uly 19":< there 0as

a conference at al-'ai%a< 0here I%ris name% himself the lea%er of the ational ,ront. )he

conference 0as a!out the situation in Cyrenaica an% its future.

In 19": the 'ritish *orkin arty 0ent to Cyrenaica an% in @anuary 19"; it (ro(ose% itsin%e(en%ence in three successi/e ste(s

1. )he 'ritish military a%ministration to remain for a short time83:

2. )he esta!lishment of an ra! state un%er 'ritish trusteeshi(. %eAuate financial assistance

shoul% !e i/en for not less than ten years< inclu%in the ren%erin of a%ministrati/e trainin

an% (romotin e%ucational an% technical %e/elo(ment83;.

3. )he esta!lishment of a fully in%e(en%ent state. urin the secon% an% thir% staes

#n 2? o/em!er 19?>< the ational ssem!ly met in )ri(oli. )he Mufti of )ri(olitania 0as

a((ointe% the (resi%ent of the ssem!ly. *ithin a 0eek< $i!ya 0as to !e forme% as a

%emocratic< fe%eral an% so/erein state 0ith a constitutional monarchy. )he fe%eral (rinci(le

0as su((orte% !y the reions of Cyrenaica an% ,eKKan. lso< I%ris< formally !ecame the kin

of $i!ya.

#n " ecem!er 19?> the ational ssem!ly electe% a Committee on the Constitution8> merican chil%ren

atten%e% its school8."; fter these areements< 'ritain an% the &nite% 6tates fille% in

contra%ictory (ositions in $i!ya for many years. es(ite the fact that $i!ya recei/e% a lot of

technical an% financial su((ort from a!roa%< it remaine% a (oor an% un%er%e/elo(e% state.

$i!ya fore% close ties 0ith ,rance< Italy< Greece an% )urkey< an% esta!lishe% full

%i(lomatic relations 0ith the 6o/iet &nion in 19??< !ut %ecline% a 6o/iet offer of economic

ai%8."=)he %i(lomatic an% tra%in exchanes 0ere minimal !et0een these t0o countries.

$ater that year< $i!ya 0as a%mitte% to the &8."9

lso in 19?? the ,rench o/ernment 0ante% to sin similar areements 0ith $i!ya< !ut the

$i!yan o/ernment im(ose% to the ,rench troo(s to 0ith%ra0 from ,eKKan !y late 19?:.,rance 0as still maintainin arrisons< totalin aroun% four hun%re% men< at 6e!ha< Ghat

an% Gha%ames un%er an areement 0here!y they contri!ute% to the ,eKKanese !u%et. It 0as

46Helen Cha(in MetK. $i!ya< Bessiner u!lishin< 2>1>< ( ?;47Geoff 6imons< $i!ya- the strule for sur/i/al< 6t. Martin8s ress< e0 Pork< 199:< ( 1?;48Helen Cha(in MetK. $i!ya< Bessiner u!lishin< 2>1>< ( ?;49$ilian Crai Harris. $i!ya Da%hafi8s Re/olution an% the Mo%ern 6tate< *est/ie0 ress< 19=:< ( 12


22/92

(ercei/e% in $i!ya that these troo(s 0ere strateically 0ell (lace% to interce(t the sinificant

flo0 of arms from Ey(t to leria8.?>$i!ya im(ose% ,rance certain rihts !y sinin a

frien%shi( areement on 3> o/em!er 19?:.

)he ex(loration of (etroleum in $i!ya starte% in 19??< !ut the country8s economy !ecame(ros(erous only in 19?9< 0hen a lot of %e(osits 0ere %isco/ere%. In @une 19?9 the merican

com(any Esso ackno0le%e% the existence of maor (etroleum %e(osits at Oaltan in

Cyrenaica. &ntil then< the country8s maor re/enue sources 0ere sales of scra( metal left

!ehin% !y the !ellierents %urin the 0ar< sales of es(arto rass< an% rent from military !ases

lease% !y the &nite% 6tates an% Great 'ritain8.?1

*ith a lack of marketa!le economy or a centraliKe% a%ministration< this frican country until

19:> relie% only on association for economic %i/ision. lon 0ith this association< there has!een forme% the ne0 (olitical an% economic u((er class. &ntil then the state !ureaucracy

0as %ominate% !y tri!al chiefs from Cyrenaica an% from the 6anusi or%er. fter the ne0

elections< an% after the economic ro0th< the kin starte% to care less a!out the (olitical

(o0er.

urin the (re-oil era< $i!ya ha% no (articular i%eoloical orientation. olitically< it a%o(te%

0estern institutions an% la0s that 0ere in turn resha(e% !y the rulin elites to maintain the

tra%itional status Auo. Economically< the country a%o(te% a free-market system< e/en thouh

internal tra%e 0as minimal. ,or in t0o-thir%s of the country< no merchant class ha% yet

%e/elo(e%< nor 0as there an in%ustrial out(ut. ny aricultural out(ut 0as consume%

internally8?2.

fter the %isco/ery of the oil< $i!ya !ecame the 0orl%8s fourth (etroleum (ro%ucer. )his

situation !ean to un%ermine the (osition of 'ritain an% &nite% 6tates %ue to three factors.

,irstly< !ecause of the economic ro0th< $i!ya %i% not nee% forein commercial ai%

anymore. 6econ%ly< after the oil %isco/eries< the $i!yan officials !ecame corru(te%. )he

thir% 0ay in 0hich the ne0 oil 0ealth ser/e% to un%ermine the &6 (osition 0as !y raisin

50Geoff 6imons< $i!ya- the strule for sur/i/al< 6t. Martin8s ress< e0 Pork< 199:< ( 1?=51irk 7an%e0alle< $i!ya since in%e(en%ence oil an% state-!uil%in< Cornell &ni/ersity< 199=< e0 Pork< (":52Mansour #. El-Bikhia. $i!ya8s Da%%afi )he (olitics of contra%iction8< &ni/ersity ress of ,lori%a %istricts. lon 0ith these

chanes< the name of the country 0as chane% from )he &nite% Bin%om of $i!ya8 into)he Bin%om of $i!ya8.

In 19:"< 0hen $i!ya 0as ensure% !y a local income< the $i!yan o/ernment reAuire% the

0ith%ra0al of &6 an% 'ritish military !ases. lthouh most 'ritish forces 0ere out of $i!ya

!y 19::< the final e/acuation of &.6. facilities 0as not com(lete until March 19;>< !y 0hich

time Da%hafi ha% come to (o0er8??.

)he economic increase %urin the 19:>s cause% a cultural con%ition 0hich foun% its !ases

0ithin ra! nationalism. urin the first (hase of in%e(en%ence< $i!ya ma%e hue efforts to

encourae a national community an% to i/e structure to the ne0 institutions of the system.

*ell into the %eca%e of the 19:>s< o!ser/ers continue% to hihliht the limite% le/el of

national i%entity or national consciousness foun% in $i!ya8?:. In @une 19:;< %urin a (u!lic

/ociferation< the national i%entity of $i!ya starte% to %e/elo(. conser/ati/e< tra%itional

monarchy< the I%ris reime occasionally em(hasiKe% $i!yan-ra! !rotherhoo% an%

soli%arityF !ut its (olicies sel%om 0ent !eyon% li(-ser/ice unless un%er extreme (ressure8.?;

53*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>; ( 1;54irk 7an%e0alle< $i!ya since in%e(en%ence oil an% state-!uil%in< Cornell &ni/ersity< 199=< e0 Pork< (.?155$ilian Crai Harris. $i!ya Da%hafi8s Re/olution an% the Mo%ern 6tate< *est/ie0 ress< 19=:< ( 1256Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< ( 12:57I!i%.


24/92

)he mass atherin in $i!ya 0as ma%e (ossi!le !y the Ey(tian resi%ent !%ul-asser. He

ha% an im(ortant contri!ution amon youn $i!yans. )hree factors 0ere (i/otal in the

s(rea% of asserism in $i!ya the me%ia< Ey(tian mirant 0orkers< an% $i!yans li/in an%

stu%yin in Ey(t. )he 7oice of the ra!s8 !eamin from Cairo 0as at that time the

stronest ra! ra%io station. Its strenth %0arfe% all other !roa%casts emanatin from the

ra! 0orl%8?=. )he ra! nationalist thinkin %e/elo(e% %ue to the ena!lin of Ey(tian

teachers in $i!ya. )he Ey(tian la0s< (u!lic a%ministration an% (ractices 0ere a%o(te% !y

the $i!yan society.

lienate% !y the $i!yan (o(ulation< kin% I%ris felt that his royal res(onsi!ilities 0ere

remo/e% an% he left to his (alace in arnah at the ae of ;9. It therefore came as no sur(rise

0hen on 1 6e(tem!er 19:9< 0hile the kin 0as takin one of his exten%e% /acations outsi%e

the country< a rou( of youn military officers un%er the lea% of Colonel Da%hafi launche%

an almost !loo%less cou(. )he ne0 o/ernment (romise% to intro%uce ne0 (olicy to exten%

the !enefits of the oil 0ealth to all8?9.

In or%er to summariKe this su!cha(ter< it is rele/ant to say that the fe%eral system of the

&nite% Bin%om of $i!ya< 0hich 0as create% in 19?1< 0as characteriKe% !y am!iuity.

In 19?3 an% 19?"< $i!ya 0as one of the (oorest countries in the 0orl%< an% it acce(te% the

financial su((ort of Great 'ritain an% )he &nite% 6tates !y sinin t0o treaties in exchane

for military !ases for the t0o (o0ers. In 19??< $i!ya im(ro/e% its %i(lomatic relations 0ith

the 6o/iet &nion< !ut it %i% not acce(t an economic ai% from the Communist arty. )he

58Mansour #. El-Bikhia. $i!ya8s Da%%afi )he (olitics of contra%iction8< &ni/ersity ress of ,lori%a>;< ( 1=

60irk 7an%e0alle< $i!ya since in%e(en%ence oil an% state-!uil%in< Cornell &ni/ersity< 199=< e0 Pork< (?9


25/92


26/92

!y )unisiaan%leriato the *est an%!y Ey(t to the East. $i!ya is a mem!er of the ra!

Mahre! &nion an% a foun%in mem!er of the frican &nion.

Historically s(eakin< $i!ya is com(ose% of three (ro/inces )ri(olitania< Cyrenaica an%

,eKKan. )he $i!yan (o(ulation has ne/er !een com(letely in%e(en%ent. It 0as %ominate% !ythe forein control. In the first half of the secon% millennium 'CE< the hoenicians coloniKe%

$i!ya. )he most im(ortant colonies 0ere $e(tis< #ia an% 6a!rata. Carthae conAuere% the

$i!yan coast in the :thcentury 'CE. Rome in/a%e% $i!ya in 1>; 'CE an% after 3> years>; ( ">64Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< ( 2>;


31/92

,rance 0on after maor arms contracts from 19;3< nearly t0o !illion francs hea/y or%ers

4!uil%in a (o0er (lant in )ri(oli an% electrical eAui(ment of the oases of ,eKKan< a cement

(lant in Homs< a %esalination (lant of sea 0ater< another for material trans(ort /ehicles 0ith

'erliet< eueot< etc5.

Italy remains one of the most im(ortant !eneficiaries of the $i!yan market. Relations 0ith

Italy< ho0e/er< ha/e !een some0hat mercurial. In 19;3< $i!yan aircraft strafe% an Italian

com!at /essel (atrollin an area in the Me%iterranean 0here an earlier %is(ute ha% le% to the

%etention of Italian fishin tra0lers8:?. fter $i!ya a(oloiKe%< the relations !et0een the t0o

countries im(ro/e% in 19;"< 0hen they sine% commercial an% technical areements.

In 19;:< an economic neotiation 0as en%e% !et0een $i!ya an% Italy. $i!ya (urchase%

more than 9 (ercent of the stock of the ,iat Com(any< (lacin t0o re(resentati/es on ,iat8s

1?- mem!er !oar% of %irectors in the (rocess. Increasin (ressures 0ere !rouht on ,iat< Italy %e/elo(e% its economic exchanes 0ith $i!ya. Italy (ro/i%e% 2= of

im(orts from its former colony to ,e%eral Germany 41"5< to the &nite% Bin%om an%

,rance 4;.? for each5< to @a(an 4:5< to the &nite% 6tates 4?.;5F 33.? of the $i!yan oil

is ex(orte% at the same time in Italy aainst 22 in ,e%eral Germany. lso< Italy is in s(ite

of minor /ariations< the secon% arms su((lier to $i!ya< after the &66R 4(lanes< helico(ters1>< ( 23966I!i%.


32/92

$i!ya8s relation 0ith Great 'ritain has !een tense !ecause of the (olitical< military an%

economic connections kin I%ris ha% 0ith it. *hen Da%%afi came into (o0er< the 'ritish

o/ernment sto((e% the military eAui(ment sales. 'ut in 19;=< Da%%afi claime% that the t0ocountries shoul% esta!lish oo% relations.

)he relations !et0een Great 'ritain an% $i!ya !ean to %eteriorate in 19=>. )hey en%e% the

%i(lomatic relations in 19="< 0hen a 'ritish (olice officer 0as kille% in the $i!yan eo(le8s

'ureau in $on%on. fter $i!ya assume% the uilt for the 19=" attack< the t0o countries ha/e

resume% their relations.

'ritish officials later o(ene% a commercial fair in )ri(oli in May 2>>>< the larest of its kin%

LN. Great 'ritain also ser/e% as the key interme%iary in the tri(artite neotiations lea%in to

$i!ya8s renunciation of uncon/entional 0ea(ons an% relate% %eli/ery systems in ecem!er

2>>38:;.

$i!ya sho0e% its 0illinness to oin the Euro-Me%iterranean artnershi( !efore 2>>"< !ut it

%i% not a((ly yet. It o((ose% to !e an acti/e mem!er in this (rocess !ecause this country is

seen as an in%e(en%ent me%iator !et0een frica an% Euro(e. It also reecte% to (artici(ate tothe creation of the Me%iterranean (eace Kone !ase% on security an% sta!ility !ecause of

Israel. If $i!ya ha% acce(te% to enter the (rocess< it 0oul% ha/e 0orke% on the same

committees as Israel< an% it 0oul% ha/e share% information 0ith it.

Da%%afi8s reime alrea%y (ossesse% the maority of the a%/antaes of the tra%e 0ith Euro(e

!ecause the ex(orts 0ere free. 'y ha/in this o((ortunity< $i!ya %enie% to oin the Euro(ean

&nion8s (roect to form a Euro-Me%iterranean ,ree )ra%e rea in 2>1>.

'ut from the (oint of /ie0 of the southern com(onent mem!ers< the Euro(ean

Me%iterranean artnershi( 4EM5 is a /ery one-si%e% affair. ,rom an economic (oint of

/ie0< the ra! countries see themsel/es as ha/in little choice !ut to interate into the

67Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< ( 2">


33/92

Euro(ean economic s(here in an increasinly lo!aliKe% 0orl%. ain< the Euro(ean conce(t

of a common %estiny8 for the Me%iterranean reion sits uneasily 0ith the ra! mem!ers.

)here is also< 0ith $i!ya an% other ra! mem!ers< a feelin that the Euro(ean mem!ers

%emonstrate a (rofoun% lack of un%erstan%in a!out 0hat ra!ic ci/iliKation an% ra!s

really are. In %i/i%in the ra! countries into %ifferent areas of coo(eration such as the

'arcelona rocess mem!ers< the Gulf 6tates< an% the !alance of the mem!ers of the ra!

$eaue< the EM is rear%e% 0ith ra/e sus(icion as a %i/i%e an% rule8 ty(e a((roach to the

ra!s8:=.

)o sum u( this su!cha(ter< it is (ro(er to say that there are in%u!ita!le !enefits in increasin

the coo(eration 0ith $i!ya. )he most im(ortant coo(eration !et0een E& an% $i!ya is the

economic one. In the last century< E& is reliant on (etroleum an% natural as reser/es. )hese

resources %e/elo(e% $i!ya8s economy. )he most sinificant tra%e (artnershi( of $i!ya 0as

sine% 0ith the E&.

$i!ya8s forein (olicy existe% since the colonial %omination. Bin I%ris also %e/elo(e%

forein relations< an% later Da%%afi< !ut not 0ith the same enthusiasm. Da%%afi esta!lishe%

external relations !ecause of his com(laint rear%in the creation of Israel.

$i!ya is confrontin 0ith (ro!lems such as the strateic (osition in Me%iterranean< the

trans(ortation of oil< the (osition !et0een Mahre! an% Ey(t< !et0een Mahre! an%

Eastern 6ahara< (ro!lems of %ecoloniKation in the ra! 0orl%. 'ut %es(ite these issues;< ( "1


34/92

II.2 -orein /irect In0estment (ilateral in0estment areements

'et0een 19:9 cou( an% $i!ya8s secon% oil !oom in 19;3< there 0as a (erio% of

consoli%ation an% (olitical mo!iliKation. urin this (erio%< the $i!yan (o(ulation 0as

(olitically an% economically %e(ri/e%. )he country8s (olitical institutions !ecame

instruments to further %e(oliticiKe the (o(ulation< 0here the T(ulse of the (eo(leU coul% !e

measure% 0ithout e/er (reci(itatin a serious %e!ate o/er the %irection or the oals of

%e/elo(ment an% ro0th in the country8:9.

)he en%in of ci/il institutions an% their su!stitution 0ith the ne0 ones 0ere inten%e% for

sto((in social conflict an% su((ortin social maintenance. In a %istri!uti/e state such as

$i!ya< 0here %e-(oliticiKation an% economic (atronae are intricately linke%< the nee% to

recast the (o0er-for-0ealth social contract has the (otential to intro%uce %ee( chanes8 ;>.

In the last years< $i!ya has trie% to chane its economy from an ex(ort encla/e to an im(ort

one. 6ince the %isco/ery of the oil< an% after the economic ro0th< the ra! country has !een

ca(a!le to !uy u( for its mistakes. )he $i!yan o/ernment %i% not %e(en% economically on

the (o(ulation %ue to the oil money.

In the strule for in%e(en%ence< the fun%amental resources of $i!ya such as oil< soil an%

0ater ha/e !een ex(loite% an% use% unreasona!ly. In conseAuence< the in%ustrial sector is

/ery %e/elo(e%. In%ustry %e(en%s on forein la!or. )he $i!yan la!or force has not only

!een sAueeKe% out of the %e/elo(mental (rocess !ut< as a result of %eli!erate o/ernment

(olicies< has also !ecome a%%icte% to o/ernment han%outs;1.

*e can no loner talk a!out a (ro!lem of %e/elo(ment or un%er %e/elo(ment. It is morea!out a Auestion of en%urance. $i!ya is more likely to colla(se economically after the

69irk 7an%e0alle< $i!ya since in%e(en%ence oil an% state-!uil%in< Cornell &ni/ersity< 199=< e0 Pork< (13970I!i%.71Mansour #. El-Bikhia. $i!ya8s Da%%afi )he (olitics of contra%iction8< &ni/ersity ress of ,lori%a until 199>

)a!le 1.1. $i!ya8s reser/es< 19;>-9> 4millions of %ollars5

Year Total reserves Months ofimports

1970197319751980198519861987198819891990

1,590.1

2,126.7

2,194.9

13,227.9

6,042.3

6,107.3

6,016.8

4,491.1

4,498.2

6,018.4

30.37.8-29.217.516.413.69.19.4-

Source:IMF Balance of Payment Tapes !n"te# $at"ons %onfe&ence on T&a#e an#'e(elopment) *an#+oo, of Inte&nat"onal T&a#e an# 'e(elopment

tat"st"cs 1993/ o&l# 'e(elopment epo&t 1975) 1980) 1985) 1990/.

6ince 199>s< $i!ya !ean (romulatin %ifferent la0s an% reulations inten%e% to im(ro/e

its !usiness climate an% increase its attracti/eness to forein in/estment. )he ,orein irect

In/estment 0as create% !y maor leislati/e reforms< !ut %ue to the im(ose% sanctions< the

forein com(anies coul% not in/est in $i!ya.

$i!ya has attracte% su!stantial interest from forein in/estors. )he most im(ortant la0

concernin the forein ca(ital in/estment< 0hich 0as a%o(te% !y the $i!yan o/ernment;< ( :=


36/92

eAui(ment nee%e% for the (roect o(eration for a (erio% of ? years. lso< there 0ere no taxes

on ex(orte% oo%s. rticle 1> of $a0 o. ? (resents the follo0in con%itions

V )he items are im(orte% in the name an% for the !enefit of the (roectF

V )he im(orte% items shall !e commensurate< Auantitati/ely an% Aualitati/ely< 0iththe area of the (ermitte% in/estmentFV )he (ermit of in/estment is /ali% at the time of im(ortFV n un%ertakin to use such items in the roect an% not to %is(ose of them in any0ay to any other entity 0ithout the 0ritten consent of the In/estment 'oar%.8;"

lthouh $i!ya ha% reat o((ortunities an% encouraements< the ,orein irect In/estment

has continue% to !e lo0. ,rom all the (roects< only some of them ha/e !een a((ro/e%< an%

only some of them are still functional. ,or external in/estors< the ,orein irect In/estment

still seems to !e an ela!orate (rocess.

)he $i!yan ,orein In/estment 'oar% 4$,I'5 0as create% to enforce $a0 o. ?. Its task is to

su(er/ise an% a%ust forein in/estment in $i!yaJs in%ustry< 0hich is !ase% on a lack of

national in%ustrial oraniKation< out-of-%ate technoloy< re%uce% manaement< chea(

maintenance< slo0 restructurin an% o/er-em(loyment. )he acti/ity of $,I' is a /ery narro0

one< an% in eneral only inclu%es forein in/estment analysis. $,I' %eals 0ith issues relate%

to customs an% immiration< taxes< an% la!or for those com(anies enterin un%er $a0 o. ?.

)he main role of the $,I' is to function as the selection mechanism for forein %irect

in/estment. In or%er to !e a((ro/e%< $,I' must !e recei/e% from a 0i%e rane of functional

concerns for (roects taken on $a0 o. ?< inclu%in the %is(osal of im(orte% materials>;< ( ;>


37/92

let the forein com(anies to s(en% a lot of money for trainins an% mentorin or to (ay the

0orkers 0ho %o not hel( the com(any (ro%ucti/ity to increase.

urin the time< there ha/e !een ma%e some mo%ifications. $a0 o. ""3 from 2>>: has

!een !i%%en. )his 0as a turnin (oint for forein economics< es(ecially in %omains such asconstruction< in%ustry< electricity< communications< etc.

)he im(ose% con%itions on forein in/estors 0ho 0ant to accom(lish 0ork an% ser/ices in

the ra! state are still consi%ere% ex(ensi/e an% time-consumin an% are not contri!utin to

the $i!yan in/estment. )he creation of a forein enter(rise in $i!ya is co/ere% !y the

$i!yan Commercial Co%e of 19?3< the esta!lishment of @oint 7entures 4@7s5 as (ro/i%e% for

in $a0 o. :? of 19;> an% $a0 o. 21 of 2>>>< Rear%in the ractice of Economic

cti/ities< an% $a0 o. ? of 199; an% its su!seAuent reulations an% amen%ments. In(ractical terms< there (resently exist four o(tions for forein com(anies enterin the $i!yan

market< 0hich are to esta!lish a 'ranch #ffice< set u( a @7< reister a Re(resentati/e #ffice>: has !een a%o(te% in or%er to chane the

forein !usinesses in the oil ser/ices< construction< in%ustry< electricity< communicationss< the $i!yan o/ernment has seen the forein

em(loyees an% contractors as a threat< !ecause they contri!ute% to the %issi(ation of the

forein exchane an% to a increasin unem(loyment (ro!lem. In 19=3< ?:>>> foreiners

0orke% in $i!yaF !y 19=:< the num!er %ro((e% to less than 2>>>>8=>. 6ince 199> 0hen oil

incomes returne% to normal< al-Da%hafi announce% the re-o(enin of the !or%ers< !y

recei/in an enormous num!er of 0orkers from Cha%< Ghana< ier< an% other 6u!-6aharan

frican states.

)hose 0ho %i% not fin% o!s in $i!ya continue% to mirate to 6outhern Euro(e. n

im(ortant (ercentae of $i!yaJs informal la!or force is ma%e u( !y the Ey(tian (o(ulation.*ith mountin (ressure from the E&< an% risin unem(loyment at home< $i!ya has in the

77irk 7an%e0alle< $i!ya since in%e(en%ence oil an% state-!uil%in< Cornell &ni/ersity< 199=< e0 Pork< (1"178*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>;< ( 13179 htt(QQ000.state.o/QeQe!QrlsQothrQicsQ2>11Q1?;312.htm80I!i%.


40/92

(ast resorte% to %e(ortation. In early 2>>;< officials announce% a series of measures to re%uce

the (resence of illeal 0orkers in $i!ya. In late 2>>;< the Ey(tian !or%er 0as close% to

miratory 0orkers8=1.

)he 6ecretary of the General eo(le8s Committee 4GC5 for Man(o0er< Em(loyment an%

)rainin has ma%e it man%atory for all em(loyers to a!i%e to $a0 o.?= an% ensure a leal

status for their em(loyees. )hey ha/e !een 0arne% a!out the fact that if they ha% o((ose% to

%o so< this 0ill result in (unishment ranin from fines< to remo/al of 0ork (ermits< an% in

the en% to %etention.

$a0 o. 1? (asse% in 19=1< ca((e% o/ernment salaries at !et0een 1?> an% ?>> $i!yan

inars 4$5 (er month< %e(en%in on ra%e. )here ha% !een no cost of li/in a%ustment

from that %ate until 2>>:< 0hen se/eral chanes 0ere institute% to raise minimum salaries in

the (u!lic an% (ri/ate sectors. GC ecision o. 2;; of 2>>: esta!lishe% !asic o/ernment

salaries at the follo0in le/els 13> %inars for (ersons 0ithout %e(en%ents< 1=> %inars for

families 0ith t0o mem!ers< an% 22> %inars for a family of three of more mem!ers8=2.

In 2>>; there ha/e !een ma%e a cou(le of %ecisions !y GC that im(lie% the raise of the

minimum 0ae for many other em(loyees that 0ork on other sectors. )he (roram inclu%e%

(eo(le 0ho ha% a%/ance% %erees an% technical skills. lso the com(ensations ha/e !eenraise% for $i!yan em(loyees 0ho 0ere 0orkin for state enery com(anies< 0orkers from

the me%ical system an% teachers.

In%e(en%ent la!or unions an% (rofessional associations are (rohi!ite% in $i!ya. )he

em(loyees are not allo0e% to form a union< !ut they can take (art to the ational )ra%e

&nions8 ,e%eration 0hich 0as create% in 19;2. )herefore< no action can !e starte% 0ithout

the a((ro/al of the $i!yan o/ernment.

#ne of the maor fears of the $i!yan o/ernment 0hen it comes a!out economy is the

unem(loyment< mostly !ecause of the increase% num!er in the (ri/atiKation sector< 0hich

im(lies that a !i num!er of em(loyees 0oul% lea/e the state com(anies in fa/or of (ri/ate

81 htt(QQ000.state.o/QeQe!QrlsQothrQicsQ2>11Q1?;312.htm82I!i%.


41/92

com(anies. In a%%ition< ;=.>>> stu%ents enter the la!or market each year after ra%uation.

)here ha/e !een ma%e (lans for the creation of re-trainin (rorams< 0hich 0oul% also lea%

to the formation of a social safety net. )here ha/e !een some o/ernment actions to (ro/i%e

shares in (u!lic an% (ri/ate com(anies to Wthose $i!yans %e(ri/e% of 0ealth>;. lso< in @anuary 2>>;< the GC cou(le% its

announcement of the liAui%ation of ">>>> $i!yan o/ernment (ositions o/er a three-year

(erio% 0ith ne0s that the incum!ents coul% either %ra0 their reular salary or take a S"3>>

loan %esine% to finance start-u( costs of a small !usiness8=3.

)he $i!yan o/ernment starte% to control the hirin (rocess of forein com(anies 0ho

o(erate% in $i!ya. s a result< in 2>>: the o/ernment ma%e a %ecree 0hich state% that theoil com(anies ha/e to em(loy a e(uty County Manaer an% a ,inance Manaer from

$i!ya. )he $i!yan #il Com(any ma%e a (lan to assin unAualifie% 0orkers from $i!ya to

the external enter(rises.,orein com(anies ha/e enerally res(on%e% to this im(osition in

one of t0o 0ays (ayin these in%i/i%uals 0ithout ex(ectin them to 0ork< or un%ertakin an

extensi/e trainin (roram to !rin them u( to a !asic in%ustry stan%ar%. Com(anies also

recei/e lists of unem(loye% 0orkers from the General eo(leJs Committee for Man(o0er

an% are reAueste% to /oluntarily fin% (ositions for them.

)o sum u( this su!cha(ter< it shoul% !e mentione% that the $i!yan $a!or Co%e< $a0 o. ?=

is relatin to all national an% forein em(loyees< em(loyment contracts an% 0orkin hours.

In $i!ya< the real rate of the unem(loyment is !et0een 3> an% ">. $i!ya8s la!or force is

estimate% at 1.3 million (ersons. es(ite the fact that the moonlihtin is (rohi!ite%< many

o/ernment functionaries 0ork in more than one (lace.

,orein 0orkers hel( at increasin the (ercentae of $i!yan la!or. 6ince 19=>8s< the $i!yan

o/ernment starte% to (ut (ressure on forein 0orkers !ecause they affecte% the /alua!leforein exchane an% the national em(loyment. 'ut in 199>< 0hen the oil re/enues re-

esta!lishe%< al-Da%%afi o(ene% aain the !or%ers for Cha%< Ghana< ier< an% other 6u!-

6aharan frican states.

83 htt(QQ000.state.o/QeQe!QrlsQothrQicsQ2>11Q1?;312.htm


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)hose 0ho %i% not fin% o!s in $i!ya mirate% to 6outhern Euro(e< contri!utin to the

economic mirant (ro!lem. Mirants from Ey(t forme% a consi%era!le (ortion of $i!ya8s

informal la!or force< so in 2>>; the $i!yan o/ernment close% the Ey(tian !or%er. )he

GC 6ecretary has im(ose% to all o0ners of com(anies to ensure the leality of their

em(loyees.

$a0 o. 1? (asse% in 19=1 ca((e% the salaries at !et0een 1?> an% ?>> $i!yan inars. 'ut in

2>>:< the minimum salaries 0ere raise% in the (u!lic an% (ri/ate sectors an% in 2>>; for

other cateories of 0orkers. In%e(en%ent tra%e unions an% (rofessional associations are

illeal in $i!ya. *hile 0orkers %o not ha/e the riht to form unions< they are allo0e% to

(artici(ate in an oraniKation calle% the ational )ra%e &nionsJ ,e%eration.

&nem(loyment is a maor (ro!lem in $i!ya !ecause of the increase in the (ri/atiKation

sector 0hich 0oul% release lare num!ers of state-salarie% em(loyees. )he $i!yan

o/ernment inter/enes in the hirin (ractices of forein com(anies o(eratin in $i!ya. In

2>>:< a %ecree 0as (romulate% relatin to the fact that all forein oil com(anies must hire a

$i!yan national e(uty County Manaer an% ,inance Manaer. )he ational #il

Cor(oration usually i/es unAualifie% $i!yan 0orkers to forein enery com(anies. ,orein

com(anies im(ose% t0o alternati/es in rear% to this measure (ayin these in%i/i%uals

0ithout ex(ectin them to 0ork< or un%ertakin an extensi/e trainin (roram to !rin themu( to a !asic in%ustry stan%ar%. Com(anies also recei/e lists of unem(loye% 0orkers from the

General eo(leJs Committee for Man(o0er an% are reAueste% to /oluntarily fin% (ositions for

them.

II.& How to deal with Libya , "ttin an end to illeal immiration

com!ination of factors meant that $i!ya< /irtually since the %isco/ery an% ex(ort of oil inthe early 19:>s< has %e(en%e% to /aryin extents on forein la!or8=". )he ne0 economic

acti/ities such as the (roects starte% since the !einnin of the (etroleum o(erations an%

their conseAuences< resulte% in a ro0in call for the exterior em(loyment to o/ercome the

84*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>;< ( 139


43/92

local insufficiency. In 19:" the immirant 0orkers num!ere% ".; of the acti/e (o(ulationF

!ut in 19;" the (ercentae increase% u( to 3>.

'ein an oil-rich country< it attracts many immirants 0ho are seekin !etter em(loyment

o((ortunities8=?

.In $i!ya< the Ey(tian immiration is the most im(ortant one an% co/ers allsectors. In 19;> there 0ere a!out 2?>.>>> Ey(tians< follo0e% !y the )unisians. #n a total

(o(ulation of a!out 2.">>.>>> inha!itants in 19;"-;?< nearly 1.>>>.>>> 0ere non-$i!yans>> em(loyees 0orke% in the aricultural sector< the rest in the

ser/ices< tra%e an% in%ustry sectors. In 19;?< :" of the la!or force 0as constitute% of

Ey(tians an% 1? of )unisians8=:. )hese num!ers %i% not inclu%e the clan%estine

emiration< /ery hih for short an% re(eate% stays< ranin from four to six months on

a/erae an% that allo0e% the !or%ers to offset the seasonal unem(loyment 0hich 0as rife

0ith them.

)he economic an% (olitical (ro!lems of 6u!-6aharan countries ha/e le% to (ermanently

increasin massi/e outflo0s of emirants to other reions. )he Mahre! countries ha/e thus

!ecome maor transit (oints for the mirant 6u!-6aharans8=;. )he massi/e %ismissals ha% first

affecte% the Ey(tian 0orkers ex(elle% !y 0a/es from thousan%s of crises that affect

relations !et0een the t0o countries in 19;3< an% )unisians in some0hat similar

circumstances in 19;?.

)he last o(eration concerne% 0as in uust 19=? from 2> to 2?.>>> )unisians< rolle%

unceremoniously !y the army on their !or%er< 0hich has resulte% in retaliation for the

ex(ulsion of $i!yan %i(lomats from the )unisian territory< an% an im(ortant stae in the

a%/ance% %eterioration of relations !et0een )unisia an% )ri(oli. #ther continents 0ere also

sent !ack to the same (erio%< an estimate% :.>>> Ey(tians< 3.?>> Malians an% ierians>> Mauritanians. Moroccans an% lerians ha/e re(eate%ly suffere% similar treatment.

)he acceleration of the return of emirants in 19=> is linke% to the economic !reak ma%e

ine/ita!ly !y the continuous fall in oil (rices an% the $i!yan corollary income. It is

accom(anie% !y an attem(t to XXli!yaniseYY o!s as much as (ossi!le< lea%in to a ro0th in

85Bina )i!ori 6Ka!o< $i!ya an% the E&8< Central Euro(ean &ni/ersity< 'u%a(est< 2>>:< ( 2286@uliette 'essis< $a $i!ye Contem(oraine< $8Harmattan< aris< 19=:< ( 1:287Bina )i!ori 6Ka!o< $i!ya an% the E&8< Central Euro(ean &ni/ersity< 'u%a(est< 2>>:< ( 22


44/92

unem(loyment. Colonel Da%%afi mentione% in a s(eech in o/em!er 19=2 the $i!yan

refusal to increase the im!alance !et0een national an% forein (o(ulation8 ==.

)hese returns also coinci%e 0ith the im(lementation of more an% more total (o0er of the

masses an% (arallel %enunciation of the o((onents of the reime< the ne0 rich %efen%ants ofany lia!ility of !ureaucracy< !lack markets< ne(otism< illeal (rofits< 0hich re0 at a rate

much hiher than those of the (re/ious reime.

)he exchane of the currency aainst the ne0 cuts %irecte% !y sur(rise in May 19=> 0as a

!lo0 to s(eculators an% lare an% small tra%ers 0ho %o not enoy the relationshi(s that may

0arn them in time. )he (ri/ate tra%e is !ein 0oun% u(< collecti/iKation affectin e/en the

smallest !usiness tra%e an% ser/ices< is lea%in to /ery sinificant $i!yan an% non-$i!yan o!

losses.

)he constantly risin cost of li/in in the 19=>s< inclu%in sta(les< has inauurate% the rein

of austerity. 6alaries ha/e !een froKen from 19=>-19=1 an% in some cases re%uce% !y 1? to

2>. #n the contrary< the inflation 0as 2> in 19;9< 3> in 19=3. )he last (lan 0as

financially re%uce% !y 12 (er year8=9.

o0a%ays< $i!ya is (ayin for the unlimite% immiration encourae% %urin the 199>s.

,or the E& it is /ery im(ortant to esta!lish oo% relations 0ith $i!ya. In this 0ay< E&8s aim

is to strenthen its external !or%ers. )he tihtenin of Euro(ean miration (olicies 4in the

88@uliette 'essis< $a $i!ye Contem(oraine< $8Harmattan< aris< 19=:< ( 1:"89I!i%.90*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>;< ( 9:


45/92

form of stricter rules reulatin asylum an% the entry an% resi%ence of foreiners in the

6chenen area5 has transforme% orth-frican countries into !uffer Kones8 for sto((in

illeal immiration891.

$i!ya is also a transit country for the frican immirants 0antin to mirate to Euro(e. )hemost im(ortant transit (oints are throuh the 6icily Channel an% the Italian islan% of

$am(e%usa. In 2>>3< Italy sine% an areement 0ith $i!ya for com!atin the illeal

immiration. In this rear%< the $i!yan %ecision to create a %e%icate% Coast Guar%

e(artment to (olice $i!ya8s northern !or%er an% crack %o0n on transit immiration to

Euro(e is clearly a ste( in the riht %irection to0ar%s manain illeal mo/ements of thir%-

(arty nationals throuh $i!ya to Euro(e892.

In 2>>"< Italy financially su((orte% the ex(ulsion of immirants from $i!ya to their nati/ecountries. It also su((orte% the creation of im(risonment cam(s for illeal immirants>?>? the Italian an% $i!yan fleets finishe% their mutual na/al exercise in the

Me%iterranean< !ut ne/ertheless $i!ya refuse% to acce(t the !lame for Euro(e8s miration

issues. Concerne% a miration (olicy increasinly influence% !y Euro(e 0oul% antaoniKe

its frican (artners< $i!ya (resse% for a (olicy in 0hich the Euro(ean &nion share% the

!ur%en an% hel(e% to alle/iate the socioeconomic (ro!lems in frica res(onsi!le for the flo0

of mirants89".

In conclusion 0e can notice that $i!ya< since the %isco/ery an% ex(ort of oil< nee%e% to

increase its la!or force. Many immirants 0ere attracte% to !etter em(loyment chances. )he

91Bina )i!ori 6Ka!o< $i!ya an% the E&8< Central Euro(ean &ni/ersity< 'u%a(est< 2>>:< ( 2292*aniss #tman< Erlin Barl!er. )he $i!yan economy Economic %i/ersification an% InternationalRe(ositionin< 6(riner< 2>>;< ( 9;93Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< ( 23;94Ronal%< 'ruce< 6t.< @ohn. In this Auote from $i!ya-from colony to in%e(en%ence8< #ne0orl% u!lications>=< ( 2">


46/92

larest immirant (o(ulation came from Ey(t< follo0e% !y )unisia. In 19;?< :" of the

la!or force 0as ma%e u( !y Ey(tians an% 1? !y )unisians.

'ecause of the (olitical an% economic issues of the 6u!-6aharan countries< the num!er of the

emirants from the other reions (ermanently increase%. urin 19;3 an% 19;?< manyEy(tian an% )unisian 0orkers ha/e !een ex(elle% !ecause of the crises 0hich affecte% the

relations amon $i!ya an% Ey(t< res(ecti/ely )unisia.

ue to the economic !reak from 19=>< 0hich le% to a %ecrease in the oil (rices an% the

$i!yan income< masses of emirants returne%. )hese returns ha/e !een accelerate% also !y

the !lack markets< ne(otism< illeal (rofits< etc. )he exchane of the currency in May 19=>

0as (ercei/e% as a shock !y all tra%ers.

)he (ri/ate tra%e 0as 0in%in u( an% this le% to sinificant $i!yan an% non-$i!yan

unem(loyment. #ne of the !iest (ro!lems of $i!ya 0as that the cost of li/in ha% risen

%ramatically< an% the salaries 0ere froKen an% e/en re%uce%. )o%ay< the illeal immiration

in $i!ya is seen as a threat 0hich coul% lea% to a national crisis.

,or the E&< it is /ery im(ortant to esta!lish frien%ly relations 0ith $i!ya. lso< its (ur(ose is

to strenthen the external !oun%aries for sto((in the illeal immiration. $i!ya re(resents a

route for the fricans 0ho (lan to immirate to Euro(e. Italy is the most im(ortant (assae

(oint amon Euro(e an% frica.

In 2>>3< Italy sine% an areement to (rohi!it the illeal immiration an% the $i!yan

o/ernment forme% the Coast Guar% e(artment. In 2>>"< Italy economically su((orte% the

%ismissal of immirants from $i!ya to their in!orn countries. lso in @uly 2>>? the Italian

an% $i!yan fleets finishe% their mutual na/al exercise in the Me%iterranean< !ut ne/ertheless

$i!ya refuse% to acce(t the !lame for Euro(e8s miration issues.

s 0e ha/e seen< $i!ya< in immiration terms< is a %estination state. )here 0ere some factors

0hich le% to the miration to0ar%s $i!ya. #ne 0oul% !e the eora(hic (osition in the

southern Me%iterranean coastline. )he economic factors are also im(ortant< !ecause the

$i!yan hy%rocar!on in%ustry an% the health an% e%ucation sectors (ro/i%e many o!

o((ortunities. 'ut not least< (olitics ha/e !een essential to the reoraniKation of the forein


47/92

(olicy< Ga%%afi %isrear%in ra! territory an% s0itchin to an unlimite% (olicy of

immiration for the fricans 0ho 0ere 6u!-6aharan. )his actually meant that the !or%ers

0ere !ecomin less an% less controlle% allo0in for a raise in the num!er of illeal

immirants.

Concl"sions

$i!ya has strenthene% its relation 0ith the E& o/er time. )he !iest coo(eration amon

them is relate% to the economic sector. 'ecause $i!ya is the fourth larest oil (ro%ucer in the

0orl%< E& %e(en%s on its resources an% sine% many (artnershi(s for this (ur(ose.

$i!ya 0as an im(ortant actor %ue to its eora(hical (osition ho0e/er the only reason for

0hich Ga%%afi ot enae% in forein relations 0as the constant strule for its resources

e/er since the 6econ% *orl% *ar.

t the moment< $i!ya has a%/antaeous (artnershi(s 0ith Italy< ,rance< &nite% Bin%om

an% 6(ain. 'ut from all these states< Italy is the most rele/ant im(orter of $i!yan market.

lso $i!ya has its a%/antaes to fortify the relation 0ith the E& for a !etter maintenance of

its internal (olitical oraniKation.

$i!ya aine% control o/er economy %ue to the nationaliKation of (etroleum an% lan% an% the

%omination o/er im(orts an% ex(orts. 'ut the economic rule remaine% lo0. 6o< $i!ya %i% not

acAuire the leal an% financial institutions %eman%e% in a market system.

$i!ya8s (ur(ose in the economic sector 0as to im(ro/e its im(ort rather than ex(ort. n%

!ecause its resources ha/e !een misuse%< $i!yan o/ernment enforce% many la0s< the most

im(ortant one !ein $a0 o. ? from 199; to im(ro/e the forein in/estment an% the

!usiness climate. )his la0 also %eals 0ith the (ri/ate ca(ital a!roa%.

)he ,orein irect In/estment is still lo0 in $i!ya< !ut for the forein in/estors it re(resents

a com(licate% (rocess. )he forein in/estment in $i!ya nee%e% su(er/ision an% a%ustment< 0hen the (rice of oil %ecrease%< the emirants returne%.

*hen the (ri/ate tra%e 0as !rouht to an en%< there ha/e !een sinificant national an%

forein o! losses. nother (ro!lem 0as that the cost of li/in has increase%< an% the 0aes

ha/e !een froKen or re%uce%.

Illeal immiration is seen as a threat !y $i!ya. n% E& also has inter/ene% in this (ro!lem

an% ma%e efforts to sol/e it. E&8s (ur(ose is to strenthen its !or%ers in Italy< !ecause thiscountry re(resents the (assae amon the ra! 0orl% an% Euro(e.

In 2>>3 $i!ya an% Italy sine% an areement to (ut to an en% the illeal immiration. lso in

2>>"< Italy financially ai%e% the immirants from $i!ya. nut in 2>>?< $i!ya refuse% to


49/92

consi%er itself res(onsi!le for the miration issues. 6o< the miration to0ar%s $i!ya 0as

affecte% !y the eora(hic< economic an% (olitical factors.

III. Libya and the EU3 How !ar can relations o+

6ince the relations !et0een $i!ya an% the E& !ecame more formal !oth countries 0ante% to

strenthen their relations for a !etter coo(eration in the future. )herefore< E& an% $i!ya ha/e


50/92

mutual ains rear%in their relation. ,or exam(le< $i!ya has !een an o!ser/er in the Euro-

Me% artnershi( 4'arcelona rocess5 since 1999 an% 'russels has sai% all alon that its lon-

term o!ecti/e is $i!yan accessionZ(rimarily so that Euro(e can o!tain full coo(eration on

controllin the flo0 of frican immirants that transit $i!ya on their 0ay across the

Me%iterranean89?. #n @uly 23< 2>>;< $i!ya an% the E.&. sine% an areement of neotiations>; i%entifies technical an% archaeoloical assistance

as some of the (rimary areas of interest to $i!ya89:.

)he E.&.8s reason to attract $i!ya into the 'arcelona rocess an% E is relate% to the fact

that if $i!ya fails to oin< the E.&. 0oul% !e consi%ere% uilty for (unishin ra! states for

authoritarian !eha/ior 0hile lea/in $i!ya alone. s a result< the E& 0oul% lose its

cre%i!ility.

If the E.&. 0ants to attract $i!ya into the 'arcelona or E (rocesses< it must therefore

make clear< the (ossi!le ains from a formal relationshi(. In a%%ition< it is clear $i!ya 0ants

95ana Moss< htt(QQcarneieen%o0ment.orQsa%aQ2>>=Q>=Q13Qli!ya-an%-euro(ean-union-ho0-far-can-relations-oQ:!ao96I!i%.


51/92


52/92


53/92

11 E& Mem!er 6tates an% or0ay took (art in the E& Ci/il rotection Mechanism. )hey

offere% shi(s an% (lanes to su((ort the e/acuation. )he E& Ci/il rotection Mechanism

financially su((orte% these inter/entions 0ith o/er \1>.? million.

*here nee%e%< throuhout the crisis< the Euro(ean Commission Humanitarian i% b Ci/ilrotection %e(artment has ha% an% maintains ex(erts on the roun% to assess chanin

nee%s< to monitor the %eli/ery of ai% an% to ensure coor%ination 0ith ai% oraniKations an%

%onors. )he humanitarian emerency is no0 o/er< !ut ECH# 0ill continue to closely

monitor the situation81>>.

)o sum u(< it shoul% !e notice% that after the re/olution !ean in $i!ya< the Euro(ean &nion

an% its Mem!er 6tates offere% an enormous humanitarian su((ort in or%er to hel( the E&

citiKens to come !ack to Euro(e an% also they hel(e% the forein 0orkers to 0ith%ra0 totheir nati/e countries. )he E& also assure% the (ro/ision 0ith foo%< 0ater< an% me%ical

su((ort.

)he Euro(ean CommissionJs Humanitarian i% #ffice 4ECH#5 (laye% an im(ortant role

%urin this (erio%. Its role 0as to offer %irect humanitarian hel( in $i!ya an% to su((ortin

emerency stocks. E/en after the reconciliation< ECH# ha% to %eal 0ith t0o actions to

(rotect the ci/ilians an% the existence of &`#s.

o0a%ays< the ex(erts of the Euro(ean Commission Humanitarian i% b Ci/il rotection

%e(artment are (resent there in or%er to monitor the %istri!ution of assistance an% to

safeuar% harmoniKation 0ith ai% oraniKations an% su((orters.

% )artnershi) !or democracy and shared )ros)erity

#n = March< the Euro(ean Commission an% the Hih Re(resentati/e for ,orein an%

6ecurity olicy 4HR75 (resente% a 6tatement on a Jartnershi( for emocracy an% 6hare%

100 htt(QQec.euro(a.euQechoQai%Qnorthafricami%eastQli!yaen.htm


54/92

ros(erity 0ith the 6outhern Me%iterraneanJ< (resentin 0hat Euro(e shoul% %o to su((ort

the chanes in $i!ya.

)he &nionJs first 0orry has !een to res(on% to the challenes 0hich took (lace in 6outhern

Me%iterranean< (articularly miratory challenes. )he Commission has alrea%y su((orte% thehumanitarian ai% 0ith \ 3> million. ,urthermore< the Commission has su((orte% Italy< an%

other Mem!er 6tates< in case a reat num!er of mirants 0ere to a((ear. )he ,rontex oint

o(eration HERME6 2>11 re(resente% one of the a%%itional measures of the Euro(ean &nion.

)he resi%ent of the Euro(ean Commission< @ose Manuel 'arroso commente% )he historic

chanes un%er0ay in the 6outhern Me%iterranean carry the ho(e of more free%om1.

)he Euro(ean &nion has the ex(erience an% tools to hel( the countries in the reion as they

make the ourney to %ee( %emocracy81>23

)he artnershi( for emocracy an% ros(erity must !e constructe% on three key elements

1. 6u((ort for %emocratic transformation an% institution-!uil%in< !ase% on human rihts13.

104htt(QQeuro(a.euQra(i%Q(ressReleasesction.%o+referenceIQ11Q:"3bformatH)M$bae%>blanuaeEbui$anuaeen


56/92

*ith so much of our eih!orhoo% in a (rocess of %emocratic chane< this re/ie0 is more

im(ortant than e/er. It is /ital that 0e in the E& make a com(rehensi/e offer to our

neih!ours an% !uil% lastin (artnershi(s in our neih!ourhoo%81>?< affirme% Catherine

shton.

Catherine shton a%%e% *hat 0e are launchin to%ay is a ne0 a((roach. (artnershi(

!et0een (eo(les aime% at (romotin an% su((ortin the %e/elo(ment of %ee( %emocracy an%

economic (ros(erity in our neih!ourhoo%. )his is in all our interests. *e 0ill make fun%in

a/aila!le for countries in our neih!ourhoo% to su((ort an% match the s(ee% of (olitical an%

economic reform they 0ish to make. #ur su((ort is !ase% on (artnershi(< not on

im(osition. It is a relationshi( !ase% on mutual accounta!ility 0hich cuts !oth 0ays 0here

each si%e 0ill hol% the other to account aainst aree% oals an% o!ecti/es81>:.

In the en%< she sai% thatainst the !ack%ro( of a touh economic climate< !ut min%ful of

the nee% for the E& to act< our (ro(osal also nee%e% to !e financially inno/ati/e an% this is

0hy I took the initiati/e to secure a%%itional finance from the Euro(ean In/estment 'ank

4EI'5 an% the Euro(ean 'ank for Reconstruction an% e/elo(ment 4E'R581>;.

nother Commissioner< ]tefan ,^le< un%erline% num!er of our neih!ours< !oth in the

East an% in the 6outh< are enain in a transformation (rocess out of 0hich they 0ant to

emere as more %emocratic an% more (ros(erous societies. )he E& nee%s to res(on% 0ith

%eterminationan% am!ition=.

)he ne0 (roce%ure consists of a much %ifficult le/el of %istinctionF therefore< each (artner

country im(ro/es its relations 0ith the E& as much as its o0n o!ecti/es< reAuirements an%

ca(a!ilities allo0. lso< the E& su((ort to its neih!ours is restricte% !ecause it %e(en%s on

%e/elo(ment in !uil%in an% merin %emocracy. )he countries 0hich 0ill (roress in their

internal reforms 0ill more su((ort from the E&.

105I!i%.106I!i%.107I!i%.108htt(QQeuro(a.euQra(i%Q(ressReleasesction.%o+referenceIQ11Q:"3bformatH)M$bae%>blanuaeEbui$anuaeen


57/92

]tefan ,^le a%%e% *e are rea%y to su((ort these more am!itious o!ecti/es 0ith increase%

resources an% !etter incenti/es. *e also aim to make our %eli/ery of assistance more flexi!le

an% more ra(i% to res(on% to a fast chanin neih!ourhoo%. I ho(e that all E& institutions

an% Mem!er 6tates can rally !ehin% our (ro(osals an% hel( in the %eli/ery of this ne0

a((roach< to the common !enefits of the E& an% its neih!ors81>9.

6ince the E&Js eih!ourhoo% olicy since it 0as first launche% in 2>>"< the E is tryin

to res(on% to (artner countries8 Auests for more free%om an% a !etter life.

#n 22 May< Catherine shton o(ene% a ne0 E& office in 'enhaKi< 0ith the (ur(ose of

(romotin E& assistance< in coo(eration 0ith Mem!er 6tates an% other international

oraniKations. urin this /isit< the HR7 also met 0ith Mahmou% @i!ril< Chair of the

)ransitional ational Council 4)C5< 0hich the E& has acce(te% as a key (olitical s(eakerin $i!ya.

It is /ery im(ortant to !e o(enin the E& #ffice in 'enhaKi 0hich I announce% to the

Euro(ean arliament8< Catherine shton sai%. It 0ill !e an honor to meet the (eo(le 0ho

ha/e !een fihtin for %emocracy an% a !etter future for $i!ya. I (lan to meet key (eo(le

from the )ransitional ational Council< ci/il society rou(s an% our international (artners.

#(enin an E& #ffice is an im(ortant sinal of our su((ort for the $i!yan (eo(le. It is the

E& (uttin 0or%s into action811>.

In conclusion< a Euro(ean eih!orhoo% olicy 0as forme% on 2? May 2>11. Its o!ecti/e

0as to su((ort $i!ya< !y strenthenin in%i/i%ual an% reional relationshi(s !et0een the E&

an% ra! countries. )he E in or%er to function nee%s a lot of su((ort from the E& mem!er

states. 6ince 2>>"< the E tries to offer more free%om an% a !etter life for its (artner

countries.

)he Euro(ean In/estment 'ank 4EI'5 in/este% 1 !illion euros< an% the Euro(ean 'ank forReconstruction an% e/elo(ment 4E'R5 finance% the o(erations into the ME reion.

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Catherine shton< the E& Hih Re(resentati/e for ,orein ffairs an% 6ecurity

olicyQCommission 7ice-resi%ent 4HR75 o(ene% on 22 May an E& office in 'enhaKi

Euro(hiles aain. )hey !elie/e that a (eacekee(in o(eration may no0 !e necessary an% that

it shoul% (rimarily consist of Euro(ean (ersonnel

@ohn Ho(kins 0as amon those 0ho consi%ere% a chane of stratey as the Euro(eans ha/e

forces that are more a((ro(riate for maintainin or%er an% enforcin the la0 instea% of it

chanin a (o0erful (olitical reime in entirety. Ho(kins< !ut others as 0ell calle% for such

forces to !e %e(loye% in $i!ya< es(ecially as the Euro(eans alrea%y ha/e the ex(erience of

inter/enin in Boso/o< another 113conflict that marke% history an% create% stron shifts of

o(inion in 1999< Auestionin aain Euro(ean unity.

6ome e/en claim that E& has a moral %uty to inter/ene in $i!ya %ue to the fact that

eora(hically it is /ery close to the ol% continent. Moreo/er< E& has (rece%ents of

inter/enin in such case< so the (ressure shoul% !e Auite lare in this case. )his is the case of

112 htt(QQ000.lo!alsecurity.orQmilitaryQo(sQiraAor!atcoalition.htm113htt(QQ000.iss.euro(a.euQu(loa%sQme%iaQc(>"?e.(%f (. "3


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the inter/ention in $e!anon in 2>>:11"0hen countries like ,rance< Italy an% e/en Hunary

inter/ene% faster an% 0ith more efficiency.

6o< 0hen the 0ar in $i!ya actually !ean< some countries in E& seeme% more than (re(are%

to inter/ene so as to sta!iliKe the situation< !ut then the actual inter/ention stalle%. )he E&

0as more intereste% in hel(in the oraniKations of the & aime% at %eli/erin ai%< !ut 0ere

turne% %o0n %ue to the fact that these entities 0ante% to ain the trust of those in/ol/e% an%

military force %i% not hel( in this course of action.

'ut !enefits %i% not sto( here as some e/en consi%ere% the risk of Euro(ean military an%

a%%itional (ersonnel !ein taken hostaes !y those they 0ere fihtin< 0hich 0as not a

%esire% outcome.11?e/ertheless< after the most se/ere (art of the conflict en%e% an% the

situation !ecame less %anerous for such an inter/ention< many consi%ere% that a Euro(ean

&nion (resence in $i!ya 0oul% !e more than 0elcome< 0ith !enefits for e/eryone in/ol/e%

more sta!ility for the $i!yans an% imae ca(ital for E& as a (o0er 0orth takin into

consi%eration at a lo!al scale.

'ut< e/en if it seeme% like the !est solution from the (oint of /ie0 of the Euro(eans< not the

same coul% !e sai% a!out the $i!yans< 0ho 0ere not as thrille% at the i%ea of ha/in forein

(resence in their country in or%er to esta!lish control of any ty(e. s the ne0ly free% country0ante% to ras( control an% choose a ne0 lea%ershi(< they 0ante% to !e allo0e% to %o it on

their o0n.

n% some merican analysts claim that they are Auite riht< the 0estern forces not !ein

(ercei/e% /ery 0ell in the eyes of the re!els 0ho ha/e ust taken (o0er in the country. *hen

the re!ellion !ean an% e/en later throuhout the conflict< the $i!yans re/olutionaries 0ere

the most affecte% !y the fiht 0ith the su((orters of Ga%%afi< as they ha% most losses an%

0ere the ones to !e hunte% in the 0ar. 6o< these (eo(le !elie/e Auite leitimately that it istheir riht to lea% themsel/es an% create a o/ernment< ust like the other countries in the

114 htt(QQ000.0s0s.orQarticlesQ2>>:Qau2>>:Qle!a-a23.shtml115Richar% Go0an11Q>=Q2:Q%oesli!yareallynee%euro(ean(eacekee(ers


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ra! 6(rin< Ey(t an% )unisia. ll these 0oul% ex(lain 0hy they reecte% forein

inter/ention so harshly.

)hey ha/e ma%e this (oint Auite harshly< as they %i% not e/en allo0 !lue helmet

o!ser/atories in the country an% ust 0ante% to !e allo0e% to han%le their o0n country an%

o/ernance. s Ian Martin says< (ressurin them 0oul% only affect the eneral situation of

E& an% their allies

)he &6 an% Euro(ean (o0ers ha/e 0on sinificant allies in $i!ya !y fihtin aainst

Ga%%afi. )hey coul% lose those frien%s !y im(osin a (on%erous Euro(ean (eacekee(in

force on the country.11:

Ho0e/er< this is not the only issue to startle the Euro(ean rule< as the mem!er countries ha/etheir o0n (ro!lems to !attle< this time on the military roun%s. E& has se/ere financial

(ro!lems< es(ecially cause% !y Greece !ein on the e%e of !ankru(tcy< 0hile Irelan%< Italy=Q2:Q%oesli!yareallynee%euro(ean(eacekee(ers117 htt(QQ000.a%/isor(ers(ecti/es.comQ%shortQcommentariesQ6iKin-the-IIG6.(h(118 htt(QQ000.ecfr.euQ!loQentryQ0hata%%afisfallmeansforo!amamerkel


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s o(timistic as this may soun%< in fact the other missions mentione% a!o/e 0ere not as

successful as their initiators 0ante% them to !e. )hus< in IraA< one of the !iest inter/entions

in the last years< the 'ritish faile% to control 'asra an% e/entually left. 119 E/en the case

mentione% most often< relate% to the inter/ention in the 'alkans< es(ecially in Boso/o< %i%

not o as smooth as it is often referre% to as.

In fact< e/en after Boso/o 0as someho0 sta!iliKe%< )# ha% to sen% troo(s to the reion

!ecause local forces ha% attacke% the area controlle% !y E& (olice forces< 0ho foun%

themsel/es una!le to resist the rioters.12>)his resulte% in an increasin le/el of mistrust in

E&8s (o0er to actually esta!lish (eace in an area< as $i!ya is har%ly a country that is easy to

!e controlle%. 'ut ne/ertheless< there are other /oices 0ho claim that in fact there are other

oraniKations 0ho are more a((ro(riate for such actions.

6ome say that in fact & shoul% !e the ones to act in the area< as it has more fun%s to use< a

!ier military force an% also is seen as more leitimate %ue to the fact that it inclu%es most

of the countries in an international forum of %iscussions. )hus< & coul% also em(loy E&

forces as 0ell< in a more oraniKe% manner an% 0ith less financial ex(enses for the &nion.

e/ertheless < the situation is not as sim(le< as it may seem at first< as certain (rotocols nee%

to !e (ursue% for such actions an% sometimes the (rocess is a lon one.

It is also im(ortant to kno0 that & forces sometimes acte% too late !ecause they %i% not

ha/e a/aila!le forces or concentrate% too much on other !ureaucratic %etails. )his is the case

of R0an%a< in 0hich thousan%s 0ere kille% as (art of a enoci%e until the forces finally

acte%.1216o< there are analysts 0ho claim that ra! forces shoul% !e sent in the area as they

coul% a%a(t !etter to the situation an% 0oul% et there faster also< !ein more efficient.

Ho0e/er< this theory is also conteste% !ecause these troo(s may ha/e other interests in the

area< e/en if in (rior cases like Haiti they (ro/e% to !e /ery hel(ful. e/ertheless< as $i!ya is

a true un(o0%er !arrel< any forein interest may lea% to a true re!ellion< 0hich 0oul%

ara/ate the situation more than any international forum 0oul% 0ant to.

119 htt(QQ000.ca(tainsournal.comQcateoryQ!asraQ120 htt(QQ000.nytimes.comQ2>11Q>;Q29Q0orl%Qeuro(eQ29iht-ser!ia29.html+r1121 htt(QQ000.ne0int.orQfeaturesQ199"Q12Q>?Q%oinQ


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)he main conclusion is that or 0hen the inter/ention is to occur< it must !e treate% /ery

carefully< as the situation is har%ly a sim(le one an% the s(irits are hih. )he E& countries

coul% %efinitely ha/e a (ositi/e im(act on the %e/elo(ment of the situation !oth throuh

military an% economic su((ort< !ut the manner in 0hich it is !oun% to !e %eli/ere% is ust as

im(ortant. E& must learn the lessons tauht !y fhanistan< IraA or the 'alkans so as to

make the riht ste(s in the case of $i!ya< 0ithout increasin the (ressure< an% also !y

in/ol/in the international community so that the interests of the o(eration 0ill not seem to

!e unilateral.

III.$ *hy the EU is absent on Libya+

E/en in the context of the (o0erful financial crisis takin (lace in E& at (resent< many

analysts are still 0on%erin 0hy the E& fin%s it so %ifficult to inter/ene in $i!ya in a 0ay or

another so as to sta!iliKe the (osition of a Auite im(ortant state in the area. Inter/ention coul%

take se/eral sha(es an% efficiency 0oul% %efinitely !e im(ortantF ho0e/er< the 2; mem!er

states fin% it %ifficult to aree on a common course of action.

In fact< E& has har%ly ha% a common (olicy rear%in $i!ya e/er in history< as the countries0ere as %i/i%e% as they coul% !e es(ecially rear%in the reime of Muammar Ga%%afi.

6ome countries< like Italy122 colla!orate% 0ith the reime in or%er to re%uce immirationQ3>Qo(inionQsun%ayQli!yas-forotten-refuees.html+(ae0ante%all


64/92

country< as it ha% !ecome too critical an% %ifficult to 0ork 0ith. )he E& still (le%e% ?>

million euros 4S;1 million5 for this coo(eration< to !e s(ent on !or%er sur/eillance eAui(ment

an% trainin as 0ell as other thins.123

e/ertheless< some analysts 0ere critical to0ar%s colla!oration 0ith the former reime as it

har%ly res(ecte% the !asic human rihts< 0hile E& took (ri%e in enforcin them as much as

(ossi!le. $i!ya %i% not sin the Gene/a Con/ention an% %i% not (lan on %oin so either< so

this 0as in a 0ay an ackno0le%ement of the reime8s stratey.

hihly criticiKe% action 0as the one relate% to the fact that E& offere% sur/eillance

eAui(ment to Ga%%afi8s reime< 0hich coul% ha/e !een use% easily for trackin %o0n

o((onents or infrinin human rihts. )his is 0hy some o!ser/ers an% (oliticians from E&

recei/e% the ne0s Auite critically an% %eman%e% %ramatic im(ro/ements in this area from the

frica country !efore actually makin such a ste(< as this 0oul% encourae more a!use.

e/ertheless< the Hih Re(resentati/e for ,orein ffairs of the E&< Catherine shton

%eci%e% to trust the o/ernment an% start a %eal 0ith it< so as to coo(erate in matters of

immiration es(ecially. Ho0e/er< e/en thouh the critical %eal 0as a!out to !e enforce%< the

situation took a %ramatic turn in $i!ya< the re!ellion ex(an%in from )unisia an% Ey(t to

this country as 0ell< 0hich ma%e any %eal no loner (ossi!le.

If E& ha% !i %ifficulties in reachin a common (olicy rear%in the treatment of $i!ya< the

& seeme% to !e more efficient from this (oint of /ie0< as it /ote% an% a((lie% sanctions

aainst $i!ya in the cases of human rihts a!use.12")hus< it 0as Auite sur(risin to see that

such a lare entity manae% to aree< 0hile E& still fin%s it %ifficult to (ass o/er some

interests to su((ort common ones.

Ho0e/er< e/en in the 6ecurity Council the mem!ers of E& foun% it /ery har% to aree in a

0ay or another< e/en if the %ecision 0as final. )he (o0erful o(inions that %i/i%e Euro(e

ho0e/er 0ere seen %urin the %iscussion

123,ranKiska 'rantner5 htt(QQ000.aKerne0s.aKQenQnalysisan%#(inionQ319?9-*hytheE&isa!senton$i!ya124 htt(QQ000.un.orQa((sQne0sQstory.as(+e0sI3;:33


65/92

'lamin one sinle country for this failure 0oul% !e too easy Certainly icholas 6arkoKyJs

forceful an% uncoor%inate% a((roach resulte% more in offen%in his colleaues than in

hel(in to %e/elo( a common (osition. Ho0e/er< LGerman ,orein MinisterN Gui%o

*ester0elleJs stance - !ein ske(tical on the use of military force 0ithout hel(in to fin%

alternati/e solutions or %efine a man%ate that 0oul% a%%ress his concerns - 0as eAually

un(ro%ucti/e. 12?

)hus< Catherine shton foun% herself in the (osition of !ein rather a mo%erator than an

initiator. Her (osition 0as an% still is /ery %elicate in all (ossi!le means. #ne small

areement 0as reache% in the Euro(ean arliament ho0e/er< 0here the countries aree% to

(ressure & to make a no-fly Kone o/er $i!ya. Ho0e/er< a ne0 %iscussion arose< relate% to

the riht entity to enforce this measure E& or )#.

E& ho0e/er 0as (ro/en not to !e (re(are% enouh from a military (oint of /ie0< so )#

0as chosen for this (ur(ose< only ,rance fa/orin %irectly the E& inter/ention from this

(oint of /ie0. 6ome e/en 0on%ere% after this %ecision 0hether this ne0 exam(le sho0e%

that is 0as im(ossi!le for E& to ha/e a common security an% %efense (olicy. In or%er to

sho0 this 0as not true< a humanitarian mission 0as sent from E& 0ith some military tasks as

0ell.

Moreo/er< after this %ecision< some other sur(risin shifts of o(inion occurre%< as Germany

%eci%e% to sen% troo(s Auite eaerly after it refuse% at first to enforce any ty(e of em!aro on

$i!ya. Ho0e/er< e/en so< the troo(s sent !y E& are not /ery /isi!le so their im(act 0as Auite

minimalF this 0oul% ex(lain 0hy many $i!yans %o not 0ant too much E& in/ol/ement at the

le/el of o/ernance.

Ho0e/er< 0hat this case sho0e% E& is that there are some clear reforms that ha/e to !e ma%e

if it %oes not 0ant to i/e u( on the common security an% %efense (olicy. #ne 0oul% !e to !econstant in a certain %ecision< 0hile the secon% 0oul% !e for the Hih Re(resentati/e for

,orein ffairs to !e more (roacti/e. In other 0ays< $i!ya 0oul% ust (ro/e to !e a ne0 IraA.

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66/92

Concl"sions

)he E& an% its Mem!er 6tates %eci%e% ra(i%ly to su((ort the $i!yan (eo(le %urin theconflict. ,urthermore< the E&8s (ur(ose has !een to su((ort sta!ility in the country. lso< it

shoul% !e notice% that after the re/olution !ean in $i!ya< the Euro(ean &nion an% its

Mem!er 6tates offere% an enormous humanitarian su((ort in or%er to hel( the E& citiKens to

return in Euro(e an% also they hel(e% the forein 0orkers to 0ith%ra0 to their nati/e

countries. )he E& also assure% the (ro/ision 0ith foo%< 0ater< an% me%ical su((ort.

)he role Euro(ean CommissionJs Humanitarian i% #ffice 4ECH#5 0as to offer %irect

humanitarian hel( in $i!ya an% to su((ortin emerency stocks. E/en after thereconciliation< ECH# ha% to %eal 0ith t0o actions to (rotect the ci/ilians an% the existence

of &`#s.

)he ex(erts of the Euro(ean Commission Humanitarian i% b Ci/il rotection %e(artment

are still monitorin the %istri!ution of assistance an% to safeuar% coor%ination 0ith ai%

oraniKations an% su((orters.

#n = March 2>11< the Euro(ean &nion (resente% a s(eech on artnershi( for emocracy an%

ros(erity< !ase% on three main (illars su((ort for social an% uri%ical transformation an% the

fiht aainst frau%F su((ort on ci/il society an% (roress for the economic %e/elo(ment.

Catherine shton< the E& Hih Re(resentati/e for ,orein ffairs an% 6ecurity

olicyQCommission 7ice-resi%ent 4HR75 o(ene% on 22 May an E& office in 'enhaKi11. Its o!ecti/e 0as tosu((ort $i!ya< !y strenthenin in%i/i%ual an% reional relationshi(s !et0een the E& an%

ra! countries. 6ince 2>>"< the E tries to offer more free%om an% a !etter life for its

(artner countries.


67/92

E&8s acti/ity in $i!ya is an in/estment in the future< as colla!oration 0ith $i!ya 0ill

strenthen !oth $i!ya an% the E&. Moreo/er throuh mutual tra%e< cultural exchane an%

coo(erati/e a((roaches on miration an% security< E& 0ill maintain the transition to

%emocracy.

I. !elations "et#een $i"%a an& '( in M)ammar al-*a&&afi+s era


68/92

IV.1 #ise o! Gadda!i6s r"lin 7189818::;

Muammar al-Ga%%afi 0as one of the most contro/ersial frican lea%ers an% a (erson that

enerate% a lot of inconsistencies in the *est8s international (olicies. Ho0e/er< he 0as< !y

all means< the most rele/ant lea%er of this country in the late 2>th

century an% the first %eca%eof the 21stcentury 0ith his more than "2-year rulin that (lace% him " thamonst the larest

non-royal lea%ers since the 19>>s an% the lonest-ser/in ra! lea%er.

Muammar al-Ga%%afi seiKe% (o0er in 6e(tem!er 1 st19:9 after a cou( %8tat. )he 19:9 cou(

%8tat 0as oraniKe% !y the so-calle% ,ree #fficers Mo/ement an% 0as %irecte% to0ar%s the

corru(t< !ut (ro-*estern< reime of Bin I%ris the 1st.

)he Cou( 0as !loo%less12: an% emere% on the roun%s of increasin national-socialist

feelins amonst ur!an (eo(le in eneral an% youn (eo(le es(ecially. )his sentiment 0as

also com!ine% 0ith %istrust of 0estern (olicies< (olicies that ha% full su((ort of the former

monarchal reime.

fter the cou( succee%e% in seiKin (o0er< the country 0as lea% !y the Re/olutionary

Comman% Council 4RCC512; that foun%e% the $i!yan o/ernment< 0hich issue% its first

(roclamation riht on 6e(tem!er 1st in 19:9. )he RCC %eclare% $i!ya to !e a free an%

so/erein nation

the relations between eu and libya

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