the psychological effects of transcendental meditation on
TRANSCRIPT
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TRANSCENDENTAL
MEDITATION ON YOUTHS
BY
SHARON KAREN EDENS
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
In
Clinical Psychology
Faculty of Arts
at the Rand Afrikaans University
Supervisor : Dr. A. Burke
1999
The financial assistance of National Research Foundation (NRF) towards
this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and
conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to
be attributed to the National Research Foundation.
(i)
ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS
My warm and sincere gratitude to :
Dr Alban Burke for his encouragement, constructive comment, time,
energy and his belief in my abilities.
The principals, teachers and willing youths who participated in this
project.
The kind and willing people who helped in so many different ways:
Delene VVightman, Carrie Coetzee, Wendy Tollemache, Mark Edens,
Denise Amery, Carolyn Tollemache, Richard Peycke, Ronald
Tollemache, Conrad Mhlongo, Colin Zazayokwe, Taddy Blecher,
Nozipho, Vumazonke, Pamela Caitley-Spencer, Peter Mkhondo.
My parents Ronald and Wendy Tollemache for always loving, supporting
and encouraging me.
My children Neil and Alyssa Edens for filling my life with love and joy and
enduring a mother with dreams.
I dedicate this thesis to my husband, Mark Edens, for loving and
supporting me throughout my studies and truly wanting me to fulfill
myself.
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the practise of
Transcendental Meditation may benefit youths in terms of certain
psychological variables. This was a quantitative quasi-experimental
study as randomization was not possible. Grade seven pupils from a
school in Alexandra which had been practising Transcendental
Meditation for approximately two years; as well as a control school were
both tested. There was an attempt to control nuisance variables, such
as the translation of questionnaires, close geographical proximity of the
schools, as well as the implementation of tests at the same time of day.
Despite this, nuisance variables may always influence a study, in this
study possible group differences could not be controlled for. Statistics
showed that the school practising Transcendental Meditation had
significantly lower scores than the control school in measures of anxiety.
These scores were significant at the 0.1% level of significance. It was
also discovered that depression was lower in the school practising
Transcendental Meditation; this was found to be significant at the 1%
level of significance. Measures of locus of control and hopelessness did
not appear to be effected by the practice of Transcendental Meditation.
Thus the possibility was proposed that Transcendental Meditation may
have an effect on mood or affect namely anxiety and depression. In
contrast, it was found that Transcendental Meditation may not effect the
more stable personality characteristics of locus of control; nor the more
stable cognitions found in hopelessness.
The lowered scores of depression and anxiety were at levels of
significance which may be deemed strong for a social science study.
Thus this study may be considered to show important findings, as the
consequences of psychological health in individuals ultimately effects the
larger society.
(iv)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW
Page
1
8
2.1 Meditation 8
2.1.1 Definition of Meditation 8
2.1.2 Definition of Transcendental Meditation 9
2.1.3 Basic Modes of Meditation 10
2.1.4 Aims of Transcendental Meditation 11
2.1.5 Research on Meditation and Transcendental Meditation 13
2.1.5.1 Research on Physiology 13
2.1.5.2 Research on Psychological Variables 16
2.1.5.3 Research on Substance Abuse and Criminal
Rehabilitation 21
2.1.5.4 Research on Academic Performance 21
2.2 Locus of Control 24
2.2.1 Definition of Locus of Control 24
2.2.2 Theoretical Basis of the Locus of Control Construct 24
2.2.3 Internal and External Locus of Control 26
2.3 Anxiety 28
2.3.1 Definition of Anxiety 28
2.3.2 Comorbidity of Childhood Anxiety Disorders and
Depression 29
2.3.3 Theories of Anxiety 31
2.3.3.1 Biological Theories 31
2.3.3.2 Psychosocial Theories 32
2.3.3.2.1 Psychodynamic Theories 32
2.3.3.2.2 Learning and Behavioural Theories 32
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Page
2.3.3.2.3 Existentialism Theories 33
2.3.4 Treatment of Anxiety 33
2.4 Depression 36
2.4.1 Definition of Depression 36
2.4.2 Theories of Depression 36
2.4.2.1 Biological Theories 37
2.4.2.1.1 Genetic Theories 37
2.4.2.1.2 Neurobiological Theories 37
2.4.2.2 Social — Psychological Theories 38
2.4.2.2.1 Separation Loss 38
2.4.2.2.2 Response Contingent Positive Reinforcement Theory 38
2.4.2.2.3 Learned Helplessness 39
2.4.2.2.4 Beck's Cognitive Triad 39
2.4.3 Depression in Childhood and Adolescence 40
2.4.3.1 Differences Between Depression in Adults and Youths 41
2.4.3.2 Depression and Aggression in Youths 43
2.4.4 Treatment of Depression 45
2.4.4.1 Pharmacotherapy in Youth 45
2.4.4.2 Psychotherapy 45
2.4.4.2.1 Cognitive — Behavioural Treatments 45
2.4.4.2.2 Play Therapy 46
2.5 Hopelessness 46
2.5.1 Definition of Hopelessness 46
2.5.2 Theoretical Perspectives of Hopelessness 47
2.5.3 The Relation Between Hopelessness and Suicidal
Behaviour 48
2.5.4 Suicide in Childhood and Adolescence 49
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CHAPTER THREE : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Page
51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 The Research Hypotheses 53
3.3 The Sample 54
3.4 Measuring Instruments 56
3.4.1 Locus of Control Scale for Children 57
3.4.2 The Hopelessness Scale for Children 58
3.4.3 A Revised Measure of Children's Manifest Anxiety 59
3.4.4 Child Depression Scale 60
3.5 Method 60
CHAPTER FOUR : STATISTICAL RESULTS 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Distribution of Scores for the Different Variable 64
4.3 Differences Between Mean Scores Between the
Two Schools 73
4.4 Relationship Between Variables 76
CHAPTER FIVE : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 81
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Effects of Transcendental Meditation on the
Different Variables 83
5.2.1 Anxiety 83
5.2.2 Depression 84
5.2.3 Locus of Control 85
5.2.4 Hopelessness 86
5.3 Interrelationship of Variables 87
5.4 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study 89
REFERENCES 94
Page
LIST OF TABLES
Number of Pupils per School
Frequencies of Gender
Frequencies of Age
Frequencies of Locus of Control Scores
Frequencies of Anxiety Scores
Frequencies of Depression Scores
Frequencies of Hopelessness Scores
Summary of Descriptive Statistics for
Locus of Control, Depression, Hopelessness
and Anxiety
Differences Between the Mean Scores of the
Two Schools in Terms of the Variables
Correlation Between Variables for School 1
Correlation Between Variables for School 2
Correlation Between Variables for the Total
Sample
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 4.7
Table 4.8
Table 4.9
Table 4.10
Table 4.11
Table 4.12
64
64
67
68
69
70
72
73
75
76
78
80
Page
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Number of Pupils per School 65
Figure 4.2 Frequencies of Gender 66
Figure 4.3 Means Scores of Different Variables for each School 74
Figure 4.4 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 1 77
Figure 4.5 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 2 79
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
The psychological effects of Transcendental Meditation in youths is
assessed in this study. Although there has been much research on the
benefits of Transcendental Meditation on psychological variables (Eppley,
Abrams & Shear, 1989) as well as on physiological changes (MacLeen,
Walton, Wenneberg & Levitsky, 1997), there has been very limited
research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa (Bloch, 1984). This
study may be regarded as a pilot study in which the importance of further
research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa is established, as
well as the need for South African standardized psychological tests for
youths.
In June 1984 the Development Society of Southern Africa conducted a
symposium on the state of development thinking in a number of disciplines
with financial assistance from the Human Sciences Research Council. It
was asserted that research on the holistic human purpose of development
had been neglected and that there had been a focus on the operational or
technical side of development. The development of people as a central
concern in social change was widely accepted and encouraged (Beukes,
1986). This study may be perceived to be research on the holistic human
purpose of development. Interventions on microlevels have been found to
have a ripple effect on society (Holscher & Romm, 1986), thus it is possible
that one may consider Transcendental Meditation to be a microlevel
intervention in a changing society.
1
2
Schooling has been in the process of change in South Africa. There has
been an attempt to improve schools in more disadvantaged areas and all
schools are now open to all race groups. This study shows there may still
be disadvantages in some schools, due to the fact that the school
conducting the Transcendental Meditation was more crowded with more
pupils per teacher, than the control school. The school implementing the
Transcendental Meditation technique had classrooms which were
physically smaller, and had an average of fifty one students in each class.
The control school however had an average of thirty nine students per
class. A survey in the Star (23 rd November, 1995) found that a higher
proportion of black matric pupils suffer from anxiety and negative stress, as
opposed to white matric pupils, indicating a need to address psychological
difficulties in schools.
Although the government expenditure on education in South Africa is a
high percentage in World terms it still does not appear to be sufficient
(Gore, 1993). People who have the potential to succeed, but do not
succeed end up functioning inadequately in the environment and being
disheartened (Rimm, 1995). Factors that may influence failure or
underachievement are: children placed in large classrooms with
overworked teachers, and lack of financial resources for specialised
interventions (McCabe, 1994).
Difficulties arise when schools are unequipped to deal with psychological
issues that accompany underachievement (Rimm, 1995). Due to financial
reasons South Africa would be unable to have therapists available for all
the school children in the country (McCabe, 1994). Thus there is a need
3
for a technique which may be cost and time effective but yet aid the youth
in becoming more psychologically healthy. Psychological interventions
such as individual or group therapy as well as life skill groups may be
considered expensive and time consuming. A technique which may aid
Psychological health would thus be more beneficial as it would reach larger
groups of children in a shorter span of time.
Research on Transcendental Meditation has found positive effects on a
measure of happiness (Smith, Compton & West, 1995), anxiety (Orme-
Johnson, 1973), stress (Janowiack & Hackman, 1994), depression
(Tloczynski & Tantriella, 1998), self-esteem (Van den Berg & Mulder,
1976), self-actualisation (Alexander, Rainforth & Gelderloos, 1991) and
general psychological health (Gerlderloos, Hermans, Ahlscrom & Jacoby,
1989). Psychological well being has also been shown to be related to
academic achievement in students (Rimm, 1995). The possibility of
Transcendental Meditation as a technique which could aid South African
youth psychologically as well as possibly academically exists, and thus the
rationale for this research is evident.
Snaith (1998) discusses reviews of the benefits of meditation in reducing
anxiety, thereafter he questions the neglect of the use of meditation as a
psychotherapeutic practice. Snaith (1998) further comments on the
benefits of meditation in psychotherapy, namely that it is time efficient for
therapists, encourages self-efficacy in the participants and consequently
results in an increase in self-esteem. Meditation may be beneficial in
South Africa, due to it being a learnt technique, which is both time effective
as well as cost effective.
4
Four dependent variables were measured in this study, namely anxiety;
depression; hopelessness and locus of control. According to Rubin (1978)
and Padwell (1984) high levels of self-esteem positively influence
academic achievement. The treatment of anxiety in children is vital as it
may affect a child's self-esteem. In Mathews and Odem's study (1989) low
levels of anxiety were associated with high levels of self-esteem, which
may affect attitudes of students towards school as well as academic
performance. Thus measuring anxiety is vital as research has shown a
decrease in anxiety gives an indication of a child's psychological happiness
and positive self-esteem as well as has a positive influence on academic
achievement.
Anxiety and depression are currently perceived as psychological states
with overlapping qualities (Craig & Dobson, 1995). A decrease in anxiety
would thus possibly indicate a decrease in depression as numerous
studies have found a co-occurrence of depression and anxiety in children
(Klein & Last, 1989). The importance of the difference between depression
in adults and youth is addressed in the literature review. The most
important of these differences being anger or aggressive behaviour as
symptoms of depression in youth (Matson, 1989).
In light of the above a measurement of depression can therefore not only
give an indication of psychological health, but also an indication as to how
peaceful the youths may feel and act within their environment. It may be
noted here that the teachers of the school which was implementing the
Transcendental Meditation technique, verbally reported a definite decline in
aggressive behaviour amongst their pupils. The variable of depression
5
may also be related to academic achievement, as a sudden drop in
academic achievement may be an indicator of childhood depression
(Matson, 1989).
A measurement of hopelessness was also used in this study.
Hopelessness has been related to negative expectations for the future and
negative feelings of the future (Barlow & Durand, 1995), which is obviously
a concern in a constantly changing nation such as South Africa.
Hopelessness may lead to negative effects on society, most importantly
the act of suicide (Holden, 1994). Many people may be effected by the
attempted or completed suicide of a person. Research (Wetzel,
Marguilies, Davis and Karam, 1980) has found hopelessness correlates
with depression, thus one could logically infer that like depression,
hopelessness may also be associated with a decline in academic
performance. Hopelessness has also been found to relate to alcoholism
(Holden, 1994) which obviously has its own detrimental effects on the
wider society.
Lastly the variable locus of control was also measured. An internal locus
of control has been associated with more positive outcomes as well as
having a positive effect on personality characteristics and social
interactions (Judelman, 1987). The desirability of an internal locus of
control is also evident through Maqsud and Rouhani's (1990) research on
Botswana adolescents. In this study it was found that an external locus of
control was significantly negatively related in relation to self-concept and
achievement in English.
6
According to Delmonte, (1987) there is conflicting research with regard to
meditation and its possible influence on the development of an internal
locus of control. Thus more research is needed in terms of the construct
locus of control. Locus of control was used as a variable to assess the
possibility of Transcendental Meditation having an effect on personality as
opposed to a mood or effect as in anxiety and depression.
This study did not measure psychological variables of adults. However it
may be beneficial to note that teachers of the school practicing
Transcendental Meditation were also involved in the practicing of
Transcendental Meditation. The teachers subjectively reported positive
effects such as feeling calmer, able to cope with stress, more confident,
less worried, having better memory, being happier to come to work and
having an increased tolerance level since practising Transcendental
Meditation. Their subjective reports appear to correlate with research
which found that meditation reduces teachers perceived stress. It was
further found that a reduction in stress amongst teachers was found even
when meditating two to five times per week (Anderson, Levinson, Barker &
Kiewra, 1999).
Finally it is important to address the need for psychological research in
South Africa. Donald and Dawes (1994) discuss the inadequacy or
insufficiency of South African research on issues that should be seen as
crucial to an understanding of the psychological development of
disadvantaged children in our country. Thus although there were more
affluent schools which are practicing Transcendental Meditation the
township of Alexandra is more likely to have disadvantaged children
7
incorporated in the study, and so it was decided to implement the testing
on these youths.
This research is a quasi-experimental design as no random assignment
took place. One of the schools had been practicing Transcendental
Meditation for approximately two years, thus these students were
compared to a control school where the students had not been practicing
Transcendental Meditation. The researcher believes the significant results
found in this quasi-experiment indicate there could be important
consequences for South African people. It is therefore hoped that this
research will encourage further exploration of Transcendental Meditation.
The researcher's motive was a personal desire for positive psychological
change in South African people, as well as the general desire for a
successful nation for all South Africans.
8
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Meditation
2.1.1 Definition of Meditation
Meditation may be considered a technique for inducing altered states of
consciousness, whereby there is a transformation in a persons mind,
thought, attitude or psychophysiology (Crook, 1983). Meditation has been
perceived to be largely a part of Eastern Religion, it has also sometimes
been regarded as an occult fad (Moore, 1994). However scriptural witness
of meditation pervades both the Old Testament, New Testament and the
Gospels of the bible. Somewhere between early and modern Christianity
the thread was broken regarding the tradition of meditation (Rama, 1983).
Thus it is important to note that meditation is practiced in many religions.
Hindus, Buddhists, Sufis, Jews and Christians all have within their spiritual
tradition literature of meditative techniques (Crook, 1983).
Meditation is generally practiced in the context of some spiritual tradition.
The prime characteristic of meditation throughout the different religions is a
loss of self-identifying awareness and an absolution into a wider
consciousness. However there have been contemporary movements to
meet the need of meditation and promote meditation outside of
conventional religions (Crook, 1983). Meditations recent popularity in the
West has been a result of the objective scientific research of the benefits of
meditation as well as the widespread practice of Transcendental
Meditation (Moore, 1994).
9
There are many different types of meditative techniques such as the
control or regulation of breathing; Transcendental Meditation; focused
attention; relative perceptual deprivation; yogic body postures and the
mental visualisations of scenes or symbols. Due to this study directly
measuring the effects of Transcendental Meditation; it shall be individually
defined.
2.1.2 Definition of Transcendental Meditation
Transcendental Meditation is a meditative technique which consists of the
mental repetition of a mantra or word which is especially chosen for the
individual subject. When implementing Transcendental Meditation a
person is advised to close their eyes and they breathe in a quiet and
relaxed manner (Crook, 1983). The mantra is consistently repeated in
their mind as they breathe in and out. If they become aware of their mind
wondering with thoughts, they simply return to focus on their mantra. It is
important that people do not worry about the degree of success in
obtaining relaxation but rather maintain a passive attitude (Snaith, 1998).
It is advised to practice Transcendental Meditation twice daily for about
twenty minutes while sitting either in a straight backed chair or in a cross-
legged or lotus position on the floor (Bloch, 1984). The youth in this
research practised Transcendental Meditation twice a day for ten minutes
due to their age. Transcendental Meditation was introduced to the United
States of America in 1959 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, an indian physicist.
Maharishi has achieved an adaptation of an ancient indian spiritual
10
tradition to a modern western format, whereby modern scientific
verifications have been implemented (Hewitt, 1982).
2.1.3 Basic Modes of Meditation
Most meditation may be classified into two modes of meditation : the path
of concentration, and the path of insight (Goleman, 1977).
The path of concentration meditation consists of the concentration of
consciousness upon a single object until the meditator becomes absorbed
in the object and is unselfconscious (Washburn, 1978). One may focus on
a movement, a visual object such as a fire or yantra; a bodily process such
as the Christian meditation of the heart; or a sound such as a mantra or
word. Focusing on any of the above is considered concentrative
meditation and cultivates a one pointedness of the mind (Ornstein, 1972).
The path of insight, also known as receptive or contemplative meditation
consists of the practice of open, non-reactive attention. In this meditation
the subject is to maintain attention and witness non-selectively and without
interpretation, by not becoming fascinated or caught up by whatever may
arise in this awareness. Some of these forms are 'just-sitting' of Zen;
'choiceless awareness' of Kinshnanurti; vipassan5 meditation and
mindfulness meditation (Washburn, 1978).
11
There has been some controversy as to which mode of meditation,
Transcendental Meditation should be placed. Washburn (1978) perceives
Transcendental Meditation as a method of passive volition and thus places
it in the path of insight. However Boals (1978) places Transcendental
Meditation in the path of concentration because it uses a mantra to focus
on. Maharishi (1969) however asserts that Transcendental Meditation is
neither a process of concentration nor contemplation as both of these hold
the mind on the conscious thinking level. Transcendental Meditation does
not require the effort needed in concentration techniques as one
effortlessly uses a mantra or sound. The mantra has no meaning and thus
no contemplation is involved. Maharishi (1969) claims Transcendental
Meditation takes the mind to the source of thought or the pure field of
intelligence. Thus the mantra in Transcendental Meditation is not
perceived as an object of concentration but rather as a vehicle for
transcending the level of conscious thought (Goleman, 1971).
2.1.4 Aims of Transcendental Meditation
The discussion of goals or aims of meditation is perhaps a paradox as it is
generally understood that meditation is out of the bounds of our ordinary
experience and that there should be no deliberate effort or goal but rather
a passive let-it-be' process (Washburn, 1978).
Maharishi (1969) explains that through the practice of meditation, man may
become more compassionate in action and service of mankind. Welwood
1979) also discusses that meditation may develop the feeling of opening
12
oneself up to the universe which is called optimum. This correlates with
White's (1974) description of meditation aiding us in reaching a state of
consciousness which is in union with the 'ultimate reality and divine
dimension of the universe'.
Enlightenment may be considered a goal of meditation, whereby one
becomes open and responsive to the world as well as compassionate and
able to be of service to others. Enlightenment may also be considered a
freeing of an individual from illusions (Claxton, 1987). The enlightened
man is considered to have cleared out his mind and is able to see
everything clearly as though he has woken up fully. When one is
enlightened one is considered not to be distracted because everything is
seen clearly (Welwood, 1977).
According to Goleman (1974), Transcendental Meditation grew very
quickly since scientific research showed that it produced major
physiological changes, improvement in psychological states and
improvement of psychosomatic disorders. Thus different people may have
different aims for using the Transcendental Meditation technique. Some
people may use it, to directly improve a psychological state or physical
condition or even to improve academically (Nidich, Nidich & Rainforth,
1986). Others may see the purpose of Transcendental Meditation to be
transcendence, where the mind is taken from an active state to a
completely silent state of transcendental consciousness or restful
alertness. Transcendental Meditation may remove one's preoccupation
with the self and self preservation to enable one to have more time for
others and judge others less (Delmonte, 1987).
13
A final aim of Transcendental Meditation could be the effects is has on the
collective consciousness of man. According to Maharishi (1969) when a
critical mass of people practice Transcendental Meditation, they enliven
the underlying field of consciousness to influence consciousness and
physiology of individuals in the larger society who are not meditating. Thus
these individuals may gain some of the benefits of meditation without
meditating themselves. This influence on collective consciousness is
known as the Maharishi effect, and may be explained via modern physics
and the quantum field theory (Hagelin, 1987).
2.1.5 Research on Meditation and Transcendental Meditation
2.1.5.1 Research on Physiology
Research into the physiology of Transcendental Meditation (T.M.) has
given evidence of meditation being a unique fourth state of consciousness.
It has been found to differ from waking, dreaming and sleep states on a
number of physiological parameters (Wallace & Benson, 1972). The
Transcendental Meditation technique increases alpha and theta
electroencephalograph patterns (Hebert & Lehmann, 1977) as well as
increases cerebral blood flow (Jevning & Wilson, 1978). This confirms the
finding that Transcendental Meditation is characterized by deep
physiological rest as well as enhanced mental alertness (Wallace &
Benson, 1972).
14
According to Banquet (1973) as well as Wallace and Benson (1972)
physiological changes have been observed during meditation. These
physiological changes are a reduction in oxygen consumption; respiration
rate, cardiac output, carbon dioxide elimination, heart rate and arterial
lactate concentration, to levels beyond those expected in deep sleep.
A study was conducted on the physiological effects of Transcendental
Meditation and Jacobson's Progressive Relaxation by Throll (1982). It was
found that there were no significant differences on the physiological
variables at the pretest, however the Transcendental Meditation group has
more significant physiological decreases during meditation and during
activity than the Progressive Relaxation group. It was also discovered that
both the Transcendental Meditation and Progressive Relaxation groups
displayed significantly lowered metabolic rates.
MacLeen, Walton, Wenneberg and Levitsky (1997) conducted a study on
healthy men aged eighteen to thirty-two years, in terms of the effects of
Transcendental Meditation on four hormones: cortisol, growth hormone,
thyroid stimulating hormone, and testosterone. The results indicated a
reduction in basal cortisol level and average cortisol levels in the
Transcendental Meditation group. The cortisol and testosterone results
support previous studies which suggest the practice of Transcendental
Meditation reverses the effects of chronic stress.
Transcendental Meditation and its effect on hypertension has also been
studied, it has been demonstrated and acknowledged that there is a
positive effect on hypertension and thus a decreased cardiovascular risk
15
through the practising of Transcendental Meditation (Alexander, Langer,
Newman, Chandler & Davies, 1989).
Jedrczek, Miller and Antoniou (1988) reviewed clinical and experimental
evidence of Transcendental Meditation and physiological health and
concluded that it reduces stress, prevents and ameliorates ill health, and
promotes positive health. Research has also established that
Transcendental Meditation induces alpha brain waves and in deeper
meditation theta brain waves; a synchronization of brain waves at the front
and back of the brain as well as a synchronization of brain waves in the
two hemispheres (Crook, 1983). Transcendental Meditation has therefore
been shown to induce neurophysiological changes.
Dilibeck and Orme-Johnson (1987) published a quantitative meta-analysis
of studies that employed either an eyes-closed resting condition or the
Transcendental Meditation technique to ascertain somatic arousal levels.
It was discovered that Transcendental Meditation was found to have more
than double the effect in reducing somatic arousal than the resting
condition. This was measured by basal skin resistance, respiration rate
and plasma lactate. Thus, strong effects of a reduction of somatic arousal
have been found during the Transcendental Meditation technique. This
study also found that the meditators practising Transcendental Meditation
started at a lower level of physiological arousal then the controls; yet
decreased more during meditation. This lower base line level suggests
that the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique has a
cumulative effect in the reduction of somatic arousal.
16
2.1.5.2 Research on Psychological Variables
Physiological studies may be cross validated by results on psychological
measures of anxiety reduction associated with meditation and
Transcendental Meditation. Through the practice of the Transcendental
Meditation technique, both reduced trait anxiety and lowered baseline
levels of physiological measures of somatic arousal have been found
(Orme-Johnson, 1973).
Transcendental Meditation has also been associated with many other
positive effects. It has been found that the psychophysiological state of
restful alertness produced by the Transcendental Meditation technique
appears to improve employee well being, job satisfaction, health, efficiency
and productivity, financial performance as well as reduces absenteeism
(Schmidt — Wik, Alexander & Swanson, 1996). Pearl and Carlozzi's (1994)
study which compared a group practicing clinically standardized meditation
for eight weeks and a no-treatment control group confirmed the common
finding that meditation decreases anxiety.
Another study by Smith, Compton and West (1995) studied the impact of
meditation in combination with the Personal Happiness Enhancement
Program (PHEP). It was found that the group which only implemented the
Personal Happiness Enhancement Program improved significantly over a
no-treatment control group in terms of depression and a measure of
happiness. The group which implemented both the PHEP and meditation
program improved significantly in terms of depression and happiness, as
17
well as state anxiety over both the PHEP only group and the control group.
Thus indicating meditation's effect on anxiety once again.
Janowiak and Hackman's (1994) study supports the finding of meditation
positively affecting scores on perceived stress. A statistical meta-analysis
was conducted at Stanford University by Eppley, Abrams and Shear
(1989). One hundred and forty six independent studies on the effects of
meditation and relaxation on anxiety were considered. It was found, that
the effect of the Transcendental Meditation program on reducing anxiety as
a character trait, was approximately twice as effective than that of all other
meditation and relaxation techniques. This analysis also showed that this
positive result could not be attributed to experimenter bias, subject
expectation nor quality of research design.
The effects of meditation on anxiety, has been extended to include specific
anxiety disorders. It has been claimed that mindfulness meditation can
effectively reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic in patients with
generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, as well as panic disorder with
agoraphobia. The mindfulness meditation was also found to maintain
these reductions in patients (Kobat-Zinn, Massion, Kristeller, Peterson,
Fletcher, Pbert, Lenderking & Santorelli, 1992).
Fling, Thomas and Gallaher (1981) studied the effects of two types of
meditation and quiet sitting. The two types of meditation were Clinically
Standardized Meditation (CSM) and Open Focus (OF). The importance of
some form of relaxation technique was established as all the groups
showed evidence of anxiety reduction. It was further found that the anxiety
18
reduction was higher when the practice time of the relaxation was longer.
This study also found that all the groups became non-significantly more
internal on Rotter's locus of control. This is a positive effect of relaxation,
as the locus of control model asserts that an internal locus of control
results in positive life outcomes (Moehr & Ames, in Thebe, 1992).
Zaichkowski and Kamen (1978) studied the effects of locus of control after
three months of meditative practice, and discovered that locus of control
scores did not change. Dick's (1973) research also found no change in
locus of control following meditation. However, Hjelle (1974) discovered a
group of meditators with two to six months experience had a significantly
more internal locus of control than a group of non-meditator controls. This
research on the effects of meditation on locus of control is not conclusive,
as it could have been a sampling effect whereby the meditators may have
already had a higher internal-locus of control as they were self-selected.
Conflicting research of the effects of meditation on locus of control is
therefore evident.
Shapiro, Schwartz and Bonner (1998) examined the short-term effects of
an eight week meditation-based stress reduction intervention on students.
The participants in the intervention group and control group were
measured before the intervention and after the intervention. It was found
that participation in the meditation based intervention, had a reduction in
self-reported state and trait anxiety. Reduction in overall psychological
distress, which included depression was also found. Increases in scores of
empathy levels as well as an increase in scores on a measure of spiritual
experiences, were also discovered in this study. The above research as
19
well as research by Lesh (1970) has found meditation to increase
individuals empathy levels. However, Pearl and Carlozzi's (1994) study
did not find support for the hypothesis of meditation increasing empathy.
The effect of meditation on empathy has therefore shown conflicting
results.
Tloczynski and Tantriella (1998) studied the effects of Zen breath
meditation and relaxation on college adjustment and found after six weeks
of implementation of the techniques, both depression and anxiety
decreased significantly. Interpersonal problem scores also decreased
significantly for the meditation group, none of these positive effects were
found in the control group of this study.
Another study by Shepperd, Staggers and John (1997) specifically on
Transcendental Meditation also confirms the finding of meditation reducing
anxiety and depression. This study was however more longitudinal in
nature as the groups were tested twelve weeks after the intervention
period and again after three years. A reduction in both anxiety and
depression were found in the Transcendental Meditation group after the
twelve weeks. The more long term effects of Transcendental Meditation
were found after the three year measurement. It was discovered that there
was a reduction in anxiety and depression as well as an improved self-
concept in the Transcendental Meditation group.
Meditation has been found to improve both self-esteem and self concept.
Van den Berg and Mulder (1976) discovered that people who practiced
meditation over an average period of 1.5 years had significantly higher
20
self-esteem scores than a non-meditator control group. Nystul and Garde
(1977) reported meditators had significantly better self concepts than non-
meditators. However, this research may be criticised, as it may be
possible that those with positive self-esteem or self-concept are more likely
to continue the practice of Transcendental Meditation. Delmonte (1987)
also cites research which has not shown a relationship between meditation
and self-concept or self-esteem.
A study by Gelderloos, Hermans, AhlscrOm and Jacoby (1989) found a
positive relationship between transcendental consciousness and
psychological health. Self-actualization is considered to be a construct of
optimal psychological health. High self-esteem, capacity for intimate
contact with others, moral vision, creativity and an integrated perspective
on the self and the world are all considered characteristics of self-
actualised people (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 1989). A statistical meta-
analysis of forty two independent research outcomes showed that
Transcendental Meditation produced a positive effect on overall self-
actualisation, this was indicated in most studies by the Personality
Orientation Inventory. This meta-analysis showed that Transcendental
Meditation produced approximately three times the effect on self-
actualisation than other forms of meditation and relaxation, these results
were controlled for the duration of intervention and strength of
experimental design (Alexander, Rainforth & Gelderloos, 1991).
21
2.1.5.3 Research on Substance Abuse and Criminal Rehabilitation
A review by (Gelderloos, Walton, Orme-Johnson & Alexander (1991) found
Transcendental Meditation as a technique has been used successfully in
both the treatment and prevention of substance misuse. This review
included all classes of illegal drugs, as well as alcohol, cigarettes and
prescribed drugs.
Transcendental Meditation has been used to aid in criminal rehabilitation
and the prevention of recidivism. A study by Bleick and Abrams (1987)
discovered that criminal inmates who practiced Transcendental Meditation
had significantly more favourable parole outcomes each year from one to
five years after release, in comparison to matched controls. Alexander
(1982) discusses the findings of reductions in recidivism through the
implementation of Transcendental Meditation. One of the studies
discussed implemented Transcendental Meditation on inmates in Walpole
State Prison, Massachusetts, where they were observed over a three and
half year period. It was found that a reduction in recidivism occurred in the
Transcendental Meditation group verses other treatment programs which
included individual and group counselling.
2.1.5.4 Research on Academic Performance
Research has shown that Transcendental Meditation affects learning and
academic performance. Kember's (1985) study suggested six months
practice of Transcendental Meditation increased the learning ability and
22
enhanced students concentration. The examination performance of these
randomly assigned postgraduate students improved significantly compared
to controls who did not implement Transcendental Meditation.
A study of ninety five randomly selected Cambodian undergraduate
students found Transcendental Meditation to be a significant contributor to
cognitive ability and psychological well-being (Fergusson, Bonshek &
Boudigues, 1994). This study also found Transcendental Meditation was
positively correlated with learning ability and attention span, which both
relate to academic performance.
At the Maharishi school of the age of enlightenment where Transcendental
Meditation is practised by both staff and students; Nidich, Nidich and
Rainforth (1986) conducted a study on achievement gains. This study
found that both new and continuing students significantly improved their
achievement scores.
Other Meditation techniques such as natural breathing techniques,
relaxation and attention-focusing techniques have also been used to study
academic performance. A study using these techniques on African
American college students found a significant increase in the meditation
groups overall academic performance (Hall, 1999). This shows some
evidence of improvement in academic performance, which is obviously a
vital factor in South Africa as there is a desire to have a more educated
nation.
23
More intrinsic variables such as cognitive style and cognitive ability have
also been shown to be effected by Transcendental Meditation. Dillbeck,
Assimakis, Raimondi, Orme-Johnson and Rowe (1986) studied the
longitudinal effects over a three to five year period on cognitive ability and
cognitive style. It was found that these variables were positively effected
by the implementation of Transcendental Meditation in an educational
setting.
The above research correlates with the Community and Individual
Development Association's findings in terms of pass rates for the school
practising Transcendental Meditation. It was discovered that there had
been a 30% improvement in pass rates for the entire school within six
months of practising Transcendental Meditation furthermore these pass
rates were sustained the following year.
In the United States of America several state legislatures have passed
resolutions promoting the use of Transcendental Meditation (White, 1974).
According to an extract from Resolution 677 of the State of Illinois House
of Representatives, it was noted that school officials found an improvement
in grades, improvement in student-parent-teacher relationships, as well as
lessening of student unrest amongst practitioners of Transcendental
Meditation. Furthermore the House of Representatives strongly
encouraged the feasibility of courses in Transcendental Meditation in all
educational institutions, especially those under the State of Illinois
jurisdiction (Hewitt, 1982).
24
Academic achievement may be related to the dependent variables in this
study. It has been proposed that there are improvements in acaderriic
performance with decreased anxiety and decreased depression.
Academic achievements have also been found to be greater in students
with an internal locus of control (Mayer & Sutton, 1996).
2.2 Locus of Control
2.2.1 Definition of Locus of Control
An individual's locus of control can be defined as the extent to which a
causal link between actions and their outcomes are perceived (Lefcourt,
1976). The construct of locus of control is bipolar, consisting of external
and internal locus of control. Whenever positive or negative
reinforcements are perceived as the result of an individuals behaviour,
efforts or characteristics, the individual is considered to have an internal
locus of control. In contrast, if reinforcements are perceived as a result of
luck, fate, chance, powerful others, or are unpredictable because of the
complexity of events, then the individual is considered to have an external
locus of control (Phares, 1994).
2.2.2 Theoretical Basis of the Locus of Control Construct
The concept of locus of control was developed out of Rotter's social
learning theory. Social learning theory claims that human behaviour is
25
largely acquired, and that learning principles are sufficient to account for
the development and maintenance of behaviour (Hall & Lindzey, 1985).
Rotter (1975) and his colleagues were interested in a variable which could
enable them to better predict how reinforcements change an individuals
expectancies. It was found that the impact of reinforcements varied as a
function of the characteristics of the individual being reinforced as well as
the nature of the situation.
Rotter (1975) claims that the potential for a behaviour to occur, is a
function of the expectancy that the behaviour will lead to a particular
reinforcement as well as the value of the reinforcements. This expectancy
is related to motivation, as to an individuals expectations for success as
opposed to failure, combined with the value of the goal for the individual
which may be motivational (Woolfolk, 1990).
Rodgers found (in Walters, 1994) that the expectancy of certain
consequences to follow ones actions is vital in the learning situation.
Children who have an internal locus of control are more likely to have such
expectancies, as well as work more consistently to achieve their goals than
children with a more external locus of control.
In light of the above it is understandable that many educationalists stress
increased internality, self-reliance and independence as important
educational goals for children (Judelman, 1987). Thus any technique
found to aid children developing an internal locus of control would be
extremely valuable for South African children. The effects of a decrease in
anxiety will also be shown to be beneficial to children.
26
2.2.3 Internal and External Locus of Control
According to Moehr & Ames (in Thebe, 1992) the message of the locus of
control model is that an internal locus of control results in positive
outcomes, whereas an external locus of control results in negative
outcomes. It has been found that an internal locus of control has a more
positive effect on personality characteristics and social interactions than an
external locus of control (Judelman, 1987). Thus it is evident that any aid
or technique that could help develop an internal locus of control would
benefit South African youth to develop their full potential.
An extensive amount of research has been conducted on the benefits of an
internal locus of control. Nowicki and Duke (in Shmukler, 1993) found a
significant correlation between positive self-concept and an internal locus
of control. Friedberg (1982) also found internals demonstrated greater
self-acceptance and have a more positive self-concept than externals.
According to Deysach, Keller, Ross and Hiers (1975) females with internal
locus of control in comparison to externals were found to have higher
scores for levels of self-actualisation, positive social skills and levels of
social interest.
Judelman (1987) refers to Merino and White's research where it was found
that people with an internal locus of control, experience less stress and
engage in more task oriented behaviours in an effort to recover from set
backs. According to Noe (1986, in Thebe, 1992) locus of control is a
stable personality trait that is likely to affect an individuals motivation and
27
ability to learn. An internal locus of control is related to an increased level
of motivation.
Research provides evidence, that the development of an internal locus of
control would be beneficial for improving academic performance in South
African youth. Maqsud and Rouhani (1990) found a positive relationship
between internal locus of control and academic achievement. Johnson
(1979) also found students with high internal locus of control have better
academic performance than students with external locus of control.
Clifford (1981) discusses school drop outs as being more likely to have an
external locus of control, attributing academic performance to factors
outside their control. Externals thus do not appear to have the motivation
to strive in their academics, as they do not believe they are capable of
succeeding from their own efforts. According to Friedman and Phillips
(1985, in Pratt, 1987) higher motivational levels have also been found in
students with internal locus of controls as opposed to students with
external locus of controls.
There has been evidence that pupils who have an internal locus of control
also have a greater sense of personal control over stressors, such as
family and peer pressure as well as exam stressors. Stressors appear less
threatening to children with higher internal locus of control, thus they
manage everyday stressors and cope with their homework more
adequately (Bernstein, Roy & Wickens, 1988). An internal locus of control
is related to more active participation in the acquisition, recall and
utilisation of information (Lefcourt, 1976). Various researchers regard
28
internality as a significant predictor of academic achievement (Judelman,
1987). Otter's longitudinal research (in Lyons, 1989) suggested that locus
of control scores were better long-term predictors of pupils academic
progress than the conventional ability scales.
The above gives evidence of the benefits towards facilitating an internal
locus of control on the developing youth of South Africa. According to
Masilele (in Shmukler, 1993) South Africa's history of apartheid structures,
detentions and bannings must have had a profound negative effect on
black peoples sense of personal control. Locus of control may be a
personality variable however it is also a function of the environment.
Accordingly it could be proposed that the new laws in South Africa may
induce a shift towards a more internal locus of control for people of all
races in South Africa. Thus the recognition of the environment as well as
possibly techniques to facilitate an internal locus of control should be
sought after for all South Africans. It has been proposed that people with
an external locus of control have higher levels of both depression and
anxiety, as opposed to people with a more internal locus of control (Mayer
& Sutton, 1996).
2.3 Anxiety
2.3.1 Definition of Anxiety
Anxiety is often equated with fear. Psychodynamic theorists make a
distinction between anxiety and fear. Fear is "real" anxiety, as it has a base
29
in reality. Anxiety however is not based in reality, and is perceived as fear
that has no real object or aim (De Vos, 1990). Mc Reynolds (in De Vos,
1990) asserts that fear may contribute to anxiety, although it is not the
same as anxiety.
According to Kutash (1994) anxiety is defined as a complex pattern of
three types of responses, namely motor reaction, physiological responses
as well as subjective responses (011endick, 1995). There is a wide range
of responses for which the concept anxiety may be used (Klein & Last,
1989).
It has been hypothesised that anxiety and depression are affective states
brought about by cognitive patterns (Ingram & Malcarne, 1995). Generally
the unpleasant feelings of fear and apprehension are associated with
anxiety. Anxiety disorders may be found in children, examples are
obsessive compulsive disorder and specific phobias (Barlow & Durand,
1995). This study is not attempting to identify specific anxiety disorders but
rather is a measure of children's manifest anxiety.
2.3.2 Comorbity of Childhood Anxiety Disorders and Depression
The proposition that anxiety and depression are separate psychological
states has been broken down, and is rather being perceived as
psychological states with overlapping qualities. Studies have found an
overlap in subjective experience, physiological correlations and
behavioural manifestation of anxiety and depression (Craig & Dobson,
30
1995). Numerous studies have found the co-occurrence of depression and
anxiety disorders in children (Klein & Last, 1989). In Kovac's study (in Puig
- Antich & Rabinovich, 1986) of children with dysthymia and/or major
depression, it was found that almost all the children also presented with
anxiety symptoms. According to Bernstein and Garfinkel (1986) the
combination of anxiety and depression in children was found to be the rule
of their study, as opposed to either anxiety or depression existing
independently.
According to Klein and Last (1989) research findings in children suggest a
very high comorbidity of anxiety disorders with major depression. In light of
the strong relationship between these two disorders different strategies
have been used to clinically differentiate one symptom from the other. A
primary-secondary distinction may be based on differential chronological
onset of each syndrome or the syndrome with the highest intensity would
be considered the primary syndrome (Puig - Antich et al., 1986).
A theory which has been proposed to understand the relationship between
anxiety and depression is the affective theory. According to Watson and
Clark's (1992) affective theory, both depressed and anxious patients have
been found to have high measures of negative affectivity. They
demonstrated that distressful affect, was shared by both anxiety and
depression, however each had a specific factor as well. Physiological
tension and hyperarousal are specific to anxiety, whereas low positive
affectivity is specific to depression. In this regard positive affectivity is
characterized by activity, excitement and enthusiasm. Although much of
the research of the affective theory has been based on adults, according to
31
Kendall and Brady (1995) postulates that this model can easily be applied
to the relationship of anxiety and depression in children. In light of this
study it should be expected that similar results would be found in anxiety
and depression due to this strong relationship found in the literature.
2.3.3 Theories of Anxiety
Two broad categories of theories will be discussed namely biological and
psychosocial theories of anxiety.
2.3.3.1 Biological Theories
It has been found that the incidence of anxiety is much higher in the family
history of neurotic individuals than in the general population, however it is
difficult to ascertain if this is heredity. It is possible that modelling of the
family may occur, although equally so one cannot deny the possibility of a
biological predisposition (Carson, Butcher & Coleman, 1988).
According to Barlow and Durand (1995) a genetic vulnerability may
predispose anxiety if certain psychological and social factors also exist.
2.3.3.2 Psychosocial Theories
2.3.3.2.1 Psychodynamic Theories
According to Freud a build-up of energy within the mind is unpleasurable
and leads to a traumatic state which he termed anxiety. A child may fear
his/her own instinctual wishes and react with anxiety. This anxiety aids the
ego to oppose the wish by the use of ego defence mechanism (Kutash,
1994). Freud also proposed a realistic anxiety which occurs from external
"real" dangers (Tautman, 1986). It is evident that internal or external
sources may elicit anxiety, this anxiety may lead to exaggerated use of
ego-defence mechanisms and to maladaptive behaviour (Carlson et al.,
1986).
2.3.3.2.2 Learning and Behavioural Theories
Certain irrational fears and anxiety may be derived through conditioning,
whereby the learnt association of a stimulus and a response occurs
(Carlson et al., 1986). The anxiety could be a learned response or
conditional stimuli due to a link with a situation of injury or pain (Klein &
Last, 1989). Generalisation of the fear may spread to other similar stimuli.
Learning of fears may also be observational in nature or acquired through
the modelling process (Kutash, 1994).
32
2.3.3.2.3 Existentialism Theories
According to the humanistic perspective when one's life is devoted to trying
to meet basic needs as opposed to personal growth, meaningfulness and
self fulfillment, then feelings of anxiety, hostility and futility may result
(Carlson et al., 1986). Kierkegaard's (in De Vos, 1990) view proposed that
human development is related to freedom and freedom implies the
existence of choices. Kierkegaard claims at each point in development
and individuation new choices of possibilities exist, bringing about new
anxieties.
2.3.4 Treatment of Anxiety
According to Wicks - Nelson and Israel (1996) research regarding effective
treatment for childhood anxiety is far less extensive than for adults. Most
research is derived from a behavioural or cognitive behavioural
perspective. Pharmacological treatments for anxiety such as tricyclic
antidepressants as well as anxiolytics are used in childhood and
adolescent anxiety disorders. Tautman (1986) discusses treatment of a
young girl with phobic symptoms whereby psychodynamic explanations
were slowly introduced in the therapy. It is interesting to note that no form
of relaxation techniques were introduced where the major symptom was
underlying anxiety.
Anxiety may be treated with flooding and implosive therapy (Carlson,
Figueroa & Lahey, 1986), in which relaxation procedures are vital to the
therapy. Flooding and implosive therapy is similar to desensitisation,
33
34
except higher levels of anxiety is evoked in the child in the former two
therapies. Systematic desensitisation has also found the use of relaxation
techniques in children has been successful, when pairing the relaxation
with the anxiety producing stimuli (Carlson et al., 1986). Cognitive -
behavioural interventions may also be used to treat anxiety, this therapy
may involve relaxation procedures (Granvold, 1994).
Although cognitive - behavioural interventions may include relaxation
training, the emphasis appears to be on cognitions as opposed to
relaxation techniques. Carlson et al. (1986) discusses one of the most
methodologically adequate experiments on fear reduction in children at the
time of their paper. It was found, that the beneficial treatment gains of the
study could not be attributed solely to cognitive intervention, as the
treatment also involved muscle relaxation in the children. These children
had clinically significant differences in reduction of fear as opposed to a
control group. One could postulate the possibility of this study being
effective because of the combination of cognitive and relaxation
techniques. Relaxation techniques have been found to be a useful
treatment for adults with generalised anxiety disorder (Thyer & Birsinger,
1994). Although Transcendental Meditation is considered a relaxation
technique, Granvold (1994) does not include it as a relaxation technique
used in cognitive behavioural therapy. The predominant techniques used in
cognitive - behavioural therapy are either muscle relaxation, breathing
techniques or guided visualisations.
Another form of treatment is Anxiety Management Training, which is a
formal behaviour therapy which has been proven to be useful for anxiety
35
states. According to this training clients are taught to identify internal signs
that signal the presence of anxiety and then to react by using responses
that remove them. A coping method, namely, relaxation is used to
eliminate anxiety once it is precipitated. Thus, in effect, the Anxiety
Management Training uses educational sessions on the use of relaxation
to aid self-control. Relaxation techniques used are either progressive
muscle relaxation or guided imagery (Suinn, 1995). It is important to notice
the positive effects of relaxation techniques, although Transcendental
Meditation as a specific technique was not used in the training.
It has been found by Bledsoe (1964); Padwell (1984) and Rubin (1978)
that high levels of self-esteem positively influence academic achievement.
The treatment of anxiety in children is vital as it may affect a child's self-
esteem. According to Matthews and Odom's study (1989) low levels of
anxiety were associated with high levels of self-esteem, which may affect
attitudes of students towards school and academic performance. Research
by Cowles (1984) and Sousa (1981) have found a negative relationship
between anxiety and self-esteem. In light of the above it is imperative for
anxiety to be treated, as it may lead to an increase in self-esteem as well
as in academic performance. The importance of treating anxiety may also
be evident due to the relationship found between anxiety and depression
(Kendall & Brady, 1995).
2.4 Depression
2.4.1 Definition of Depression
Depression as a term is often used to describe all experiences associated
with unhappiness. It may describe a mood, a symptom or a syndrome.
Normal depression may be described as a transient period of sadness or
unhappiness as well as fatigue. The moods associated with normal
depression vary in length, but are always less than 2 weeks, and generally
occur in response to identifiable stresses. Clinical depressive disorders
occur when the mood continues for a longer period of time, eating and
sleeping difficulties may occur and feelings of hopelessness and despair
increase (Marsella, 1994). This study is not attempting to identify clinical
depression but is a measure of the severity of depressive symptomatology
in children.
2.4.2 Theories of Depression
There are various theories of depression; these are biological,
psychological and social theories. These theories have been formulated in
an attempt to understand the causes of depression. Currently a multi-
dimensional integrative perspective of the causes of depression is widely
accepted (Barlow & Durand, 1995).
36
2.4.2.1 Biological Theories
2.4.2.1.1 Genetic Theories
Currently there is not enough evidence to indicate whether depression
could be inherited by a single gene or many biological genes (Marsella,
1994). Depression running in families constitutes the basis for asserting
the implication of genes influencing the aetiology of depression. It is
however imperative to acknowledge that family studies are not conclusive
as they do not completely disentangle genetic and environmental
influences.
2.4.2.1.2 Neurobiological Theories
Initially neurotransmitter theories such as norepinephrine and serotonin
were found to be associated with depression. However currently it is widely
held that no single neurotransmitter is related in an isolated manner to
mood disorders. Therefore the endocrine system specifically cortisol was
investigated as to its relationship to depression (Barlow & Durand, 1995).
More recent research has found both cortisol secretion interacting with
serotonin and norepinephrine. Thus there appears to be a complex link
between (Marsella, 1994) neurotransmitters and the endocrine system. It
has been found during the Transcendental Meditation technique that there
is a corresponding fundamental neurophysiological reorganization.
Furthermore somatic arousal reduction is maintained during baseline
periods outside of meditation (Dillbeck & Orme - Johnson, 1987).
37
38
2.4.2.2 Social - Psychological Theories
2.4.2.2.1 Separation loss
A psychoanalytic explanation of separation loss, emphasizes object loss
and its relation to depression. Depression is claimed to occur when
feelings of anger or hostility are harboured against the lost love object
(Wicks - Nelson & Israel, 1996).
Freud (1917) claimed depression could occur due to imagined or
unconsciously perceived object loss. It is maintained that if there is a loss
of a loved object which is both loved and hated, the hatred is denied, and
guilt emerges, resulting in self-directed anger (Marsella, 1994).
2.4.2.2.2 Response Contingent Positive Reinforcement Theory
Lewinsohn (1974) believed that inadequate positive reinforcement may
result in depression. This may link to the separation loss theory whereby
loss of a primary loved one could result in a lack of positive reinforcement.
Another view is that individuals may also lack the social skills necessary to
elicit positive reinforcement. Alternatively few events may have the
potential to reinforce the individual. The direction of causality between
depression and lack of positive reinforcement is uncertain (Marsella, 1994).
2.4.2.2.3 Learned Helplessness
Seligman's research (1975) found that animals trapped in research
experiments in which they could not avoid punishment, eventually became
unresponsive. He described this pattern as learned helplessness, and
perceived it as similar to depression in humans. Depression may occur
when humans perceive themselves as having no control over their
environment. Seligman (1975) maintained that anxiety is the initial
response to a stressful situation, however when hopelessness occurs due
to inability to cope with difficult stresses then depression may follow. It has
been claimed that this negative attributional style may lead to deficits in
neurotransmitters and hormones (Marsella, 1994). However according to
Barlow and Durand (1995) the direction of this causality is uncertain.
Research findings of the Transcendental Meditation technique having a
corresponding neurophysiological reorganisation (Dillbeck & Orme -
Johnson, 1987) is obviously important in this regard.
2.4.2.2.4 Beck's Cognitive Triad
According to Beck, errors in cognition cause depression (Marsella, 1994).
Depressed people were found to make negative arbitrary inferences and
negative overgeneralizations about themselves, their future and their
world. Beck also theorised that negative schema may develop after a
series of negative events occurring in childhood. These deep seated
negative schema cause cognitive errors to be automatic (Barlow & Durand,
1995). It is believed that cognitive therapy could help correct these
39
40
cognitive error and underlying schemes thereby alleviating depression
(Wicks -Nielson & Israel, 1996).
2.4.3 Depression in Childhood and Adolescence
According to Matson (1989) prior to 1980 there was contention of the
acceptance of depression in children and youths. Some psychoanalytic
professionals argued that childhood depression could not exist because it
was a superego phenomenon. These professionals asserted that children
did not have a fully developed superego, thus depression could not occur
in childhood (Beres, 1966). The evolution of ego psychology however,
formulated an understanding where the ego alone was perceived to be
capable of experiencing affective states and thus childhood depression
could exist (French & Berlin, 1979).
By 1980 with the development of empirically based instruments, childhood
depression became accepted as a clinical entity (Matson, 1989).
Depressive feelings such as sadness, worthlessness, and pessimism were
found to be fairly common in adolescents (Mussen, Conger, Kagan &
Husten, 1984). It has been found that eight to ten percent of adolescents
report experiencing suicidal feelings (Rutter, 1980).
41
2.4.3.1 Differences Between Depression in Adults and Youths
Generally children and adolescents do not exhibit the hopelessness, nor
expression of negativity as adult depressives do (Mussen et al., 1984).
Young people mask their depressive feelings and are unlikely to express
their feelings openly. Depression in adolescents may be disguised by
acting out behaviour such as sexual or aggressive behaviour; boredom;
restlessness or even hypochondriachal complaints (Carlson, 1980).
According to Wicks - Nelson and Israel, 1996 the concept of masked
depression is controversial, as the symptoms masking depression have
included a large amount of behavioural problems. However the concept of
masked depression is widely accepted, and is important as it recognizes
depression as an important childhood problem. The perception that youth
may display depression in different ways to adults is widely accepted
(Matson, 1989).
One of the symptoms of depression which may differ between adults and
children is a decrease in appetite. A Berkeley survey found insufficient
appetite in 37% of girls and 29% of boys aged six. However insufficient
appetite was only found in nine percent of girls and six percent of boys by
age nine. Thus poor appetite would probably not be related to depression
in nine year olds, but could be considered a symptom in six year olds (Mac
Farlane, Allan & Honzik, 1954). In adults a decline in social or
occupational functioning may indicate depression (Barlow & Durand,
1995). In children school performance is vital when attempting to identify
depression. A sudden drop in academic achievement is an indicator of
42
childhood depression (Matson, 1989). It should be noted, in this study that
the school implementing the meditation had an overall improvement in
academic pass rates.
A study on differences in cognitive-perceptual differences in adolescent
versus adult female depressives, was undertaken by Stehouwer, Bultsma
and Blackford (1985). It was found that there were significant similarities
with regard to anger at self and sense of failure. Differences were evident
in terms of adult female depressives showing an internalised focus to their
depressive cognition's, whereas adolescents demonstrated an external
focus to their depressive cognition's. Adolescents cognition's involved a
rumination of others perception of them and the preoccupation of others
perceiving them as failures, whereas adults were preoccupied with their
own negative view of themselves.
It must be noted that many symptoms used to describe adult depression
are similar to those of adolescents (Matson, 1989). According to Mudie
(1978) in an analysis of studies of adolescent depression it was found that
social withdrawal and psychosomatic complaints were the most frequently
found symptoms in adolescent depression. However, depressed mood, low
self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy were also found in the studies of
adolescent depression which correlate to symptoms found in adult
depression.
Depression in children is not characterized by disturbances of sleep as in
adulthood (Wicks - Nelson & Israel, 1996). In a study (Barret, Berney,
Bhate, Famuyiwa, Fundudis, Kolvin & Tyrer, 1991) of childhood
43
depression, it was discovered that symptoms which were reported equally
by the children and their parents were separation anxiety, hypochondriasis,
anger as well as nightmares. Thus these indicators for childhood
depression often differ to adults.
2.4.3.2 Depression and Aggression in Youths
In the DSM IV, one of the symptoms of a major Depressive Episode is a
depressed mood which may be observed most of the day; however in
children and adolescents this may be evidenced by irritable mood (Carson,
Butcher & Coleman, 1988). According to Matson (1989) a related problem
to depression is aggression. Irritability often accompanies childhood
depression and combined with frustration may result in aggressive
behaviour.
Barlow and Durand (1995) state that childhood and adolescent depression
differ to adult depression because of their tendency to become aggressive
and even destructive during depressive episodes. This tendency towards
aggression is particularly prevalent in boys, thus childhood depression
could be misdiagnosed as hyperactivity or conduct disorder. Lesse (1974)
noted that children attempt to ward off or mask depressive feelings by
exhibiting aggressive behaviour. Thus children's depression could be hard
to differentiate from problems such as conduct disorder (Matson, 1989).
Barlow and Durand (1995) maintain that often conduct disorder and
depression co-occur. In Puig-Antich's (1982) research it was discovered
44
that prepubertal depressed boys with conduct disorder developed both the
conduct disorder and depression at approximately the same time. It was
also found that the conduct disorder diminished with the resolution of the
depressive disorder. In a study (Biederman, Munir, Knee, Armentano,
Autor, Waternaux & Tsuang, 1987) it was discovered that criteria for major
depression was found in 32% of children diagnosed with attention deficit
disorder.
It has been proposed (Barlow & Durand, 1995) that when the underlying
depression is treated, the resolution of associated problems in children and
adolescents occur. In a study by Bettes and Walker (1986 in Matson,
1989) it was found that in young boys none of the conventional suicide
signs which are found in adults were evident, but rather conduct disorder
symptoms were evident. Thus it may be difficult to distinguish between the
potentially suicidal child and the acting-out child.
It should be noted on interviewing the teachers from the school
implementing meditation techniques, they verbally reported a definite
decrease in fighting and general aggression amongst children. This
correlation between depression and aggression is imperative in view of this
research. Namely because a lift in depression could result in children being
less aggressive, which is vital in a country such as South Africa, and the
desire for peace.
2.4.4 Treatment of Depression
2.4.4.1 Pharmacotherapy in Youth
Antidepressant medication is used in both adolescents and children.
There is concern however that research on psychopharmacology in
adolescents and children is lacking; especially with regard to safety and
side effects as little is known about long term side effects (Wicks - Nelson
& Israel, 1996).
2.4.4.2 Psychotherapy
2.4.4.2.1 Cognitive - Behavioural Treatments
Cognitive restructuring may be used to focus on maladaptive cognitions
(Carlson et al., 1986). A cognitive - behavioural course known as, "The
coping with depression course for adolescents", has shown long term
positive benefits in reducing depression over a two year period (Wicks -
Nelson & Israel, 1996). This course involves methods of relaxation,
controlling irrational and negative thoughts; increased social skills, conflict
resolution and increasing pleasant events (Craig & Dobson, 1995).
Although the relaxation method used in this course is not Transcendental
Meditation, ultimately it has a similar aim. Social skills training is also used
as it is assumed the depressed youth are unable to control their
interpersonal environment (Matson, 1989). Role-play may be used to
teach interpersonal skills as well as problem solving techniques (Wicks -
45
46
Nelson & Israel, 1996). Different procedures may be used in social skills
training such as instruction, modelling, role playing, performance feedback
as well as social and tangible reinforcements for discrete behaviours. This
training is believed to aid the child in eventually acquiring more positive
reinforcement from their social environment (Matson, 1989).
2.4.4.2.2 Play Therapy
Play Therapy may be used for depressed children, where the child is given
freedom of emotional expression. The child may be able to vent or cathart
his or her difficulties through play with an adults empathic support. This
corrective emotional experience is believed to relieve tensions in the child
as well as change the child's attitudes towards problems and conflict
(Brems, 1993). Play therapy may also include visualisation meditations,
which would have a similar aim of relaxation as does Transcendental
Meditation.
2.5 Hopelessness
2.5.1 Definition of Hopelessness
Hopelessness may be defined as negative expectations towards the future
and is considered a central feature of depression (Beck, 1976). Prior to
Beck's research hopelessness had already been established as being
linked clinically to affective problems (Holden, 1994). Beck's research
47
resulted in an increased interest in the concept of hopelessness and lead
to the measurement of hopelessness (Beck, Weissman, Lester & Trexler,
1974).
Hopelessness has also been associated with pessimism. Researchers
claim that hopelessness has different interrelational concepts such as
negative expectations for the future, loss of motivation and negative
feelings about the future. Hopelessness is considered to be related to a
manner of thinking or a set of negative cognitions about the future (Holden,
1994).
2.5.2 Theoretical Perspectives of Hopelessness
In terms of a cognitive model, hopelessness may be viewed as a set of
negative cognitions about the future. These negative cognitions have been
associated with a number of psychological problems, such as depression,
suicide, alcoholism and schizophrenia (Holden, 1994). Hopelessness
scores in children would be expected to relate positively to depression and
negatively to self-esteem (Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).
Hopelessness has been related to people making negative arbitrary
influences and negative over generalizations about themselves, their future
and their world (Barlow & Durand, 1995). These negative perceptions are
referred to as Beck's (1976) cognitive triad of depression. It has been
theorised that after a series of negative events in childhood, negative
schema may develop. These schema may then cause cognitive errors to
48
be automatic (Barlow & Durand, 1995). Thus a form of treatment could
possibly be cognitive therapy, whereby an attempt may be made to change
the underlying schema (Carson, Butcher & Coleman, 1988).
Hopelessness has also been related to a theory of social behaviour. It is
believed that hopelessness and negative self-esteem are associated with
social withdrawal. Limited social interactions however is accompanied by
diminished social reinforcement, or lack of approach response from other
people, thus leading to further social withdrawal (Youngren & Lewinsohn,
1980).
2.5.3 The Relation Between Hopelessness and Suicidal Behaviour
Hopelessness is generally considered the largest psychological predictor
of suicide intent, suicide ideation, suicide attempts as well as completed
suicides (Holden, 1994). Several studies have found hopelessness
correlates with depression as well as with suicidal ideation and suicidal
attempts for example the research by Wetzel, Marguiles, Davis and Karam,
(1980). Thus although suicidal behaviour is relatively rare in children, early
assessment of hopelessness could help predict later suicidal behaviour
(Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).
Research has indicated that previously significant associations between
depression and suicide become non significant when hopelessness was
statistically controlled for (Holden, 1994). It has been found that
hopelessness in adults predict later suicidal behaviour (Kazdin et al.,
49
1986). According to Holden (1994) hopelessness mediates a depressed
person to suicidal behaviour or suicidal ideation.
Depression —> Hopelessness -+ Suicide
Hopelessness is considered an important clinical sign of suicidal potential.
However, it is important to note that although there is a relationship
between hopelessness and suicide, not all hopeless people show suicidal
behaviour nor suicidal ideation (Holden, 1994).
A study by Mazza and Reynolds (1999) found that although depression
and hopelessness are related to suicidal behaviour, another two important
factors affecting suicidal behaviour are lack of social support and negative
life events. This is important with regard to this study, as the possibility of
children living in Alexandra township, having social difficulties exists.
2.5.4 Suicide in Childhood and Adolescence
Suicide is rare in childhood, however there is an increase in suicidal
behaviour among adolescents (Mussen, Conger, Kagan & Husten, 1984).
The rate of completed suicide is greater for adults, however the rate of
completed suicide's in adolescents is increasing (Wicks — Nelson & Israel,
1996). Kovacs, Goldston and Gatsonis (1993) found that depressive
disorders more than any other disorders were associated with a
significantly greater proportion of youth attempting suicide.
50
It has been proposed that it is more difficult to make a prediction of suicide
in youths than in adults, because the observation of depressive symptoms
is not as clear. However the possibilities of hopelessness as a predictor of
suicidality is becoming more evident. A recent study has been conducted
on the cognitive vulnerability of depression and suicidal behaviour among
college students. It was found that hopelessness appeared to mediate the
relationship between cognitive vulnerability and suicidality (Abramson,
Alloy, Hogan, Whitehouse, Cornette, Akhavan & Chiara, 1998).
In a study (Bettes & Walker, 1986) it was found that many of the boys
showed none of the conventional suicidal warning signs of adults but
instead, conduct disorder symptoms were apparent. Thus it is difficult to
distinguish a potentially suicidal child. However the possibility exists that
hopelessness scores could help to predict suicidal intent or future suicidal
behaviour in youth (Holden, 1994). The importance of lifting depression
and hopelessness in young people is evident because of the severe
consequences a suicide has, both in the loss of the young persons life as
well as consequences to family and friends. Consequently the inclusion of
both depression and hopelessness as variables in this study was relevant
for the researcher not only in terms of individual happiness of the youth,
but the terrible consequences of teenage suicide.
51
CHAPTER 3 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter is made up of five sections. Within this introduction (3.1), the
rationale of the research is presented as well as its implications for South
Africa. Thereafter the hypotheses of the research are formally stated (3.2)
followed by the description of the sample (3.3). The different measurement
instruments are then discussed (3.4). Finally the chapter is concluded with
a description of the statistical method (3.5).
South Africa has undergone many political and social changes, and is a
developing nation with constant changes throughout its infrastructure.
According to Coetzee (1986) social and economic development in nations
often do not give much consideration, as to the importance, of individuals
and groups in being co-responsible for their changing reality. Thus the
researcher proposes, that any attempt to help individuals become happier,
or more content amongst a variety of psychological variables, would
ultimately help a developing nation to move towards a more positive
change of the nation.
It is vital to note that intervention on microlevels, which in this research
could be considered the Transcendental Meditation technique to aid youth
towards improving certain psychological variables, has been found to have
a ripple effect on society. Thus all levels of research in developing nations,
not merely research on macrolevels of societals existence is vital (Holscher
& Romm, 1986). This study was initiated out of the researchers own
52
personal desire for more positive psychological change amongst the
people of South Africa.
Schooling has also been in the process of change in South Africa.
Individuals who may have the potential to succeed but do not succeed may
consequently end up being disheartened and functioning inadequately in
the environment. Difficulties arise when schools are unequipped to deal
with psychological issues which accompany underachievement in students
(Rimm, 1995). Financial difficulties lead to a lack of resources for
specialized interventions, including psychological interventions (McCabe,
1994). This further highlights the need for a cost effective intervention
which may have a positive effect on the psychological well-being of
students.
The researcher became aware of a significant amount of international
research on Transcendental Meditation, as well as other meditation
techniques on psychological variable, however there was very limited
research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa. Although research
on South African populations and Transcendental Meditation were found
(Bloch, 1984; Broome, 1995 & Hough, 1980), the researcher was unable to
find any research specifically on black South Africans which represent the
largest race group in South Africa. This research was conducted in
Alexandra Township amongst black South African school children in grade
seven. Although this research is unrepresentative of all the different race
groups in South Africa, it does raise the issue of further research amongst
different race groups and is potentially the beginning of a much bigger
53
research project nationally. Further research including South African
adults would also be a future potential.
In June 1984, the Development Society of Southern Africa conducted a
symposium on the state of development thinking in a number of disciplines,
with financial assistance from the Human Sciences Research Council. It
was found that the approach to development in South Africa had focused
more on the operational or technical side of development. To a large
extent research on the holistic human purpose of development was
neglected. It was asserted that a reorientation in this regard could have a
fundamental bearing on the entire way of approaching the issue. The
concept of the development of people as a central concern in social
change, demanding attention from multidisciplinary scientists has been
very widely recognized (Beukes, 1986).
In light of the above, the researcher was motivated in finding a technique
(Transcendental Meditation) which may aid the individual psychologically.
If both youth and adults in South Africa could become less depressed, less
anxious, less hopeless with a higher internal locus of control as well as the
improvement of other psychological variables, it could lead to a more
positive future for all South Africans.
3.2 The Research Hypotheses
(i) Youths practising Transcendental Meditation will show lower levels of
depression than the control group.
54
Youths practicing Transcendental Meditation will show lower levels of
hopelessness than the control group.
Youths practicing Transcendental Meditation will be less anxious then
the control group.
Youths practicing Transcendental Meditation will have a higher
internal locus of control than the control group.
3.3 The Sample
The Researcher contacted the Community and Individual Development
Association (C.I.D.A.), about a project they were undertaking of introducing
Transcendental Meditation to schools in Johannesburg townships, namely
Alexandra and Soweto. The members of C.I.D.A. supported the
researcher in this study. The researcher was introduced to the staff
members and children of a primary school which had been practicing
Transcendental Meditation for approximately one year. The teachers were
enthusiastic about the program claiming their children appeared more
confident and happy and that aggression in the school had dropped
dramatically.
Thereafter a control school which was separated by approximately seven
kilometers from the school practicing Transcendental Meditation was
approached. The research was explained and the headmaster gave
55
permission for their standard five children to undergo psychological tests
and represent the control group of the research.
The school practicing Transcendental Meditation had a total of one
hundred and two pupils, whereas the control school had a total of one
hundred and seventeen pupils participating in the study. Although the
distance between the schools was only approximately seven kilometers the
researcher was concerned that nuisance variables may effect the study.
The initial concern was that the control school was aesthetically much
more pleasing, with gardens, large new clean classrooms and new
furnishings. The control group also had an average of thirty nine pupils per
class as the students were divided into three classes. The school
practicing Transcendental Mediation, was an older school with no gardens,
nor lawn, but rather concrete, and the razor wire was extremely noticeable
around the school. The classrooms were smaller, furniture older and the
children appeared cramped as there was an average of fifty one pupils per
class as there were only two classes. The control school also bordered an
upmarket area of Alexandra where the homes alongside the school were
noticeably more upmarket.
The researcher contemplated the possibility that the above mentioned
differences could influence the control group more positively. However as
shall be discussed later this did not appear to effect the study, as the
school conducting the Transcendental Meditation was found to have
significantly lower scores of anxiety and depression despite these
observable differences.
56
The ages of the youth varied widely, ranging from eleven to nineteen years
of age. Age thirteen was the highest frequency of children in both schools.
In the school conducting the Transcendental Meditation or school 1, 34.3
percent of pupils were thirteen years old. In the control school or school 2,
35 percent of pupils were thirteen years old. Boys represented 48 percent
of the sample and girls represented 52 percent of the sample in school 1.
Whereas in school 2 boys represented 41 percent and girls represented 59
percent of the sample.
3.4 Measuring Instruments
This research was a quantitative study in which four different psychometric
tests were used. All four tests were self reported structured questionnaires
of a pencil and paper nature.
The following tests were administered:
The revised measure of children's manifest anxiety (Reynolds &
Richmond, 1978). The locus of control scale for children (Nowicki &
Strickland, 1973). The hopelessness scale for children (Kazdin, Rodgers &
Colbus, 1986). Reynolds child depression scale (Reynolds, 1989).
The questionnaires were translated into Northern Sotho to make it easier
for the children to read as well as ensure language difficulties did not
influence the results. English questionnaires were also available for
children who preferred to work in English. Certain items were removed
57
from the locus of control test as there was difficulty in terms of translation
and cultural differences. Thus the results for this test may be considered
as possibly being unreliable.
The questionnaires were translated by a linguistic company. Thereafter it
was back translated into English and then retranslated into Northern Sotho
by lay Northern Sotho members of the community. Items that were found
to be culturally problematic as well as items that were problematic in
translating were removed from the sample. This back-translation for cross
-cultural research has been found to be vital in the implementation of
research across cultures (Brislin, 1970). This process led the researcher
to believe a newly formulated South African version of these tests would be
most beneficial for future research.
3.4.1 Locus of Control Scale for Children
The Nowicki - Strickland Locus of Control Scale was designed to measure
children's generalised expectancies for internal versus external locus of
control, according to Rotters (1996) view of the concept of locus of control.
This scale has been successfully used with children, college aged and
adult subjects (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973).
The test uses an agree — disagree format. Subjects are presented with a
series of belief statements with which they are asked to agree or disagree.
In this scale, low scores are indicative of internality, whereas high scores
indicate an external locus of control (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). An
58
internal locus of control is accepted as a positive psychological attribute
(Mayer & Sutton, 1976). It has been found that students responses
become more internal with increasing age (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973).
The reliability of the scale has been considered stable. Internal
consistency computed via the split-half method and corrected by the
Spearman-Brown formula have found for grade 3 to 5 a correlation of .63;
for grades 6, 7 and 8 a correlation of .68; for grades 9 to 11 a correlation of
.74; and for grade 12 a correlation of .81. Generally the results of studies
across a diverse range of populations have supported the utility and
validity of this scale (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). This scale is well
regarded and considered appropriate for larger groups of children, thus
was used in implementing to the 219 students in this study.
3.4.2 The Hopelessness Scale for Children
The hopelessness scale for children was designed to assess the
hopelessness of children. The test uses an agree — disagree format, using
the words true or false. Thus the test is a self report measure, with a paper
and pencil application, thus is a useful test for large groups of children
(Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).
In this scale high scores are indicative of higher levels of hopelessness.
Thus low scores are psychologically more desirable. Research on the
construct of hopelessness found that it correlated positively with
59
depression and negatively with self-esteem (Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus,
1986).
It has been found that the Hopelessness scale for children may be used
with a sample varying widely in terms of age, IQ and diagnoses. Statistics
found an acceptable level of internal consistency for the test. This is due
to the scale yielding a coefficient alpha of .97 as well as Spearman-Brown
split-half reliability of .96; the test-re-test procedure indicated moderate
stability over time (Kazdin, Rodgers & Colbus, 1986).
3.4.3 A Revised Measure of Children's Manifest Anxiety
Reynolds and Richmond's (1978) revised measure of children's manifest
anxiety was adapted from Taylor's manifest anxiety scale to meet more
current psychometric standards. The test uses an agree — disagree format
in the form of true or false answers.
Due to this test being a self report measure of a paper and pencil nature it
was suitable for the large groups of children tested in this study. All true
responses got 1 point, the higher the score the more anxious the child. It
has been statistically established that anxiety scores do not differ across
grade or race. However females scored significantly higher than males.
The scale has been found to be useful for children in grades 1 to 12.
Reliability estimates obtained were .83 and .85 with a cross validation
sample of 167 children (Reynolds & Richmond, 1978).
3.4.4 Child Depression Scale
Reynolds Child Depression Scale is a measure of the severity of
depressive symptoms in children, however it does not diagnose childhood
depression, rather assesses a more global clinical manifestation of
depression. It is a self-report measure of depressive symptoms and is
suitable for large groups of children due to its pencil-and-paper application
(Reynolds, 1989).
On statistical analyses of samples of normal and depressed children from
the United States, the coefficient alpha has been found to yield scores
ranging from .86 to .91. Thus the Child Depression Scale has been
considered to demonstrate a high reliability. A high internal consistency
reliability has also been found of .88 (Reynolds, 1989.)
The Reynolds child depression scale may be considered to have a choice-
of-attribution format as the student chooses between four different answers
which best describe themselves. These range from "almost never" to "all
the time" in the response format. Items are worded in the present tense to
elicit current symptom status (Reynolds, 1989).
3.5 Method
The research design of this study is a pre-experimental design or quasi-
experimental design (Neuman, 1997), as the researcher deliberately
manipulated at least one independent variable (Transcendental Meditation)
60
61
in order to observe its effects on one or more dependent variables (anxiety,
hopelessness, depression and locus-of-control). However the researcher
was unable to randomly assign subjects to the two different groups. This
was due to the fact that the one school was already implementing the
Transcendental Meditation technique. This design may also be considered
an intact-group design. Thus although there was an attempt to control for
nuisance variables by testing the schools at the same time of the day and
by choosing schools close in geographic location it is however possible,
there may have been group differences.
Transcendental Meditation was introduced to the school in this study
approximately two years prior to this research. According to the C.I.D.A.
when introducing Transcendental Meditation to a school they follow a fixed
programme. Initially C.I.D.A. educate and teach the teachers the
Transcendental Meditation technique. Thereafter the children are
introduced to Transcendental Meditation for a period of forty five minutes.
They are then taught the method for approximately 1% hours. Ten or
eleven teachers attend the school everyday for approximately one week
and each child gets their own mantra. Follow ups also occur from time to
time for forty five minute periods, to ensure there are no complications or if
questions are needed to be asked. C.I.D.A. also help to set up two
teachers as co-ordinators for the school. These co-ordinators can be
contacted should any student have a problem or difficulty that needs to be
addressed. The students in this study were tested in October, 1998.
The researcher was assisted by colleagues as it was decided that the two
schools should be tested at the same time of day. The testing began at
62
9.00am and the children were given unlimited time. However they finished
in approximately seventy five minutes. This was a single blind study as the
researcher, teachers and headmasters knew the purpose of the study,
however the participants did not. This was due to the researcher being
concerned that if the participants knew the purpose it may have a
confounding effect on the study. The instructions were explained to the
children and the need to check that all pages were completed. The most
significant instruction being that there was no right or wrong answer, they
were requested to answer as honestly as possible and confidentiality was
ensured as their names were not to be written on the paper.
63
CHAPTER 4 : STATISTICAL RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
South Africa has and is still undergoing many changes as a nation. As
Coetzee (1986) has claimed, not enough attention has been given to
individuals and groups and how they are responsible for the changing reality
of development. Although there has been much international research and
statistical studies of Transcendental Meditation, there has not been much
research conducted in South Africa particularly with regard to the Black
population group.
This research has been conducted to ascertain the possibility of
Transcendental Meditation affecting psychological variables. It is a
quantitative study whereby black South African youth have been tested on
numerous psychological variables as to the possible benefits of
Transcendental Meditation. It has been hypothesised that youths practicing
Transcendental Meditation will be less depressed, less anxious, have lower
levels of hopelessness and higher internal locus of control scores than a
control group.
64
4.2 Distribution of Scores For the Different Variable
Table 4.1 Number of Pupils per School
School Frequency Percentage
102 46.6 117 53.4
Total 219 100.0
The above table shows school 1, the school conducting the intervention;
namely Transcendental Meditation, had 15 less pupils then school 1 (see
Figure 4.1).
Table 4.2 Frequencies of Gender
Gender Total School 1 School 2
N % N % N %
Male (1) Female(2)
97 122
44.3 55.7
49 53
48 52
48 69
41 59
Total 219 100.0 102 100 117 100
Both school 1 and school 2 had more females then males in the sample.
Moreover school 2 had 7% more females as well as 7% less males then
school 1 (see Figure 4.2).
65
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66
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Table 4.3 Frequencies of Age
Age Total School 1 School 2
N % N % N %
11 5 2.3 0 0 5 4.3 12 45 20.5 23 22.5 22 18.8 13 76 34.7 35 34.3 41 35.0 14 34 15.5 9 8.8 25 21.4 15 37 16.9 19 18.6 18 15.4 16 14 6.4 12 11.8 2 1.7 17 5 2.3 2 2.0 3 2.6 18 2 0.9 2 2.0 0 0 19 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9
Total 219 100 102 100 117 100
School 1 had no children aged eleven nor aged nineteen. There were only
5 pupils aged eleven and 1 aged nineteen in school 2. The largest age
frequency was thirteen which was found in both schools. The next highest
age frequency was twelve for both schools. Thus it is evident from the table
that more than 50% of pupils in both schools were aged between twelve and
thirteen.
67
68
Table 4.4 Frequencies of Locus of Control Scores
Locus of Control Score
Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N %
9.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 10.0 4 1.8 3 2.9 1 0.9 11.0 9 4.1 3 2.9 6 5.1 12.0 12 5.5 5 4.9 7 6.0 13.0 14 6.4 5 4.9 9 7.7 14.0 18 8.2 9 8.8 9 7.7 15.0 17 7.8 9 8.8 8 6.8 16.0 26 11.9 10 9.8 16 13.7 17.0 35 16.0 13 12.7 22 18.8 18.0 20 9.1 11 10.8 9 7.7 19.0 30 13.7 15 14.7 15 12.8 20.0 20 9.1 11 10.8 9 7.7 21.0 7 3.2 4 3.9 3 2.6 22.0 2 0.9 1 1.0 1 0.9 23.0 2 0.9 0 0 2 1.7 24.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 28.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0
Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0
School 2 had no pupils with a low score of 9, nor a higher score of 24 or 28.
Whereas school 1 had no pupils represented with a score of 23. The mode
for school 2 is a score of 17, representing 18.8% of the pupils. The mode
for school 1 is 19 which represents 14.7% of the pupils. It should be noted
a higher score represents a higher external locus of control. The scores
across the two schools were not significantly different as will be evident later
by anaylsing their mean scores.
69
Table 4.5 Frequencies of Anxiety Scores
Anxiety Score
Total School 1 School 2 N % N °A) N %
3.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 5.0 2 0.9 1 1.0 1 0.9 6.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 7.0 3 1.4 3 2.9 0 0 8.0 3 1.4 3 2.9 0 0 9.0 6 2.7 4 3.9 2 1.7
10.0 6 2.7 4 3.9 2 1.7 11.0 14 6.4 11 10.8 3 2.6 12.0 11 5.0 5 4.9 6 5.1 13.0 11 5.0 7 6.9 4 3.4 14.0 15 6.8 10 9.8 5 4.3 15.0 11 5.0 4 3.9 7 6.0 16.0 29 13.2 15 14.7 14 12.0 17.0 16 7.3 8 7.8 8 6.8 18.0 16 7.3 4 3.9 12 10.3 19.0 18 8.2 9 8,8 9 7.7 20.0 16 7.3 4 3.9 12 10.3 21.0 10 4.6 3 2.9 7 6.0 22.0 8 3.7 2 2.0 6 5.1 23.0 6 2.7 1 1.0 5 4.3 24.0 7 3.2 1 1.0 6 5.1 25.0 2 0.9 1 1.0 1 0.9 26.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 27.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 29.0 3 1.4 0 0 3 2.6
Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0
It should be noted that the higher the anxiety score the higher a chills level
of anxiety. It is evident from this table that there is definitely more children
70
in school 2 with high anxiety scores ranging between 20 and 29, than in
school 1. In fact although there are less pupils in school 1, there were no
pupils with a high score of 27 nor 29. School 1 also had more pupils with
low anxiety scores ranging between 3 and 11 then school 2. This difference
in anxiety will be reflected later when noting the mean anxiety score of the
two different schools. From the above it appears as though children from
school 1 which implemented the Transcendental Meditation appear less
depressed then children in school 2.
Table 4.6 Frequencies of Depression Scores
Depression Score
Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N ok
31.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 32.0 2 0.9 2 2.0 0 0 33.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 34.0 2 0.9 2 2.0 0 0 35.0 7 3.2 5 4.9 2 1.7 36.0 6 2.7 4 3.9 2 1.7 37.0 8 3.7 4 3.9 4 3.4 38.0 9 4.1 8 7.8 1 1.9 39.0 4 1.8 2 2.0 2 1.7 40.0 5 2.3 4 3.9 1 0.9 41.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 42.0 9 4.1 5 4.9 4 3.4 43.0 8 3.7 3 2.9 5 4.3 44.0 10 4.6 4 3.9 6 5.1 45.0 6 2.7 1 1.0 5 4.3 46.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 47.0 6 2.7 3 2.9 3 2.6 48.0 10 4.6 3 2.9 7 6.0 49.0 5 2.3 2 2.0 3 2.6
71
Depression Score
Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N %
50.0 5 2.3 1 1.0 4 3.4 51.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 52.0 5 2.3 3 2.9 2 1.7 53.0 5 2.3 4 3.9 1 0.9 54.0 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 55.0 5 2.3 4 2.9 1 0.9 56.0 4 1.8 3 2.9 1 0.9 57.0 5 2.3 3 2.9 2 1.7 58.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 59.0 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 60.0 7 3.2 3 2.9 4 3.4 61.0 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 62.0 2 0.9 0 0 2 1.7 63.0 4 1.8 0 0 4 3.4 64.0 5 2.3 1 1.0 4 3.4 65.0 5 2.3 2 2.0 3 2.6 66.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 67.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 68.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 69.0 4 1.8 2 2.0 2 1.7 70.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 71.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 72.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 73.0 3 1.4 1 1.0 2 1.7 76.0 1 0.5 1 1.0 0 0 77.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 78.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9 82.0 3 1.4 0 0 3 2.6 92.0 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9
Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0
It is evident from this table that school 1 had a larger number of pupils with
lower depressive scores ranging between 31 and 38. School 1, also had
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less pupils within the high depressive scores ranging from 70 to 92. Thus
from this evidence it appears as though pupils from school 1 which
implemented the Transcendental Meditation may be less depressed then
pupils from school 2.
Table 4.7 Frequencies of Hopelessness Scores
Hopelessness Score
Total School 1 School 2 N % N % N ok
1 6 2.7 2 2.0 4 3.4 2 12 5.5 8 7.8 4 3.4 3 25 11.4 9 8.8 16 13.7 4 34 15.5 17 16.7 17 14.5 5 36 16.4 20 19.6 16 13.7 6 41 18.7 22 21.6 19 16.2 7 25 11.4 13 12.7 12 10.3 8 15 6.8 3 2.9 12 10.3 9 9 4.1 4 3.9 5 4.3
10 6 2.7 1 1.0 5 4.3 11 9 4.1 3 2.9 6 5.1 13 1 0.5 0 0 1 0.9
Total 219 100.0 102 100.0 117 100.0
Both schools have the same mode, with a score 6 for hopelessness.
School 1 had no pupils with the highest score of thirteen for hopelessness.
A higher score indicates an intensity in hopelessness. There does not
appear to be much difference between the two schools in terms of
hopelessness and this shall be reiterated when analysing the mean scores
later.
73
4.3 Differences Between Mean Scores Between the Two Schools
Table 4.8 Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Locus of Control, Depression, Hopelessness and Anxiety
Variables Total School 1 School 2 R S R S V S
Hopeless- ness
5.54 2.37 5.28 2.1 5.77 2.57
Anxiety 16.44 4.77 14.75 4.42 17.92 4.59
Locus of 16.48 3.05 16.66 3.25 16.33 2.87 Control
Depression 50.75 11.93 47.85 10.84 53.29 12.30
According to this table (see also Figure 4.3) it is evident that the mean score
for anxiety as well as depression is less for school 1 than for school 2. Thus
according to the mean scores the pupils from the school that conducted the
Transcendental Meditation appear to have less depression and anxiety then
the control school. School 1 also had a lower mean score for hopelessness
then school 2, however the difference of 0.49 was very small. In terms of
the variable locus of control school 2 had a slightly lower mean score than
school 1, however the difference was extremely small of 0.33.
74
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75
Table 4.9 Differences Between the Mean Scores of the Two Schools in Terms of the Variables
Variables t-scores Degrees of freedom
2—tailed significance
Hopelessness - 1.538 217 0.125
Anxiety - 5.177 217 0.000 ****
Locus of Control 0.806 217 0.421
Depression - 3.445 217 0.001 ***
Where : * p 5_ 0.05
' p 0.001 ** p 0.01
*' p 0.0001
The difference between the mean score of the two schools in terms of
depression and anxiety are significant. The t-score for depression is —
3.445 which indicates a one percent level of significance. The t-score for
anxiety is — 5.177 which results in a nought percent level of significance.
Thus both depression and anxiety were lowered in the school conducting
the Transcendental Meditation on a statistically significant level. The
differences between the mean score of the two schools in terms of locus of
control and hopelessness was not statistically significant.
4.4 Relationship Between Variables
Table 4.10 Correlation Between Variables for School 1
Hopeless- ness
Anxiety Locus of Control
Depression
Hopeless- ness
1.000
Anxiety 0.415 ** 1.000
Locus of Control 0.302 ** 0.352** 1.000
Depression 0.489 ** 0.473** 0.293 ** 1.000
** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The correlation between all the variables for school 1, the school conducting
the Transcendental Meditation was significant at the 0.01 level or the ten
percent level.
76
Anxiety Is- Hopelessness
Locus of Control Depression
77
Figure 4.4 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 1
The figure illustrates that in school 1, all four variables were found to have a
correlation.
78
Table 4.11 Correlation Between Variables for School 2
Hopeless- ness
Anxiety Locus of Control
Depression
Hopeless- ness
1.000
Anxiety 0.263 ** 1.000
Locus of Control 0.120 0.195* 1.000
Depression 0.250 0.447** 0.165 1.000
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The correlation between anxiety and Locus of Control was significant at the
0.05 level or the fifty percent level for school 2. The correlation between
hopelessness and anxiety as well as between anxiety and depression was
significant at the 0.01 level or the ten percent level.
Locus of Control
1 Depression Anxiety
■
Hopelessness
79
Figure 4.5 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 2.
This figure illustrates that in school 2 the variable anxiety was found to have
a correlation with depression, locus of control and hopelessness.
80
Table 4.12 Correlation Between Variables for the Total Sample
Hopeless- ness
Anxiety Locus of Control
Depression
Hopeless- ness
1.000
Anxiety 0.338 ** 1.000
Locus of Control 0.191 ** 0.237 ** 1.000
Depression 0.355 ** 0.496 ** 0.204 ** 1.000
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The correlation between all the variables for the total sample was significant
at the 0.01 level or the ten percent level.
81
CHAPTER 5 : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
South Africa is a constantly changing society. It has been proposed that
the development of nations should give consideration to the importance of
individuals and groups in being co-responsible for their changing reality
(Coetzee, 1986). Schooling in South Africa has also been in the process
of change. There are various factors which may result in failure or
underachievement in students, one of these is the difficulties which may
arise when schools are unequipped to deal with psychological issues
(Rimm, 1995).
Research has shown Transcendental Meditation has a positive effect in
many psychological variables. Some of the variables which have been
studied are: depression (Tlonczynski & Tantriella), anxiety (Snaith, 1998),
self-esteem (Van den Berg & Mulder, 1976) and self-actualistaion
(Alexander, Rainforth & Gelderloos, 1991). There has however not been
much research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa, especially
not amongst the black population group. This study quantitatively
measured grade seven pupils in the township of Alexandra in terms of four
variables namely: anxiety, depression, hopelessness and locus of control.
The nature of this research was a quantitative quasi-experimental design
as the children could not be randomly assigned into experimental and
control groups. A school which had already been practicing
Transcendental Meditation for approximately two years was compared with
82
a control school which had not been practicing Transcendental Meditation.
There was an attempt to control nuisance variables by choosing schools
which were very close in proximity and which were tested at the same time
of the morning. The questionnaires were also translated into the pupils
home language in an attempt to ensure all items were understood.
Although it has been established that failure or underachievement may be
related to psychological issues (Rimm, 1995), South Africa is financially
unable to have therapists available for all the school children in the country
(McCabe, 1994). A requirement for a technique which may be beneficial
for psychological health as well as being cost efficient and time efficient
seems to be evident. Psychological interventions such as individual and
group therapy are too expensive and time consuming, therefore a learnt
technique would be most beneficial as it would reach bigger groups of
children in South Africa. It has been claimed that meditation is time
efficient and encourages self-efficacy in participants, which results in an
increase in self-esteem (Snaith, 1998). The possibility of Transcendental
Meditation being used as a technique to aid in the psychological well being
of students was therefore studied.
The researcher hypothesised that Transcendental Meditation would reduce
anxiety, depression and hopelessness and induce an inner locus of control
amongst participants.
83
5.2. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on the Different Variables
5.2.1 Anxiety
This study found a significant difference between the two schools in terms
of anxiety. The students practising Transcendental Meditation were found
to have lower levels of anxiety then the control school. A 0.1% level of
significance was found between the two schools which is extremely high
for a social science study. It therefore seems that although this was a
quasi-experimental design, the results were such that it may be considered
an important finding.
This lower score of anxiety in the school practicing Transcendental
Meditation corroborates research findings which have shown that
Transcendental Meditation reduces levels of anxiety. The research on the
effects of meditation and relaxation on anxiety have been so significant
that a statistical meta-analysis was conducted by Eppley, Abrams and
Shear (1989) to ascertain which method had the strongest effect in
reducing anxiety. After the meta-analysis of 146 independent studies, it
was discovered that Transcendental Meditation was approximately twice
as effective as all of the other meditation and relaxation techniques in
reducing anxiety as a character trait. This analysis also showed this
positive result could not be attributed to experimenter bias, subject
expectation nor quality of research design.
The reduction in anxiety in the school practising Transcendental Meditation
may also be seen to correlated with physiological studies of the effects of
84
Transcendental Meditation. An important physiological study is Dillbeck
and Orme-Johnson's (1987) quantitative meta-analysis which confirmed
that Transcendental Meditation has more than double the effect in reducing
somatic arousal than a resting condition.
5.2.2 Depression
The difference between the mean score of the two schools in terms of
depression is significant on the 1% level, which may be regarded as high
for a social science study. The results gave evidence that the pupils
practising Transcendental Meditation had lower levels of depression than
the control school.
These findings are similar to the many research studies such as Smith,
Compton and West's (1995) which have discovered that meditation
reduces depression. Sheppard, Staggers and John (1997) implemented a
longitudinal study where the research groups were tested after twelve
weeks as well as after three years following the implementation of
Transcendental Meditation. Both depression and anxiety were found to be
reduced after the twelve week period. It was further discovered that there
was a reduction in anxiety and depression as well as an improved self-
concept in the Transcendental Meditation group after three years.
This study has found a reduction in both depression and anxiety amongst
the pupils practising Transcendental Meditation. These results were in line
with research findings as well as with theoretical literature which discusses
85
the comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children (Bernstein &
Garfinkel, 1986). It has been claimed that anxiety and depression are not
separate psychological states, but are rather psychological states with
overlapping qualities (Craig & Dobson, 1995), this study also found a
relationship between these two variables appears.
5.2.3 Locus of Control
An internal locus of control has been associated with positive personality
characteristics (Mayer & Sutton, 1996). The researcher hypothesised that
the school practising Transcendental Meditation would have a higher
internal locus of control than the control school. However results found no
significant differences between the two schools in terms of internal and
external locus of control.
These findings appear to correlate with Zaichkowski and Kamen's (1978)
study in which it was found after three months of meditation there was no
change of locus of control. However it is important to note that, research
on meditation and its effects on locus of control have been conflictual such
as the different results found in Hjelle's (1974) study which discovered
meditators had a significantly more internal than external locus of control.
The decision to measure locus of control was due to the extensive
research of the benefits of an internal locus of control on psychological
variables, such as Friedberg's (1982) study. Furthermore a relationship
between an internal locus of control and academic achievement has also
86
been found (Maqsud & Rouhani, 1990) making this an important variable
to be researched.
Noe (1986, in Thebe, 1992) describes locus of control as a stable
personality trait. This differs from depression and anxiety which were
found to be positively effected by Transcendental Meditation and which
may be considered to be constructs of mood or affect. It could therefore
be proposed that locus of control may not be effected by Transcendental
Meditation as it is a more ingrained stable personality trait. Although the
above proposition may exist, it must be noted that the reliability and validity
of the measurement of locus of control in this study is uncertain. This was
due to items having to be removed from the test due to translation
difficulties and cultural differences of the sample.
5.2.4 Hopelessness
The school conducting Transcendental Meditation had a slightly lower
mean score for hopelessness, than the control school. The lower the
score, the lower the levels of hopelessness are within the youths.
Although there is an indication of the Transcendental Meditation group
having a slightly lower mean score of hopelessness, the difference is not
significant and one cannot make claims from these results.
The results from this study cannot be compared to current research, as it is
evident from the literature review that no research specifically relating to
hopelessness and Transcendental Meditation was found. The researcher
87
chose to measure the construct hopelessness, due to the fact that it is
considered to be the mediator between depression and suicidal behaviour
(Holden, 1994). It was therefore believed that the consequences of
hopelessness are vast, both in terms of the loss of a young persons life, as
well as consequences to family and friends and therefore the broader
community. Hopelessness is related to a manner of thinking or a set of
negative cognitions about the future (Holden, 1994).
In conclusion it could be proposed that Transcendental Meditation has
shown to have an effect on mood or affect namely anxiety and depression.
However Transcendental Meditation does not appear to effect the more
stable personality characteristic of locus of control, nor more stable
cognitions as in hopelessness.
5.3 Interrelationship of Variables
A hypothesis confirmed in this study was that students practising
Transcendental Meditation would be less anxious than the control school.
In terms of levels of anxiety, a 0.1% level of significance was discovered
between the schools. Consequently this study correlates with the
extensive research which has demonstrated that Transcendental
Meditation reduces anxiety (Eppley, Abrams & Shear, 1989).
The correlations between the variables for the school practising
Transcendental Meditation demonstrates that anxiety effects the three
other variables, namely: depression; hopelessness and locus of control.
88
This is illustrated in figure 4.4; where all the variables were found to have
a significant correlation at the 0.01. level (2-tailed) or the ten percent level.
Research has shown that a relationship between anxiety and depression
exists (Klein & Last, 1989). According to the literature review anxiety and
depression are overlapping psychological states as opposed to being
separate states (Craig & Dobson, 1995). It could be claimed that
Transcendental Meditation reduces anxiety and thereby depression is
reduced due to the relationship between the variables.
The hypothesis that students practising Transcendental Meditation would
be less depressed than the control group was also confirmed by this study.
A significance level of 1% was discovered in terms of depression. The
significance levels of 1% for depression and 0.1% for anxiety may be
considered high for a social science study. The researcher attempted to
control for nuisance variables such as the time of day; schools in close
proximity; and language translations. Although these results should be
interpreted with caution because of this being a quasi-experimentally
research; the findings may still be considered to be important due to the
levels of significance which were found in both anxiety and depression.
The school practicing Transcendental Meditation also discovered a
correlation between the variables of depression and hopelessness, as well
as depression and locus of control. This correlation indicates that a
decrease in anxiety and depression influenced the other two variables.
Figure 4.4 illustrates the school practicing Transcendental Meditation found
all the variables correlated with each other at the 10% level of significance.
89
Correlations found in the control school are illustrated in Figure 4.5. It
must be noted that anxiety was the only variable that correlated with each
of the other variables, namely: hopelessness, locus of control and
depression. This differed from the school practising Transcendental
Meditation where it may be postulated that due to a reduction in anxiety, all
the other variables were influenced, as they were all found to correlate
amongst each other at the 10% level of significance (see Figure 4.4).
5.4 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study
Implementing a quantitative research study on black South African youth
with Western standardized measuring instruments obviously has
complications. All the measuring instruments in this study were
standardized according to Western samples. Accordingly both validity and
reliability were also calculated according to Western samples.
The need for psychological tests which are more culturally appropriate for
South African youth appears to be imperative. Evidence of these
difficulties may be given via an example in the locus of control scale which
enquired about a students belief of a four leaf clover bringing good luck.
Due to these cultural difficulties as well as translation difficulties five out of
the forty items in the locus of control scale had to be omitted.
Consequently, results from this scale are highly questionable, as validity
and reliability were not calculated for.
90
There were four reasons for not calculating validity and reliability of the
tests. Firstly, it was not the aim of the study to translate and standardize
for South African conditions; secondly the sample size was too small to
calculate reliability and validity; thirdly the sample composition was such
that there was not equal representation of the different age groups and
finally the sample was drawn only out of one specific geographical area.
This study highlights the need for psychological tests to be standardized
and psychometric properties calculated for South African youth as well as
translated into various South African languages.
Language difficulties may also be perceived as a limitation of this study.
Difficulties arose because although both schools were Northern Sotho
schools it was discovered that some of the youth spoke Zulu or Tswana as
their home language. This may have adversely affected the study as it is
imperative that every item is fully understood. The researcher attempted to
alleviate this by having some English questionnaires available for children
who may have preferred to answer in English.
This study was a quasi-experimental design as random assignment into
control and experiment group was not possible. This was due to the fact
that the one school had already been practising Transcendental Meditation
for almost two years. This quasi-experimental design may be considered a
limitation as causal attribution is not considered to be as conclusive as
causal attribution within a strict experimental design. Accordingly if one
were to repeat this study it would be recommended that it be repeated in a
strict experimental design, with high levels of constraint. A pretest
91
implemented before the Transcendental Meditation is introduced and
thereafter a post test would be most beneficial in assessing the influence of
Transcendental Meditation on psychological variables.
The researcher attempted to prevent the influence of nuisance variables by
ensuring the schools were close in geographical proximity. The testing was
conducted at the same time in both schools and questionnaires were
translated. Some observable differences were that the control school had
less pupils per class, as well as bigger classrooms, and it also bordered a
more affluent area of Alexandra. These possible nuisance variables could
all be perceived as having a positive effect on the control school, however
the school conducting the Transcendental Meditation was found to have
more positive measurements in terms of anxiety and depression.
The Maharishi effect which may be explained via modern physics and the
quantum field theory (Hagelin, 1987) may also be considered to be a
nuisance variable. The Maharishi effect prop6ses that when a critical
mass of people practice Transcendental Meditation the underlying field of
consciousness is enlivened and influences both the consciousness and
physiology of people in society who are not meditating (Maharishi, 1969).
Lastly due to this being an intact-group design this study may be effected
by group differences.
92
The importance of research on holistic human development as a central
concern in social change has been established (Beukes, 1986). Thus it is
important that psychological tests should be standardized for all South
Africans. This standardization must include three facets:
All items should be culturally appropriate for the different cultural
groups.
The format of the questionnaires would have to be given special
attention. This is based on the findings by Maphike (1992) in which it was
found black South African children were more inclined to opt for extreme
responses in the choice attribution style questionnaire.
A strict Brislin (1970) method of translation be implemented.
Accordingly the questionnaires should be translated into the required
language by a translator then back translated by a different translator into
the original language, and then retranslated, until a consensus on all items
exists.
In conclusion this study indicates the necessity of establishing
standardized psychological tests for South Africans. The importance of
research on holistic human development in societies has been established
(Beukes, 1986). Research on psychological health may be considered
vital to a country such as South Africa as interventions on microlevels have
been found to have a ripple effect on societies (Holscher & Romm, 1986).
Although this study used a quasi-experimental design, the findings of
Transcendental Meditation and its correlation with lower levels of anxiety
and depression are so significant that the results may be deemed
93
Important. Due to the consequences of psychological health on academic
performance (Rimm, 1995) as well as the positive effects on South Africa
as a nation it is hoped that this study may encourage further research on
Transcendental Meditation.
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