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THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
Amelie Kuhrt
Volume I
RoutledgeTaylor & Francis Croup
LONDON AND NEW YORK
CONTENTS, Volume I
List of illustrations in Volume I xxviiPreface and acknowledgements xxix
Introduction 1
(a) The physical environment 2(b) The political situation preceding the Persian empire 4
1 The sources 6
(a) Classical writers 6(b) Old Testament books 10(c) Royal inscriptions 10(d) Administrative documents 11(e) Archaeological sites 13(f) Implications 14
PART I
Prehistory and formation of the empire (c.750-520) 17
2 The Medes 19
Introduction 192.A. The official Assyrian presentation of the Medes 22
1. Tiglath-pileser III (745-727) 22(i) Year 2 (744) (Tadmor 1994, Iran Stele IB, 5'-14') 22(ii) Year 9 (737) (Tadmor 1994, Iran Stele IIB, 25'-24') 22
2. Sargon II (722-705) 24(i) Year 6(716) (Levine 1972, Najafehebad Stela, 46-71) 24(ii) Year 7 (715) (Lie 1929, Sargon Annals, 114-16) 25(iii) Year 8 (714) (TCL 3, Sargon's 8th Campaign, 38-51) 25(iv) Year 9 (713) (Lie 1929, Sargon Annals, 191-4) 25
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3. Sennacherib (705-681), Year 2 (703) (Luckenbill 1924, BellinoCylinder, p.60,1.33) 26
4. Esarhaddon (681-669), Year 5? (676?) (Borger 1956, Nineveh A-F,Ep.15-16) 26
5. Ashurbanipal (669-C.630), c.658 (Piepkorn 1933, Prism B, iv 3-8) 27
2.B. Assyro-Median relations in the central Zagros as revealed by Assyrianqueries to the Sun God (reign of Esarhaddon 681-669) 27
6. Kashtaritu of Karkashshi forms an alliance against Assyria(SAA4,no.43) 27
7. Kashtaritu makes peace overtures to the Assyrians (SAA 4, nos.56—7) 288. The Assyrians plan an attack on Kashtaritu (SAA 4, no.62) 289. Assyrian tribute-gadiering in Media (SAA 4, no. 64) 29
2. C. The Medes and the fall of Assyria 3 010. Babylonians and Medes victorious over Assyria (ABC, no. 3) 3011. Median destruction of sanctuaries during die war against Assyria
(VAB4, Nbn.8) 33
2.D. The Scythians in the Zagros 3312. Peace negotiations between Assyria and the Scythians (SAA 4, no.20) 33
2.E. Later writers on the Medes 3413. Herodotus' view of the development of Median kingship (Hdt. I,
96-101) 3414. The successors of Deiokes and the Median struggle against Assyria
(Hdt. I, 102-7) 3515. The Lydo-Median conflict (Hdt. I, 73-4) 3816. Ctesias' story of the fall of Assyria to the Medes (FGrH 688 Fib) 3917. The Median dynasty according to Ctesias (FGrH 688 F5) 4318. Relations between the Babylonian and Median king according to a
Late Babylonian writer 44(i) Nabopolassar and Astyages (FGrH 680 F8b) 44(ii) Nebuchadnezzar and the Median princess (FGrH 680 F9a) 44
19. Life at the Median court according to Xenophon 45(i) Court dress (Xen. Cyiop. I, 3.2-3) 45(ii) Eating, drinking and audience at court (Xen. Cyrop. I, 3.4) 45
3 Cyrus the Great 47
Introduction 473. A. The expansion of Persia under Cyrus II 50
1. Cyrus' defeat of the Medes and his conquest of Babylonia (ABC, no. 7) 50
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3.B. Persia before Cyrus II 532. A 'Persian' hostage at the Assyrian court? (Weidner 1931-2,
Nassouhi Prism, 11.7-13) 533. Inscription on cylinder seal of Cyrus I (PFS 93*) 544. Transactions in the Palace of Susa (MDP 9, no.34) 555. The Persian tribes (Hdt. I, 125) 55
3.C. Cyrus defeats Astyages, king of the Medes 566. Nabonidus' vision of Cyrus' war against the Medes (VAB 4, Nbn.l) 567. Herodotus' story of Cyrus' defeat of Astyages (Hdt. I, 127-8; 130) 578. Ctesias' story of Cyrus' defeat of Astyages and its consequences
(FGrH 688 F9 (1-3)) 589. The further fate of Astyages (Justin I, 6.16) 59
10. The death of Astyages (FGrH 688 F9 (6)) 5911. Cyrus' take-over of Median power according to Xenophon
(Xen. Cyrop. VIII, 5.17-20) 60
3.D. Cyrus'conquest of Lydia and western Asia Minor 60(a) Herodotus'version of the fall of Lydia 60
12. Croesus plans to make war on Cyrus (Hdt. I, 53-4) 6013. Croesus attacks Cyrus (Hdt. I, 73; 75-7) 6114. Croesus defeated and Sardis besieged (Hdt. I, 79-81) 6215. The fall of Sardis (Hdt. 1,84) 6316. The Persians in Sardis and the fate of Croesus (Hdt. I, 85-8) 64
(b) Greek images of Croesus' fate preceding Herodotus 6517. The fate of Croesus recalled by the poet Bacchylides (Maehler
1982/1997,F3) 65
(c) Ctesias'version of the Lydian conquest 6718. The capture of Sardis (FGrH 6 8 8 F9 (4)) 6719. Croesus' miraculous delivery (FGrH 688 F9(5)) 68
(d) Aftermath 6820. The consolidation of the Lydian conquest (Hdt. I, 141; 153.3-154;
156.2-157; 160.1-4; 161-3.1; 168-9; 171.1 68
3.E. The Persian conquest of Babylonia 70(a) The Babylonian evidence 70
21. Marduk leads Cyrus into Babylon (Weissbach 1911+ BIN 2, no.32) 7022. Cyrus' activities in Babylonian cities 74
(i) Uruk (Weissbach 1911:8-9; Walker 1981, no. 115) 74(ii) Ur (UET 1, no. 194) 75
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(iii) Cyrus acknowledges the help of Sin of Ur in his conquest(?)(UET l,no.307) 75
23. A poetic condemnation of Nabonidus and paean in praise ofCyrus (BHT, 83-91) 75
24. Cyrus' rule in Babylonia in 'prophetic' perspective (BHLT, 28; 32-3) 8025. Berossus' account of Cyrus' Babylonian conquest (FGrH 680 FlOa) 81
(b) Old Testament writers and the Persian conquest of Babylon 8226. Yahweh chooses Cyrus as ruler of the world (Isaiah 41; 42; 44-45) 8227. Cyrus' decree sanctioning restoration of the Jerusalem temple
(Ezra 6.2-5) 84
(c) A Greek version 8 528. Herodotus' account (Hdt. I, 177-8; 188-92) 85
3 .F. Pasargadae, the city of Cyrus 8 729. The tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadae (Arr. Anab. VI, 29.4-7) 87
3.G. Legends of Cyrus 92(a) Family, birth, childhood and rise to power 92
30. Herodotus' story of Cyrus' origins and birth (Hdt. I, 95; 107-13) 9231. Cyrus restored to his parents (Hdt. I, 114-23) 9432. Cyrus' family and youth according to Ctesias (FGrH 90 F66(l-7)) 9733. Cyrus' family according to Xenophon (Xen. Cyrop. I, 2.1-3.2) 98
(b) The death of Cyrus 9934. Herodotus' moralising tale of Cyrus' death among the nomads
(Hdt. I, 201; 205-6; 208; 211-14) 9935. Cyrus' death in the east according to Ctesias (FGrH 688 F9(7-8)) 10136. Xenophon's picture: Cyrus dies at home surrounded by his family
and officials (Xen. Cyrop. VIII, 7) 10237. Cyrus' reputation (Hdt. Ill, 160) 103
4 The reign of Cambyses 104
Introduction 1044.A. The accession of Cambyses 106
1. Cambyses' parentage (Hdt. II, 1) 1062. Cambyses' accession and his courtiers (FGrH 688 F13(9)) 107
4.B. Explanations for Cambyses'Egyptian campaign 1073. A Persian story (Hdt. Ill, 1) . 1074. The Egyptian version (Hdt. Ill, 2) 108
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5. A variant of the Persian story (Hdt. Ill, 3) 1096. Further variants on the story (FGrH 688F13a) 109
4.C. The conquest of Egypt: the Greek accounts 1107. The Persian preparations 110
(i) Obtaining inside information (Hdt. Ill, 4) 110(ii) Planning the crossing of the Sinai desert (Hdt. Ill, 9) 110(iii) Gathering individual ships (Hdt. Ill, 44) 110(iv) Manning the fleet (Hdt. Ill, 19) 112
8. The fall of Egypt (Hdt. Ill, 10-11; 13) 1129. The fate of the Egyptian king 113
(i) Herodotus' story (Hdt. Ill, 14-15) 113(ii) Ctesias' version (FGrH 688 F13(10)) 114
10. Campaigns to consolidate frontiers 115(i) Nubia and the western desert (Hdt. Ill, 17; 20-1; 25-6) 115(ii) Cambyses reaches Meroe (Strabo XVII, 1.5) 116(iii) Cambyses introduces Nubian fruit-trees to Egypt (D.S. I, 34.7) 116
4.D. Cambyses' conquest of Egypt: the Egyptian evidence 11711. The autobiography of Udjahorfesne(t) (Posener 1936, no. 1) 11712. Epitaph of Apis bull from Cambyses' sixth year (Posener 1936, no.3) 12213. Cambyses' inscription on the Apis sarcophagus (Posener 1936, no.4) 12414. Regulations on the verso of the Demotic Chronicle
(BN215,rev.C-D) 12415. Seal from die Egyptian administration under Cambyses
(Coll. Golenischeff, no. 9 9 2) 127
4.E. The north-western frontier in Cambyses' reign 12716. The Persians curtail the power of Samos (Hdt. Ill, 120-5) 127
4.F. Cambyses'reputation 129(a) Offences against Egyptian traditions and cults 129
17. The maltreatment of Amasis' mummy (Hdt. Ill, 16) 12918. The affair of the Apis bull (Hdt. Ill, 2 7-9) 13019. More sacrileges against Egyptian cults (Hdt. Ill, 37) 131
(b) Cambyses'cruel treatment of his wife, courtiers and officials 13120. Cambyses kills his sister (Hdt. Ill, 32) 13121. Cambyses' murder of a Persian courtier's son (Hdt. Ill, 34-5) 13222. Cambyses abuses Persian nobles and turns against Croesus
(Hdt. Ill, 35-6) • 133
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(c) A harsh but just ruler 13323. Cambyses' punishment of a corrupt judge (Hdt. V, 25) 133
5 From Cambyses to Darius I 135
Introduction (with Appendix on the chronology of Darius I's accession) 1355.A. The official Persian perspective 141
1. Darius' account of his seizure of the throne (DB) 141
5.B. Cambyses and Bardiya according to Graeco-Roman writers 1582. Bardiya: the blot on the Achaemenid escutcheon (Aeschylus,
Persians, 765-79) 1583. The murder of Bardiya (Smerdis): Herodotus' version (Hdt. Ill, 30) 1594. Bardiya's revolt and Cambyses' deadi according to Herodotus
(Hdt. Ill, 61-8) 1605. Ctesias' story of how Cambyses murdered his brother, died and a
magus acceded to the throne (FGrH 688 F13(l 1-15)) 1636. Cambyses and Bardiya according to Justin (Justin I, 9.4-13) 165
5.C. The unmasking and killing of the pretender 1657. The imposture discovered and the magus denounced (Hdt. Ill,
68-9; 74-5) 1658. The magus publicly exposed (FGrH 688 F13(15)) 1679. The seven noble conspirators and the killing of the impostor
(Hdt. Ill, 70-3; 76-9) 16710. Anodier version of the magus' assassination (FGrH 688 F13(16)) 17011. The seven conspirators agree privileges among themselves (Hdt. Ill,
83-4) 170
5.D. Darius becomes king 17112. Cyrus the Great dreams of Darius' future kingship (Hdt. I, 209-10) 17113. Darius wins the kingship (Hdt. Ill, 84-8) 17 2
5.E. Consolidating Darius'kingship 17314. Darius' marriages (Hdt. Ill, 88) 17315. The elimination of Oroites (Hdt. Ill, 126-8) 17316. The Intaphernes incident (Hdt. Ill, 118-19) 17517. The removal of Aryandes (Hdt. IV, 166) 17518. A new foundation legend? (Ael., NA 12.21) 17619. Cyrus the Great inscribed into Darius' lineage (CMa; CMb; CMc) 177
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PART II
Achaemenid history and its problems 179
6 The empire under Darius I: expansion, revolt, consolidation 181
Introduction 1816.A. Darius renews and develops die imperial strategy 185
1. Persian reconnaissance in Greece (Hdt. Ill, 135-6; 138) 1852. Samos becomes a Persian client principality (Hdt. Ill, 139-47; 149) 1863. The conquest of north-western India (Hdt. IV, 44) 1884. Reassertion of Persian control along the south-western front
(Hdt. IV, 165; 167; 200-4) 189
6.B. The Scythian expedition 193(a) Reasons for the Scythian campaign 193
5. Revenge for earlier invasion (Hdt. IV, 1) 1936. Punishment for an insult (Justin II, 5.9) 1947. Follow-up to preliminary reconnaissance (FGrH 688 F13(20)) 194
(b) Darius'preparations 1958. Gathering the forces (Hdt. IV, 83; 85; 87) 195
(c) Persian and Scythian strategies 1969. The Persian advance by land and sea (Hdt. IV, 8 9; 91 - 3 ; 9 7-8) 196
10. The Scythian response (Hdt. IV, 102; 120-8) 19711. A Scythian challenge to the Persians (Hdt. IV, 131-3) 199
(d) The outcome of the expedition 20012. Darius' withdrawal (Hdt. IV, 133-8; 140-3) 20013. An abbreviated story of Darius' expedition (FGrH 688 F13(21)) 20214. Punitive measures for non-cooperation (Hdt. V, 27) 20315. Repercussions of the Scythian campaign (Hdt. VI, 40) 20316. The Danube as Persia's frontier (Plut. Alex. 36.4) 203
6.C. The Persians establish themselves in Thrace 205(a) Establishing Persian power 205
17. Megab'azus enforces Persian control over the Hellespont and Thrace(Hdt. IV, 144; V, 1-2) 205
18. The Paeonians deported (Hdt. V, 14-15; 17; 98) 20519. Macedon accepts Persian overlordship (Hdt. V, 17-18; 21-2) 20620. Otanes replaces Megabazus (Hdt. V, 25-6) 20621. Reassertion of the Persian grip after the Ionian Revolt (Hdt. VI, 43-5) 207
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(b) The strategic importance and resources of Thrace 20722. Raw materials and manpower (Hdt. V, 11; 23) 20723. Precious metal deposits in Thrace 208
(i) The gold of Thasos (Hdt. VI, 46-7) 208(ii) The mines of Mount Pangaeus (Hdt. VII, 112) 208
(c) The nature of Achaemenid power in Thrace and its wider impact 20924. The client kingdom of Macedon (Justin VII, 4.1-2) 20925. Persian depots and forts in Thrace (Hdt. VII, 25; 59; 105) 2092 6. Thracian tribute (Hdt. VII, 10 8) 2102 7. The limits of Megabazus' conquest (Hdt. V, 16) 21028. The Satrae escape Persian control (Hdt. VII, 110-11) 21029. Local links with the Persian court (Thuc. VI, 59) 21030. Athens seeks an alliance with Persia (Hdt. V, 73) 211
6.D. The Ionian Revolt (499/8-493) 211(a) The beginnings of the revolt (499-7) 211
31. The Naxos debacle (Hdt. V, 2 8; 3 0-4) 2113 2. The decision to revolt (Hdt. V, 3 5-8) 2133 3. The Ionian rebels appeal for help in Sparta (Hdt. V, 49-51) 21534. Aristagoras is promised help by Athens and Eretria (Hdt. V, 55;
96-7;99) 21635. The burning of Sardis (Hdt. V, 100-2) 21736. Extension of the revolt (498/7) (Hdt. V, 103-5) 218
(b) The Persian response (498/7-494/3) 2193 7. Persian action in Cyprus (Hdt. V, 10 8-16) 21938. Persian action in Ionia (Hdt. V, 117-23) 22039. The flight of Aristagoras (Hdt. V, 124) 222
(c) The Persian victory 22340. Histiaeus' arrival in Sardis (496?) (Hdt. VI, 1-6) 22341. High-level reconnaissance preceding the final Persian offensive?
(PF-NN1809) 22442. The Persian fleet delayed at Lindos? (FGrH 532,1) 22443. The Battle of Lade (494) (Hdt. VI, 6-11) 22544. The fall of Miletus (494) (Hdt. VI, 18-22) 226
(d) The aftermath of the revolt 22745. Reinstatement of the ruler of Samos (Hdt. VI, 2 5) 22746. Capture and execution of Histiaeus (Hdt. VI, 26; 28-30) 22747. Reconquest and reprisals (493) (Hdt. VI, 31-3) 22848. Miltiades, tyrant in the Chersonese, is forced to flee (493) (Hdt. VI,
41.1-2) 22949. The Persians reorganise affairs in Ionia (493-2) (Hdt. VI, 42-3) 230
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6.E. The extension of Persian power in the Aegean 23150. Persian control extended westwards (491) (Hdt. VI, 48-9) 23151. Preparations for a campaign in the Aegean (Hdt. VI, 94-5) 2315 2. The capture of Naxos (Hdt. VI, 9 6) 23253. Persia establishes control over the islands (Hdt. VI, 98-101) 23254. Persian patronage of Greek shrines 233
(i) The Persian commander makes offerings on Delos (Hdt. VI, 97) 233(ii) The Persians restore a looted statue of Apollo (Hdt. VI, 118) 233
55. The Persians receive expert advice for their campaign against Athens(Hdt. VI, 102; 107) 234
56. Datis' army defeated at Marathon (490) (Hdt. VI, 112-13; 115-16) 23457. The Eretrian captives resetded (Hdt. VI, 119) 2355 8. A summary of the Aegean campaign (FGrH 688F13(22)) 236
6.F. The end of Darius'reign 23659. Darius' last years (Hdt. VII, 1; 4) 23660. Darius' mortal illness (FGrH 688 F13(23)) 237
7 The reign of Xerxes 238
Introduction ' 2387.A. The succession to Darius 244
1. Darius' choice of successor (XPf) 2442. Darius' sons compete for the succession (Hdt. VII, 2-3) 2453. Darius' sons dispute the succession after his death (Justin II, 10.1-10) 2464. Xerxes' court and family (FGrH 688 F13(24)) 2465. Xerxes' suitability to rule (Hdt. VII, 187) 247
7.B. Revolts in Egypt and Babylonia 2486. The Egyptian revolt suppressed (Hdt. VII, 5; 7) 2487. Revolt in Babylonia (FGrH 688 Fl 3(26)) 2488. A possible reprisal for Babylon's revolt? (Hdt. I, 183) 249
7.C. The Greek campaign 250(a) The planning of the campaign 250
9. The decision to invade (Hdt. VII, 5-6) 25010. Gathering the Persian forces (Hdt. VII, 8; 19; 21) 25111. Securing the route for the army and the fleet (Hdt. VII, 22; 24) 25112. Bridging the Hellespont (Hdt. VII, 33-5) 25213. Xerxes requests the Greeks to surrender (Hdt. VII, 32) 25314. The Greek response to Xerxes' request (Hdt. VII, 131-3) 25315. All of Thessaly joins the Persians (Hdt. VII, 172; 174) 25316. Many Greeks are tempted to surrender (Hdt. VII, 138) 254
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(b) The march to Greece 25417. The contingents gather to set forth (Hdt. VII, 26) 25418. Xerxes reaches Sardis (Hdt. VII, 31) 25619. Xerxes honours the gods and heroes of Troy (Hdt. VII, 43) 25620. The crossing of the Hellespont (Hdt. VII, 55) 25621. The fleet arrives at Doriscus (Hdt. VII, 58-9) 2572 2. The march through Thrace (Hdt. VII, 115) 25723. Xerxes honours Acanthus for its support (Hdt. VII, 116-17) 25824. The order of marching and the fleet sent ahead (Hdt. VII, 121-2;
124; 127) 258
(c) The Persians advance into central Greece 25925. Persian and Greek forces move into position (Hdt. VII, 177; 179; 183) 25926. Part of the Persian fleet destroyed in a storm (Hdt. VII, 188; 190-2) 2592 7. Persian ships captured by Greeks (Hdt. VII, 19 2-5) '" 26028. Xerxes moves through Thessaly and Achaea (Hdt. VII, 196-7) 26129. Persian and Greek forces confront each other at Thermopylae
(Hdt. VII, 201; 207; 210-12) 26130. The Persians circumvent the Pass of Thermopylae (Hdt. VII, 213;
215; 217-18) 26231. The final Persian assault and victory (Hdt. VII, 223-5; 233) 26332. The Greek and Persian fleet face and engage each other (Hdt.
VIII, 4; 6-7; 10). 26433. The Persian fleet victorious against the Greeks (Hdt. VIII, 15-16;
18;21) 265
(d) Persian successes and setbacks 26634. The Persians conquer north Euboea (Hdt. VIII, 23) 26635. Xerxes displays the corpses of the defeated (Hdt. VIII, 24—5) 26636. Greek deserters supply information to the Persian army (Hdt. VIII, 26) 26737. The Persian advance through Doris and Phocis (Hdt. VIII, 31-2) 26738. Boeotia joins the Persians (Hdt. VIII, 34) 26839. The Greeks withdraw to the Peloponnese and Attica is evacuated
(Hdt. VIII, 40-1) 26840. Athens falls to the Persians (Hdt. VIII, 51-3) 26841. News of the Persian victory relayed to the royal centre (Hdt. VIII, 54) 26942. Xerxes' fleet and more troops arrive in Attica (Hdt. VIII, 66-7) 27043. A later account of the Battle of Salamis (D.S. XI, 17-19) 270
(e) Xerxes returns to Sardis 27244. Xerxes' directions (Hdt. VIII, 107) 27245. Mardonius prepares for another offensive in spring (Hdt. VIII, 113) 27246. The march to the Hellespont (Hdt. VIII, 115) 273
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47. Xerxes sails to Ionia (Hdt. VIII, 118) 27348. Abdera rewarded for its loyalty (Hdt. VIII, 120) 27449. Persians encounter setbacks in Mygdonia and Thrace 274
(i) The sacred chariot lost (Hdt. VIII, 115) 274(ii) Revolts in Chalcidice (Hdt. VIII, 126-7) 274
(f) The Greek campaign continued on two fronts 27550. Greek attempts to compel islanders to join them (Hdt. VIII, 111-12) 27551. Persian overtures to Athens (Hdt. VIII, 136; 140) 27652. Stalemate in the Aegean (Hdt. VIII, 130-2) 27753. The Athenians divided among themselves (Hdt. IX, 4—5) 27854. Argos in league with the Persians (Hdt. IX, 12) 27855. Mardonius withdraws to more advantageous terrain (Hdt. IX, 13) 27956. Building the Persian camp at Plataea (Hdt. IX, 15) 27957. The Persian cavalry charge (Hdt. IX, 20; 22-5) 27958. The Persian commanders disagree on strategy (Hdt. IX, 41) 28159. Mardonius' death (Hdt. IX, 62-3) 28160. Artabazus withdraws his forces (Hdt. IX, 66; 89-90) 28261. A sea-battle at Mycale (Hdt. IX, 90; 96-7; 99; 102) 284
7.D. Persian strategies and responses to the setback on the north-western front 286(a) Maintaining royal prestige 286
62. The Persian response to news of the Greek battles (Hdt. VIII, 99-100) 28663. A votive statue from Athens dedicated in Sardis (Plut. Them. 31.1) 28664. A Persian vision of the Greek campaign? (Dio Chrysostom 11.149) 28765. Booty from Greece distributed to imperial capitals (Arr. Anab. VII,
19.2) 287
(b) Greek attempts to follow up the Persian defeat 28766. The Persians lose control of Sestos (Hdt. IX, 114-16; 118-19; 120) 28767. The Greeks take Byzantium and cities in Cyprus (Thuc. I, 94.1) 28968. Athens forms a league to pursue the struggle (Thuc. I, 96.1) 28969. The impact of Persian booty (Plut. Cim. 9) 29070. The Persians lose forts in Thrace (Hdt. VII, 106; 107) 29071. Towns in Caria and Lycia surrender to Cimon (D.S. XI, 60.4) 29172. A Lycian city tries to resist Cimon (Plut. Cim. 12.4) 29173. An Athenian victory over the Persian forces on land and sea (466)
(D.S. XI, 60.5-61.3) 29274. A pact between the Athenians and the Persian king? (Plut. Cim. 13) 29375. The Athenians in difficulties (Thuc. I, 100.2) 293
(c) Persian countermoves 29376. Xerxes sets out for Iran after Mycale (D.S. XI/36) 29377. Xerxes' building at Celaenae (Xen. Anab. I, 2.7-9) 294
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78. A Persian counterattack in Asia Minor? ((i) FGrH 688 F13(31);(ii) Paus. VIII, 46.3) 294
79. The Persians refit the navy (D.S. XI, 62.2) 29680. Persia's hold on Cilicia reinforced (Hdt. IX, 107) 29681. Pausanias ingratiates himself with Xerxes and the Persians reorganise
Hellespontine Phrygia (Thuc. 1,128.2-131.1) 29682. Loyal Greeks established as local lords in the Troad (Xen. Hell. Ill, 1.6) 29883. Argos maintains its friendship with the Persian kings (Hdt. VII, 151) 300
7.E. Xerxes the guardian of Darius'heritage 30084. Xerxes commemorates his father's work (XSa; XSd) 30085. Xerxes continues his father's work (XPg) 30086. Xerxes completes his father's plan (XV) 30187. Xerxes and Darius: two sides of the same coin 301
(i) Father and son physically linked (XE) 301(ii) Father and son in mirror image (DPb & XPk; DPbH/DPj &
XPeVXPp) 30488. Xerxes restates and elaborates the imperial ideology (XPh) 30489. Xerxes a worthy successor to his father in the eyes of a Jewish
historian (Jos. A] XI, 120) 306
7.F. From Xerxes to Artaxerxes I 30690. Xerxes' death (BM 32234) 30691. The beginning of Artaxerxes I's reign (AP 6) 30792. Three stories about the assassination of Xerxes and Artaxerxes I's
accession 307(i) Ctesias'account (FGrH 688 F13(33);F14(34)) 307(ii) Diodorus' story (D.S. XI, 69) 307(iii) Justin's version (Justin III, 1) 309
8 From Artaxerxes I to the last years of Darius II (465-405) 310
Introduction 3108.A. Artaxerxes I (465-424/3) 314
(a) Artaxerxes I establishes his position 3141. The new king's administrative arrangements (D.S. XI, 71.1-2) 3142. A challenge to the throne in Bactria (FGrH 688 F14(35)) 3153. Court hierarchy and etiquette reformulated? (Plut. Them. 29.5;
Plut. Mor. 565a) 3154. The genealogy of Artaxerxes I (A'l) 3165. Artaxerxes completes his father's palace(s) at Persepolis 316
(i) Trilingual inscription from Palace H (A'Pa) 316(ii) Babylonian foundation text found in Hundred Column Hall
(A'Pb) 318
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(b) Egypt in revolt (464/3-454) 3196. The course of the Egyptian rebellion as seen by a later historian
(D.S. XI, 71.3-6; 74; 77.1-5) 3197. The Egyptian revolt in Athenian perspective (Thuc. I, 104; 109-10) 3218. Inscription of a Persian official in Upper Egypt (Posener 1936, no.31) 3239. A Persian story of the Egyptian revolt and its outcome (FGrH 688
F14(36-9)) 323
(c) Problems in the Levant 32510. A revolt in the satrapy of Beyond-the-River? (FGrH 688 F14(40-2)) 32511. The Athenians make an attempt on Cyprus (451 or 450-449)
(Thuc. I, 112) 326
(d) The Aegean front 32612. Erythrae between Persia and Athens (ML, no.40) ' 32613. A peace agreed between Persia and Athens? (450/449) (D.S. XII, 4.4-6) 32714. The Persians exploit political rivalry on Samos (441/0) (Thuc. I,
115.2-5) 32815. A noble Persian exile in Athens (FGrH 688 F14(45)) 32916. Sparta plans to enlist Persian help in the war against Athens (430)
(Thuc. II, 67.1) ' 32917. Colophonians call in Persian help (428/7) (Thuc. Ill, 34.1-2) 33018. A Persian embassy to Sparta intercepted (424/3) (Thuc. IV, 50) 330
.B. Darius II's reign (424/3-405) 331(a) From Artaxerxes I to Darius II 331
19. Artaxerxes I's death and his offspring (424/3) (FGrH 688 F14(46);F15(47)) 331
20. The struggle for the kingship (FGrH 688 F15(48-50)) 33221. The family and court of Darius II (FGrH 688 F15(51)) 33322. Darius' tenure of the throne threatened (FGrH 688 F15(52)) 33423. Darius II asserts the legitimacy of his kingship (D2Sb; D2Ha) 334
(b) The Asia Minor front 33524. Peace between Athens and Persia, c.423? 335
(i) An orator recalls a pact between Athens and Persia (Andoc. Onthe Peace 29) 335
(ii) Herakleides honoured by Athens for his part in concluding apact with Persia (ML, no. 7 0) 336
25. Rebellion by the satrap of Sardis (FGrH 688 F15(53)) 33626. Persia intervenes in the Athens-Sparta conflict (Thuc. VIII, 5.4-6.3) 3372 7. The first treaty between Sparta and Persia (summer 412) (Thuc. VIII, 18) 33828. The rebel Amorges is taken (Thuc. VIII, 28.2-4) 338
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CONTENTS
29. A Lycian dynast oversees an agreement between Tissaphernes andSparta (TAM I, 44) 339
30. The satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia gains the help of the Spartans(411) (Thuc. VIII, 80.1-2) 341
31. Pharnabazus comes to terms with the Athenians (409/8?) (Xen. Hell.1,3.8-9) 341
32. The arrival of Cyrus the Younger on the western front (408?)(Xen. Hell. 1,4.1-7) 342
33. Tissaphernes' strategy dismissed (Xen. Hell. I, 5.8—9) 343
(c) Problems in the imperial territories in the reign of Darius II 34334. Unrest in Egypt (AD, 5) 34335. Revolt in Media (Xen. Hell. I, 2.19) 34536. Problems in southern Babylonia? (Stolper 1990a, no.6) 3453 7. Darius campaigns in the northern mountains of Iran (Xen. Hell. II, 1.13) 345
9 Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III (405-338) 347
Introduction 3479 .A. The war of the brothers (40 5-401) 353
(a) The death of Darius II and Artaxerxes II's accession 3531. Darius II's death (Xen. Anab. I, 1-2) 3532. Uncertainty about the succession? (Plut. Artox. 2.3-5) 3543. Darius' last words (Athen. XII, 548e) 3544. Cyrus summoned to court to explain his behaviour (Xen. Hell. II,
1.8-9) 3545. A tale about Cyrus' attempt on the life of his brother (Plut. Artox.
3.3-6) 356
(b) Cyrus'stealthy preparations for revolt 3566. Cyrus gathers support (Xen. Anab. I, 1.4-6) 3567. Cyrus builds up his army (Xen. Anab. I, 1.6-7; 9-11) 3568. Sparta colludes with Cyrus but keeps its options open (D.S. XIV,
19.4-5; 21.1-2) 3579. Cyrus sets out and Tissaphernes reports his suspicions to the king
(Xen. Anab. I, 2.1; 2.4) 35810. The Persian king receives an early warning of his brother's plans
(D.S. XIV, 11.2-3) 35811. Artaxerxes II orders a military commander to act against Cyrus
(Xen. Anab. I, 6.6; 6.7) 359
(c) The fragility of Cyrus'support 35912. Lycaonia refuses aid (Xen. Anab. 1,2.19) 35913. A plot against Cyrus (Xen. Anab. I, 2.20) 360
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CONTENTS
14. The Cilician dynast hedges his bets (D.S. XIV, 20.2-3) 36015. A riot among the Greek mercenary force (Xen. Anab. I, 3.1-2) 36116. Cyrus and his mercenaries reach a compromise (Xen. Anab. I, 3.20-1) 36117. Two mercenary leaders defect (Xen. Anab. 1,4.7) 36118. The mercenaries bribed to ensure their support (Xen. Anab. 1,4.11-13) 36219. A traitor in Cyrus' camp (Xen. Anab. I, 6.1-3) 362
(d) Artaxerxes II's countermoves 36320. Defences in northern Babylonia (Xen. Anab. I, 7.14-16) 36321. Gathering the royal forces 363
(i) The call-up of troops from the Upper Satrapies (D.S. XIV,22.1-2) 363
(ii) Royal reinforcements encounter the mercenaries (Xen. Anab. II,4.25) 364
(iii) The Persian army advances at Cunaxa (Plut. Artox. 7.4—6)' 364
(e) Artaxerxes triumphant 36422. Artaxerxes II proclaims his genealogical legitimacy (A2Sa +
Mayrhofer 1978, 7.1) 36423. Cyrus' Greek troops offer their services to Artaxerxes 365
(i) Some Greeks are tempted, to serve the king (Xen. Anab. II, 1.7—8;1.14) 365
(ii) Clearchus offers his forces to help against unruly tribes andEgypt (Xen. Anab. II, 5.13) 365
24. Artaxerxes rewards Tissaphernes (D.S. XIV, 26.4) 36625. The commander of Cyrus' troops changes sides (Xen. Anab. II, 4.1-2;
4.9) 36626. The Greek commanders trapped and executed (Xen. Anab. II, 5.31-3;
6.1) 36727. Persian forces harass the Greeks (Xen. Anab. Ill, 4.14; 4.16) 367
9.B. Achaemenid strategy in Asia Minor and Greece, 400-386 367(a) Persian action in the wake of Cyrus' defeat (400-396) 367
28. Tissaphernes tries to impose his control (D.S. XIV, 35.6-7) 36729. A Spartan general recruits the remnants of Cyrus' mercenaries
(400-399) (Xen. Hell. Ill, 1.4-6) 36830. Satrapal rivalries exploited by the Spartans (399/8) (Xen. Hell. Ill, 1.9) 36931. The Persian king appoints an Athenian to command the navy (398
or 397) (D.S. XIV, 39.1-4) 36932. The Persian governors and Sparta try to reach an agreement (397?)
(Xen. Hell. Ill, 2.19-20) 37033. The Spartans are told of Persia's naval preparations (Xen. Hell. Ill, 4.1) 37034. Conon intercepts Spartan ships returning from Egypt (396)
(D.S. XIV, 79.4-8) 370
xxi
CONTENTS
(b) A Spartan incursion into western Asia Minor (396-394) 37135. Agesilaus despatched to Asia Minor (396) (Xen. Hell. Ill, 4.2-6) 3 7136. Persian intelligence for the Spartans (Xen. Hell. Ill, 4.10) 37237. Battle near Sardis (spring 395) D.S. XIV, 80.1-5) 37338. Artaxerxes' anger and the execution of Tissaphernes (Poly. VII, 16) 37339. Agesilaus diverted to raid Hellespontine Phrygia and Paphlagonia
(autumn 395) (Hell.Oxy. 21.1-3, 5-6; 22.1-3) 37440. Spithridates and the Paphlagonians abandon Agesilaus (Xen. Hell.
IV, 1.26-8) 376
(c) The Persians gain the upper hand (3 94-3 87/6) 37741. Persian victory at Cnidus (3 94) (D.S. XIV, 83.4-7) 37742. Persia ejects Spartan garrisons (394/3) (Xen. Hell. IV, 8.1-2) 37743. Pharnabazus in Greece (393) (Xen. Hell. IV, 8.7-10) 37844. Persians between Athens and Sparta (393-1) (Xen. Hell. IV,
8.12-14,16-17,21) 37845. The Persian governor arbitrates between Miletus and Myous
(391-388) (SIG, 134) 38046. The perverse behaviour of Athens and Sparta (390—389) (Xen.
Hell. IV, 8.24) 38047. The King's Peace (387/6) (Xen. Hell. V, 1.25,28,30-1) 381
9.C. Conflict and revolt in Cyprus and Egypt 382(a) Events in Cyprus (c.400-381) 382
48. A panegyrist's view of Evagoras' seizure of power in Salamis (c.415?)(Isoc.Evag. 23-32; 47) 382
49. Friction between Evagoras and Artaxerxes II (before 398)(FGrH 688 F30) 383
50. Kition commemorates its victory over Evagoras (392/1 ?)(Yon and Sznycer 1991) 384
51. Evagoras' aggressive expansion and the Persian reaction (c.391-386)(D.S. XIV, 98.1-4) 386
52. Persian preparations against Evagoras and his allies (c.391-386)(D.S. XIV, 110.5; XV, 2) 387
53. The Persians defeat Evagoras at sea (386?) (D.S. XV, 3.4-4.1) 38854. Evagoras obtains grudging help from Egypt (D.S. XV, 4.3; 8.1) 38855. A'Babylonian notice of the Persian subjugation of Salamis?
(spring 381) (Sachs and Hunger 1988, no.-440) 38956. The Persians reach a settlement with Evagoras (381?) (D.S. XV,
8.1-3; 9.1-2) 389
(b) Egypt secedes from the empire (401-374/3) 39057. A late summary of the end of the first period of Persian rule in
Egypt (FGrH 609 F3c) 390
xxn
CONTENTS
58. One of Cyrus' partisans seeks refuge at the Egyptian court (401/0)(D.S. XIV, 35.3-5) 391
59. Aramaic letter referring to the end of Amyrtaeus' reign and theaccession of Nepherites I (398) (BP, 13) 392
60. Amyrtaeus and the rulers of Dynasty XXIX judged in an Egyptiantract on kingship (BN 215, obv.III 18-21; IV, 1-3; 7-12) 393
61. Akoris' allies (FGrH 115 F103) 39462. The Persians defeated in Egypt (385-3?) (Isoc. Paneg. 140) 39563. A Persian commander seeks help from Akoris (384/3?) (D.S. XV,
9.3-4; 18.1) 39564. Egypt and Persia prepare to face each other 396
(i) Egyptian and Persian recruitment (c.379) (D.S. XV, 29.1-4) 396(ii) The Persian king recruits Greek soldiers in 375/4 (D.S. XV, 38.1) 396
65. The rulers of Dynasty XXX according to an Egyptian tract onkingship (BN 215, obv.IV4-5; 13-18) '" 397
66. The war against Egypt (374/3) (D.S. XV, 41-43.4) 398
9 .D. The final decade of Artaxerxes II's reign (369-359) 40067. A royal campaign in northern Iran(?) in 369 (Sachs and Hunger
1988,no.-369) , 40068. Fighting in northern Mesopotamia in 367 (Sachs and Hunger 1988,
no.-366) 40069. The Egyptian king seeks refuge at the Persian court (361 /0—359/8)
(D.S. XV, 92.2-5) 40170. The Greek cities affirm their neutrality vis-a-vis the Persian king
(IGIV, 556) 40271. A new royal palace at Susa (A2Sd; Vallat 1979) 40 372. The death of Artaxerxes II (359/8) (Plut. Artox. 30) 405
9.E. Artaxerxes III 40673. Artaxerxes III recites his genealogy (A3Pa) 40674. Artaxerxes III succeeds his father (D.S. XV, 93.1) 40775. Artaxerxes Ill's war against Egypt delayed by rebellions in Phoenicia
and Cyprus (D.S. XVI, 40.3; 40.5-43.3; 44.1-2, 4; 45.1-6; 46.1-3) 40976. Sidonian prisoners arrive in Babylon and Susa (345) (ABC, no.9) 41277. Egypt reconquered (343/2) (D.S. XVI, 46.4-7; 51) 41378. Two contemporary Egyptian responses to the Persian reconquest 414
(i) The eldest son of Nectanebo II (Clere 1951) 414(ii) Restoration of Udjahorresne(t)'s statue (Anthes 1965) 415
79. Artaxerxes Ill's reconquest in hostile retrospect 416(i) The aftermath of the Persian victory (BN 215, obv.IV 22-3) 416(ii) The Persian king's sacrilege (Ael. VH 4.8) 416
xxm
CONTENTS
80. Artaxerxes III supports Perinthus against Philip II of Macedon(340/339) (D.S. XVI, 75.1-2) 417
10 The fall of the Achaemenid empire (338-330) 418
Introduction 41810 .A. The struggle for the Persian throne and Macedonian aggression, 3 3 8-3 36/5 423
(a) From Artaxerxes III to Darius III (338-336/5) 4231. Artaxerxes III is succeeded by his son (Hunger 2001: 40—5) 4232. Fragment concerning Arses and Alexander (Sachs 1977: 146-7) 4243. A tale of assassinations at the Persian court (D.S. XVII, 5.3-6) 4244. Babylonian echoes of the struggle for the throne 425
(i) The murder of Arses (BHLT, 34-5) 425(ii) Unrest in Babylonia? (Van Dijk 1962) 425
5. A story of Darius' elevation to the throne because of his-bravery(Justin X, 3.2-5) 426
(b) The first Macedonian offensive and the Persian response (336-336/5) 4276. Philip II of Macedon sends an advance guard to Abydos (spring 336)
(D.S. XVI, 91.2) 4277. Darius III responds to the Macedonian incursion (336—5) (D.S. XVII,
7.1-3,8-10) 428
10.B. The Macedonian invasion: resistance, defeat, surrender 429(a) Alexander in Asia Minor (334—333) 429
8. Persians and Macedonians meet on the Granicus (May 334) 429(i) The Persians discuss tactics at Zeleia (Arr. Anab. I, 12.8) 429(ii) Darius' strategy (Justin XI, 6.8-10) 429(iii) The noble Persians killed at the Granicus (Arr. Anab. I, 16.3) 429
9. Sardis surrenders to Alexander (Arr. Anab. I, 17.3) 43010. Miletus sits on the fence (summer 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 18.3—4) 43111. Resistance at Halicarnassus (late summer 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 20.2-3;
23.1-5) 43212. The Persian counteroffensive in the Aegean (spring-summer 334)
(Arr. Anab. II. 1.1-2.3) 43313. A setback for the Persians in Caria (spring 333) (Arr. Anab. II, 5.7) 43414. Sparta supports the Persian commanders (summer-November 333)
(Arr. Anab. II, 13.4-6) 435
(b) The aftermath of the defeat at Issus (winter 333/ 2-spring 331) 43615. The Persian retreat after Issus (November 333) (Arr. Anab. II, 13.1) 43616. Amyntas in Egypt (winter 333-2) (D.S,XVII, 48.2-4) 43617. Damascus betrayed (winter 333/2) (Q.C. Ill, 12.27-13.4; 13.17) 438
XXIV
CONTENTS
18. Macedonian successes in Phoenicia (winter 333/2) (Arr. Anab. II,13.7-8; 15.6) 439
19. The reduction of Tyre (spring-summer 332) (D.S. XVII, 40.2-3;46.3-4) 440
20. Persian counterattacks and setbacks in Asia Minor and the Aegean(end 333 to early summer 332) 441(i) Persian commanders regroup (D.S. XVII, 48.5—6) 441(ii) The Persians fight back in northern Asia Minor (Q.C. IV, 1.34—5) 441(iii) Alexander's commanders begin to wrest back control of the
situation (Q.C. IV, 5.13-14) 44221. Persian naval contingents join Alexander (spring 332) (Arr. Anab. II,
20.1-3) 44222. Local people obstruct Alexander's attack on Tyre (late April 332?)
(Q.C. IV, 2.24-3.1) 44323. Gaza refuses to surrender and is taken by force (late summer 332)
(Arr. Anab. II, 25.4-26.1; 27.7) 44424. The fall of Egypt (late 332 to spring 331) (Arr. Anab. Ill, 1.1-2) 4442 5. Revolt in Samaria (spring 3 31) (Q.C. IV, 8.9-11) 445
(c) Gaugamela and its consequences (late 332-May 330) 44626. Darius' military preparations (D.S. XVII, 53; 55.1-2) 44627. The Battle of Gaugamela and the surrender of Babylon (18 September
to 21 October 331) (Sachs and Hunger 1988, no.-330) 44728. Darius' retreat to Iran (winter 331/0) (D.S. XVII, 64.1-2) 44829. Susa surrenders (December 331) (Arr. Anab. Ill, 16.6-7) 44930. Resistance, treason and destruction in Fars (January to May 330) 449
(i) At the Persian Gates (Arr. Anab. Ill, 18.2) 449(ii) The loyal satrap ofFars is killed (Q.C. V, 4.33-4) 450(iii) A Persian traitor (D.S. XVII, 69.1-2) 450(iv) Alexander in Persepolis and Pasargadae (Arr. Anab. Ill, 18.10-11) 450(v) Alexander secures territory in Fars (Q.C. V, 6.12-13, 17, 19) 450
(d) The death of Darius III (spring-summer 330) 45131. Darius leaves Ecbatana (Arr. Anab. Ill, 19.4-5) 45132. Persian soldiers desert (Arr. Anab. Ill, 20.2) 45233. Dissension in the Persian camp (Q.C. V 9.1, 13-17) 45234. The plot against Darius (Q.C. V, 10.1-9) 45335. Darius is arrested and killed (Arr. Anab. Ill, 21.1, 4-5, 10; 22.1) 454
10 .C. Local elites and factions between Persians and Macedonians: some test cases 45636. Oligarchs massacred at Ephesus (summer 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 17.11-12) 45637. Aspendus pays the penalty for not complying with Alexander's terms
(winter 334) (Arr. Anab. I, 26.2-3, 5; 27.3-4) 457
XXV
CONTENTS
3 8. The autobiography of Somtutefnakht (Tresson 1931) 45839. The autobiography of Petosiris (Lefebvre 1924) 46040. Alexander's entry into Babylon ((i) Q.C. V, 1.17-23; (ii) Arr. Anab.
111,16.3) 46141. Alexander's victory in a Babylonian prophecy (BHLT, 34—5) 462
xxvi