the problems of agricultural development in the clove areas of pemba

8/14/2019 The Problems of Agricultural Development in the Clove Areas of Pemba

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MINIST-IT-YOF AGRICULTURF. LTYASTOCK AND NATURAL RESOURCES

ZANZTBAR CASH CROpS FAflMINc SYSTEMSfROJf,CT {ZCCFSP)

WORKING PAPER No-: WP 95/27

AUGUST 1995

THE PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURALDEYELOPMf,NT IN THA CLOYEAREASOF PEMBAPrincipal Findingsof a Study of Ilaya Farners'Rsearch Group

Salim.AbbasAbdulratman AliAbdulrahman rnjiFafm*KhalidMusa KhamisAli lftrtibAweina OmarSuleirilanSheheillarsud Suleim*nMartinWilS{d)RuBert liloodsZCCFSPFO SOX 2283Z-anubar

Telepilone fax: (054)33121


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CONTNNTS

Preface

INTRODUCTION

ovERvInwAppendix A: ResearchMethods[,oc{ttionaf theStudyOhjectivesof theStufuThePrCIcessf'Research nclDevelopment

AppendixB: Principal FindingsI,anil UseLandAwnershipLabourCr,spsand their lufanagementPestsandDiseasesivfarketlngaf CropsI"ivestockForestryHouseholdncome

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PREFACEThis paperpresentshe principal indingsof, a nnultidisciplinaryurveyconductedwithLhem.embers f Daya Farmers' ResearchGroup (FRG) in westem Pernba(FarmingSystems one 3). The mainaim of this surveywas o providea detaileddescription fthe farmingsystemsn Daya,with specialemphasis n the constraintsand apportunitiesavailable o farmers n this areaand n partieular he rnembersof Daya FRG tself. Theresultsof this study are norv being used o plan a researchstrategyand prograrnmeofresearchactivities together with the FRG whioh will address hese sonstraints andopportunities. To fhe extent that the farming systernn Daya is representative f othersin Pemba's Zone 3, the study will also be used to help fo,rmulatewider potieyrecomrnendationsor this aadotherplantationareasn the theeastof Pemba.Daya FRG is one of three FRGs n Pembawhich ZCCFSP s now working with incollatrorationwith otherssectionsandprojects n the Ministry of Agriculturg Livestockand NaturalResoureesMALNR). Similar work is also being.undertaken ith threeFRGson Unguja. ZCCFSP s in the processof developinga rnethodologyor workingwith tlresegroupswhich putsfarrningsystems esearchnto practiee n a way which willbe of maximum benefirt o the farnrersaf Zannbar as well as to MALNR and thegovernmentandpeopleof Zanzibaras a wbole. Theultimafegoalsof this approaehareto ensure he activeparticipationof farmers, radersand other Zanzibaris n agriculturalresearch ndplanning; o help build a Ministry which is fully res,pnsive o farmers'needsandcan design nterventionsap,propriateo these,and to thereby ostersustainableagriculturaland economicdevelopmentn the most effective and efficient wayspossible.F{erewe would like to take the opportunity o thankthe membersof Daya FR.Gandallthe othervillagers whohelpedus n our research ndmadeour staysuch a pleasantone.We are alsograteful o our colleaguesn ZCCFSPPeinbawho helpedwith the practicalaffangementsor fieldwork. Finally, othermembersof the research eam would like toextend heir special hanks o Salim Abbas or his tirelesswor,k n organisingour foodandapcomodation

SalimAbbas ZC{FSP}AMulrahmanAli (ZCCFSP)Ab4*hahrrleqj{an ZCCFSP)FumaKhalid(ZCCFSP)MusaKhamis FoodCrops)Ali Khatib(ZCCFSP)AweinaOmar(ZCffSP)SuleimanSbeheZCCFSP)MasoudSuleimel(Forestry)Martin Walsh ZCCFSP)RupertWoods(ZCCfSP)Wete.PernbaAusust1995


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TIIN PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTI]RAL I}EVELOPMtrNT IN THN CLOYEAREASOF PEMBAFrincipal Findingsof a Study of Daya Farmers' ResearchGroup

Iatroduction1. This reportpresentshe principal indingsof a studyof DayaFarmsrs'ResearchGroup(FRG),which is located n theclove-growingareaof PembaFarmingSystemsZone3). The studywasconductedn 1995by the staffof the ZanzibarCashCropsFarmingSystems roject ZCCFSP),ogetherwith colleaguesrsm othersections fZanzibar'sMinistry of Agriculture,LivestockandNaturalResourcesMALNR). Itsimmediateobjectilr was o find out more about he farnringsystsmsFS) in Daya, nparticular to gain a deeper understandingof famers' agricultural knowledgeandpractice than earlier studies had revealed. This understanding based uponpartieipatory esearch 'pa,rtieipatory bservation' n anthropologists'parlance),wasthen taken as the starting-point for planning further participatcry researchandextension ctivitieswith the FRG. In combinationwith the resultsof other,simitar,FRG studies,t alsofed into a moregeneralanalysis f trendsand opportunitiesnthis aad otherFS zones, herebyhelpingZCCFSP o plan its wider programmeandmakeappropriateecornmendationso MALNR and other nstitutionsconcemedwithagriculturaldevelopmentn Zwzibar.2. The report s divided nto threemainsections: an overviewand two appendices.The overview highlights he study'smain conclusions,ocusingupon the situationfacing armers n Dayaandelsewheren Pemba's S Zone3" The principalmessageof the study is contained n this overview. The first appendix outlines themethodrrlog"vf the study,and s primarily intended or readerswho have a practicalinterest n applying such methods hemselves. The secondappendixpresentsmoredetail on the stu.dy's indings toplc-by{opic, and is in effeot a summary of thepreliminary analysis undertaken by the researchteam shortly after completingfieldwork. The interview notes which formed the basis for this summary can beconsulted n ZCCFSP's iles. Readerswho are nterestedn thepracticaloutcornes ftheresearch,ncluding he ongoingprogr{unmef activitieswith fheFRG,areadvisedto refer to ZCCFSP'squarterlyand other reports elevant o this work, as well as toconsultdirectlywith theprojectstaffinvolved.

Overview3. Until recently Zawibar wasf,amousor the productionof cloves. For morethan ahunderedyears ts economywas heavily dependenton clove monoculture and theincsmesderivedby the state, raders,andowners nd agricultr.nal abourers rom theclove crop. The rapidexpansi.,onf cloveproduction y the rvorld'smainconsumer,Indonesia, ndthe consequent versupplyand drasticfall in world marketprioesoverthepastdecade ave hada devastatingrnpact uponZanzibar'sclove industryand he


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nationalconomyasa whole. According o c{rrrentmarketpredictionshere s littlehope hatpriceswill riseto anything ike their former evels. The f'utureprospectsorlarge-scale love production n Zar;ibar are therefbregrim, and while clove t'arrninghasnot suffered sudden eath,t is sertainlyn a state faceelerating eoline.4. Thevast rnajority of Zanzibar'scloves aregro\4rn n Pemba. Clove farms,manyof them originally establishedasplantationsand share-plantationsn the nineteenthcentury,dominatehehilly landscape f the wes{emside of the island,spreading verapproximately wo-thirdsof its toial surfacearea. Farmersn this area havebeen hemosthard hit by the fell in cloveprices.While farmerselsewheren th islandhavealso sufferedconsiderably rom the fall in cLove ncomesand its wider economicimpact$, n general t hasbeen easier rr them to adjust o the change. Thereare avariety of reasons or this, the mnst obviousbeing that cloves neverplayed quite thesamedominant ole in their livelihoods: relativelyew farmersown clovefarms"andseasonal love-picking 'as only one of a rangeof incomesourceswhich hotrseholdsexploited in addition to their own subsistence-orientedgriculture. ln the west,howevcr, the vast majorify of farmersown clevesand until recsntly relied heavilyupon heir incomes romthe eloveharvest o buy food and meet heir other domesticneeds.5. The historicaldsminance f cl,ovesn the local econorny asmade t extremelydifficult for farrners o reorient ttremslveso their recentdemise. The majonry ofclovetreesstitl standn thef,arms. t is illegal to fell productive reeswithout officialsanction,and the formal proceduresare slow and cumbersome- n any event manyfarrnon blame the low priee paid for harvested lovesupon the government ratherthan the world market)and believe that priceswill recover f thc governme*tor itspolicies change. As a rssult there is at present ittle inclination amongfarners tongagen wholesalec'llingand eplacementf,clove rees. Instead largeproportionof the clove fbrms are neglected,and the land between the trees is reverting tosecondary orest. This provides an ideal habitat for venret monkeys, whosedepredationsupon other food and cashcrops act as a further disincentivs to theexpansion f cultivation.6. The inherited patternsof land-holdingand labour use also place formidableobstaclesn thewayof agrioulturaldevelopr*ent. Largeacreage$ttclovesareownedby peoplewho ive outsideof the ocalcommunity someof themoutsideof Pemba),and herear consequentimitationsupon heir utilisation or other crops,especiallytreecrops. Meanwhile he division of labourand nputs o agriculture emaingearedto the econornicsystemwhich they evolved under. Wornen's role in agriculture sconfinedprimarily to subsistenceice cultivation and heprocessing f this and otherfoodcrops. Men's inputs o agriculture re moreextensive, ut in mostcases ouldnot be described s ntensive,especiallywhencornparedwith the work nndertaken yfarmerselsewhereincludiog womenoutsideof the cloveplantati"on rea). This canbe seenas a legacyof their historical reliance upon a tree crop which requiredminimal maintenance,much of which wasunderlakenby labourers rom outsideofthe clove-growingarea who were paid from the proceedsof the hawest. Thetransition from a low-input to a higher-input system s by no meansan easy one,


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particulady t{ren the financial resourceso employ outside abour are no longersoreadilyavailable.7" The typieal respo$se f farmers o this siaratisrumoredetails of which will bedescribedbelorv, hasbeen o expandsubsistence roduction n a piecemeal ashionby plantingcassava nd bananasn scattered lots in the clove farms. Manyof theseplotshavebeenopenedup in patcheswherecloveshavedied frsm disease.This isSuddenDeath,a diseasewhich is knovsno attackpoorly managed lontationsmorereadily fhan those which are well eared or, and which appears o be thriving inproportiono the ncreasing eglect f clove arrnr. For farmers assava ndbananashaveobviousadvantages They are familiar food cropswhic.hcanhelp to fill thegapformerly fiIled by food purchases, hile any surpluses an be sold. There s, inparticular, an increasingmarket for bananas,which are being traded in increasingquantitiesto Unguja and especiallyZanzibar town^ Otherwiss farmers havebeenslow to expandproductionof alternative ashcropq partlybecause f their lack ofconfidence n the marketsfor thern, as well as the operationof other eonstrail$salreadyalluded o above-8. The clove areasof Pembahereforepresenthe agriculturaleconomyof Zarulbarwith what it is arguably ts mostpressingproblem. This problem s compounded ythe environmental isks inherent n developingahernatives o cloves without earefulplanningandappropriate dvice rom policy makers. Througlrouthistory fhewesteflside of ttle islaad hasbeenperceivedas Zanzibar's argestarea of aaturally fertileland, ull of potential or agriculturaldevelopment.However,while the potential sthere(asovera centuryof suceessful loveproductionproved), t is a rnistake o thinkthat the soils n this areaareany more ertile thanelsewhere. n fact the subsoilonthe hills of Pembas notablypoorand deficient in minerals: the deepsoil pockets nsornepartsof the coral ragare much rnore ertile. The apparent ertility of the cloveplantationsdoesnot derive rom the soil and a underlyinggeolory,but from the thinla}rerof organicmatterdeposited ndmaintainedover housands f,ye*rs by the fbrestvegetationwhichgrew'upon t- The naturalbalancewasa fragile onq andbecomeeven rnoreprecariousw{ en mostof Pemba'sndigenous orestswere felled in thenineteenth ndearly wentiethcenturies.By happyaccidenthey were epl.acedy atreecrop which playeda similar, if less effoctive,biological role in maintainingsoilfbrtility. Ironically the periodic andcurrent negleetof ctroveplantationshas firtherhelped o rnaintain he balance,9. The implicationof this is thatwithout somekind of tree cover or other measuresomaintainsoil fertility the greenhills of Pembawill givewayro a barrenand relativelyunproductive landscape,sirnilar to that which has already developed in otherdeforested artsof the tropics, neludingsomeplacesalong the East African coast.Short-termeconomicgainshave o be measured gainstsuch nedium-and ong-termconsequances. The danger is that these consequenceswill ba ignored or notrecognised ntil it is too late. This hasalreadyhappenedn other areasof Pemba:whererool cropshavebefl continuonslycultivated for more than two deesdes, oilfefiility and productivity have declined markedly,much to the concernof farmers.Giventherecentchange n the economic ortunesof thee love plantations,here s an


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urgentneed o tackle his issue, o avert he risksof irnplanned evelopment nd orvork towardsa sustainable grieulture.10. This is a task which requireshe activecollaboration f planners,esearchers,extensionistsand farmers. This is evident from our own work together with thefarmersof Daya,as weil as the resultsof researchwe haveconductedelsewherenthis area. Without farmers' participation in this researeh,or the multidisciplinarycollaborationof differerlt deperfmentsn MALNR, rvecould not havs arrived at theeoaclusions utlined n the precedingparagraphs.Likewise,we would not be abletoexploresolutions o theprobterns ehaveotrtlinedwitlrcntongoingparticipaticnandcollabsrationof this kind. We hope hat readersof this report will comeaway with abetter understendingof the problemsof agricultural developnr.entn the cloveplantation areasand how tbge might be tackled \l all concerned. The sectiomwhich f.otlou' outline the methods we have used in reachingour conclusions andexpandat greaterengthupon heanalysispresentedn these ntroductoryparagraphs.


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Appendix A,r ResearehMethodsLacation af theStudytl. Theprincipalocusof studywas the villageof Daya,which ies n the middleof the Mtambwepe.ninuslan the westerncoastof Pcrnba.Thesmallvillagessttlements locatedon a high ridgq wherethe road fi'om Bahanaseorks north to Uwondwe and south to Mkanjuni. Daya is in the heart ofclove-growing country end Pemba'sFS Zone 3, whieh covrs most of the west of the island.Administratively he village is pa* of lvftanfiwe Kusini .r&e&icn the Wete Distrig of Pen&a'sNorthReglon. h 199? t comprised ome80 households ith a reported otal populationof more th.an360people,approximately alfof whornwere adults.12. Researchwasundertakenn participationwith themenrbers f llaya FRG. Thisgfoup lvffi fonnedin 1993et th instigationofZCCFSP, follewinga PRA in Daya and Mkanjunivillageswhich wasconducledat the end of 1992by a multi-disciplinaryeamfrom different sectionsof MALN\ led byZCCFSP. DayaFRG was the first to be formed on Penrba wherethorems now three FRGs! andindeed he first in Zanzibaras a whole. Prior to 1995ths main work undertakenby Daya FRG incollaborationwith ZCCFSPwas a series f on-farm ials with difbrent spiceuops. At the time of thepresentstudy he FRGhad a total of 12members. nly oneof whom wasawornirlAbjectiwsolthe Stady13. The 1995srudyhada numter of airns. First among hesewas the need o gain a mor detailedunderstanding f the farmingsy$tmn Daya,and he role of FRG members nd heir householdsn this.Although his coveredsomeof the same roundas he 1992PRA its odectiveswerernorespecificandits outputs rnore clearly ffined. One objective was to provide the information rrccessaryor FRGmembers nd ZCCFSP o planfu*her research nd development ctivities n the village. andto nsurethat these activities would be directed towards overcoming he key consraims and eleloiting theprinicpalopportrmitie*which he study had revealed.14. d secondobjectivewasto testthe viability of the researchmethod tself aspart of the process fstarting vorkwith FRGs. AlthoughDayaandother FRCrs ad been n existonceor some inre,a lol ofresearchactivitieswere being carried out in a comparativev&ccum,without a clear idea of theirrelevanceo farmersand the FS or af what impacts heymight have. At least n Daya he earlier PRAhadprwided a generaldescriptionof the osal FS,but this kind of informationwas not availab{en thecaseof other FRGs. The 1995siudy in Dayawar the first FRG-foc.usedrnini-PRA' and, ollowing itssatisfactoryoutcom,becamehe model for subsequenfudies, includingones undertakenwith newFRCs mmediately fter heir formation.15. A third objectivewas o promotandgivefresh rnpetus o multi-disciplinary lanningandresearchwithin MALN& as well as within ZCCFSP trdfl This hadbeenan importantfeatureof the originalseriesof PRAs,but hadnol subsequentlyeen ollowed ttrouglL largely becausehesestudiesdid notIeaddirectly to axy oint programnres f action n the villagesconcemed. The researcheamfor theDaya PRA therefore ncludeda foresterand a food crops officer as well asnine staff members romdifferentseetisns fECCFSPPemba, nd heForertry-Departmentn particularhaseollaborated loselyin subsequentesearch nddeveloprnent ctivilies.16. Within ZCCFSP tself the work of theagronorny,post-harvest, nd socio-economics ectionshadhitherto beenpmrly integrated,and a lot of research onductedndependently.Thiscften meant hatthere was little or no socio-economicnput to the plannrngof agronomic research,and that thesosio-economicsectionwould rnerelybe calledn at a at.erslage o assistn monitoring he mpactsofresearchwhich had alreadybeenundertaken. In contrest o this approach, he Daya study revolvedaround he aetiveparticipaticnof members f all sectionsrorn the start of the research roesskoughto its conclusion. ndeed he workwas not 'sectionalised'at all but an attemptmade o draw uponthedifferent skiltrsand interestsof staff as individuals,regardlessof their sectionalaffiliation. Socio-economic nputshave sincecontinuedo be ntegated into the work of the Pemba eam asa whole,notjust n rheFRG smdies" ut n all a$pefis fthe tearn'swork.

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T\p Pracessof Research nd I)ewloprnent17. The Dayastudyand heactionsstemmingiom it cornprisedhefollowing steps;18. Productionof checklist. Collectivebrainstormingn the office to producea checklistof researchquestions. The checklistproduced ,or he study covereda rangeofoverlapping topics: Ianduse andoramership,abour,soil fertility and associatedractices, ropvaridiesandplantingmaferial,disease ndpests, orestry livestock, rnarketingof produce,sourcesof income,householddecisisn-making,andgenderssuesrunning luough all of thesecategories).Particularemphasis as alsogiven o the needto understand atternsof change ver time' rr,ilharriew to assessingllrrnt and uture opportunites oragriculturaldevel,oprnent.19. Fieldwork by the whole team in Daya. Data collectiog fullpwing the topics outlinpd in tlechecklist,was basedupon semi:structurednterviewsandplot visits with FRG mernbers. The methodwas for a teamcf two or tkee interviewerso $pend ne day with a single .nterviewee,he morningvisiting plots and the affernooncompli*ing the interview at the intErviewee'shome. This wsrk wasdone in as informal a styl as possiHe,and no problemswere encounteredn securing farmers'participation o the exercise. This also had an important training furraion for project sta$ whoseinterview skills were $urpmed in iuteractionwith their colleagueshencehe useof small earns nsteadof single nterviervers). In the eveningeach eamof interviewsrspresented stuftnary of the day'sfindings,and hese',rysreiscussd ollectively nd improvementsuggested, longwith important opicsto follow up the nextday. On the final morning n the field a meetingwasheldwith all the members fthe FRG, together with other local resourcepersons. This providedan oppnrtunity to presentaaddiscusspreliminaryresearch esults, as well as to thank the FRG for its cooperaticn and outlinerubsequenttages ftlre action esearchrocess.20. @ Back in the ofiFceRoteswere cornpiled n the form of a reportoneachfarrner aterviewed. Completionof these nternal reportsgenerally ook up most of the weekfbllowing fieldw-ork. Thisproved o be heweakest ink in theprocess ecausen somecases igrrificantfacis and observations esorded n the interviewswere not reproduccdn the reports,de*pitea priorernphasis n inclrrdingas nruchdetail aspossible. Somevery good individual reports, however, werewritten. and t is hoped hat thisaspectof the researchwill improvewith furtherpractice.71. Cp.llegttyrunskq$. Following the comfllation of individual f*rmer reports, the whole researchteammstto undertak ollectiveanalysis f thedata heyhadgathered.Eachofthe m4|or opies n theoriginal checklistwas reviewed n a roundlablediscussionand the principalfindings relevant o eachwere listed. Editd minutesof the analysiswere subsequently roducedand distributed rvithin theproject, and t is thesewhjch form the basis ,orthe present eport, written up somewhat ater by tlreZCCFSPsooialanthropologrst2?. Action plannin&and-mp-lementation.An action plan was then producedan the basis of thecolle,ctive nalysis nd the views of FRG membr$.This step had he following stages: {a) collectivepr,oduction y theproject eamof apossible lan or further research nd actions; (b) dircussionof thiswith the FRG and rnodification and refinesrentof the pmposals, togethr with any additionalslggestions: (e) implementationcurer,rtlyongoing n Daya) fther MALNR dcpart$ents have alsobeen nvolved n this processn cases rhereprr:posedactions all within their remit. The Dayaactionplanand ts implementation re describedn detail n otherZCCFSP eports,and will not be consideredfurther here though t shouldnot be forgotten hat this was and s one ofthe key stagesn the researehprocss nd oneof ihe most mportantourputsof the study.23. Input to wider policy aad planning. The idorrnfrtioa gatheredduring the Daya study was alsosubcequently bsorbed nts the wider aspectsof ZCCFSP's work. This has included the refineddescription of Pemba's FS zones {a processdescribed n ZCCFSP's quarterly reports and otherpub'licationsl and more generally, the fir*her developmentof the researeh,policy and planningframworkof the pmjectas a rvhole. The findingsof the Dayastudy and urther participatory esearchbasedupon t - togetherwith the findings rom parallelstudieson otherFRGs have hereforeplayedan


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inryortantand coutimring ole in informing the direction of the projeetand its interactions dth othersectionsof MALNR, including recommendationsnd proposals or the future developmentof theministry and herole of farmerparticipatory esearch ndextensionwithin it.


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AppendixB: Principal Findings24. Th following is an unedited summaryof the mainpoiats raisedduring collectiveanalysisof theDayastudy. More detailed nformationon particularpoints and differentaspctsof farmers'practicecanbe found n the unpublishedeportson indMdual armerswhich were compiledby the researcheamandareavaitableur consultationn ZCCFSP'sofrices.trn+d Use25. Thereare hreemain ypesof farmland n Daya Theseare:

A. llorne Gardens, round hehousesn the village, which iesona highridge.B. ClgWllantati-o-ns, n the hill slopes the aree,wherecloves are the dominantcrOp.C. RieeValleys,betweenhe hills,and ncluding a) rice oultivation n the valley bottoms,and(b) cultivationofbananasandothercropsat the edgeofthe valleys.

TheHoreGerdetrs26. Crops cuhivated n the multi-slorey home gardensndude the following: hananas,breadfruiqramtrutan, leve$, oconuts, innamon, lackpepper,pigeonpeas,p,ineapples,assal4 andcocoyams.27. Cassavas most prevalentn young homegardens. Whm bananas nd other higher storeyaropshavematured, essspace ernainsor cassavqwhichcannot olerate oo muchshade.?8. Smallarnounts f blaekpepperareplantedaround he houses n treeswhich arealteadygrowing.Someare planteda :littledistanceaway iom the housegand f there s no spaceat home arners willplantelsewhere.More blackpepperhasbeenplantedat Daya n the yearssinceZCCFSPbeganworkthere.29. Pigoonpeasgrow well in theDayaarea,butbecause f the depredations f monkeysand birds heycan only beplantednear hehouses.ThoClove-Plantationq30: Despite he drastic all in thevalue of clovesasa cashcrop, noonpwasotsarved o have r;r,rt ownhis or her treescompletely. One armersaid hat he hadgot soilleone o arf back fhe ower branchesnorder to prcvide more ight to the lower storey. It is possiblehat there s some heft of branches tnight. Usua$ only dead reesaf;esold irr firewoodand eharcoal roduction. lt is difficult to cut treeswhen hey are still greenand hey would have o be concealedrom the authorities-Thepossessionf acertificate clletil permittirrycutting of dead rees s not very mportant n Daya.3l Some annersstill believen the viabilityof clovas. It is r seasonal rop with a reliablemarket(ifnot a high price) andtherefore hey still want to keep heir cficves. Many farmersare waiting for theOctober 1995elections o $e f the econornies f elove production rnproves. They think that thegovernments stealingram them by ofiering ow pricosanddowngrading heir cloves)and believe hatthe priceof cloveswill rise if the government hanges.Farmerssay hat cloves etch the equivalentofTshs3,000perkg in Kerrya,where lrey are sometimesmuggkd o. Nonetheless, o newplantingwasobserved,althoughsomenewly plailtedtrees were seen n 1994. To this e)dent, armersseem o b$hedgrngheir bets.32. Sorneclove treesare eged and t is very difficult to climb themand pick the crop. Others areovergrow{lwith bus} through heneglectof managementthe proportionof poorly-rnanagedlantationshas risen as the price of cloves has fallen). SuddenDeath,a diseasewhose ncidence eflectspoormanagement,s a problem. Farmers enerallyeplacedeadcloveswith othercrops. The rangeof crops

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found n the eloveplantationss similar o that found n thehornegardens nd ncludes assava,ananas,iackfruiq cinnamon, lackpepper,urmeric andcardarnom.33, Altheugh nrany hrnrers eplacedead clovesprirnarilywith bananas nd cassava,here are alsoeacouragingsigns of widu diversifieation,especiallya{nong membersof Daya FRG. Oae farmerreplacesdead rees everyyearwith orangesand bananas, r sometimes innarnonand black pepper.Another replaceshem w-hhother fruit trees,cinnamonandblack peppr. A fhird farmer replacedcloveswith cassava n oneplot threeyearsago,but now grows gingerand unneric there. On anotherplot, four yearsago.he replaced lsveswith cassava,ananas"ambutanandjackfruit, and alsoplalrtedsomeclove se,edlings.Otherreplacerner* ropsmentisned nclude$ugarcane.One armerwasplanningto reduceheclsvebranhesn an overgrorvnareaso that hecouldplal* blackpepper. He did not plantcassavan one arqa afflicted by SuddenDeath because e thought that the trand*'asno longer fertile:insteadheplanted orestry ree species.34. Someof the areesof governmenfand nDaya do nothaveanycl,oves, ut betel andbanrboocan befound on them. One hrnrer plantedbananas n governmentandbut replacedhem with cassava fterthepastoutbreakofBlack Sigatoka.35. To some xtentcultivation asshifted loser o people'shomes. Thecloveplantationssed o bedominated y pure standsof cloves,but now diversifications underway o increase ieldsand ncome,reduce abour nputs (for example n weeding),and rcure against he risk of one crop failing. Thesestrategieswere rnadeexplicit by rnore han one armerwe interviewed.The Rice Vallels36. Farmers haracterisedgriculture n thepastasbaaed rimarilyupon clovesandrice. Rice was notcultivated very seriously,andyoung peopledid not take muchpart in agrieulture. There was a lot ofimported rice n the shopsandrery few peoplecould dependon their ownrice cultivation. Thisbeganto changcwith the famine * 197l-72 whena lot of peapleexpandedood produetion. A lot of foodalso cann liom Mombaraat this time on the blacl nrark*. Peoplehad enoughmoney o buy food,t.herewat just noneto buy. The causeof this farninewaa he abruBtcancetrlationf food imports nfavourof constructionmaterialso build he,rovemnrentlatson Pemba.3?. Now other fosd cropsareplanted,opl"r"t, near he housesand near he valleys. When armersareguarding herice fieldscessavas oftenplantednearby.Flswever,manycrops cannotbe plantdattlle edge of the valle.ysbeeuse of the risk sf theft and the ravagesof vervet monkeys. This hasprcmptedafurther concenaation f effrrt on the homegardens round he villagehornes.38. Ssme armershaveplantedcinnarnonar away rom thevillage. Monkeysdo not eat hem and if alot of treesare plantedby diffrrenf farmers hen thei' can share he losseso human hieves. Farmersusuallyonlyhave 0-15 cinnarron reeseach. Somehadplantedcinnamon t hornebefore working withZCCFSF,but began o planttres somedistanceaway after the pmject c+nne.They still do no haveamarket or cinnamon, r do nol knolvabout t.39. Therearem&ny ice valleyn, argeandsnrall,aroundDaya. h4avuikas the largest. In the valleybpf,tomst is unrrsual ranyhing to beplantedafler themain ice harvest, Rirrga ice canresprout,butonly a smallsecond rop is obtained.One armerhadplantedsugarcane, ut fhe crop wasdestroyedbymonkeys.Land *wnership40. Outsideof the village here s generally o separateree ownership i.e. separatetom ownershipofth ald on which heygrow), as here s elsewhre onPemba.The homegardens rcvide he ercceptionto thig and trees may be ownedby former occupentsof the land, who planted thern prior to theexistence f a houseple,


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41. Farrners ay hat all ofthe non-goveramnTtand s ful$ occupiedand hatrhere s no landfor youngpeople o cultivate i.e. nonewhich hey canacquirewilhout inheriting,borrowing, entingor buyiag: inreslterms here s a lot of underutilisedand n Daya).42. Landholdngs arequite ragmented, nd one armerwe interviewd counted24 sepnateplots: thenorm s l0 or less"Inberitancs43. Distinctionscanbe madebetween unily (i.e. jointly owned) andprivate (i.e. individuallyowned)land, and betwen rmily landwhich hasbeendivided fbr use by individua,lamily members nd thatwhichhasnot. Wives canown separatearms,and heseare often outsideof Daya(including he eastcoast),especiallywhen hewife's familyhails rom elsewhere.44. One trnrer useshis mother's clovepftot: he is her only child so his use s nominally he sameasownership theexpectationbeing hat he will inherit this farm). He hasplantedcardamorn, innamonandturrnericthere, andplans o plant bananas nd sorneblackpepper n tlre more open areasof thefarm.45. A youngunrnarriednan ivingwith hisparentsuseshis ather's and: he doesnot haveany and ofhisown. He alsohasa plot borowed from a nr{ghbourard relative. This is a probtrem ecause ecannot ake any decisionsabout he family trand nd cannotplant 'permanent'oropson anyofthe laildthat he hasaceesso.46. The wife of one armerhas bur plots: a cloveplot inherited rom herparntsand wo ca*sava ndbanana lotsnearhome,plusa riceplot at Mawika.41. Land canalso be rcquiredby gift. A clovefann at Sengenya+.as iven to a farrnerby a friend.When he latterdiedhissunrivingchildrendid not eleim t espert of their inheritance ut confirmed hetransferwhichhadbeen nadeby tlreir fgher. In reecgnitionof this the neu*owrer sharessomeof theincame romthe farm with thorn. It is consideredo behisprivate and: in addition o cloves t alsohascinnamon, assava nd ndigenousreespecies.48. Before he 1964Revclution and inheritance peratedn the normalwey in the rice valleys. Afterthe Revolution he largervalle'ysof i0 or moreacres) ike Mawika were declaredo be governmentlanda*d colleetivelyowned. This wasenacted y forea Eachperson n the village wasgiveuone ,!sreto crrltivate: a large meetingwasheld c.1968-69n which t was announcedhat thosewho rvantedtcould get on acre. Someof the original owners lost out and in consqueRcenoved elsewhere.Everyone paid fixed surns to purclrasesubsidisedseed, fe.rtiliser,and tractor services rorn thegovrnment.Howerer, it is alleged hat the produceof these ieldswould largely be consumed y thevillageehairman. n areas ike Daya hissystemwas nst maintainedor long and he valleyplots havelong since evertedo privateownership.Shareplanting49:' Shareplanting, y whicha psrsonwho clearsandplants and is zubsequently rv'ena half of ttratland,wasonce widely practised,and wasparticrdarlymportant n expardirg tlre cloveplantatiorn. Itwas usuallydone when cleariag hick farest, but was *lso possibleon 1*rid *4rich had already beenplanted,and could be undertaken y &ther and son(i,e. ar a mea$s crr he son o acquirea portion ofhis father's and). The planteralsooften too& the first harvest rom the wholeof the plot whichhehadplanted.50. There s no sh*replanting ystemnow in the overgrormclovebush. lt wasformerlypractisedustfor the plantrngof cloves at a tirne whencloveswere vry valu*ble. Farrnersopined that there s noprospectofreviving the 50:5O hareplantingystemwith respecto other reescrop$.

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Governrnent and5l. Some farmersplant in the government-ownedorest, fbr exampleat Kinyasini near Sengenya.Someareasof governrrent and (rnostof it nationalised fter the Revolution)have not beendivided.Nonethelessome armershaveevenplanted lovesand occasionally thertree crops on this land. Theyare ust trying their luck. Onefarrnersoldgovernmentandthat he had cleared"albeit or a low priceand with no documentation.Otherwise rrmers tend to think of sovermntand which thev are usins,without authorisation sborr,owedand.52. Thereare also casesof hornegardensbeingdevelopedca governmentand. Two f,arrners,orerxample,aveplanted araoaq cassaya nda little blackpepperon nationalisedandclcse o the village.Erotsg53. It is relativd eary o borrow land n DxyE *both theplantationand rice valleyareas,and endingandborrowingare widespread raetices, ngagedn by most armers.54. Thereareanumberof reasonsbr borrowing and ending) and:

(a) to obtain access o landwhich the borr.owerdoes not possess, specially alley land f,orgrowing icg anessential artoflocal far*ing practice;(b) to gainaccesso landwhich s moreaccessibleo the bonower, or example earer ohome han he fieldswhichheor she rny have nhuited;{c) to obtain and whicir s moreopenand essshadedhan he borrswerso*1, thuspermittinghim or her to plaatsass:Iva, ssentialor household ubsistence;(d) to get mcre fertile land. for examplewhere fertility on the borrowers own fields hasdeclined;(e) to get land ree rorn pe$ts,where he b'orrowers wn land snot;(f to obtain and near which is close o that beingwarked by otherg in arder to er{oy theadvant*ges f company,abourgooling,and ncreasedeeurityagainstheft andverrnin;(g) to gainaccesso land n caseswhere he borrowero\ilnsnone at all, especiallyn tlre caseof mmarried menwho havenotbeenallscated amilyplots.

55. Onc farmer, br example,wasformedy cultirratingalone n a small riee valley. However.he had alot of problemswith birds andmonkeys,andhis childrenwere afraid to go there unaccompaniodoguard he field. He thereforeabandonedhis solitaryplot andborroweda rice field in Mavuika wheremany peoplewere cultivating. Another farmerhad danted blackpepper,cinnamoaand turmeric onborrowed land. This was very fertile becauset had not beenplanted or manyyearsand thereforecoutained lot of *rade anddecompnsing egetation.56. No payrnents re made or borrowing, apart from smsll gifts of the harvested rop to the landowner(s). Onefarnrerh*d boncwed half an acrecf,rice landat Mavuika from an owner who livesatKjsiwani"andhad doneso for thapast ive years. He borrows reeof chargq but gives3-5 pi*hi ot-riceto the owner wheneverhe getsa good yield. Another farmerhad bo,rrowed ice land for the past7years. The owners,however, nay ake his andbackwhenever hey wi*h.57. Peoph tend to stay on the samepieceof borror.vedand, oftenbacause f its proximity to theirhomeandbe,causeheydo not own better-located lots.58. The reasonsllorendins and nclude he ollowins:

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(a) the owner s an absentee ndhas eft sorneone lse o ruurage he plot, usuallya relative{who may hereforeuse t hfunself r lend t to someone lse);{b) theplot is dista:rt iom thehomeof the or.vnerthis is the obverseof (b) above,and esultsin arnorerationaldistribtionof landutilisation);{c) theowner s unable rrclearovergrown and: a borrower will clear he burh. which isgoodfor managementf eloves.

59. Somepeoplewrite an agreernent hen hey end barrow landandagreeon thetermsof its use.'Perrnanent'treecropscannotgenerally eplantedor removed y the borrow'er. It is, however,possibleor a borrower o sell cropswhich he or shehasplantedback o the owner of the and. horrghthe atter may refuse o buy them.60. One farmermanages half acrgundivided amilycloveplot on behalfof his elderbrother who livesirl Dar es Salaam. He rentsout the harvest rom c.3O0chve trees. He hasplantedackfruit (thoughonly one survired frorn tea) but does not wanl" o plantmore treas because e might lose the wholeinvestmsrt f *omethinghappenedo the olderbrother if itbelonged o ore personand thatposon soldor took the andbacktle wouldprobablyget somecompensationor the trees hat fuehadplanted). Hehas also plantedbananas nd cassava. He plaas to plant more bananas ecausea farrner is alsocultivating a neigtSouringplot and the risk of theft has thereforedecreased. He may aiso plantcardarnom nd blackpeppr. He will not plant cinnamon ecauset is rnorevaluableandeasy o stealand s considerdo bea'permment' crop.61. Another arnrerhasborroweda quarteracreclcveplot whichwasoriginally lanted ndera 50:50shareplantingrrangementprezurnablyhe reason or its smallsize). Theowner died aud eft it to twosons *ho live ar Kikunguni ($humbaVianrboni)with their msther. They come o Daya at harvest irneantl also at other times o cleanand maintain heir trees. Theborrower hasplantedcassav& ndwillplant a few bananaqespecially t the baseof the slope. He would plaat pineapphs f therewr nomonkeyso spoil hern.62, Clovsscannotbe plantedon borrowed and,but betrcngo the owner. Sornebonowers, however,prcvert the owBer's aew cloves rom growing well because hey will spoil their cassa\a. This alsohappetsin other areas outsideofDaya), whereborrowrshavebeenknownto pull up clove seedlinggandothers o put diesel uel on theroots. There s thereforesomepotential or confliet betweenownersandborrowers.63. Someownersdo not allow borrowers o f'armwith ridges rnatuta)and fuffows becausehey willcut the clove roots and can also cause soil erosion(if poorly aligned). The use of small rnounds{m*knngo\ is thercforemore usual.exeeptat the bottomof slopes. Thesestrictures,howeveqact asaeonstrai*ton the develoBmentf erosioncontrsl methods singcontourridees,Renting64. There s not a lot of rentingof clove treesnow becausehere s no value n doing t. Treeswereusuallyonly rentedaftsr the crop tad beenseen. A similarpracticeobtains or mangoes ndcocgnuts.Thereare wo typesof rentirry or coconuts Kdi ya tm+'alqr"ent for a whole yearat a fixed price,fiorexampleTshs50 for every ree, andkdi ya angua, ust for a singleseason.

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Mort&asing65. There s reportedlyno mortgaging relwni) of treesor landat present,hough his used o occur nthepastdrrring he clove era. Thedeb4was reducedeveryyearand nterestpaid. In the pastgold andwatcheswerealsopawned. After the Revolution n 1964 'armswere returned o people n debt- It issaid hat a icence s neededo mortgageFoperty.Purchase nd Sale66. The saleof farms s said s havedrqppedn frequency ecause loveshavemuch essvalue hantheyused o have.One trmer baugtrta clove armsolelyn order o ob'tain assava lotsnear o hishome.67. Thevaftreof plantatiouand s usuatlJcalsulated n the nrrmber f irees n it. Treesca-nnot e soldandowned separatelyiom land- They can, however,be sold lbr cutting, For irewood and charcoalproduction though n the caseof cloves his s usuallydcnewhen he treesaredead).t,ohourTheDivisionof Labour68. Women's work focusesespecially pon fice weedingandharvesting, ood processing including,pounding, rindingandcooking),and ookingafter childrenat home. Many wornenhavesmallchildren,and hereforework mostat homeand n thehomegardens. t is claimed hat in the paslwomen hardlyperformedany agricultural abourat all, but that householdseliedprimarilyon cloves and he incomeob'tainedrom them (to purchaseoodstuffsandthe labcur inputsof mainlandern nd others). Olderwomen andmen) are said o do mqre agriculturalworh than heir uniors. One anner opined hat theproblemwith family abour s that rdvesdorelatively ittl ftndare azy.69. One farmerrswife with four valley plots does all tile rice culiivation herselfwith her children.Childrenalsohelp her n fetchingwatsr, cutting irewood.cookingandweedingca$sava nd bananas $well as rice. The advantcgeof this division of labour is said to be that the woman can rst andfamiliarisegirls with their domesticduties eady or when heyget rnarried. Ano'ther vife performsatlof the rice tasksherse[ and also helps o dig holes ficr bananaplantingand weedscassava. Womenfrequentlyparticipate n the cultivation of bananas nd cassava he two most important subsistencecrops apart rom ric*.70. In rice cultivation he typicalpettem s fbr the husbando clear he landat the start of the season,fur husbardandwife to cultivate ogetheqand or the wife to weed andharvest he rice, helpedby theirchildrenwho nray also underfakemost of the crop grardingprior to harvest. Weedingusually beginstwo rnonthsafterplantingandcropprotectionbecomesnlensiverom the fifth rnonthonwards,earlier fthere are a ot of monkeysaround. February-Marchs the busiestperiodfor rieesowing,April-May forweedingand July.{ugust for harvesting.71. One couplehaveseven hildrenbut someare oo young o work in the fieldsand the older onesarernerrist women. The hrusbandndwife therefore$hare ut agricultural asks, Again he wife doesmostof therir;ework andsorne assava ultivation. Sametinres e hires abour o work on their rice plotsatMavuika,but usuallyhecannotafford o do so.72, ln anotherhouseholdhewife is employed s a schoolteacher" hehelpsherhusbandn the fieldsatweekends nd sotherwise esponsibleur all of their rice cultivation.?3. Oneunmarriedmsnworks aloneand hisyearplans o plantmtemaupland ice. In the pasthe hascultivatedvalleyrice but found t to be rnuchharderwork. Anotherunmarriedmale armer iveswithhis mother and hree sisters. His motherand sisrs do all the rice operationsand sometimes assavamrdbanana lantingand weeding. Theyalsodo the clove-pickrng He is involved n everythingexcept

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rice weeding,bird-scaringandharrresting.He cannotafford to payfor a tr&ctorandsohasnever usedone.74. Labouravailability s nory abig problemn Daya. A lot ot'youngmm have eff rhevillage,someofthem to do business f differentkinds and accurnulatemoneywhich they can then come back with tobuild houses.Youths startedo travel out of Dayaespecially fter *rc 1964Revolution.75. A lst of fannshaveweedsandarp not aswell managsd s heywEre n thepast. Peopledo not likpto spendmofieyon thei.r assava lots.Labour Pooling76. {liina,labour poolingand exchange,s practised ut is not the norm. It is maiilly confined ocooperation etl"eenwomsn n weedingandhawesting ice. Two or three r'eruenmay ake dar.b urnsto helpone another n specificoperations, or exampleicebroadcastingweedingand harvesting. Thisis only done in sowing and weeding iee amcngcloserelativescr friends. Peoplewithout rice plotsmightbe nvitedalong duringharvesting,irenor wo$ren,andobtainaportionof thahnrvest n return.Hired Labour?7. Mainlanders, speciallyNyamweei.were raditionallyhired for perfiorming earyagricultural askqincluding andpreparation.This s still the casebut there s only one Nyarnweziman now available operfiormmost of this work. He is thereforevery busy and can only take larger contracts. A womanfamner seshim for other asks ncluding he weedingof cassava ndbananas.Shealsc sometimes ireslabour for sowingrice. One or two local mendo occasionalobs but they are not considered eryreliable.78. Localsaresaid o dislike working for athersbeceuse f its historical associations ith slaveryandthe role of the Nyamwezi this is not true of all Pemba). Onefarmersaid het it is not difificult to getcasualabourers f you hnvEhe money o p&y.Another confirmed hat hired abour s availahlebut thatis it veryexperlsive,ndicating hat aost and he ack of incorne espocially ince he declineof cloves) soneof the reasonsor the declinen labourhirine.79. Castnl abonr s sometinres mployedn cassava ultivation. It costsTshs 5-6 to heveoneplantingmound,koongo a muhego,prepared,up to Tshs 600 for 100mounds. Sometimesabourersare alsohired o harvestaassava.8O. Hired labour is also usedespecially n clove plots. To cut overgrown bush costs Tshs 300 persingleclove ree. Clove-pickers suallyapproach he tree owners hernselves ndpick for Tshs60 perpisAi. Pickemused o come rsrn Kiuyu (Minungwioi)ofl easternPemba o pick clovesbut they do notcome enyrnore. Oneunmarried ,ocalmanpicksclovesss olr of his mainsourcsof income, but ingeneralhiswork is no longer ucrativeenough o attract manypickers,ocalor o{herwise.81. One farmer eported hat he usl uses amily abour n agriculturebecausee cannotafford to hire.As a res+rlt e has educedhenumberof hisplotsto five. Another armerhirespeople o harvestblackpeppff,at Tshs80-l00perpishi. A third farmer$t&tedhathe hir*s abourerso help n rice cultivationif he ssickat the tifte.Nfechanisation82. In somevalleysa tractor exnatbe usedand so armerrcultivateearlyby hand. Otherwisa herearetwo govemmentractors at Wete to service he wholedistrict in which Daya ies. The tractor driverusuallyclaimsansxtra fes' for his work. Duringthe astsea$onarmersgwp a Tshs 5,500sontributionto buy fuel for the tractor to plougheachacre at Maluika, and he sameagain cr harrowing(thoughrnanydo this themselves y haud). Theywere hen asked o payanotherTshs3,000each. The fiactordriver prornised o comebut nwer did. In hifavuika herewas thereforea delay n plantingbecausefarmerswerewaiting for thetractor"and n the.endhetractoronly cultivateda little on somearms.

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83. One problem s that everyonewantsthe tractor at the same irne. Another problem ies in theeconomics f this subsidised ervice.Theofficial govemment rice for ploughingor harrowing s Tshs2,000per acre. Ckreaere akes20 litresof fuel, currently ostingTshs5,400. Even he Tshs 5,500daimed by the tractor driver vvouldnot be sufficient o cover costs, ncluding wages,oil and repairs.Nonetleless armerscontinue o believe hat the government houldpay for tractor fue1and sub*idisethe service insteadt appearshat farmersare supplernentinghe salaryof thetractor driver).84. Thereare scmeprivatetractors avsilable n the district bw they *re usuallyemployed n carryingheavy loads like stones and sand. They carurot orrpete in price with th governrnentsubsidisedtractors. Somepeoplecould afford to payTshs7-8,000psr acer. Howwer, thetopograptryof theareais not ideal or tractor$,and he and s too hardat tirnes,and only soft ercugh during he rains.(lrops and tfutr MunnEyementPlantingMaterial85. Obtainingplanting naterial s nct a problem n the caseof rnostcommoncrops. Farmersuzuallyeither obtain plantingmaterial rorn their own fields or exchangewith ot.her ocal farmer to get thevarietiesof rice, bananas nd cassavawhichthey desire. Becauseof their associatiouwith ZCCFSP,FRG rnenrbers lso experienceittle difficulty in obtaining he seadsand seedlingsof less commonlygrown crops.86. Riceseeds not normallydif;Ecult o findunlesshe crcp has riled. Mtema *pland ricg however, sdifficult to obtain, argdy becauset is not aswidelygrownas herain-fedvarieties.87. Farmerssay lrat they oftenhave o buy banana uclcersf they do not possessheir own. Puhrs*suclcers ufrently cost Tshs2A, andmkun wa temboTshs50 or more. There s a shortageof bananesuckersduring planting ime and farrnerssametimes ave o travel sornedistance o bu1' or them athigher hannormalprices.88. One armernoted hatgl{rgrand urmericcanbe difificult o obtain. More probloms,however,areexperienced ith cropshke coconutswhichare only sporadicalty lantedn the Daya area.Menaes$s[t*hac1itrs89. One ,armer ad l0-I5 yearoJdblackpepperplated by nbu andmjengatm suppcrt rees. Anotherlbrmer, however, had plantedhis black ppperon jackfruit, cloves and coffee, as a result of whichharvestinghepepperwasaproblem,becauseheplantshadgrownhigh op into their supports.9O. furother armer ad planted55-60pine*pples .5 metresaparton opn andwith sandysoil which snot very fe*ile.91. Bananas re rnanaged y reducing he numbersof shootsper stool. Dead eavesare ctit off andplacedat the basealong with stems fter cutti,ngoffbunches. Onefarmer$tatedhat it is best o plantbananasn the wli rainsbecausehey take 1.5yea-rs 0matureand will tlrErefore lower during thesecond fiasikfi season ndgetenough ain andmaturewell Some arietiesake 12 months o mature.92. CEssava as said o be bestplantedbebre the ong rainsbecauset will rat if there s too much rainbefore t is Established.Mstuta areused n rryretreasandmakoongoelsewhere. Cassavas usuallyplantedduing the rainy sasons nd weeded wice. Dependingon variety it takes8-12 months ornature. h is harvesdwith a hoeor bypullingup the stemf the soil s moist.93. Rice seed s usuallvbrcadsast,a*d it is said c be best o do so before he rains. Onefarmer hasrece$tlyestablished rursery plot and will transplantbecauset uses ess seedand the weeds arecorrespondinglyweaker. He will be the first to try planting in rows More water is needed otransplant. One farmerhadseenbundingstructuresat Mangwenabut was worried that cther farmers

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would hinlche was stupid f he tried to build them himself. Landpreparations problematic ecause fthe ate arrival of tractors n Mavuika. Riceweeding s performedonceor rwice, mainlyby wontenandchildren see*bove}.94. Mterna upland rice is usuallyplanted or a single seasonafter felled trees have be,enburned:thereafter assavas usuallyplanted.Crop Varieties95. The following varietiesof,bananas replanted: m*tna vs terxba,befundi{- kir,ukwi?),pukusa,bakobako whichdid nst grow well on a cloveplal}, mhuifu (susceptihleo Black Sigatnka), igvruwe,ki.jakazi,karolmi, rnzigo,msinTvri,ad macharnmengi. Mzuzu.mkonowa tembo andbakobokaarcknownasdiseaseesistant;wlule m*ano wa tembo,mil)ifu andmzuzudo well aroundhouses.96. Thefrllowing varietiesof cas-savarcplanted: mjawa(or tma = leibega?),mal*is dwhichhss thebestyield), msgerczsrmesanja,mqjani memb*wtb


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lo 7 pishi per tree on averag. No fedilisersareused,md Justuprootedweedsare spreadon the plot.On anotherplot, of flat land with clay soil overtyingsandyoam, the sarne rrmer plafttedcassava ndbananas(alsoambutenandjackfruit) four yearsago after SuddenDeath had affected he cloves. Hehadgoodharvestsn thefirs yearbut yieldshavedeclinedprogressively ince.106. Farrners ecognisehat overgrownclcveareasare ertile: this s akindof unintentionalallow.107. In mauyc&$es assava anonly be planted or about 5 yearsafter clcaring and, Onefanner hadplantedc&ssava n top of a hill until it would not grow again. Now there s nothinggrewing on thisland, ust grass,and it hasbeome very infertile. fupther casewas cited, however,of the l4-yearcontinuous ultivationof cassava ndbananas: ertility haddeclinedon thisplot but was still good.gerl-Elassq108. In thepast;hegovernrnentsed o promateerosioncontrsllotmore and inepeopleorplantrngon stpslopes. One armer hought hat therewas esserosicn h*n in thepastbecausehe slove areasare changiag o bush Another armer hought hat erosion s not a big problernat Dayabecausehereate fiany trees andgrasses. lowever, he recognised hat it deies ecome nfuile on the tops of hillsbecau'*ehe raintakeso$the topsoil,especially laysoil with gravel, He therefare eavesgrass o grow-at the tops ofhills during the rains. Somecrops, or example,bananas, re thought tohelp n grosionconirol.Chemiqd.Fe{tilispalO9. Whn armerscan affirrd them, chernical ertilisersaregenerallyonly usedon rice, althoughonefanner ecalledusingureaand TSPonboth riceand camava. ntil thepriceswent up. Fertiliserusewaswidespread ntil 4-5 yearsagoand souldresult n double he eurr.ent ieldsof rice.110. One farmer,who had used ertiliser extensively n the past (obtained sr free when he wrs aMALNRemployee), lrought hat fertiliser wasespecially eded npoor s


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i 15. Intercropplngs prervalentn the hornegardensn order to saveabour ather hanbetteruse space.Cassavas plantedbetweenbananas rtil there is too nnrch shade, after which pineapplesmay beplanted,with thebananasenefitting rom pineappleweeding.116. One farmer intercrcpped5 varietiesof cassavabecauseof a shortageof planting material.Another ntercropped or the following stated easons: a) to get moryield frorn the samearea {.b) osaveon labour operations" nd(c) to increase oil fertility. Anc'ther armersaid hat intercroppingwaspfactisedo reduce he ri* ofcrop failure.117. The firllowing tree species re said o grow well with crops: youngcloves, ackfruit, str4tleartdmlondaa, Mchenru msils andmbursarefound on poor soils andarethougll to havea bad effea. Ashrubcalled nwivuwiwt,issaid o make he soil fertile by adding nany eaves. Cassava rovidesshadefur tree cropswhen hey are ir* planted.Pestsanl DissdnssBananas118. Overall here are no big problemswith bananas.Whole ieldswere uprooted n the pastbecauseof Black Sigatokabut they havebeenplantedagain. Farmerssaid that Black Sigatokaused o beprevalentbEcausehey did not haveany control measures.Howwer, now there s better manageftentand farmers ake cff th affectedeavesandsterns. Scme armerscut andburn the leaves n the dry$eason. Not all farmers, hcwever, burn the atrected eaves. Sigatoka especiallyaffeets mhvi**,kigunwe andmkona ws tembo. farmers do not reduce he stemsasrecommendedy PPD,althoughthe spacingaf bananass not bad. The exception s hijakazi, which puts out so maaysuckers hatfarmersdo not bother to try to reduce hem, hence hey grow in thick clumps,especiallynear theh.ome-sieads.119. Bananaweevil (funza)especially ffectspuhusa andmkarp wa ternb


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{a) tango(alsscalledscufi), Mannikins,Lanclnru spp.,whi.chare very commoq numberingupto 100 n a flock.{b) l*vche (plural makweche)arld.mr.wwr. the tslack-wingedRed Bishop, Euptectushordeaceas.Kweehe s the nameof the male n breedingphimage;emalesand out of seasonmalesarecalledmnqw.

l2a. Tbeproblemof birds asts or 2-3 monthsbeforeharvesting nd heseeds eeome oo hardfor thebirds o eat. Womengo to the vall,eys efcre dawn, around 5 am, and stay here until 7 pm. Theyarehelpedby neighbours nd also heir childrenwhen lreyconre orn school. To scarebirds sornepeoplestring tape iom sld musiccassettes crossheir fields,and thes,eare said o makea noise n the wind.Othersuse a tin caa d


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Marketingof CropsGeperal132. Thereused to be Intlians with big shops ar Uwandwg includingrvholesaleand clove-buying.There was no need or farmersn Daya o go to Wete. Farmersused o sell ireir clovesbit by bit, notall in onego. for example10 kg at a time to providean all yearround ncome. Peoplekept the cloves nsacks up to 100 n their hompstores dtsla). This freemarket'disappeared fter be Revolution.133. There s nc rrarket centre n Dayaand it is diff&eult o sell produce here (except for cloves).Middlemeaeithercr:me o :Daya r farmers a&e heir commodities irect o town. A lo,rryccmesonceor twice a wesk to collect both passengers nd goodl. The lack of transport s a problem, thoughoxc&rtsare available. Somegoodsare ransported y sea rom Mtambwe o Wete: for examplet costsTsho O0-200per banana unchaccording o the negotiation thefare for a person s Tshs 30). SomeDaya octls own shops n Wete whichbuy bananas, lackpepperandcardamom.134. People iom Mic*reweni,Wingwi, ShumhaN{jiniand MaeiwaNg'ombecome o the village o buycassav,A ananas, readfruit and orher products. To lhis extant mar.ketingheseproducts s not aproblem n Daya. There is considerabkseasonal aliatiort in the pricesfor agricultural ecmrnidities,which are high in Ramadhan nd(traditionally)&rring clove-picking. During the holy month trade nspicesncreasesn particular,andblackpepperard csrdamom rices ncreased lot thispastRamadhan.Ban4nag115. The bananarade s increasing ecause f the increased riceof bananasnZwzibar town andimprovedseainksto Unguja.Mkorn wa embahas goodmarket n Mombasa r well as elsewhere:tis not gmwna lot on Unguja, Palwsa,mzuzuandespeciallymtwikeare taken a Zat:aibar own market**m Daya, though not by 1.oca1ermers,but outside buycrs. Most peoplenow rvftnt to plar$ morebananas.The priceofbananasused o be highestduringRamadhan nd he elove-pickingseason nddrop hereaffer.Nowpu*z.sahasa owerpriceduring Rarnadhan.136" Thereare threpeople n Daya who regularlybuy aud take bananaso We, where they haveshops. At least hreeFRGmembers laim o earnmostof their income rom bananas.One armergetsmost money kom mlwrn wa tewb(, andpukusa (he consumesotler varieties" or examplemzflzu,bokoboko*ndmtwike,athome).nothermakesmostnmkanowettembo,pukusa,przuza,asdmtwi*e.l3?. .{n estimated50-100bunchesare sold from Daya every-week. Thepricevariesaccording o thevariety and the size crf the bunch. The following (selling) price rangeswere quoted per bunch ofdifferent banana arieties

rnkowswqembo:Tshs2,00&.3,5$0or alargebunch;Tshs80&1,500 br a smallbunchwtwike. Tshs1,000-3,00Opuhtx: Tshs500-800bakaboko.Tshs600-1.000mzuztt.Tshs800-2,000mzigo'. Tshs300-600

Spices138. Ginger is the principle crop of one y.oung armer, followed bJ eardarnonlblack pepperandcinrrarnon.F{e s a spicespocialist. Cardamam nd blackpepperare often *old irr rhe village shopandboughtby peoplewho come o Daya.139. Farmersget a bette{ price for black pepper rorn traders who corne to Daya than ftom shopowners n Wete. The ndddlernenormallypaybetweenTshs50G.800 erkg, while theprice rosup toI,100 perkg earlier his ymr (presumably uringRantadhan).n thepastblackpepperwasmld at Tshs300.500perkC

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14O Cardamoms one armer'smainsource f income: he hasc.50plants. He caflget 3 kg of drycardarnom t hanst and hen return 10days ater to harvestagain. Another armer wanted o increasecardamom roductionnextyearbecausel hasa big market: at present t is his secondmost importantcrop. There are t'wo main harvestingsasons,mwaks and radr,but farmersharvesta little all yearround. Cardamoms said o fetch Tshs ,000 per kg in the village,Tshs 1,5O0-2,000er kg in Wete"andTshs2,000-3,000perkgduring (thepast)Rarnadhan.I41. Cfiawsstillproducea significantncomeor somearrners.One armerwith 1,0OOr more reesgetsTshs400,000=500,000er seasoRf they producewell. Another farmer manages 0 clove treesbelonging o his mdher: the family harvestsup to 250 kg of dry clovesper seasonwhich givesanincomeof aboutTshs45;000 labour oostsare hiddenbecauseheyharvest hemselves).Togetherwithhis tlner sistershe prefersclovesas a sourceof cashbecause f the readymarket,but they complainabout'tht tow incsme wtriph+lovesprovide compared o their daly needs. Cloves arp their mostimportant cash erop" fiollowedby b**anas(they can sell up to 30 brmchesper yar for a total ofapproximatetryshs 5,0ffi).Fruits142. Inthe past here was no market or breadfruit,but during he pastseasorl eople tom Michewenieame o Dayaandbought he filits for Tshs 10each. They harvestedhefruits themselves.Onefarmerandhis farnilvhave3 trees: it is possibleo-harvest p to 1"500 ruitsper ree n agood season.They*re so abundanthatanyvillagercan harrcst hem teeof charge ur do*resticconsumption.143. One farmer akespineapplesimself,to own and selis hemfor Tshs200-300each. Anotherfarmer reportedmaking an incomeof Tshs50,000per year from the produceof his homegarden:pineapples, anaaas,assava, hck pepperand cloves,FoodCrops144. Cassava asa iow priee n Dayq especiaByuring the breadfruit season. t is mainlygrcwn lordomesic co*surnption nd only he surpluses old or cash. Rice s not sold at all, but only consumed thorne.145. One farnrer rid to grow swe,et otatoes,groundnutsandpigeon peas or cash n the last threeyearsbut was stoppedby the monkeyproblern. This indicatesan attempt, albeit unsuccessfuln thiscase, o diversi$ cashcrop producticn.LivestockCpttle146. Therearenot a lot of cattlekept in Daya. Sorne rrmershare no cattleat all and those who dohavean average f onlyoneor two animals.each. wo FRGmembrs avecross4redcatttrewhich heybought: they tether them in the usual way (seebelow). Otherwisemost of the cattle in Daya aredifferenf ypesof tho oealshort-hornz*u.tr47. Theresem o havebeenmare cattle n Daya n the past: periodiceconomiccrises the 1971-72famine, he declineof clove ncomes)have esulted n manyof thsa being sold off One woillen fbrmersaid hal herfatherhad a1otof cattle n thepast. Shesays hat theherdwas reducedbecausehe area nwhich they could be herdeddiminshedwhen cultivation expanded. There is rorne conflict withcultivation: peoplewho find cattle in their fields may cut their tails or legs. Somecattle were soldbecausehe ownerswere too old andhadno childrenat home beingat school nstead) s look afterthem.148. Cattleare tetheredn the valloysby the rice. T?ris s a problemwhen here s rice in the valleSn.On the clove slopescaftle mayslip and fall over" especially uring the rainswhen there s too much

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water to heep hern n the vallrys and the slopesare slippery. \'illryers used to give their cattlepeopleelsewhereo herd (in other Mtambwe villages ike Makongeniand Matuuni, or outsideMtambwealtogether).149. There ag and o someeritentstill iq a 50:50 systemof payrnentn operation. The first heiferborn goes o the owner and he second ne to the herder. For keepingbulls the herder s paidby theyear. The tethering ope is providedby the owner and milk is taken by the herder. Sorneownersputtheir cattle out with differentherders. On Pemba hey used o herd n largeherdswithout tethering,there$y nanuringhe fields. This s still done n Michewenibut not elsewhere.A smallhut is/wasbuiltfor cows andheifers o keep hemdry when herewas a lot of raina$dalso o keepawaydogs. There sa specialarea n oae of the valleysnear Daya fer keeprng attle at night, but flot veryoneuses iis:insteadhey ust leave hecow$ o sleepwhere hey are.150. One armerwiti onebull and hreehgi6tr hasgiven hem o semeooe lse o herdand heydividetheproducts: milk" calves,and cashwhenone s so1d.151, Cattle owllers ead hem o wherever herearegood eeds,not us on theirown farms. Cows areusuallywaterdandmo.vedhree irnesa day. For example cow mightbe milked n theearly morning,watered" nd ethered y somegoodgrass.Thenat I t-12 arn t is put in the shade, rldat l-2 pm it isgivenwater,beforebefugailowed o grazeagainandwatereda third time n the ateafternoon.152. Both menandwofircncanmilk cowsbut it is mostlydoneby men. Milk is soid ocallyftom horneandcasts Tshs70per squash ottle, It is usedespecialtyor ehildren,asrnilk or in porridge. Peopedonot reallybuymilk far tea. A milkerusuallyhas he same egularcustomer. Thenes not a big drnandbecauselrere s not a iot ofmoney in the community. No milk goesoutsideof the areaat the moment,though onefanner hinks hat hecan sell milk in Wete. There s not enoughmilk now in Wete, fioughin the pasl thereused o plenty. One crossbreedrovides5 bottles n tlre morningand5 bottles n tlreevcrr-ing; nly a ittle of whichmay be retdned or homeconzualption.153. One armerhasa little lzucenaplantedas eedat home. I{e alsoplantedsomeelephaat rass n avalleybut this waseatenby veryets- He got theseplants rom the lrish-aided ivestockproject, whichused o visit Daya. He has 5 cross-bred attle and cuts eucenao take to thein. Peopledo not takewild plantsor grasso s.owq but ust let them eat t in the ield.154. Cattlearemainlykeptas a {brmof security.Cattle areslaughteredf they aresick, and he meat ssold either locally or at $omedistaace orn the village. Cattle are also slaughtered t weddingsandfunaalq at at Lhe #enu for a rnember f the amily who died ong ago(called ulili\. If a child dies agoat s *laughteredhnkiki): this is not done muchnow. Otherwisecattle are kept fcr securityand soldif there s an unexpected roblern, or example funeralor other cerelnonyor urgnt need o purchasesornthing.155. Onefarmerused o have wo cattle but sold hem about six yearsago,oae to pay for a wedding,theother whenhe had a problem unspecified). ll,healthprryntsim from keepingcattle again.156. Another farmer had 12 cattle il the 1970sand sold them to buy a dove and coconut fzrnn 600clovesand 100cocornrts), After harvesinghe usedsomeof the money o buy a singlecow and nowhas 6 caftle, 5 of which are cross-bred. The calvesare reared n a shedbut the bulls nnd cows aretetheredarldgrazedoutsideof the village. He doesnot use hemanure.157. One armersellshis calveswhen heyreachmaturity so that he can buynecessitiesncluding oodand clothes. He says hat the vet lives oo far away or AI to be readilyavailable.Hedoes not use hemaurreprovidedby his ttree caftle becausehearnounts revery small.158. One farrnetwith one cow andone bull is thirdcing f using hc bull and calves or ox-ploughing.fle doesnot usemanurebecause f the difficulty of carrying t. One armerwe interviewed,however,hadused.manuren sorneof his crops.

toof

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159. Sornepeople n Mtambweare kno,pvnor trading n cattle. A licence s needed o slaughter. Aclean areahas o be preparedand the eowimpectedbefore and after t is sleuglrtered.But fhis is nctdone a lot. The head andskinhave o stay here o be checked. The nearestvet is at Kisiwani,he isalso the local livestoekotficer. A certificate rom the sheha s needed o teke a oow to town. (TheDaya-Mkaniuushehadied about ive monthsago,his seeretaryisaowat Mkarjuni).150. The main disease roblern,especiatlyor youngcattle, s EastCoastFever ECF, matukni). TInsoccursparticularlyduffig lhe mosiht rarns. Farmerswith affected animds either cpntaet he vet orapply a hotpnga to the cheeksof the animal.Trcksare also a problem: fannerswho can contact hevel who usesacaricideso eontrol ieks and niectscattlewhen heyare sick. One armeruseskeroseneto minimise henumbs efticks.es${y16l. Many farmerskeep chickensbut not in large numbers. Ducks andguinea owl are also kept inDaya, but no doves. They are mostly kept free range. Onefarmer wantsto keep urkeys which heplans o obtain ronr hisbrother n Dar es Salaam.He has 15chickens, ofthem hybrid. He sdls someeggs: the pricefluctuates,at presentt is Tshs25-30per egg. Shopownrsin thevillagebuy eggs orTshs30 each.162. Chickensare kept to provideboth firo-dand castr. They and the eggsare usuallysold locally.Scme ocalsbuy them and take thern o town. Ducks are kept for food and the eggsare also sold.Guinea owl eggsare sold p particular. Eggsare most avouredas ood for children.163. One armer eportedputtingchickenwasteon eggplants ndbananas.164. Newsast{eDsease(nagwn} is the maindisease rotlern for poultry. To treat tlxs mclwnga(akind of leaf vegeteble)s po*nded ogtherwitb other food andgiven o the afflected hickens. Ducksare alsokilled by NewcastleDisease, ut guinea owl areresistant. One armersays hat he slaughtersthewhole flockif hesees ignsof Nervcastle isease.tr65. Poriltryarealsoattacked y raptors especiallyhe bird of prey called igtnga}.&herAnimals165. There:rreno goats"sheep r donkeys n Daya. Dogsand eatsarepresent"Dogsaremainly keptasguarddogs, houghonly a few are activdy kept, andother dogsjust roam aboui. Someare also keptfor hunting. Dogs are not normallybought and sold. Cats are kept to control domesticvermin,includingcockroaches nd ats.Il.onoyGalhcring167. There s nobeekeepingn Day4 just the collectionofwild honey. This s donemost n the seasonrvhen here is a lot of honey,epeciallyDecember-February.The first person o gt to a wild hiveo


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areaof forest s on governmentaodat Senguiya. Farmers reoot necessarilyarniliar with the specieson their and especially nplotsthat theydo rot use.169. Secondary fowh in elor,re lantationsncludes rlnra, muirwivuattdmtuguu, It is oflen mixedwith cloves hough n someareas hereare none170. One armerdefinedhree ypesof forest:

(a) pure natural forest with tall trees, on privately owned land: pe{manentcrops can boplantedby 50:50agreement r annual ropswithout any agreernent(b) ctoveand orestmixturg also on private family land(c) governnent orest: this canbe borrowed' for cultivation171 Anpther armerdefinedwo types accordingo thedomilaqt spgrics:

(aj wehenza ssila f crest(b) zdnra forestt72. One farmer recognisedhat the forest helps to bring good raiils as well as providing woodproducts. However"he noted hat it also harboursmonkeysand other vermin. He was also aware hatthe soilunder arge rees s fertilebecause f the shade nd eaf-fall.lirqty"oodCo-$ection173. There s no realshortage f firewood n Daya. Peoplecan cut trees or firewood without refeningto the owner. Howevel clovesare sfolen or firewood. It is not recessary o plant indigenous r otherspecies or firewood becasrsehere are fixany reff avaiiable,ncludingmchenzamsita endcloves,aadthere s no scarcityof firewood: it would not beprofitable.174. Oneyoung,r.lnmarriedan n theFRGcuts irewood or sale f he hasa customer.Anotlrer armerdoes his for extra cash: ?0 piecesof firewoodsel{ or Tshs600-700. llowever" there s not a lot ofbusinessecausehereare ewcustorners^CharcoaiProduction175. Somechareoal roductio*r raswereobservedn theplantationareas. Charcoal s not boughtandsold ocally,but the producersake t thenuelveso Wete. Daya s not a particularly mportantarea orcharcoalproduction: Finya s a big source or Wete. Charcoal s especiallymade rom cloves. Clovetreeshave o bepurchasedor charcoal roduction. Producers re not allowed o makecharcoalamongthe clor,'es y the plot owners,becausehis will aftct the cloves hernselves.Sometimesreesare cutdovsnwithcut permissionn order to makecharcsal,or provide pole* andfirewood. One farmerhadplantedCasuorinon order o makecharcoal.176. Charcoalproducers r.rtbig fresh c,4gsndarrangehernon the ground{not nece$sarilyn ahole)andput earthon top. Fuelanddry wood areplacedat tire entrance.The wholeproduction processssaid o talcehrceweeks romstart o finish, ncludingupto oneweEk o burn theuroed. The fire is putout with water. A bag of charcoal urrentlysells or Tshs700.Local.Tin$er Cutting177. If someonewants ts cut a mango roe for boat building they haveto agreewith the owRer:norrnalty hey are sold. Treesare more often cut down ts providewoodfor carper$ryand furniture-making.118. Thereare three timber cutting groups n Daya. OneFRG nnembereadsone group. which hasthreemembersinall.hiswasbeguninl9S3,maintytacutmtowfunfbrmakingboats.herehasbeen

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a steadydeciineover tle years n the availabilityof preferredspeciesor timber cuuing. Thefullowingspecies renow all rareanddifficult to obddn:nrule (mostly planted rees,but some sprout frsm the parent ree), valuedat Tshs 50,000-100,000 achmlonfuo,valuedat up to Tshs10,000 r reembantbukofi fioundon he coastandoffshore slands)mkatgaclnlemkw*gamostlywild), valuedatTshs?,000-10,000er reewfenesi.iackfruit,alued t Tshs5,000-10,000ach

179. The most comrnoniy ut speciesRowar he following:mchenzamsitamwavi, aluedat Tshs1,000-5,000achmtulullt : ml


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member,hadplanted lrany uees, ncludingmvinje (Casuarirn),mto'ndaa,msaji, ar,dmfutngu,giventohim by theForestrydepartment-HousehatdrcaweMen185. Many farrnersdo not know their income,or it is difficult to get the information rom thern. Theyareafraid ofjealousyand ear hat theymaybebewitched.186. Men havea variely of diferent sourcesof incomg and there s no single doninant pattern, fcrexampledependencen a partictrlar rop, aswas he case uring he cloveera.187. Onc farmerdcpendsmainly r:n agriculture in gener-al) nd timber sutting He also gets someincorne rom plasteringhousesand slaughtering attle and sellingmeat. Anothr rrmer's main ncomecomes rom cardarnom, is secondprincipalsourcbeing bananas. n order to met argeexpenses ebonows moneyor gets it from dling cloves. A third fanner, with a large ncomefrom, cloves,getsexfa money rom his youngerbrothersaad leir children. His secondanil third sourcs f incornearecardsrnorn rd blackpspper. Yet another nalc brmergetsmost of his ncome tom tailoring. For someyearshe worked as a driver and lren n a garage. Oneyounguamarried nandepends n clove-pichngand selling spieecrnps. A primary school toachernotd that agriculture s more profitable tlran agovernrnnt alary:heearnsTshs7,O00 errmnth from his ob.Wonen188. Wornen end o havefewerand smallersources f income hanmen,often from petty businessikeoccasionally elling a chicken o buy cloth. Other sourcesof incorne or women ncludehandicra$production (making rnatg bags andplate covers), tailodng selling bannnas, easonal love-pickingmakingmqanfuzi,and rying &gaa.189. The only woman n the FRC getsher inconre rorn tailoring and setlirlg bod crops (especiallybananas)nd cloves. She s alsogivencashby hergrownchitrdren.GenderRelations190, Onernale armersaid hat he can buy anytling he wisheswithout consultinghis wife. He canborrow fioney &om his wife if she has t. As he noted, the father andor lrusband s the principaldecision-makern tlre household.191 One farmer'swifb seeks dvice rom her husbandf shewants1o sellher crops. 'Decision-malringisjoint. Sheusesher incorne or buyingclothes or hershildrenandherselfande$ssntiel oods o helpher husbandsoup,sugar, ice). Shehaseight childrenanddoes rotwant to use farnilyplanning. In herview a major constraint or householdss the local water supply: the well theyuse s distant and overhills. Shesays hat cookingmaandazis not profrtablenow because heat lour has ncreasedn price.192 Anoths farmer'swife gxowsher ownprneapples hichshesells. The money s hersandsheusesit for damesticpurposs. {er husband uts andsells hemfiorher. Shecan cut her husbandis nnaf,asandsell hera. Yet anctlrerwife hasherown banena lot from whichslrederivessome ncome. Shecantake moneysr clothes from her husba.ndwhn is a tailor) without his knowledgeand without thisresultingn anyproblem.193. One wife who is a teaoherusesher wages o buy clotlresand nther necessitiesor her childrenShegles meney o her husbandf he.isSort and hasa problemof somekiad. Interestingly,while thewife said hat sheust gives he rnoneyo him, trer husband escribedheseas oans.

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194. Theresponsibilityof the uran s to providetlte main dxh(bitowee) and n somecases ll of thefood which the family eats. Ahhough mmy villagesare conseffative and wonlen do not go to tlrcmarket, n Dava hey maybuyfood aswell as men. It is especiallywsmenwho pic,kvegetables.195. The usualkitowea s fish espe.cially mall fu" dagaa, which are the cheapest. The followingleavesareregularlycollectedby wcmar:

kisumw"cassar,aleavstntariro. sweetpotstoeavesa special arietyplantednear hehousesemong he bananas)tnslugwa,cocoyarnmalnrli) leavesmchicha,A unnanllrusspp. this ispianted)mchunga,anotherkind of spinachthis is not planted,and s not acommonvegetable)m:*irmbalemhwryakwaya196. If a yaungrnaneetswith his parerts hentreusuallyhelps hem with money. Youths wittr theirown paid work control their moneybut also tend to give some o their parents. However,manyyllogmenhavemovedout of Daya n searc.hf betteroportunities eJrewhere.197. The patternsof meals f usually as follows. At I I am the fa,rnilyhas breakfust(chai) afrercuhivating. Dinner s usually n tlre evanirg,argund6-? pm. Cassavas the mainstaplu rioe is onlyeatenoccasionallybecausehe average ieldof 3-4 sackss usuallyall cons*medwithin three months).Cassavas alsoeatenby childrenafter school. Sometimes orridge s cooked n the morning. I* Dayapeopleonly usualtyeat wice a day-l9-8. There xeno cooperativeroupsn thevitlage.

the problems of agricultural development in the clove areas of pemba

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