L F Lowenstein College of Preceptors, London and

Director, Lowenstein Therapeutic Community

The psychologist’s influence on the teaching process and the teacher

Introduction

Psychologists, especially those working within schools, have had an increasing influence on the teaching process, and in particular on teachers’ attitudes and behaviour towards pupils. While this has been welcomed by a number of educationalists, who see this role as one of a partnership rather than one that usurps their own authority, there are others who feel this is unnecessary meddling in the educators’ sphere. The suspicion and caution with which some teachers receive the advice of psychologists is understandable.

Many psychologists appear to view the classroom situation much as they do an individual who may come to the clinic for therapy or diagnosis. This is simply not the case. The classroom with its multitude of individuals is a society that requires not merely teaching but governing. Teachers cannot afford, on the whole, the luxury of constant individual attention, especially as classes are becoming larger rather than smaller.

Psychologists must therefore be aware of the particular problems faced by the classroom teacher. Most educational psychologists in Britain, but not necessarily elsewhere, have had or should have had, a considerable amount of teaching experience before becoming specialists in educational psychology, for the primary purpose of advising teachers. Such experience naturally gives the opinions pronounced by educational psychologists more relevance to teaching. Teachers know they are seeking the advice of someone who understands their needs because the psychologist has had experience of the same type of job.

The types of problems encountered in the classroom by teachers may be to do with the subject matter, but more often are to do with

InternationalReview of Applied Psychology (SAGE, London, Beverly Hills and New Delhi), Vol. 34 (1985). 17-24

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individual children or groups of children who may be difficult to teach either because they have a learning problem, are underachieving, or because their reaction to the teaching process is to be disruptive or even violent. Sometimes a combination of these problems exists.

Psychologists, especially those who have had relatively little experience of classroom teaching, have as much to learn from the school and the teachers as they have to teach or advise. Visits to a number of different schools will soon indicate that there are certain teachers who never, or rarely, have difficulties with pupils or the teaching procedures while others have a considerable amount of difficulty. This may be due to personality factors, poor training or lack of what is commonly termed ‘maturity’, strength of leadership, or the capacity to appear to be a figure of authority. Sometimes teachers fail because their teaching process or procedures fail to communicate effectively with the pupil or student.

Two types of teachers have frequently been defined: one who is ‘subject’ orientated, and one who is ‘child’ or ‘pupil’ orientated. Teachers are unlikely to be effective for long unless they combine these two areas of expertise. Coming straight to the point, one might well ask - ‘In what way can the psychologist influence the teaching process and the teacher, to the advantage of teachers and the pupils they teach?’

Ways in which the psychologist can help the teacher and the child

There are at least three ways in which the psychologist can help the teacher and the child in the classroom: (1) as an objective observer of the classroom ‘climate’, (2) by dealing with the problem child, and (3) by helping teachers with their teaching problems.

Before we go on to discuss the way psychologists can help the teacher and the child in the three areas outlined, we must consider teachers’ role expectations of psychologists working in the classroom. Davis ( I 977) investigated (a) the differences in role expectations held for school psychologists in schools by principals, unit leaders, teachers and school psychologists, and (b) the relationship between agreement on expectations and ratings of the performance effectiveness of school psychologists. The roles of the

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school psychologists examined in this report were consultant, diagnostician, therapist, educational programmer and researcher. The data showed that role expectations of the school psychologists and their referent groups were consistently similar. Two of the five role functions, however, were rejected by the unit teachers: therapist and diagnostician. It appears that the minimal contact that unit teachers have with school psychologists may lead to a lack of mutual understanding regarding the tasks psychologists should be expected to perform. Similar uncertainties were expressed by Porter and Holzberg (1 978) indicating the dilemma between theory and practice. Many teachers viewed these psychologists primarily as theoreticians rather than as practitioners who were able to give them proper guidance. Despite this, McDermott (1980) felt that these differences of opinion did not adversely affect the treatment given to prevent the occurrence of, or control children with, psychological problems.

1. As an objective observer of the classroom ‘climate’

Psychologists who come into the school and into the classroom, although they have their own ideas, theories and prejudices, come as relatively objective observers of a situation. Sometimes they have been called in by teachers and sometimes by the head of the school, who feels that an objective assessment of a classroom is to the benefit of all concerned. There is no substitute for observing the interaction of teacher and pupil in the classroom setting. As has already been mentioned, psychologists who work in the classroom have a great advantage if they have themselves been trained, qualified and practising teachers. The classroom environment is in many ways very different from those encountered by psychologists working with individuals or even small groups of individuals. In particular there is the problem of maintaining control of the group of children in order to be able to perform the teaching process.

Psychologists soon observe the capacity of the teacher to control without necessarily ‘subjugating’ the children in the group. An ideal environment is certainly one where the teacher has control over the children, and where the children accept with a sense of security the feeling that they are being taught by someone whom they respect, like and who makes the learning process as interesting as possible. Teachers vary in their capacity for achieving this end.

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On the whole children prefer teachers who are capable of stimulating their desire to learn and whose firmness as well as understanding provides the classroom with a purposeful environment. Not all teachers are capable of ‘governing’ their class with a certain Solomon-like sense of justice, while at the same time inculcating information and stimulating interest.

Whether teaching is an art or a science is still uncertain. It is probably a combination of the two. While some teachers can be taught the process of how to become a good teacher, others have a natural flair or ability without such instruction. Some teachers fail to learn, and do not have the basic capacity to teach effectively. The result is suffering on both sides. It is, of course, important that such teachers are made aware of their handicap and are advised to leave the profession as soon as possible, both for their own self- esteem and the welfare of the children they are attempting to teach.

The psychologist’s role in helping teachers who are capable of doing a reasonable job in teaching may be to encourage them to use more individualized approaches to the instruction of children (Goodwin, 1970). This may not always be easy in large classes and it is very often for this reason that smaller classes and specialized teachers are required to help certain children with learning problems. Newton (1978) designed a manual to help teachers understand the problems of teaching disabled children. The manual explains the basic causes of learning disability and presents solutions to problems which professionals face in working with this population.

Psychologists frequently encourage teachers to observe carefully the behaviour of children, especially children suffering from learning difficulties. Raybould and Solity (1982) used precision teaching principles with students with learning problems which involved five steps: specifying performance, recording daily behaviour, charting daily behaviour, recording the teaching approach, and analysing data. This approach has been successfully implemented through consultation with school psychologists in Walsall, UK.

2. Dealing with the problem child

Perhaps one of the primary tasks of psychologists in the classroom is to deal with the individual child who may be having problems

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and who may be a problem to the teacher in the classroom. The cause for the disturbing behaviour is very often unknown or only partly known, and it is for the psychologist to discover more about the child’s particular needs, strengths, weaknesses, abilities and limitations. Sometimes these are due to problems encountered in the classroom, sometimes to problems in the home, and at other times to an inability to understand a particular child’s constellation of abilities and temperament.

The teacher therefore looks to the expert for advice in handling and understanding the child’s particular difficulties and dealing with these more effectively within the classroom setting. Alternatively, it may be necessary for the child to be considered for a different environment wherein his own needs may be more fully met.

The child is withdrawn from the classroom, is seen at a Child Guidance Clinic or a Child and Family Guidance Centre or in the school itself for ‘testing’ and an interview with a psychologist. Following such an assessment and interview, a discussion usually occurs between the psychologist and the head of the school and/or the teacher concerned, and suitable advice given that may help the teacher to deal more effectively with the child in question.

The role of the psychologist is to make available to the teacher psychological knowledge and techniques relevant to problems encountered in the classroom. The role of the teacher is to use these techniques in solving the problem (Curry, 1970). Psychologists have even been interested in teaching psychology to disadvantaged pupils for the purpose of improving their behaviour (Rappaport and Sorensen, 1971).

Not all teachers are likely to benefit equally from the advice being provided by a psychologist, especially those who use behaviour modification techniques. Teachers must be trained and reinforced in the use of these techniques (Abidin, 1971).

There will be some variability in how the role of the psychologist is seen. Osguthorpe (1979) found that the school psychologist was often viewed as a diagnostician instead of as a remediator. Blackman (1979) saw psychologists as specialists helping with pupils who, for instance, have reading problems. There has been some success in the development of psychoeducational services in that they encourage teachers to utilize the consultative services of psychologists and so reduce referrals to psychological evaluation in this way (Chandler, 1980). Among older children, advice is

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frequently sought on vocational assessment and education (Smith, 1982).

3. Helping teachers with thdir teaching problems

Perhaps one of the newer roles for psychologists is to understand the problems of teachers in dealing with often diverse rather than homogeneous groups of children. With increasing emphasis on ‘comprehensive’ or ‘integrated’ classrooms and schools, the job of the teacher becomes much more difficult. Not only is the size of classes as large if not larger than previously, but the variety of children exacerbates the situation.

Additionally teachers may have problems that emanate not from the classroom itself, but from elsewhere, which they would like to discuss with an impartial and objective outsider who will treat the information with a great deal of confidentiality, and who may be able to support or offer advice. Chiefly these may be problems with the head, colleagues, parents of children or they may be personal problems.

Sometimes specific help is required in the teaching of particular children who have special problems, for example, in reading, spelling or mathematics, or some other area of handicap that can be improved through discussion with the psychologist.

Perhaps one of the newer approaches by psychologists working in schools is to involve parents, and the development of parent workshops. Psychologists have also introduced perceptual training programmes to both teachers and parents, involving them both in a group commitment. The use of teaching manuals has already been mentioned as a way whereby a ready handbook may be used by the teacher to help children with handicaps in a variety of areas (Blanco, 1971).

Sabatino (1972) asked school psychologists to view themselves as others see them, namely as special educators. He challenged the school psychologist to join with the special educator in establishing a team which is capable of activating a diagnostic/prescriptive instructional relationship.

How children learn is as important as what they learn. The school psychologist can help determine the most suitable method of teaching for those students who are having difficulty in learning (Hutson and Niles, 1974). Hunt (1976) suggested that psychologists

The psychologisf ’s influence on teaching 23

need to reconsider the process by which psychological ideas are applied in educational practice. Psychological ideas do not guide educational practices as much as they should because psychologists fail to consider what is happening in the classroom. How a teacher thinks can be identified through the teacher’s conception of students, teaching approaches and learning outcome. More and more psychologists are coming to the realization that teachers too are playing an active psychological role, and may even be considered as psychologists without necessarily having received their lengthy training.

Finally, when there is time, psychologists should work closely with teachers in carrying out research of an applied nature. The research should concern itself primarily with the early identification of problems that children have and devise remedial and therapeutic methods for dealing with these. Such research often requires the co-operation of parents also. Time must be found for such research as it is essential if we are to improve both our diagnostic and remedial techniques.

References Abidin, R.R. (1971). ‘What’s Wrong with Behaviour Modification?’ Journal of

Blackman, P. (1979). Analysis of Reading Problems: A School Psychologist’s

Blanco, R.F. (1971). ‘A Focus on Remediation in School Psychology.’ Journal of

Chandler, L.A. (1980). ‘Consultative Services in the Schools: A Model.’ Journalof

Curry, D.R. (1970). ‘Case Studies in Behaviour Modification.’ Psychology in /he

Davis, K.P. (1977). Perceived Role and Effectiveness of School Psychologists in the Schools. Wisconsin University, Madison: Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning.

Goodwin, D.L. (1970). ‘Innovation and Behaviour Change Through Collaboration with a School Staff.’ Journal of School Psychology, 8(3):209-14.

Hunt, D.E. (1976). Teachers are Psychologists, roo: On the Application to Educa- rion. American College Testing Program, Research and Development Division.

Hutson, B.A. and Niles J.A. (1974). ‘Trial Teaching: The Missing Link.’ Psycho- logy in the Schools, 11(2):188-91.

McDermott, P.A. (1980). ‘Congruence and Typology of Diagnoses in School Psychology: An Empirical Study.’ Psychology in the Schools, 7(1):12-22.

Newton, J . (ed.) (1978). A Multidisciplinary Approach fo Learning Disability:

School PSyChOlOgy, 9( 1):38-42.

Viewpoint. Des Moines: Iowa State Dept. of Public Instruction.

School Psychology, 9(3):261-77,

School Psychology, 18(4):399-402.

Schools, 7(4): 330-5.

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Handbook for rhe Classroom Teacher. Kent, Ohio: American School Health Association.

Osguthorpe, R.T. (1979). ‘The School Psychologist as a Tutorial Systems Super- visor.’ Psychology in the Schools, 16(1):88-92.

Porter, J. and Holzberg B. (1978). ‘The Changing Role of the School Psychologist in the Age of Specialization: From Conducting Testing to Enhancing Instruction.’ Education of rhe Visually Handicapped, 10(3):71-4.

Rappaport, J . and Sorensen J. (1971). ‘Teaching Psychology to Disadvantaged Youth: Enhancing the .Relevance of Psychology Through Public Education.’ Journal of School Psychology, 9(2): 120-6.

Raybould, T. and Solity J. (1982). ‘Teaching with Precision.’ Special Educurion: Forward Trends, 9(2):9- 13.

Sabatino, D.A. (1972). ‘School Psychology - Special Education: To Acknowledge a Relationship.’ Journal of School Psychology, 10(2):99- 105.

Smith, B.B. (1982). ‘A Psychological Model for Special Needs, Instruction and Research.’ Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education, 4(3):29-32.

L’influence du psychologue sur le processus d’enseignement et sur les enseignants

Les psychologues scolaires, souvent d’anciens enseignants, ont une influence croissante sur le processus d’enseignement et en particulier sur l’attitude de I’enseignant et les comportements des Cleves. Bien que !es attentes des enseignants par rapport aux psychologues sont diverses - Ctre consultant, poser un diagnostique, rCaliser des therapies, Claborer les programmes en education, @tre chercheur . . . - nous dkvelopperons trois axes d’aide que peuvent fournir les psychologues scolaires: - Observer le climat de la classe tant du point de vue de

l’enseignant et de son mode de contr6le’ que du point de vue des Cleves: l’acceptation de la stcurit&, le respect des normes . . . et aider l’enseignant 21 comprendre, a observer et ?i remedier a une situation;

- Conseiller les enfants eprouvant des problimes scolaires, familiaux ou complexes et rendre disponible a l’kducateur une certaine information de maniere a renforcer ou a favoriser un mode d’approche;

- Aider I’enseignant dans la rksolution des problemes en lui donnant I’occasion d’en parler et en ouvrant les horizons a la cooperation enseignant-parents.