The Psychosemantic The Psychosemantic Approach to PersonalityApproach to Personality

Shulamith KreitlerDepartment of Psychology

Tel-Aviv UniversityTel-Aviv, Israel

E-mail: Krit@netvision.net.ilBudapest symposium on “The Many Faces of Personality”, May 13-15, 2002

The psychosemantic approach denotes a theory and methodology

based onanalyzing meaning assignment

tendencies of individualsand clarifying their role in regard to the

major components of personality: Traits

EmotionsCognitionBehavior

Structure of the talk:

A. Presentation of the meaning systemB. Meaning and personality traitsC. Meaning and emotionsD. Meaning and cognitionE. Meaning and behaviorF. General conclusions

A. Presentation of the meaning system

Developed by Kreitler and Kreitler, since 1968 onward

The System of Meaning(Kreitler & Kreitler)

Meaning is a cognitive concept. It forms part of cognition.It is the dynamic core of cognition.

Cognition is a system that works with meaning, namely, it responds to meanings, and produces, elaborates, stores, transforms and uses meanings.

Assumptions Underlying the Meaning System

Meaning is communicableMeaning is complex (multi-

component system)Meaning includes a personal-

subjective part and an interpersonally-shared part

Meaning is a pattern of cognitive contents focused on a referent.

A referent can be an external or internal stimulus, an object, a situation, an event, an individual, limited or extended, real, virtual or fantasized, etc.

The cognitive contents are designed to express or communicate information that would enable identifying the referent, handling it, responding to it, or dealing with it within the psychological domain.

The cognitive content and the referent form together the meaning unit.

Referent – Meaning Value

Examples: Budapest – is a wonderful cityAn airport – serves for transportationSymposium – brings people together

The cognitive content is called meaning value because it fulfills the role of expressing or communicating meaning.

The meaning unit is characterized in terms of the following 5 sets of variables:

Referent – Meaning Value

Shifts in Referent

Types of Relation Forms of

Relation

Forms of Expressio

n

Meaning Dimension

s

The psychosemantic method consists in coding the responses in terms of the following categories:

Meaning dimensions: Content categories, such as Feelings and Emotions, Actions, Sensory Qualities (color, shape, etc.), Size, Weight

Types of Relation: Relational categories, such as Attributive, Comparative, Illustrative-Exemplifying, Metaphoric-Symbolic.

Forms of Relation : Formative categories, such as Positive or Negative, Simple or Complex (e.g., Conjunctive, Disjunctive), Absolute or Modified (e.g., always, sometimes)

Shifts of Referent : Categories of shifts to other constructs, such as from Ocean to Lake, from House to Windows

Forms of Expression : Categories of means of expression, such as words, drawings, movements, denoted objects

Meaning Variables =Meaning Variables =

Meaning dimensionsand

Types of relationand

Forms of relationand

Shifts of referentand

Forms of expression

Examples of Meaning Variables

Meaning Dimensions Range of inclusion Material Function, Purpose & Role Feelings & Emotions Actions Possessions &

Belongingness Sensory qualities Locational Qualities Temporal Qualities

Types of Relation Attributive Comparative Exemplifying-illustrative Metaphoric-symbolic

Forms of Relation Positive, Negative Conjunctive, Disjunctive Normative

Referent Shifts Identical to input Part of input Association Opposite of input

Forms of Expression Verbal Gestural Graphic Tones & Sounds

Meaning TestInstructions: Communicate to another

person the meaning (interpersonally-shared and personal) of a presented set of stimuli, using any means of communication considered adequate, for example, words, drawings, movements, etc.

Stimuli: Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.

Examples of Coded ResponsesStimulus: Budapest

Meaning Dimensions

Types of Relation

Forms of Relation

Shifts of Referent

Forms of Expression

A beautiful city

Contextual Allocation / Judgments & Evaluation

Attributive

Positive

NoneVerbal

More southern than Helsinki

Locational Qualities

Comparative

Positive

NoneVerbal

I love it’s center

Feelings & Emotions

Attributive

Positive

Part of (center)

Verbal

Meaning Profile

Frequencies (proportions) of individual’s use of each meaning variable in responding to the stimuli of the meaning test.

Meaning Variables

Development of Meaning

Characteristics of the meaning system

ComplexDevelopingSelectiveDynamicReferent-focusedSelf-embedded

Uses of Meaning Variables1. For characterizing an individual’s meaning

processing system i.e., the individual’s meaning profile

2. For characterizing specific contents e.g., “I am in Budapest” refers to the Meaning

Dimension Locational Qualities3. For characterizing processes

e.g., solving a problem about causality involves the Meaning Dimension Causes and Antecedents

4. For characterizing structures or complexes e.g., identifying the meaning variables

corresponding to a personality trait, a cognitive act, an emotion, or an act of behavior

B. Meaning and Personality Traits

What is the relation of meaning variables to personality traits?

Research procedure applied for answering this question:

Administering to participants personality questionnaire and the Meaning Test

Correlating the scores on personality tests with the meaning profiles

The significant correlations constitute the meaning profile of the trait.

Example A: Pattern of meaning variables corresponding to extraversion

Meaning Dimensions Contextual allocation Range of inclusion Actions Results & Consequences (-) Size & dimensions Quantity & numbers Temporal qualities (-) Possessions Sensory qualities (-)

(experienced by referent) Sensory qualities (of object) Judgments & evaluations (-)

Types of Relation Attributive Metaphoric (-)

Forms of Relation Positive

Referent Shifts Associations (-)

[Source: Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990). The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits. New York: Plenum]

Example B: Meaning pattern of anality

Meaning Dimensions Size & dimensions Quantity & numbers Temporal qualities Possessions Functions

Types of Relation Comparative Metaphoric (-)

Forms of Relation Absolute Negative

Referent Shifts To parts of stimulus To opposites

Applying the procedure to 280 personality traits showed thatEach personality trait Each personality trait corresponds to a unique corresponds to a unique pattern of meaning pattern of meaning variables.variables.

Patterns of meaning variables corresponding to different personality characteristics and tendencies were identified,for example, Leadership (Fiedler’s LPC) Alexithymia Tendency for different defense

mechanisms, e.g., denial, repression, projection

Narcissism The “good” manager

Meaning Profile of the “Good” Manager (based on the meaning variables common to the meaning profiles of 12 managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their peers and supervisors)

Meaning Dimensions Contextual allocation Function Manner of operation Consequences Causes (-) Domain of application State

Types of Relation Attributive Comparative: Difference Exemplifying (-) Metaphoric (-)

Forms of Relation Positive Partial (not universal) Conjunctive Disjunctive Normative Desired (-)

Referent Shifts Close shifts Medium shifts Distant shifts (-)

Meaning

Profile

ExtraversionAuthoritorianism Social

desirabilitySociability

Depression

Paranoia

Uses of meaning patterns of traitsUses of meaning patterns of traits1.1. Assessment of personality traitsAssessment of personality traits

Each trait corresponds to a unique pattern of meaning variables

Step 1Determine he patterns of meaning variables

corresponding to the traitStep 2Determine the individual’s meaning profile by means

of the Meaning TestStep 3Compare the traits pattern with the individual’s

meaning profile. Comparison – by correlation or by counting shared components.

Shared componentsTrait’s score

0 – 20%Very weak

21 – 40%Weak

41 – 60%Moderate

61 – 80%Strong

81 – 100%Very strong

Validation studies:The scores of traits based on personality inventories and meaning-based traits were significantly intercorrelated:16 PF r = .76 – r = .83CPI r = .50 – r = .86Myers-Brigs r = .69 – r = .84

The meaning profile of an individual provides information about the score of the individual on 300+300+ personality traits without administering any personality inventory.

Advantages: Increased reliability Reduced costs (time, resources) Increased information (about

personality trends, anti-traits)

2.2. Insight into the dynamics of a traitInsight into the dynamics of a trait Patterns of meaning variables corresponding to a

trait provide insight into the unique underlying dynamics of the trait.

For example,Extraversion – Low arousalSocial desirability – Evaluation, not emotions.

3.3. Validating personality traitsValidating personality traits Validating-by-meaning is a new procedure of

validating traits.It consists in examining the manifestations of traits in

domains defined by the meaning variables in the pattern corresponding to the trait.

For example, extraversion and anality.Advantages of this validation:

1. Broad-ranging 2. Theoretically-anchored3. Comprehensive4. Systematic

4.4. Comparing personality traitsComparing personality traits Patterns of meaning variables enable comparison

between traits based on analyzing shared meaning variables.

For example, “Cleanliness” and “punctuality”

r = .56 Shared: e.g., State, Quantity, Size

“Cleanliness” and “authoritarianism” r = .58 Shared: e.g., Evaluation, Cognitive qualities,

Structure, Metaphorization.

5.5. Identifying personality traitsIdentifying personality traits Formal properties of patterns of meaning variables

corresponding to traits:a) No. of meaning variables in the pattern: 13.8 ± 6.5b) No. of different kinds of meaning variables in the

pattern: 3 - 4c) Proportion of different kinds of meaning variables

in the pattern: Meaning dimensions 54.75% Types of relation 25.75% Forms of relation 5.90% Referent shifts 12.57%

d) Relative proportion of negative components in the pattern: .38

e) Proportion of meaning dimensions and types of relation in the pattern representing general variables: .44

Number of Significant DeviationsConclusion

0 – 1Trait-identical

2 – 3Trait-similar

4 – 5Trait-dissimilar

Examples

Trait-identical Neuroticism, Narcissism

Trait-similar Alexithymia, Trait-anxiety

Trait-dissimilar MMPI scales

C. Meaning and Emotion

The tendency for each type of emotional reaction

corresponds to a pattern of meaning variables

ExamplePattern of meaning variables corresponding to anxiety (as assessed by 7 scales)Meaning DimensionsAction (-)Sensory qualitiesFeelings & emotions (experienced)Judgments & evaluationsCognitive qualitiesTypes of RelationAttributive (-)Metaphoric

D. Meaning and Cognition

Meaning Variables and Cognition

Cognitive contents, information

Meaning values

Cognitive processes

Meaning variables

Cognitive acts, structural schemas

Meaning profiles

Meaning

1. Meaning Values and Cognitive Contents

Meaning values correspond to cognitive contents and information.

Examples:When the individual’s meaning profile shows a high frequency of the meaning dimension Locational Qualities, that individual may be expected to have a lot of labels, words, information in the domain of location, places, routes.

2. Meaning Values and Cognitive Processes

Cognitive processes correspond to specific meaning variables or combinations of meaning variables.

Examples:Shifting from one theme to another – High frequency of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to previous response, or to superordinate referent)Associations – High number of meaning values (absolute and especially relative), high number of different shifts of referentAbstracting –High frequency of meaning dimension Contextual Allocation

3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive Acts

Cognitive acts correspond to specific combinations of meaning variables that constitute complete profiles.

Meaning Profile of Planning Meaning Dimensions

Contextual allocation Range of inclusion Actions Manner of operation Antecedents & causes Consequences & results Range of application Structure Quantity & numbers Locational qualities Temporal qualities Sensory qualities (-) Judgments & evaluations

Types of Relation Attributive Metaphoric-symbolic (-)

Forms of Relation Propositional, positive &

negative Partial Conjunctive Disjunctive

Shifts of Referent Close shifts: Parts, Former

responses, Grammatical variations

Medium shifts: Input modified by addition, Combination of several former responses

Distant shifts (-) : Associations, Labels

Forms of Expression Verbal, Verbal description

of drawings

Further cognitive acts whose meaning profiles were identified: Memory for verbal material / names /

faces Analogical thinking Inventive thinking Creativity Exploration and curiosity Various cognitive styles (e.g.,

impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. blunting)

E. Meaning and Behavior

Contents and processes of meaning affect behavior only indirectlyindirectly and in multiple waysmultiple ways

The Cognitive Orientation Model of Behavior EvocationThe Cognitive Orientation Model of Behavior Evocation(Kreitler and Kreitler)(Kreitler and Kreitler)

IWhat is it?Input identification (Meaning Action)

Conditioned/Unconditioned response; Defensive reaction

IF UNIDENTIFIED OR IDENTIFIED AS SIGNAL FOR MOLAR ACTION

IIWhat is it to me / for me? How am I involved?

Meaning generation (beliefs)Action required or not

IF ACTION REQUIRED

IIIWhich action?

Beliefs of 4 types representing deeper meaning

CO Cluster

Behavioral Intent

IF BEHAVIORAL INTENT

IVHow to perform action?Behavioral Program

INPUTINPUT

BEHAVIORBEHAVIOR

Effects of meaning

Input perception

Input identification Personal involvement /

Requirement for action Behavioral intent Behavioral program

Action

TRAITS EMOTIONS Meanings

Meanings

Meanings

Meanings

Meanings

Meanings

TRAITS EMOTIONS

TRAITS EMOTIONS

TRAITS EMOTIONS

F. General Conclusions

The psychosemantic approach to personalityThe psychosemantic approach to personality Provides new insights into the nature,

functioning and manifestations of personality traits of emotions of cognitive acts

Provides new possibilities for the assessment of personality traits of emotions of cognitive acts

Provides new perspectives for the functioning and effects of MEANING in regard to personality traits to emotions to cognitive acts