CHAPTER 1 SECTION 3

The Origins of Modern Psychology

Modern Psychology

• First laboratory devoted to the scientific study of psychology: University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879

Wundt and Structuralism

William Wundt (1832-1920)

Trained as a physicianEstablished 1st laboratoryMission= describe the contents of the

conscious mindStudy psychology the same way as other

science

Structuralism

Break contents of the mind into basic unitsIdentify the structures of the conscious

experienceDescribe its major components (feelings,

sensations, and images)

Edward B. Tichener (1867-1927)

Wundt’s studentBrought structuralism to the U.S.Research method depended on a method

called introspection- participants gave verbal reports of their conscious experiences.

Problems of Structuralism

Patients had difficulty producing similar reports

Raised questions: Is there any common elements of conscious experience?

Replaced by other approachesConscious experience not considered a

legitimate subject for a long time

Functionalism

Developed in the U.S. in late 1800sConcerned with the purposes of consciousness—

what the mind does and whyWilliam James= “stream of consciousness” =

can’t be broken down into elements= lose realityWant to see how people use information and

adapt to their environmentApplied psychology= practical aspectsPeak in 1906-James Rowland Angell andRobert

S. Woodworth

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt= “pattern,” “shape,” or “configuration”

Emphasized that perception of a whole differs from that of the individual stimuli that make up the whole

Challenged structuralismMax Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt

KoffkaBegan in Germany in 1912

Apparent Motion

a rapid sequence of stationary images creates the illusion of movement, as in a movie

Wertheimer described the visual illusion We perceive unified forms, rather than bits

and pieces

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable behaviorsEmphasizes the importance of learning in

understanding how various behaviors occur

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Russian physiologistStudied digestion in dogsNoticed that dogs would salivate at sight of

food or the sound of jangling keys= Learned association

James B. Watson (1878-1958)

American psychologistRead Pavlov’s workBelieved psychology should be concerned

with observable behaviorDeveloped and applied principles in the

laboratory under strictly controlled conditions.

Used laboratory animals at first and expanded to human participants

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Proponent of behaviorism“greatest contemporary psychologist”Behavior changes as a result of its consequences.Environmental consequences, rather than free

will, shape human behavior.Goal is identify and change the environmental

conditions that control behavior.Methods have used to teach people with

schizophrenia to speak, improve safety in factories, to teach basic skills to the mentally retarded, and train animals.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Watsons’ contemporaryDelved deeply beneath observable behaviorsProfound impact on psychology but very

controversialTrained as neurologistPatients suffered a variety of anxieties and

disturbances

Psychodynamic Perspective

Suggests that both normal and abnormal behaviors are determined primarily by unconscious forces

Psychodynamic forces = interact with each other

The unconscious mind exerted great control over behavior

“slips of the tongue” Analysis of dreams—not always aware of true

meaning

Early Childhood Experiences

Major influence on personality development

Freud gained great fame and notoriety by suggesting that people (even children) are driven by motives that are sexual in nature.

Psychoanalytic Therapy

Freud first turned to hypnosis but not everyone can by hypnotized.

Attempts to bring unconscious causes of distress to the conscious level.

According to Freud, once the sources of distress are brought to awareness, they can be changed.

Problems

Over time, both the psychodynamic and behavioral approaches were questioned.

Neither gave room for personal freedomBehaviorist views of human nature were

either neutral or negative.Psychodynamic saw behavior resulting from

irrational forces that are not even under conscious control.

Neither focuses on the creative potential and psychological health of human beings.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes free will and individual’s control of their own behavior

More positive view of human natureView themselves as a “third force” because

they are an alternative to the behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives in psychology.

Proponents

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)People have choices in their livesInstead of developing general principles, they

sought to understand each person as a unique individual.

Important principle: all human beings have a basic need to grow to their fullest potential.

The Physiological Perspective

Special interest in the functioning of the nervous system (brain and neurons (nerves cells)

Images of the brain have revealed that different areas of the brain have different tasks

Recent years-influence of heredity and stressStress has an influence on our health status.

The Evolutionary Perspective

Charles Darwin (1859) – theory of evolutionPrinciple of natural selection: strongest or

most fit organisms are those who have adapted best to their environment; survive and reproduce

Ask what role a physiological structure or behavior plays in helping the organism survive and adapt to its environment

Successful applied: mate selection, aggression, kin selection, care of offspring, and parenting

Example

When a cat is frightened, its hairs “stand on end.”An evolutionary researcher would want to

understand how this behavior contributed to the survival of the species.

The most plausible explanation is that when the hairs are erected, the animal looks larger and more intimidating to potential predators.

Cats who were able to erect their hairs when frightened passed their genes on to future generations.

A once-adaptive behavior persisted.

Aggression

Aggressive organisms are able to acquire resources and defend their own territories.

It is predicted that men display more direct aggression (hitting, kicking), whereas women will display more indirect aggression (gossiping, ostracizing).

The evolutionary explanation centers on maternal involvement on the part of women.

Indirect aggression minimizes the chances of retaliatory injury compared to direct aggression.

Functional Approach

Evolutionary psychologists are interested in why certain physical structures developed and how they contribute to adaptation.

Comparative Approach

Often evolutionary psychologist compare the use of a structure among species

The Cognitive Perspective

Behaviorists did not study cognitive processes, but others disagreed that observable behavior should be the sole subject matter of psychology.

Study higher mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and deciding to determine how we store and recall information, solve problems, and make decisions.

Use more sophisticated techniques to examine brain functioning. Psychologist George Miller and Jerome Bruner established the

Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard University in 1960, and Ulric Neisser published the book Cognitive Psychology in 1967.

The appearance of a widely read article supporting the study of cognitive processes combined with the ability of the computer to simulate human thought processes, generated considerable interest and research.

The Cultural and Diversity Perspective

Male Dominated to Diverse

The presence of women and minority psychologist sprovides a vivid contrast to the Caucasian, male-dominated field of only a few years ago.

Numerous barriers for women and ethnic minorities in the past: not accepted in colleges or denied degrees

Examining “Truth”

Psychologists are beginning to realize that the culture in which research is conducted; the gender, ethnicity, and personal biases of the researcher; and the gender and ethnicity of the research participants all influence our research results and contribute to our conception of “truth.”

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

student of William James who studied at Harvard

denied a degree because she was a womandistinguished teaching careerfounded one of the 1st psychology

laboratories in U.S.1st women elected president of the American

Psychological Association

Kenneth B. Clark (1914-2005)

1st African American elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1970

Noted for his research on the harmful effects of segregation

Cited in Brown v. Board of Education

Richard Suinn

1st Asian American elected as president of the American Psychological Association in 1997

Contemporary Psychological Literature

Gender issuesEthnic groupsNational culturesSexual orientation,Persons with disabilities

Cultural Psychology

Psychological Revolution: move towards cultural psychology

We need to know what kinds of cross-cultural similarities exist in psychological principles and basic processes.

Knowledge about these similarities should help us in our endeavors to apply these principles to improve our lives.

David Matsumoto

“the psychological principles we derive about people may be consistent or discrepant across cultures.”

To the extent that differences do exist, it is important for all of us to appreciate how cultural factors moderate our psychological processes.

We can learn how our own viewpoint, developed within our own cultural framework, can distort our interpretation of other’s behaviors

Matsumoto, Kasri, and Kooken (1999)

Cross-cultural study of the intensity of facial expressions of emotions in Americans and Japanese

Americans exaggerated their ratingsPreviously, it had been assumed that the

differences between the two cultures occurred because Japanese participants suppressed their ratings.

The Environmental, Population, and Conservation Perspective

Increasing concerns about the effects of overpopulation on the quality of life and the quality of our environment.

Applying psychological principles to help save the planet.

Challenge: the task of increasing proenvironmental behavior

Listserv: Email- conservation-psychology-request@umich.edu with subject: SUBSCRIBE

Present Day Psychology

Eclectic Approach

Present-day psychologists do not align themselves strictly with one approach but combine several different approaches.

Employment

Most psychology majors who complete their education with a B.A. or B.S. degree are employed by for-profit companies and not-for-profit organizations.

The majority of psychologists with advanced degrees are either self-employed or work in some type of educational setting.

A person cannot assume the title of psychologist unless he or she meets certain standards of education and training established by a state board.

Most do not engage in research but in the application of psychology: health service provider or direct service specialties

Psychological Specialties

Clinical Psychology

Specialize in helping people with behavioral or emotional problems to adjust to the demands of life

Not psychiatristsAfter completing an undergraduate degree,

clinical psychologists earn a doctoral degree (4 more years)

They then complete an internship for at least 1 year to develop their diagnostic and therapeutic skills while being supervised by experienced psychologists

Psychiatry

Psychiatrist are medical doctors who have earned an M.D. degree.

After graduating from medical school, they complete a 3-year residency.

They are trained in the medical assessment of disorders and are more likely to view the disorders as caused by medical conditions

Counseling Psychology

Administer psychological tests and provide therapy

Often work with clients who have less serious problems such as people who are having difficulty dealing with everyday problems such as a physical handicap or a vocational decision.

Research Psychologist

Psychologist whose primary activity is to conduct and report the results of experiments

Areas of specialty: animal behavior, biopsychology, cognitive processes, cross-cultural, developmental, educational, motivation, personality, psychometrics, sensation and perception, and social

Ethnocentrism

The view that other cultures are an extension of one’s own

Modern psychology is highly identified with the U.S.

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Branch of psychology that seeks to determine if research results are universal

Careers

School psychologistIndustrial and organizational psychologistConsumer psychologyHealth psychologyForensic psychologySports psychologyneuropsychology