The Official Publication of The Pile Driving Contractors Association - Winter 2003, Volume 4, Number 1

In This Issue:PDCA's New Executive Director

Incorporating Set-Up into Driven Pile Design & Installation

PDCA Member Spotlight:W. M. Brode Company

The Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project

Aren't Specs Terms Supposed to be Plain?

The Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project

3

Table of ContentsLetter from the PresidentBy Jim Frazier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2003 PDCA Board of Directors List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

PDCA's New Executive Director: Introducing Tanya Goble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

PDCA's Membership Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9

PDCA Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Incorporating Set-Up into Driven Pile Design and InstallationBy Van E. Komurka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Pile Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Project Spotlight: Herbert F. Darling, Inc. and the O'Rorke Bridge Project . . . . . . 21

PDCA Member Spotlight: W. M. Brode Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Professor's Piling Institute Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The Woodrow Wilson Bridge Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Aren't Specs Terms Supposed to be Plain?(Toward a More Uniform Terminology)By Bengt H. Fellenius and Mohamad H. Hussein . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Pile Driving Contractors AssociationWinter 2003

Please call (888) 440-7453 to order reprints of articles or to obtain a copy of Piledrivers.Org's editorial index. Visit the Pile Driving Contractors Association's web site at www.piledrivers.org. For further information on the Pile Driving Contractors Association topics, please contact us at (888) 440-7453.

Piledrivers.org is published quarterly. Please contact us by mail at P. O. Box 19527, Boulder, CO 80308-2527 Phone: 303-517-0421 | Fax: 303-443-3871 or by E-mail at membership@piledrivers.org.

Statements of fact and opinion are the responsibility of the authors alone and do not imply an opinion on the part of the officers or members of the Pile Driving Contractors Association. All rights reserved. Materials may not be reproduced or translated without written permission. Direct requests for reprint permission should be made to the Executive Director of the Pile Driving Contractors Association.

The subscription rate for members is $18 which is included in the annual dues. The U.S. subscription rate for non-members is $36 for one year and $72 for two years. Canadian subscribers: add $5 per year. All other non-U.S. subscribers add $10 per year.

Advertisers IndexABI, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4American Piledriving Equipment, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . OBCCarolina Pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Converse Consultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Drive -Con Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Florida Pipe & Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Ford Pile Foundations, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Geokon, Incorporated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12GZA GeoEnvironmental, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Insitutech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12International Construction Equipment, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . 12Junttan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11L.B. Foster Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Liebherr, Nenzig Crane Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Manitowoc Crane Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Mississippi River Equipment Co. Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Mississippi Valley Equipment Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Montube Pile Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IFCMunicon Consultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37National Ventures Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Nucor-Yamato Steel Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Penn State Fabricators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Pile Co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Pile Dynamics, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Pittsburgh Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34PK Pipe & Tubing, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26PVE Piling Equipement, Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Seaboard Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Skyline Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Specialty Piling Systems, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Timber Piling Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Published for:

PDCAP. O. Box 19527,

Boulder, CO 80308-2527 Phone: 303-517-0421

Fax: 303-443-3871Email: membership@piledrivers.org

Published by:

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©2003 Lester Publications,LLC. All rights reserved. Thecontents of this publicationmay not be reproduced byany means, in whole or in

part, without the prior writtenconsent of the publisher.

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We're entering a new year andwe have made a lot ofchanges for the incoming

year, with the goal to improve ourorganization and make the PDCAeven more successful.

The elections are over and I have beenre-elected as President. Randy Dietelwas re-elected Vice President and theExecutive Committee also remains inplace for the upcoming year. MarkWeisz with C.S. Marine Constructorswas appointed as the new EducationCommittee Chairman, replacing GeertJonker. Secretary of Treasury WayneWaters remains in place and SteveWitty was voted to continue anotherthree-year term as a board member.We have two new board members,Harry Robins of Palmetto PileDriving and Anthony Will ofFoundation Pile Driving Contractors.

A NEW LOOK

Other changes to the PDCA includean all-new web site. This web site ismuch more user friendly and helpfulfor members as well as first-time visi-tors to the site. Van Hogan has donean outstanding job rewriting and reor-ganizing the site in order to improveits usability. Now, no registration isnecessary to search for pile driving-related services on the web site. Also,past issues of the magazine are avail-able for download from the website somembers can review past articles forideas and information. Please visit ourrevamped web site at www.piledriv-ing.org.

The PDCA magazine is anotherimportant showpiece for the associa-tion. Lester Publications has beenhired to handle both the sales and edi-torial responsibilities. Our goal is tomake this publication a strong rev-enue stream for the association, whileimproving communication to ourmembers.

AND THE WINNER IS…

We began our search for a newExecutive Director by asking themembership who would be the bestpossible candidate for the job - some-one with a pile driving background,who also has the necessary marketingand financial skills, a person who canincrease membership, who is enthusi-astic about the subject of pile drivingand our member's needs. We werelooking for someone with lots of driveto gain new members, who'd workhard at getting events sponsored, andsucceed at fund raising.

As we evaluated candidates, itbecame clear that Tanya Goble stoodout from the others. With her technicaland marketing background, engineer-ing degree and MBA in Finance,Tanya had all the qualifications for aPDCA Executive Director. She beganher work for the PDCA on January6th. With Tanya and the new team'scontributions, we look forward to asuccessful and profitable year.

ENDURANCE AND EDUCATION

The pile driving industry continues tobe resilient despite the current eco-

nomic downturn. Business is verygood for PDCA members - people arereferring business to one anotherbecause they simply can't keep upwith the work.

In the current market, about half thejobs seem to be private sector and theother half is highway work. The pri-vate sector continues to spend moneyand companies are expanding, build-ing new plants, etc.

The PDCA continues to educate pro-fessors, to teach engineering studentsabout pile driving. Many engineersdon't have courses in deep founda-tions and we continue to promote howand when driven pile fits the best. OurProfessor's Institute is a summer pro-gram that invites 25 professors tolearn from guest speakers, who talk tothem about the facts and advantagesof pile driving.

Lastly, we're working also to promoteCodes and Standards for design engi-neers. We have elected to promotenew codes and standards to give driv-en pile a better advantage than it's hadin the past. The PDCA is alsoinvolved in re-writing the AASHTOSpecs, the government standards forpile driving.

These exciting changes for our associ-ation, the continuing success of ourmembership, the push to further edu-cate professors, engineers and thepublic, and the new team of leadershipincluding our new Executive Director,makes 2003 the best year yet to be apart of the PDCA.

MOVING FORWARD WITHNEW INNOVATIONS Jim Frazier

President, PDCA

6

Jim FrazierPresidentP: (303) 791-5642F: (303) 791-5647C: (303) 419-15439002 North Moore RoadLittleton CO 80125

Randy DietelVice PresidentP: (409) 945-3459F: (409) 945-4318P.O. Box 1847Texas City TX 77592-1847

Wayne E. WatersTreasurerP: (904) 268-4419F: (904) 260-9379C: (904) 631-83086467 Greenland RoadJacksonville FL 32258

Charlie EllisPast PresidentP: (402) 228-1624F: (402) 228-1758801 Clearwater CircleBeatrice NE 68310

John L. WhiteMemberP: (253) 872-0141F: (253) 872-87107032 South 196th StreetKent WA 98032-2185

Harry RobbinsMemberP: (843) 577-0545F: (843) 577-0547P.O Box 70986Charleston SC 29415

Mark WeiszMemberP: (707) 562-4100F: (707) 562-4106P.O. Box 2195Vallejo CA 94592

Trey FordMemberP: (757) 497-3593F: (757) 497-00314985 Euclid RoadVirginia Beach VA 23462

Anthony WillMemberP: (925) 754-6633F: (925) 625-5783P.O. Box 97Oakley CA 94561

Reginald K.L. LeeMemberP: (808) 735-3211F: (808) 735-7413614 Kapahulu AvenueHonolulu HI 96815

Garland E. Likins, Jr.MemberP: (216) 831-6131F: (216) 831-09164535 Renaissance ParkwayCleveland OH 44128

Rory KellyMemberP: (703) 978-2500F: (703) 978-29085610-B Sandy Lewis DrFairfax VA 22032

Stephen K.Whitty, Jr.MemberP: (985) 643-0690F: (985) 643-0690C: (985) 707-7353P.O. Box 1607Slidell LA 70459-1607

Tanya GobleExecutive DirectorP: (303) 517-0421F: (303) 443-3871P.O. Box 19527Boulder, CO 80308-2527

2003 Committee Chairmen

Van HoganCommunications CommitteeP: (904) 268-4419F: (904) 260-9379C: (904) 631-83096467 Greenland RoadJacksonville FL 32258

Wayne E. WatersFinance CommitteeP: (904) 268-4419F: (904) 260-9379C: (904) 631-83086467 Greenland RoadJacksonville FL 32258

Mark WeiszEducation CommitteeP: (707) 562-4100F: (707) 562-4106P.O. Box 2195Vallejo CA 94592

Michael F. EngestromMarket Development CommitteeP: (954) 384-4545F: (954) 337-0831772 Sand Creek CircleWeston FL 33327

Randy DietelTechnical CommitteeP: (409) 945-3459F: (409) 945-4318P.O. Box 1847Texas City TX 77592-1847

Rory KellyMember Services CommitteeP: (703) 978-2500F: (703) 978-29085610-B Sandy Lewis DrFairfax VA 22032

Stephen K.Whitty, Jr.Public Relations CommitteeP: (985) 643-0690F: (985) 643-0690P.O. Box 1607Slidell LA 70459-1607

2003 BOARD OF DIRECTORS2003 PDCA Board of Directors & Committee Chairmen

"The PDCA is proud to announce that the San Mateo - Hayward Bridge constructed by Balfour-BeattyConstruction is the winner of the 2002 Project of the Year Award. The Project of the Year Award is to be pre-sented at the 2003 Winter Roundtable. Details of this project and the runners-up entries will be presented infuture issues of Piledrivers.org."

After a lengthy search of well-qualified prospects, TanyaGoble has joined the Pile

Driving Contractors Association inearly January as the new ExecutiveDirector.

Tanya has over seventeen years ofexperience in a variety of high tech-nology engineering and marketingpositions, working for HewlettPackard and Agilent Technologies. Inher most recent job assignment, Tanyawas the Product Marketing Managerfor a test equipment product line soldinto the electronics manufacturingindustry.

A graduate of the University ofColorado in Electrical & ComputerEngineering, Tanya recently complet-ed her MBA.

The Executive Director's office isbased in Boulder, Colorado. She will

be helping the association meet itsgoals of increasing market share fordriven piles and serving the member-ship. Tanya will attend the WinterRoundtable event in February andlooks forward to meeting PDCAmembers there and at future events.

Please do not hesitate to contact Tanyawith questions or comments. Shewould like to hear from PDCA mem-bers about their ideas for the PileDriving Contractors Association.

Tanya can be reached by phone oremail:Phone: 303-517-0421E mail: ceo@piledrivers.org

Please join us in welcoming Tanya.- The PDCA Executive Committee

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Tanya Goble, Executive Director, PDCA

INTRODUCING TANYA GOBLE…PDCA's New Executive Director

7

THE DRIVING FORCE IN PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT

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PDCA Membership ApplicationStep 1: Select Membership Type I wish to apply for the following membership status (check one)

1 Contractor ($650) A Contractor Member is defined as a specialty subcontractor or general contractor who commonly installs driven piles for foundationsand earth retention systems. Includes one primary membership. Secondary memberships are $75 each.

1 Associate ($650)Associate Members of the Association shall consist firms or corporations engaged in the manufacture and/or supply of equipment, materials,testing, or other services to the pile driving industry. Includes one primary membership. Secondary memberships are $75 each.

1 Technical Affiliate ($95)Technical Affiliate Members of the Association shall consist of individuals who are involved with the design and installation of drivenpiles or in teaching the art and science of pile design and installation. They may be employed engineers, architects, government agen-cies, or universities. Employees of contractors are not eligible to become Technical Affiliate Members.

1 Student ($25)Student Members of the Association are defined as those who are full-time students studying towards a bachelor, master, or doctoratedegree in a regular university program. Student Members are nonvoting members.

I attend the following school as a full time student:

Anticipated Graduation Date:

1 Retired Industry Member ($50)A retired Contractor member shall be defined as any individual who has reached retirement age as defined by U.S. law and who wishesto remain an active member. Retired Contractor members have all the rights of a regular Contractor MemberI am retiring as a: 1Contractor 1 Associate 1Technical Affiliate

Step 2: Demographic Information (*required)

Title: q Mr. q Mrs. q Ms. q Dr. q Prof. q Other

* Where would you like to receive PDCA mailings? q Business address q Residence

Step 3. Company Description (complete only the category for which you are applying)A. Contractor Only Company Description (check all that apply):

q Bridge Buildingq Bulkheadsq Deep Dynamic Compactionq Deep Excavation

q Docks & Wharvesq Earth Retentionq Generalq Highway & Heavy Civil

q Marineq Pile Drivingq Otherq Other

B. Associate Company Only Company Description (check all that apply):Accessories

q Cutter Heads & Drill Bitsq Dock & Marine Suppliesq Hammer Cushionsq Hoses & Fittings

q Lubricants & Greasesq Pile Cushionsq Pile Points & Splicersq Rigging Supplies

q Safety Equipmentq Other

Business Title

*Name (or Primary Contact)

*Company Name

*Business Address

*City/State/Zip

*Business Phone

*Business Fax

*Primary Email

Residential Address

City/State/Zip

Residential Phone

Spouse

8

Applications By Systems

Equipment

Services

General

C. Technical Affiliate Only (Check all that apply) Note: Technical Affiliate Membership Category is for individu-als only. For a company listing in directory and on web site, you must join as an associate member)

q Analysisq Consultingq Civil & Designq Educational/Associationq Geotechnical

q Materials Testingq Pile Driving Monitoringq Surveyingq Vibration Monitoringq Other ______________

q All Statesq Continentalq U.S.q Globalq AKq ALq ARq AZ

q CAq COq CTq DCq DEq FLq GAq HI

q IAq IDq ILq INq KSq KYq LAq MA

q MDq MEq MIq MNq MOq MSq MTq NC

q NDq NHq NJq NMq NVq NYq OHq OK

q ORq PAq RIq SCq SDq TNq TXq UT

q VAq VTq WAq WIq WVq WY

Step 4. Geographic Areas Where Contracting, Products and Services Available (All applicants check all that apply)

Step 5. Sponsorship: Who told you about PDCA?

Member Name

Step 6. Method of PaymentAttached is my payment of $ for annual dues.

q I understand that dues are due annually on December 31, and that if I joined PDCA after March 31 Imay be entitled to a prorated dues amount for the subsequent year only.

I am joining PDCA as:q Contractor q Studentq Associate q Retired Industry Memberq Technical Affiliate

I am making payment in full byq Check # q MasterCardq Visa q American Express

Card Number: Expiration Date:

Name as it appears on card: Signature:

q Aluminum Sheet Pilesq Coatings & Chemicalsq Concrete Pilesq Composite Pilesq H-Piles

q Steel Pipe Pilesq Steel Sheet Pilesq Structural Steelq Synthetic Material Piles

q Timber Piles:Treated Lumber & Timbers

q Vinyl Sheet Pilesq Other Structural Materialsq Other __________________

q Air Compressorsq Cranesq Drill Equipmentq Drive Caps & Inserts

q Hammersq Hydraulic Power Packsq Leads & Spottersq Pumps

q Specialized Rigs & Equipmentq Other _______________

q Consultingq Designq Freight Brokerageq Geotechnical

q Marine Drayageq Surveyingq Testingq Trucking

q Vibration Monitoringq Other _____________

q Rental q Sales q Other ____________ q Other ____________

9

10

Online

Home Page

Visit our Web site tofind a contractor orsupplier member.See PileDrivers.Org online.This and more on your Association’s home page.

Headquarters Contacts

General information: info@piledrivers.orgExecutive director: ceo@piledrivers.orgMembership: membership@piledrivers.orgMeetings: meetings@piledrivers.orgPublications: editor@piledrivers.org

Manuals and Texts

RecommendedSpecifications ForDriven Bearing Piles

PDCA’s Code Book, nowin its third edition, is amust-have guide. Availableonly through PDCA.

Design and Constructionof Driven FoundationsManual

This two-volume set is produced by the FWHAand is available through PDCA. For more information,contact PDCA at (888) 440-7453 oronline at ceo@piledrivers.org.

Referrals

PDCA provides adirect link betweencontractors and endusers and contractorsand suppliers. Formore information onthis valuable service,contact PDCA atceo@piledrivers.org.

Publicationspiledrivers.org

Author guidelines -Want to write an articlefor PileDrivers.Org? Fora copy of our guidelines,call PDCA at(888) 440-7453 or contactPDCA online at editor@piledrivers.org.

Editorial Calendar

For a copy of the PileDrivers.Org editorial calendar,call PDCA at (888) 440-7453 or contactPDCA online at editor@piledrivers.org.

Media Kit

For a copy of the PileDrivers.Org media kit, callPDCA at (888) 440-7453 or contact PDCAonline at editor@piledrivers.org.

12

Foundation Engineering ConsultantsPile Testing; QC/QA; Noise and Vibration Monitoring

Phone: 925-254-0460 Fax: 925-254-0461www.insitutech.com

13

After installation, pile capacityincreases with time. This time-dependent capacity increase is

known as set-up, and was first men-tioned in the literature in 1900 byWendel. Set-up has been documentedin fine-grained soils in most parts ofthe world, and has been demonstratedto account for capacity increases of upto 12 times initial. The rate and mag-nitude of set-up is a function of anumber of factors, the interrelation-ship of which is not well understood.

Set-up is predominately associatedwith an increase in shaft resistance,and is related primarily to dissipationof excess porewater pressures within,and subsequent remolding and recon-solidation of, soil which is displacedand disturbed as the pile is driven.Independent of changes in porewaterpressure (i.e., independent of effectivestress), additional set-up occurs due toaging.

Set-up is recognized as occurring inmost parts of the world, for virtuallyall types of driven piles, in organicsilt, inorganic saturated clay, andloose to medium dense silt, sandy silt,silty sand, and fine sand. Since set-upis related to dissipation of excessporewater pressures, the more-perme-able the soil, the faster set-up devel-ops. Set-up rate decreases as pile sizeincreases.

A number of empirical relationshipshave been proposed to estimate orpredict set-up, and have demonstratedreasonable success (accuracy) in a

number of studies. Established rela-tionships are limited in widespreadapplication by having been based oncombined (shaft and toe) resistancedeterminations, inter-dependence ofback-calculated or assumed variables,and the complexity of the mechanismscontributing to set-up.

If justified by the scope (size) of aproject, a well-designed and executedproject-specific test program can yieldmore-valuable characterization of set-up than empirical relationships.Measurement of set-up requires that apile's capacity be determined a mini-mum of 2 times. To maximize meas-ured set-up, the first determination ofa pile's capacity should be performedat the end of driving, or as soon afterdriving as possible, and the seconddetermination should be delayed aslong as possible (i.e., as long as theproject schedule permits). Capacitydeterminations should separate shaftand toe resistance, and are most-valu-

able if the unit shaft resistance distri-bution (unit shaft resistance as a func-tion of depth) is determined. Suchcapacity determinations can beachieved with top- or bottom-loadedinternally instrumented static loadtests, or dynamic testing with subse-quent CAPWAP analyses, or prefer-ably both.

Test programs which characterizeonly set-up magnitude, but not set-updistribution (i.e., where along theshaft set-up is occurring), lack flexi-bility in developing or modifying pro-duction pile installation criteria.Determination of not only set-up mag-nitude, but also set-up distribution (asa function of depth) provides suchflexibility. Determination of set-updistribution also provides otherdesign- and construction-phase flexi-bilities such as development of instal-lation criteria which incorporate set-up for numerous different requiredproduction-pile capacities, and more-

PDCA PILE TIPS INVITATIONThe Pile Driving Contractors Association invites members to sub-mit press releases or other notices for publication.Announcements can include information regarding new branchoffices, new projects awarded, new hires or promotions, newproduct lines, etc. Submissions should include factual, ratherthan promotional, material.

Please email your request and announcement tomembership@pildrivers.org.

Van E. Komurka

INCORPORATING SET-UP INTO DRIVEN PILE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION

accurate assignment of reducedcapacities to short or damaged piles.

To aid in determining the magnitudeand distribution of set-up, static loadtest piles can be internally instrument-ed to determine shaft resistance distri-bution, and test piles can receiverestrike testing (i.e., can be restruck).The piles' potentially increasedimpedance (e.g., from concrete fill)notwithstanding, because of set-up, alarger hammer with greater impactforce than used for initial driving maybe required to mobilize the piles'capacities (move the piles) duringrestrike testing.

A pile test program case history is pre-sented herein which demonstrates thecharacterization of unit set-up distri-bution (unit set-up as a function ofdepth), and the development of depth-variable penetration resistance crite-ria, for high-capacity (190-ton allow-able load) pipe piles in Milwaukee,Wisconsin.

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

The Sixth Street Viaduct ReplacementProject involved demolition of theexisting Sixth Street Viaduct, and con-struction of its replacement. The 4major project structures were two bas-cule bridges, and two cable-stayedbridges. Because of the magnitude ofload at each structure, and the numberof piles required, a pile test programwas performed at each of the 2 bas-cule bridges, and at each of the 2cable-stayed pylon structures. Thepile test program presented herein was

performed at the south pylon struc-ture. The south pylon structure con-sists of 2 single towers, each 136 feethigh. At each tower, design compres-sion load is approximately 7,000 kips,with transverse and longitudinalmoments approaching 20,000 foot-kips.

SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS

Subsurface explorations and geotech-nical evaluations were performed forthe project by others. Boring depthsranged from 121 to 224 feet.Subsurface conditions consisted of filldeposits comprised of silty clay, tofine to coarse sand, extending to adepth of approximately 4 feet, under-lain by native loose to medium densefine-grained granular deposits con-sisting of clayey silt, to fine sand,which extended as deep as 29 feet.Underlying deposits consisted pre-dominately of very stiff silty clay,with occasional layers of loose tomedium dense clayey or sandy silt, tothe termination depths of the borings.

PILE TEST PROGRAM

Installation

General

The test piles consisted of steel pipepiles having an outside diameter of12.75 inches and a wall thickness of0.375 inch. A total of 5 indicator pileswere installed. The test piles wereinstalled closed-end, using a DelmagD30-32 single-acting diesel hammer.

Dynamic Monitoring

Initial driving of the test piles wasdynamically monitored using a PileDriving Analyzer® ("PDA") instru-mentation system. Additional analysisof field-measured dynamic monitor-ing data included performing a CAsePile Wave Analysis Program®("CAPWAP") analysis on a represen-tative blow from the end of initialdrive ("EOID") of each indicator pile.All EOID CAPWAP analyses wereperformed using the residual stressanalysis ("RSA") option. The PDAdata and subsequent CAPWAP analy-ses were used to determine pile capac-ities, the division of capacity betweentoe and shaft resistance, and shaftresistance distribution.

Restrike Testing

General

Determination of unit set-up is typi-cally appropriate for discrete pile sec-tions, such as some fraction of thetotal pile length for CAPWAP analy-ses. Unit set-up for a particular pilesegment is defined as the shaft resist-ance increase attributable to set-up forthat pile segment, divided by the sur-face area of that pile segment.

Restrike testing was performed 69 to70 days after EOID using a DelmagD36-32 single-acting diesel hammer.

Dynamic Monitoring

Restrike testing of the indicator pileswas monitored using a PDA.Additional laboratory analysis of

Table 1. Pile test program data summary.

14

field-measured dynamic monitoringdata included performing a CAPWAPanalysis on a representative blowfrom beginning-of-restrike ("BOR")testing for each pile. Similar to EOIDCAPWAPs, all BOR CAPWAPs wereperformed using the residual stressanalysis option.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Select pile test program results aresummarized in Table 1.

Installation

The driving behavior of the test pilesis presented as a plot of penetrationresistance versus elevation inFigure 1.Since the test piles were installedusing a variable-stroke hammer, andsince the penetration resistances pre-sented in Figure 1 do not account forvariations in stroke, the penetrationresistances are not directly compara-ble to each other. A more-direct com-parison of driving behavior can bemade using Case-method initial-drivecapacities estimated by the PDAbased on dynamic monitoring results.These data are presented as a plot ofinitial-drive Case-method capacitiesversus elevation in Figure 2.

CAPWAP analyses calculated theindicator piles' EOID unit shaft resist-ance distributions. The CAPWAP-determined EOID unit shaft resistancedistributions are presented as plots ofunit shaft resistance versus elevationin Figure 3.

Restrike Testing

CAPWAP analyses calculated theindicator piles' BOR unit shaft resist-ance distributions. The CAPWAP-determined BOR unit shaft resistancedistributions are presented as plots ofunit shaft resistance versus elevationin Figure 4.

Set-Up

CAPWAP-determined unit set-up dis-tributions were calculated for eachindicator pile by subtracting the EOIDCAPWAP-determined unit shaftresistance distribution from the BORCAPWAP-determined shaft resistancedistribution (i.e., by subtracting thevalues presented in Figure 3 fromthose presented in Figure 4). Theaccuracy of the resulting difference(the unit set-up distribution) is sensi-

tive to the accuracy (i.e., the degree towhich capacity was mobilized) ofboth the EOID and BOR unit shaftresistance distribution. An assessmentof whether each indicator piles' EOIDor BOR capacity was fully mobilizedis included in Table 1.

If both EOID and BOR capacity arefully mobilized, set-up is determinedto a reasonable degree of accuracy. IfEOID capacity is fully mobilized butBOR capacity is not fully mobilized,set-up is underestimated. If EOIDcapacity is not fully mobilized butBOR capacity is fully mobilized, set-up is overestimated. If neither EOIDnor BOR capacity is fully mobilized,the effect on the accuracy of set-updetermination is uncertain. These sce-narios are illustrated in Table 2, alongwith each of the test piles' situationamong these scenarios.

Figure 1. Penetration resistance vs. elevation. Figure 2. Initial-drive CASE-methodcapacity vs. elevation

Figure 3. EOID CAPWAP unit shaft resistance vs. elevation.

15

The CAPWAP-determined unit set-updistributions are presented as plots ofunit set-up versus elevation in Figure5. The test piles' unit set-up distribu-tions being either reasonably accurate,underpredicted, or indeterminatenotwithstanding, a review of Figure 5indicates that, with the exception ofTP19, the CAPWAP-determined unitset-up distributions show relativelygood correlation with each other. Areview of Figure 5 indicates that theindeterminate unit set-up distributions(TP15 and TP16) were similar to, orless than, those which were reason-ably accurate, and to those whichwere underpredicted.

Application to Design and Installation

Unit Set-Up Distribution Used forDesign

The unit set-up distribution used fordesign is presented in Figure 5. Itsapplication to design is discussed inthe following sections.

Allowable Loads Available forProduction Piles

For a given toe elevation, the capacityto which piles can be installed is thesum of 2 components: the initial-drivecapacity (e.g., as presented inFigure 2), plus set-up. It follows thatto aid in estimating capacities to

which production piles could beinstalled, the initial-drive capacity andset-up can be added. The result ofsuch an evaluation for piles of thesame type as the test piles, andinstalled using the same hammer asthe test piles, is presented in Figure 6.The cumulative set-up curve in Figure6 was obtained by applying the unitset-up distribution used for designpresented in Figure 5 to the surfacearea of a 12.75-inch-O.D pipe pile. Areview of Figure 6 indicates that pilesterminating at approximate Elevations117 and 123 would attain 50 percentof their long-term capacity fromset-up.

A review of Figure 6 indicates thatwithin the depths explored by the testpiles, dynamic monitoring resultsindicated that 12.75-inch-O.D pro-duction piles installed using a hammerwith a transferred energy similar tothat used for the test program (aDelmag D30-32) could achievecapacities of about 345 tons (of which160 tons, or 46 percent, is set-up),resulting in potential allowable capac-ities on the order of 172 tons. Areview of Table 1 indicates that fullcapacity was not mobilized for any ofthe test piles during restrike testing.As presented in Table 2, the test piles'unit set-up distributions were eitherreasonably accurate, underestimated,or indeterminate. A review ofFigure 5 indicates that the indetermi-nate unit set-up distributions (TP15and TP16) were similar to, or lessthan, those which were reasonablyaccurate, and those which were under-predicted. Accordingly, the values ofcapacity, set-up magnitude and per-centage, and potential allowable loadpresented in Figure 6 are likely con-servative (lower than actual).

For the south pylon structure, it wasdesired to install the production pilesto as high a capacity as practical.Using GRLWEAP, the drivability ofhigher-capacity production piles ofthe same pile section as the test piles,but using the Delmag D36-32 hammer(which was used for restrike testing),was evaluated. It was determined thatthe larger hammer would provideenough additional capacity at EOIDwithout damage to the piles that,when combined with set-up, a capaci-ty of 380 tons was achievable, result-ing in a production-pile allowableload of 190 tons.

Figure 4. BOR CAPWAP unit shaft resistance vw. elevation.

Table 2. Relationships between EOID and BOR capacity mobilization and determination of set-up.

16

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18

Penetration Resistance Criteria

Subsequent to EOID, a pile's capacityincrease attributable to set-up is afunction of the embedded side area ofthe pile, and the unit set-up distribu-tion. The greater a pile's embedmentlength, the more set-up it develops,and the less EOID capacity isrequired. In this way, as requiredEOID capacity decreases withincreasing embedment depth, so doesrequired penetration resistance.Therefore, the cumulative set-up dis-tribution for 12.75-inch-O.D. pipepiles presented in Figure 6 was usedto develop depth-variable production-pile penetration resistance criteriawhich decreased with increasingembedment depth. These criteria arepresented in Table 3.

Depth-variable penetration resistancecriteria account for both the variabili-ty of the driving behavior of individ-ual piles (EOID capacity as evidencedby penetration resistance which mayvary with depth and location), and thevariability of set-up with depth (set-updistribution). This approach allowsflexibility in addressing such design-and construction-phase issues asdeveloping depth-variable installationcriteria for numerous differentrequired production-pile capacities,and more-accurate assignment ofreduced capacities to short or dam-aged piles.

Production-Pile Installations

The 190-ton (allowable load) produc-tion piles driven for the 2 towers at thesouth pylon structure had an averageembedded depth of 123 feet, corre-sponding to an average toe elevationof 119. Ignoring pile-cap costs, the190-ton production piles driven forthe 2 towers at the south pylon struc-ture had an average support cost of$13.92 per allowable ton supported(support cost is the cost of theinstalled or constructed foundationelement divided by its allowableload). At this location, the relativelydeep embedment depths required toreach strata which provided highEOID capacities tended to increasesupport costs, while the contributionto required capacities from set-uptended to decrease support costs.

Figure 5. EOID/BOR CAPWAPs unit set-up vw. elevation.

Figure 6. Estimated ultimate capacity vs. elevation - Delmag D30-32 - 12.75-inch pipe pile.

Table 3. Minimum required production-pile penetration resistance criteria.

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CONCLUSIONS

� Set-up can account for a significantportion of long-term pile capacity. Forthe case history presented, up to 50percent of long-term capacity can beattributed to set-up.

� Accounting for set-up in pile designoffers a number of benefits, and canresult in the use of smaller hammers,smaller pile sections, shorter piles,higher capacities, and more-economi-cal installations (lower support costs)than otherwise possible.

� The characterization not only of set-up magnitude, but also of set-up dis-tribution, offers design- and construc-tion-phase advantages, such as devel-oping depth-variable installation cri-teria which incorporate set-up fornumerous different required produc-tion-pile capacities, and more-accu-rate assignment of reduced capacitiesto short or damaged piles.

� Dynamic monitoring at both EOIDand BOR, in conjunction with subse-quent CAPWAP analyses, provides ameans to determine both set-up mag-nitude and distribution.

� Subtraction of the CAPWAP-deter-mined EOID shaft resistance distribu-tion from the CAPWAP-determinedBOR shaft resistance distribution pro-vides a means to determine set-updistribution.

� Whether or not full capacity is mobi-lized during EOID and/or BORdynamic testing, and the associatedeffects on calculated set-up distribu-tions, should be recognized andaccounted for in selecting a designset-up distribution, and in selectingpotential allowable production-pileloads.

� Since set-up is predominately ashaft-resistance phenomenon, andsince residual stress and non-residualstress CAPWAP analyses can result indifferent shaft resistance predictions,the type of analyses (i.e., residual ver-sus non-residual) used to determineset-up distribution should be the samefor both EOID and BOR data.

� Piles exhibiting differing drivingbehavior can exhibit similar set-updistributions.

� Initial-drive dynamic monitoringresults, in conjunction with set-up dis-tributions, can be used to predict piles'long-term capacities as a function ofdepth. This information can proveuseful when evaluating potential pro-duction-pile sections and allowablecapacities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The introductory discussion of set-uppresented herein is based partly onresearch funded by the WisconsinDepartment of Transportation and theUnited States Department ofTransportation in the interest of infor-mation exchange, and is the result ofresearch done under the auspices ofthe Department and the WisconsinHighway Research Program.

This article is based on a paper pre-sented at PDCA's September 2002Symposium. The original paper maybe obtained by contacting the authorat komurka@wkg2.com.

21

Built in 1917, the historicStutson Street Bridge inRochester, New York allowed

people to cross the Genesee River'snorth end at Lake Ontario withoutusing a ferry. About 80 percent of theoriginal bridge still stands, though ithas reached the end of its life.Extensive freighter and dinner cruisetraffic required a continued need for adraw bridge, so designers startedwork on a new bridge with lift capa-bilities similar to the existing bridge.The O'Rorke bridge project officiallybegan on September 27th, 2000 with ahistoric groundbreaking ceremony.Construction then began in earlyOctober 2000.

The $64 million project is being con-structed utilizing federal money,administered by the Monroe CountyDepartment of Transportation througha close collaboration with the NewYork State Department ofTransportation. The highway, fixedbridge, movable bridge, landscaping,architectural and marine constructionefforts that make up this $64 millionproject will result in a landmark sig-nature bridge named after Co. PatrickO'Rorke, a local Civil War hero.

The primary component of this proj-ect is the replacement of the 83 yearold structurally deficient StutsonStreet draw bridge over the Geneseewith a new landmark caliber, doubleleaf bascule bridge on a new align-ment located south of the existingbridge.

SUCCESSFUL COLLABORATION

Herbert F. Darling, Inc., the engineer-ing contractor in charge of cofferdamdesign, worked in collaboration withthe state and local officials on thestructural, geographic, and geologicalchallenges related to the O'RorkeBridge. Buck Darling explains thelogistics involved with the project.This is a multi-span bridge, whosemain feature is the draw bridge sup-ported on two river piers. Both riverpiers are surrounded by permanentsheet pile cofferdams with tremieseals. One pier is supported on drivenH-piles, the other supported on 54"drilled shafts, both installed in thewet. All other bridge piers and abut-ments were supported by drivenH-piles.

Buck points out a particular issuefaced by their engineers. Because of

radically changing geology in thearea, there are separate designs foreach of the two river piers. Both piersare located inside sheet pile coffer-dams. In addition, this project is on afast track and therefore had to bedesigned around materials that are onthe shelf and immediately available.There was no time to accommodatemill rolling of desired sheeting fromEurope. "It was the MacGyvermethod," Buck laughs. "We puttogether what was needed for the proj-ect from what was available andappropriate."

Adaptation was necessary during thepile driving process. On the east sideof the river at pier 2, a typical coffer-dam was designed and installed inroutine fashion. Bearing piles werethen driven in the wet, followed by aconventional tremie placement, whichallowed dewatering and further con-

UNCONVENTIONAL THINKINGAND DRIVEN PILE TECHNOLOGY:Herbert F. Darling, Inc. and The O'Rorke Bridge Project

22

crete placement by the general con-tractor. The tremie involved the place-ment of approximately 3000 cubicyards of concrete in a period of twelvehours, representing a record place-ment for Herbert F. Darling, Inc. andthe concrete supplier, ManitouConcrete. Buck was very pleased withthe incredible teamwork it took toaccomplish this task.

Pier one was unfortunately anythingbut conventional because of rockfound to be sloping at approximately40 degrees down from the shorelinetoward the center of the river. Becauseof this and the high, steep, riverbankon the shore side of the cell, the cof-ferdam was not balanced, with theresult being the tendency for the cof-fer to want to slide into the river. Tocounteract this, circular cells wereinstalled on the landside of the cofferas an anchor, and steel struts wereused as tension members to tie the cir-cular cells to the cofferdam. Prior toany of this, a total of 24 drilled shafts

of 54 inch diameter with lengths vary-ing from 30 feet on the landside of thecofferdam, to 70 feet on the river sidewere installed.

Design engineer Dr. Richard Hartmanof Hartman Engineering, is wellknown for his pioneering cofferdamdesigns, and was crucial in assistingin this endeavor. "He is the first per-son we think about with this kind ofconstruction." Buck remarks. Dr.Hartman has produced something thatis both constructible, and safe.

When the design was completed andplans were reviewed, the complexityof the project became clear. "We weresitting in our office, and I said, 'This islike building a giant Swiss watch.'"Buck elaborates, "Since it is all boltedbracing, some above water, but most-ly accomplished by divers underwa-ter, and since it is such a large struc-ture, having everything built in placecorrectly required a lot of planningand good fabrication." Fabrication of

the approximately 248,000 pounds ofbracing was performed by ApolloSteel of Niagara Falls, NY, withPDCA member firm Skyline steelsupplying all sheet piling, bearing pilematerials, and numerous miscella-neous metals for the project.

FLEXIBILITY IS THE KEY

Freighter traffic had to be maintainedduring construction, thus designerswere restricted on what permanentstructures could be utilized. There wasno way to construct a conventionalsystem utilizing a cellular cofferdamon the West side of the bridge at pierone. Clearance was a vital considera-tion and rock anchors to tieback thecofferdam to the shore would havebeen too costly due to imposed designloads, and invasive. The West side ofthe pier one coffer had narrow accesswith a working railroad in close prox-imity, so Dr. Hartman used gravitycells as a mass against which to pull.

Ron Farrell, Project Superintendent,shares how piles were used to ensuresafety. There were 24 inch diameterpipe fender piles, and 30 inch dolphinpiles ranging in length from 30 to 120feet in length. These are in case abarge or freighter has difficulty whilemaneuvering in the river. They candeflect any errant river traffic awayfrom the piers. After the Sunshineskyway bridge issue in Florida, thesestructures in front of the bridge are putin place for protection.

"This was certainly different thanmost jobs", Ron explains. During con-struction, when a ship came into theriver from Lake Ontario, and our

23

barges were in place, we had to moveout of the way. Then when the shipneeded to come back out of the river,we had to move our barges out of theway again. This was necessary tomaintain river traffic, and it was verywell coordinated. At the height of theproject, there were three barges thathad to be move in and out as ships

approached the draw bridge. Ron isespecially pleased by the interopera-tion of his team and the bridgeemployees. "They have to raise theolder bridge for some traffic. Ourteams and the bridge operator, they alltalked to each other and good commu-nications helped to make thingssmooth. It would have been toughwithout this communication.

At this time, the cofferdam construc-tion is complete. The team will finishdirt excavation and tremie concreteplacement soon. They will then de-water the coffer and turn the projectover to the General Contractor, CraneHogan Structural Systems, Inc., tobegin actual pier construction.

Buck Darling is quick to point outwho deserves the credit for such asmooth operation under such unusualcircumstances. "It depends on goodpeople working together. It is a coop-erative effort between engineers, con-tractors, and owners with everyoneand every entity working towards asolution.

For further information on theO'Rorke Bridge project, please visit:http://www.ororkebridge.com

Some information in this article isderived from www.ororkebridge.com.The O'Rorke Bridge website was cre-ated by the Sear-Brown Group forMonroe County, owner and adminis-trator of the project.

PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT USEDFOR THE O'RORKE BRIDGEPROJECT:American 7260 100 ton crawler craneManitowoc 777 series 2 175 toncrawler craneLink Belt LS-138H II 80 ton crawler craneAmerican 7250 60 ton crawler craneNorthwest 9570 60 ton crawler craneGrove RT-520 20 ton hydraulic craneFlexifloat Spud Barge Series s-70 80feet x 60 feet40 foot x 90 foot spud barge37 foot Twin Screw 600 hp Tug BoatIHC s-70 HydrohammerICE 216 Vibratory HammerICE 416 Vibratory Hammer

In the late 1800s, Wilson MonroeBrode worked as a master stone-cutter in a large stone quarry. The

United States was experiencing atremendous period of growth and, as aresult, the roads were growing quick-ly and the construction industrycouldn't keep up with the demand. Mr.Brode saw this intense demand and,as a result, founded the W.M. BrodeCompany in 1887. Throughout sever-al generations, the W.M. BrodeCompany continues to specialize indriving pile.

"We are a General Contractor, but wehave always had a directed focus,"Bob Brode explains, "What happensin this business, you end up with astarting point which kind of directsyour growth for the years to come."Mr. Brode's great grandfather

acquired pile driving equipment tomove from quarry to pier constructionfor the railroad system during theexpansion of mass transit in the late19th century. The founding Mr. Brodemoved on to work that involved piledriving, creating foundations for gov-ernment, public structures and privatebuildings.

The second generation of the Brodefamily, George B. and Clancy C.Brode continued their focus on piledriving, road construction and bridgeconstruction. During their tenure,World War 2 began. The third genera-tion of Brodes, Gordon G. and RobertM. Brode, returned from the Alliedvictory. President Eisenhower and theCongress made a conscious decisionto connect the country from coast tocoast with an interstate highway sys-

tem. The administration saw just howeffective the transportation systemwas in Germany, particularly with theuse of the recently constructedAutobahn national highway. PresidentEisenhower wanted America to havethat same capability. In response tothis initiative, the Brode familyfounded the highway division of theW.M. Brode Company and also beganmanufacturing their own pile ham-mers. In recent years, emphasis hasbeen further placed on driven pilesand building railroad bridges.

Robert (Bob) W. and George M.Brode and family carry forward thetraditions of hard work and initiative.They continue the company's traditionas a multi-disciplined contractor,offering pile foundation design instal-lation, design and installation of cof-

PDCA Member Spotlight:

THE W. M. BRODE COMPANYCONTRACTORS AND ENGINEERS SINCE 1887

24

25

26

ferdams and more. The company'sChief Engineer, Steven W. Brode, isthe great, great grandson of founderW.M. Brode. Steven specializes inearth retention structures, sheet piling,shoring and cofferdams.

"Companies have had to grow withneeds of our country," Brodeobserves. "We're seeing now an inter-esting reconstruction of a lot of theold road structures that were built inpre-1900 days." Bob Brode reiteratesthe company's historical commitmentto pile driving. "We find ourselvessubmitting proposals to rebuild struc-tures we built the first time around.We like to use our expertise as piledrivers to make us competitive in roadand bridge construction."

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n Dynamic Pile Testing (PDA)

n Static Pile Testing

n Wave Equation Analysis (WEAP)

n Cross-hole Sonic Logging (CSL)

n Vibration Monitoring

n Deep Foundation &Geotechnical Instrumentation

n Pre-& Post-Construction Surveys

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"Building Market Share

through ProfessorEducation"June 9 - 13, 2003

Logan, UtahAn Industry Opportunity To Ensure The Future OfThe Driven Pile

The Pile Driving ContractorsAssociation Presents

The Professor's Piling Institute

PDCA is proud to continue an historiceducational program that presents thelatest concepts in driven pile design andinstallation to professors that teachfoundation engineering courses. Lastyear's inaugural program was a greatsuccess. Some of the leading faculty inthe deep foundation field were in atten-dance.

Over the past several years, the drivenpile has lost market share to other deepfoundation types, primarily because ofthe excellent job that has been done inselling cast-in-place systems.Outstanding educational programs pro-moting these systems have been animportant factor in increasing the use ofdrilled shaft deep foundation solutions.

2003 is the second year for theProfessors' Piling Institute, which pro-vides an organized educational programfor 25 college professors each year.Over the course of an intense, five-dayprogram, professors will be presentedwith extensive educational materialcovering all aspects of driven piledesign and installation. Attendees willhave the opportunity to establish longlasting contacts with PDCA membersand other attendees.

Additionally, a pile will be driven as ademonstration during the Institute. Itwill be statically load tested and dynam-ic measurements made. The courseattendees will have the opportunity to:(1) predict the pile capacity based onthe subsurface information; (2) predictthe drivability of the pile; (3) predict thepile capacity using dynamic measure-ments made during driving, togetherwith an analysis using the CAPWAPprogram; and (4) compare all of theseresults with the field observations.

The result? The advantages of the driv-en pile will be presented to those whodetermine specifications for deep foun-dation projects.

Over the past 30 years there have beentremendous changes in piles, installa-tion equipment, quality control and theway driven pile design is performed.These changes are not covered in cur-rent foundation design textbooks.Instructors for the course have beenselected from among the leading drivenpile specialists in the United States.They will cover all aspects of drivenpile design, installation and qualitycontrol.

Extensive technical material, notes,course outlines and teaching materialwill be provided to the attendees.

The Piling Institute is a cost- and labor-intensive project. Your Association isfunding virtually all expenses for invit-ed professors, including housing, meals,instructor expenses and travel. That'swhy we need your help. Please consid-er sponsoring a professor at this presti-gious event. Contributions in anyamount will be accepted. All sponsorswill be acknowledged on the PDCAwebsite and in an upcoming issue ofPiledrivers.org. With your help, we canincrease your market share and build asolid foundation of enlightened engi-neers for the future.

"I truly enjoyed the First AnnualProfessors' Piling Institute course. Itwas great interacting with colleaguesfrom all over the United States and nowI can relate their faces to their names.The materials we received as attendeeswere very well organized and enabledme to formulate a new graduatecourse."Paul J. Cosentino, Ph.D., P.E.Florida Institute of Technology

To participate in the program, simply complete the attachedSponsor Acknowledgment Form, and return it to PDCA.Company Name: ____________________________________________________

Contact: ___________________________________________________________

Billing Address: _____________________________________________________

City/State/Zip:______________________________________________________

Phone: ____________________________________________________________

Fax: _____________________________________________________________

E-mail: ____________________________________________________________

Pile Driving Contractors AssociationP.O. Box 19527

Boulder, CO 80308-2527Phone: (303) 517-0421 Fax: (303) 443-3871

It's Time To Fight Back

PDCA IS Working For You ToImprove Market Share

We Need Your Help

30

Completed in 1961, theWoodrow Wilson Bridge,which spans 1.2 miles, now

carries nearly three times its originalintended traffic volume. As a result,improvements to the bridge have beenunder consideration for several years.Currently, the eight-lane CapitalBeltway converges into the six-laneWoodrow Wilson Bridge resulting inone of the worst bottlenecks in thecountry. Once finished, the newbridge currently under constructionwill dramatically relieve this enor-mous congestion.

The driven pile-related work was oneof the first contracts in this mega proj-ect. In March 2001, TKC, a joint ven-ture of Tidewater Skanska, KiewitConstruction and Clark Construction,placed their bid on the first part of theWoodrow Wilson Bridge foundations.This bid included the construction onthe foundations for the entire outerloop of the I-495 beltway and themajority of the inner loop of thebeltway.

The aggressive schedule establishedby the contract documents was man-aged by separating the project intothree distinct areas with each areasupervised by a TKC AreaSuperintendent. The land portioncrossing Jones Point Park inAlexandria, VA, consisted of 14 foun-dations, 10 of which were supportedon a total of 408 each 24" pre-stressed

concrete piles supplied by BayshoreConcrete Products. Most foundations,however, are over water. The basculepiers, supporting the draw span of thebridge, contain the largest piles andfootings on the project. Each one ofthe hour 6,000 cy concrete footingsare supported by 35 to 39 each 72"diameter steel piles ranging in lengthfrom 190 to 210 feet long. The bal-ance of the project consists of 9 piers,names "M2" through "M10", eachconsisting of 4 individual footings.These piers are on the Maryland sideof the river. Piers M2 - M10 have 12steel piles under each foundation. Intotal, there are 420 steel piles from

M2 - M10, ranging in length anddiameter from 169 ft. and 48" to 190ft. and 66" inches.

The deepest driven pile on the projectwas driven down to a tip elevation of225 feet below water level. On land,pier V2 was adjacent to the shoreline,and consisted of four footings con-taining 15 steel piles per footing, 54"in diameter and 200 ft long.According to TKC's Project ManagerJames "Brook" Brookshire, III, thesepiles "were the most technically chal-lenging piles to drive on the project."

Brook explains the challenges faced

The Woodrow Wilson Bridge:OVERCOMING CHALLENGES ONLARGE PILE DRIVING PROJECTS

31

by the team, "Because it was on land,there was significantly more soilsthrough which the piles were to bedriven. Soil borings in the area indi-cated that driving resistances wouldbe much higher than the river piling.We had to erect a Manitowoc 4600Ringer with 300 feet of boom in orderto have sufficient crane capacity andhead room to unload the piles fromthe barge, upright them, and drivethem on land."

The process of driving all 628 largesteel piles took 11 months. Most steelpiles were manufactured in Houston,TX, by Kellogg, Brown and Root, Inc."They fabricated all of the 54", 66"and 72" piles." Brook remarks, "Wewere very impressed with their quali-ty control and ability to meet ourschedule." The 48" steel piles weresupplied by Skyline Steel, who pro-vided equal attention to schedule andquality.

The actual construction process mobi-lized on June 4th, 2001, and TKCstarted driving steel piles inSeptember 2001. Although still inphase one of the project, there arethree more phases to building theentire superstructure to be advertisedand awarded. As of January, phaseone of the project is 90% completewith the pile driving portion finishingin July 2003. The bridge is projectedfor completion in 2007.

Overall, the tremendous size of thepiles was the biggest challenge to theteam. "It's unusual for this area. Younormally don't see such large piles butthe size of this bridge required thedesigners to use the larger piles inorder to support the structure," Brooknotes. The span between the footingsis over 300 feet, which places an enor-mous load on each footing. Large pilehammers were needed and two ham-mers were used. The main hammerused was an IHC S500 with 368,000foot pounds of energy. The backuphammer, also used to drive the V2piles on land, was a Menck MHU500T with 405,600 foot pounds ofenergy.

Construction was under a very tightand rigorous timetable. "In order to

achieve the schedule, we had twosuperintendents assigned to drive thepiles, using the same crane on splitshifts." Brook is proud of their effortsto fulfill the timetable, "We could onlywork in daylight hours, from dawn todusk. Each team worked four days onand four days off, seven days a week,daylight to dusk, to get these pilesdone."

When asked about the lessons takenfrom such an enormous project, JamesBrookshire is quick to share the cred-it. "You learn something from every

project. We did a lot of planning and itwas a lot of teamwork and hardhours," he says. "Our planning andteamwork paid off and we ended upcompleting the piles right onschedule."

Note: The 2002 DICEP conference(PDCA), held in New Orleans, spokeon this project. To obtain a copy of theproceedings from PDCA headquar-ters, please call (888) 440-7453

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33

Technical Contract Specificationsare supposed to reflect goodand proper design and many do.

Far too many, however, are bewilder-ing due to the use of ambiguous ter-minology. Piling lingo, in general,contains an astonishing array of con-fusing vocabulary and nomenclature.The carefree vernacular of the job siteincludes slang, jargon and colorfulphraseology. For example, a disinter-ested person may be amused by hear-ing the upper end of the pile referredto as the "butt". However, not so dis-interested persons, such as designengineers, contractors, and inspectors,are adversely affected by ambiguousterms and absurd definitions thatabound in project specifications, con-tract documents and job reports. Lackof precise language and uniform ter-minology causes confusion, createsproblems, and is often the root of dis-putes and costly claims.

The February 2002 International DeepFoundations Congress organized bythe Geo-Institute of the AmericanSociety of Civil Engineers (ASCE),Orlando, Florida, gathered more than500 piling practitioners from acrossthe United States and around theworld. More than 100 papers werepresented on the current state of theart and practice in deep foundations.A review of the 1,566 page, two vol-ume conference proceedings revealsthat the terms used to communicate,qualify, or quantify the related but notidentical concepts of pile "capacity"and "resistance", resulted in more than

twenty different definitions, descrip-tions, expressions, and terms.Sometimes the terms were used inter-changeably. The terms ranged fromprecise, vague, and ambiguous, to

outright careless. Some of the morenebulous expressions to quote fromthe papers are: "foundation groundresistance", "safe working load capac-ity", "total allowable resistance","effective total pile resistance", "use-ful capacity", "dynamic capacity","pile resistance", and "design safeworking load".

Actually, the parade of confused andconfusing phrases is no wonder con-sidering that specialized engineeringtextbooks employ a similarly lax, ifnot directly erroneous and misleadingvernacular.

The following example taken fromactual contract specifications demon-strates the desirability of devotingmore thought toward terms andexpressions used in the specs: Adesign engineer, in an area where thepiles would normally be installed to a200-ton capacity, was faced with theproblem of the piles potentially reach-ing into a boulder layer existing atdepth at a site. To avoid potential piledamage, the engineer reduced capaci-ty per pile to only 100 tons, so that thepiles would be correspondingly short-er and not reach into the boulder zone.However, someone-it was neverdetermined who-thought that plain'capacity' sounded too casual andadded the adjective "load" to the term"100-ton pile capacity" used in thedesigner's draft specs so it now read"100 ton pile load capacity". At theoutset of pile driving, the contractorasked what loads he was to drive to

Aren't Specs Terms Supposed to be Plain?MOVING TOWARD A MORE UNIFORMTERMINOLOGYBy: Bengt H. Fellenius and Mohamad H. Hussein

34

and was told that the specs indicatedthat the pile loads were 100 tons. So,naturally, he drove to a capacity oftwice the 100 ton load, which meantthat the piles had to be longer and, asthe designer had feared and wanted toavoid, the piles were driven into theboulder layers. The results weremuch breakage, problems, delays andcost overruns. The contractor's claimfor extra length of piles and prolongeddriving was $300,000.00, or$75,000.00 per letter of the mislead-ing adjective.

Incidentally, of all terms, "capacity" ismost often misused. A recent DOTspecs text required the Contractor to

achieve an "intimate capacity", proba-bly a misspelling of "ultimate capaci-ty". "Capacity" simply means "ulti-mate resistance" and adding the adjec-tive "ultimate" is redundant, becausethe term does not require an adjective(other than "axial" as opposed to "lat-eral", for example).

Similar to "capacity", "load" is oftencombined with adjectives that canresult in confusion. Combinationssuch as "allowable load", "factoredload, "dead load", "live load", "perma-nent load", "transient load", etc. arewell defined and therefore unmistak-able. However, some people find dif-ferent meaning in "design load", and

"working load" and some believe thetwo to be synonymous. If both areused in the same specifications, ajudge, at least, will take them to havedifferent meaning-if not so, then onlyone should have been used in thespecs-but, same or different, what dothe terms mean? The term "designload" is usually taken to mean themaximum load acting on the founda-tion (the pile) from the structure. Itcould be equal to the "allowableload", but it cannot be larger. Theterm "working load" does not workvery well and is best not used. Addingthe word "safe" to either term, or toany term, increases the potential forconfusion.

On the topic of using jargon: the word"set" is not a synonym for "blow-count" (the blows counted for a cer-tain penetration distance). "Set" is thenet penetration for one blow or possi-bly for a series of blows. Its origin isan abbreviation of "settlement",meaning the net penetration, usuallyfor one blow. The following is anexample of what the use of "set" cancause: Specifications for a projectstated that piles were to be driven todepths indicated by the plans anddrawings and added "the piles will bedriven to a very small set and theContractor is cautioned not to over-drive the piles". Of course, theContractor took care not to damagethe piles by driving them too hard,which is what "overdriving" means,

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and which can occur when the pene-tration per blow is very small.However, the driving turned out to bevery easy, and, in the Contractor'ssearch for the "very-small-set" termi-nation criterion, he drove the pilesmuch deeper than the plans and draw-ings indicated. Unfortunately, in writ-ing the quoted sentence, the spec-writer meant to warn the Contractorthat the penetration per blow wasexpected to be very large and that thepiles, therefore, could easily drivedeeper than desired. Talk about dia-metrically opposed interpretations!And predictable surprises. In thiscase, the Engineers insisted that theirintended interpretation was the rightone and a costly claim and litigationensued. Because the industry has avague understanding of the propermeaning of the term "set", avoid usingit in any context. Use "penetrationresistance".

The word "set" is also frequently mis-construed to be a synonym for "termi-nation criterion", which, incidentally,is not the same as "refusal", and thejargon confusion does not get any bet-ter by shifting from "set" to "refusal".Although most people have a qualita-tive understanding of what isaddressed, one person's refusal isanother person's promise. "Refusal"is an absolute term. It implies that onejust cannot drive the piles deeper afterhaving exhausted all means to do so.Then, specifications suggesting "arefusal of 6 blows/foot" sounds notonly silly, but implies a spec writerwith a poor command of language.Instead, "Termination criterion"should be used. It is a neutral termthat states exactly what is meant.What about "battered"? It is a termthat really separates the men from theboys, or people experienced in-or atleast exposed to-piling from peoplewho are not. The latter group includeslawyers, judges, and jury members. Acase in point is the true story, experi-enced by the first author, of a contrac-tor appearing in court to argue a claimand did he ever have an uphill battleonce the judge realized that he hadbattered his piles. The judge hadexperience of battered spouses andchildren, but he had no knowledgeand little appreciation of that the termwould have a discrete meaning for pil-ing people. When the matter was

made clear to him, he was quiteannoyed by that a group of profes-sionals would use a jargon term thathad a perfectly suitable every-dayEnglish term available, i.e.,"inclined". Please, stop using "bat-ter". Alas, a cry in the wilderness; itis getting worse rather than better;recently a paper used the "batter" termto characterize a leaning structure!

There is more to the matter than apoor choice of terms and definitions.You may enjoy the following directquotes from real life contractspecifications:

1. Piles shall be driven to reach thedesign bearing pressures.

2. The minimum allowable pile pen-etration under any circumstanceshall be 17 feet.

3. The Contracting Officer will deter-mine what procedure should be fol-lowed if driving refusal occurs.

4. The hammer shall have a capacityequal to the weight of the pile andthe character of the subsurfacematerial to be encountered.

5. The hammer energy in foot-pounds shall be three times theweight of the pile in pounds.

6. Inefficient diesel, air, or steamhammers shall not be used.

7. Each pile shall be driven until thebearing power is equal to thedesign piles pressure.

8. All piles incorrectly driven as tobe unsuitable as determined bythe Contracting Officer shall bepulled and no payment will bemade for furnishing, driving, orpulling such piles.

9. All piles determined to be unsuit-able by the Contracting Officershall be replaced by and at theexpense of the Contractor.

10. The driving shall continue, usinghammer falls of 150 mm to 200mm in a series of 20 blows untilpenetration of the pile has stopped.The height of the fall shall then bedoubled and the pile again drivento refusal. This procedure shall becontinued until the design load ofthe pile has been achieved.

11. The pile design load is defined as1.5 times the working load. Thedesign load will be deemed to havebeen achieved when the pileexhibits zero residual (= net?) setunder 10 successive blows of the

37

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hammer, where each blow has asufficient energy to cause elasticdeformation of the pile at theground level equal to the staticshortening of the pile at designload, as calculated by Hooke'sLaw.

12. Inclined head to be used for batterpiles.

13. Cut off portions of pile, which arebattered, split, warped, buckled,damaged, or imperfect.

14. Where unwatering is required, theContractor shall effect a dewater-ing scheme.

15.When the hammer performance isrequested to be verified, all costsassociated with this work will beincluded in the contract price whenthe energy delivered is less than 90% of the stated potential energyspecified in the submission. Whenthe energy is greater than 90 % ofthe potential energy stated in therequired submission, the costs willbe paid as extra work.

16. Pile shall be accepted if ... the pilereaches refusal at a load, whichwould give a working load equalto or greater than the designcapacity.

17. The piles will be driven to a fac-tored design load of 630 kN (71tons) which is about 3 times the esti-mated required bearing capacity.

As a Contractor, would you want tohave these requirements imposed onyou? As an Inspector, would youwant to be the one enforcing thesespecs? And, as an Engineer, how doyou feel about your professional asso-ciation with such nonsense!

Surprises occur frequently duringconstruction projects. The surprisestake many forms, but one aspect isshared amongst them: they invariablyresult in difficulties at the site and,more often than not, in disputesbetween the parties involved. Whenthe unexpected occurs at a site andcosts escalate and delays develop, theContractor feels justified to submit aclaim that the Owner may see littlereason to accept. Well-written speci-fications can resolve disputes andavoid claims. However, when the par-ties turn to the technical specificationsfor the rules of the contract, theseoften fuel the dispute instead of miti-gating it, because the specificationsare vague, unclear, unbalanced, andcontaining ambiguous language andweasel clauses that help nobody inresolving the conflict.

SeaboardSteel Corp.3912 Goodrich Ave.Sarasota, FL 34234

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38

The piling practice differs with geo-logic conditions and geographic loca-tion. It would be difficult to come upwith a set of master specifications thatwould fit all projects. However, weshould be able to agree on a commonusage of the terms and definitionsinvolved in our industry. Maybe a listof well-defined terms could be a taskfor the PDCA, in order to movetoward a more uniform terminology.

The Authors…Bengt H. FelleniusBengt Fellenius Consultants Inc. 1905 Alexander Street SE Calgary, Alberta, T2G 4J3 E mail: bfellenius@achilles.net

Mohamad H. Hussein GRL Engineers, Inc.8000 South Orange AvenueOrlando, Florida 32809 Web Site: www.pile.com

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