the obama logo was that brilliant

7/29/2019 The Obama Logo Was That Brilliant

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The Obama logo was that brilliant, iconic O with the hints of flags, waving fieldsand a rising sun Morning in America reduced to a single, eye-catching image.

Learn From The Experts Articles

Ten Life-Saving Rules for Campaign Managers

By Ron Faucheux

The job of a campaign manager is a tough one. In modern, complex campaigns, managers have to keep

track of countless moving parts, handle a myriad of details, and always keep an eye on the big picture.

They need the trust of the candidate and the cooperation of every component of the campaign. Here are

my 10 rules for campaign managers. They should be followed conscientiously.

1. Listen to the

candidate.

Really listen.Campaign managers

think they are experts

at running campaigns.Many of them truly

are. But that doesnt

mean they know more

than their candidates

about every issue.

Smart managersshould never discount

the knowledge and

instincts of a

candidate, especiallyan experienced

candidate who haswon tough elections.

Some managers are

biased against tactical

or strategic

suggestions from

candidates. Theyresent the intrusion, dislike being watched, hate the second-guessing, and tend to chalk up most of their

bosses proposals to ego or exhaustion. But thats a mistake. Listen to the candidate, even if what is

said appears to be wrong at first blush. Often, when you dig deeper, youll find unexpected gems of

excellent advice.

2. Listen to real voters, not just people in politics. It is easy for experienced managers to think they know what voters want without ever talking to them.

But a good campaign manager doesnt isolate himself or herself from whats going on in the

constituency. They get out, meet people, talk to them, and listen to their ideas and gauge changing

moods. Polls are great. Targeting studies are wonderful. But none of it matters if the voters are trying

to say something that nobody hears. This can extend to relatives and friends of the candidate. Peoplewith little or no political experience who are close to candidates often find fault with how a campaign

is being run and have a profusion of ideas that could fix things. While some of their ideas may be

foolish or unworkable, some of them may be quite good. These people have the candidates best

interests at heart and can provide a fresh perspective from outside the clutter of campaign headquarters

outside, where the voters live.

3. Budget backwards.Do not let your last campaign constrict your thinking about the current one. Think fresh. And when it

comes to budgeting, think priority. There are a million good things you can fund in a campaign that are
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irrelevant to the ultimate goal of winning. Wisdom is knowing whats important and whats not. So is

good campaign budgeting. Figure out what you absolutely need to do to win, and budget it. If

something doesnt contribute to the goal of winning, cut it out. Dont let conventional wisdom orpolitical customs distract you from taking care of important business even if it means saying no to a lot

of spending initiativessmall and largethat well-meaning supporters propose. Theres a straight line

to Election Dayand it runs right through your budget.

4. Set regular meetings and mandate attendance.The campaign manager needs regular contact with the finance team, the political and field staff, and thecommunications operation. Set regular meetings and conference callsbe they daily, weekly, or

monthly. And then enforce the schedule. People in campaignspaid staff, consultants, and volunteers

need to know its not only impolite, but inappropriate to miss a meeting. It is a managers job to lay

out a reasonable schedule and to demand everybody follows it.

5. Tell your

candidate the truth.This isnt always easy,

especially if its bad

news. Occasionally,

its the toughest thinga campaign manager

must do. But do it

nonetheless. This

doesnt mean you

want to run your

candidates spiritsdown with endless,

debilitating

assessments. But it

does mean you need

to fill the objectivity

gap that exists in all

campaigns. Thatswhat good

management is all

about. It is very hard

for even the smartest

candidates to maintain

objectivity in the line of fire. Thats why they need strong, fearless managers to keep their campaigns

on track especially when every other external and internal force is pushing to derail it.

6. Question faulty assumptions early.A candidate who assumes he or she cant lose needs to be challenged. A strategy team that assumes theopposition will never get off the ground needs to be challenged. A campaign staff that assumes voters

will connect the dots on their own, without the help of disciplined message delivery, needs to be

challenged. Its the fundamentals that trip campaigns up. A big, wrong assumption is made, it takesroot, and then it undermines everything. The more fundamental an assumption, the harder it is to

challenge. A campaign manager must be ready to challenge misguided assumptions before they

produce bad decisions and cause major mistakes.

7. Work hard but dont kill yourself.Campaign management is a 24/7 obsession. Campaign managers must not allow themselves to become

physically exhausted or mentally stale. Not only does that take a toll on the managers well being, it

also takes a toll on the campaigns performance. Managers should take time offa morning break, a

long lunch, a peaceful walk, a weekend to relax. Managers need to watch their diets (cold pizza kills),

get enough sleep, refrain from too much alcohol, and get medical attention if something feels wrong.

Managers in their 20s and 30s must understand that the physical wear and tear of a campaign can last

a lifetime.

8. Scrutinize
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everything.Nothing should leave

campaignheadquarters unless

its scrutinized. In

larger campaigns, a

research directorshould review all

campaign material,letters, mass e-mails,

talking points, speech

outlines, press

releases, ads, and

telephone scripts for

accuracy. A campaignstrategist should also

look over everything

for political

considerations. In

campaigns, the pace isfast. Small mistakes

are amplified through

blogs and picked up

by the media. Extra

care must be taken in the public messages you convey and materials you produce. Its a campaign

managers job to set up a vetting process and insist upon its daily implementation.

9. Watch the money.Campaigns are ad hoc organizations that are cobbled together for limited durations. Things move fast.

Income is uncertain. Everything bleeds cash. Money management is critical and the experienced

campaign manager will watch the money. As J. Paul Getty once said, Look after the pennies, the

dollars will look after themselves. That applies to all campaigns, even the well funded ones.

10. Pull the trigger.Some campaigns meet and discuss, discuss and meet. Decisions are delayed and delayed. Skilled

campaign managers do not let endless analysis paralyze decision-making. No matter how many polls

youve taken, experts you have consulted, or cautions that have been raised, campaign managers need

to reach through the fog and pull the trigger. When timing is everything, it is inaction that can be fatal.

Napoleon once said, I may lose battles, but I dont lose minutes. Thats good advice for campaign

managers.

Each of these 10 rules is easy to overlook in the heat of battle, thus discipline and vigilance is

recommended.

Ron Faucheuxis author of Running for Office and editor of Winning

Elections, popular books on political campaigning. A politicalstrategist and analyst, Dr. Faucheux teaches at George

Washington Universitys Graduate School of Political

Management. Ron can be reached atClick here to contact this Author

Learn From The Experts Articles
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Is colour important to your business and brand?

What's in a Colour?

Colour can be descriptive. Colour can affect the way we think. Colour can affect the way we feel.

A recent study conducted by Dr. Gitte Lindgaard of Carleton University in Ottawa has shown that the

public in general takes only 50 milliseconds to make a judgement about your website.

This makes the importance of feel in your web design a much more important feature.

No matter how good your website copyrighting isif the visitor gets the wrong feel in that first 50

milliseconds, they wont stay around long enough to read it.

Based on thisthe colours that you choose for your online branding can be the difference between

attracting or repelling a potential customer.

Oranges and Yellows

Bright colours such as oranges or yellows are often seen as friendly and fun, great for youngeraudiences.

On the flip side, these colours can be viewed as less professional and make your site look like it lacks

conviction.

Blues

Colours like navy blues can be seen as professional and serious. Colours such as these are often used

on websites that represent law or finance.

The negatives of this colour include making your brand feel stuffy or without humour.

Reds

Reds represent feelings of heat and strength. They portray confidence and power.

Unfortunately, reds can also describe anger, which can be intimidating to some visitors.

Greens

Greens embody nature and health. It is often used when referring to the outdoors or fresh foods.

Some people link this colour to green political statements, which can be good or bad depending on

your point of view but means that it is often absent from corporate sites.

Light or Dark

Whether your colours are light or dark will also have an effect on the perception of your site.


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Light colours and large areas of white are used on websites to give a site an easy, free feel. It can make

the content feel easy to read and can give an impression of health and beauty.

Dark colours and black can add a dramatic feel to a website. Dark colours can give your images more

punch. Large blocks of text on dark colours can be harder to read but can give a sense of gravity to

your words.

By combining these colours and of course the millions of other colour combinations you can help your

visitors make their initial decision about your business.

There are no hard and fast rules. There are no right and wrong colours. But colours do influence a

visitors experience and therefore will have an impact on your bottom line.

So when looking at your web design, make sure you consider colour. Take some time to determine

how you want your visitors to feel when they enter your home page. Then decidedo these colours

describe that feeling?

This is the html version of the filehttp://www.american.edu/soc/communication/upload/Carissa-Nee.pdf.Google automatically generates html versions of documents as we crawl the web.

Page 1

What Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective: Best Practices and a

Semiotic

Analysis of the Logos of Barack Obama, George W. Bush and John McCainBy: Carissa Mirasol Nee

A Capstone Project

Presented to The Faculty of the School of Communication

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Masters of Arts in Public Communication

Supervisor: Professor Lauren Feldman, Ph.D.

April 21, 2011

Page 2NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 2

Page 3NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 3 TABLE OF CONTENTSABSTRACT
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4INTRODUCTION5BACKGROUND9THE LOGO AS A VISUALIZATION TOOL9

DEFINING A LOGO VS. A BRAND9

LITERATURE REVIEW10DEFINING THE ROLE OF THE TARGET AUDIENCE: THE VOTING PUBLIC10EFFECTIVE LOGO DESIGN PRINCIPLES14BEST PRACTICE #1: CREATE OR SELECT A MODERATELY ELABORATE LOGO15BEST PRACTICE #2: CREATE A LOGO WITH A NATURAL IMAGE

18

BEST PRACTICE #3: CREATE A LOGO WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF FAMILIAR MEANING19

EMOTION IN LOGO INTERPRETATION20THEORETICAL APPLICATION: COLOR THEORY22THEORETICAL APPLICATION: APPRAISAL THEORY

24THEORETICAL APPLICATION: AFFECTIVE INTELLIGENCE

25

LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY26CASE PROFILE28CHOICE OF LOGOS28SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS

29DENOTATIVE VERSUS CONNOTATIVE RELATIONSHIPS

30

CASE ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION35DENOTATIONAL INVENTORY35HIGHER LEVELS OF SIGNIFICATION (CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY)35ELEMENT #1: TEXT

36ELEMENT #2: INCLUSION OF A URL39

ELEMENT #3: THE LOGO IMAGE

40OBAMA/BIDEN LOGO IMAGE40

BUSH/CHENEY LOGO IMAGE44

MCCAIN/PALIN LOGO IMAGE47

CONCLUSION52REFERENCES54APPENDIX58APPENDIX A: DENOTATIONAL INVENTORY58

APPENDIX B: CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY OF THE OBAMA/BIDEN LOGO59


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APPENDIX C: CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY OF THE BUSH/CHENEY LOGO60APPENDIX D: CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY OF THE MCCAIN/PALIN LOGO61

Page 4

NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 4 ABSTRACTObamas 2008 election campaign marketing team seized an opportunity to do

something

not previously done by past presidential candidatesthey made Obama a brand and

created a

strong logo as the face of that brand. As a result of this strategy, the marketing team

became the

recipient of Advertising Ages 2008 Marketer of the Year award. The U.S. 2008

presidentialelection demonstrated how visual communications could play a pivotal role in the

promotion of a

candidate and development of an effective campaign strategy.

The capstones literature review summarizes extensive research and extracts what

visual

elements and strategies contribute to a well-designed logo. Although a logo design

can be

aesthetically pleasing and offers a certain appeal, it may not necessarily communicate

the right or

intended message about a presidential candidate in an effective manner. This capstone

providesa framework of best practices in logo design and how they can be applied in creating

political

campaign logos that could positively impact the outcome of an election. From the

results of the

semiotic analysis of three political campaign logos: Obama, George W. Bush and

John McCain,

this capstone offers a clearer understanding of the process on how the public or target

audience

derives meaning from or interprets a logo image. The results shed insight into the

possible

meanings and interpretations of each logo and can serve as basis in evaluating theireffectiveness.

Page 5NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 5 INTRODUCTIONWritten and oral communications are important tools in conveying thoughts, ideas

and feelings

to a target audience. Along with these, however, is the power of visual

communication to


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strengthen and go beyond what one reads and hears. Just like literacy of the written

and spoken

language, the visual component of communication serves as a mode of discourse and

is an

instrument that provides clarity through the use of tangible elements. Visual design

and imageryare often equated with art, decoration and creative presentation as well as

entertainment;

however, its place in the realm of effective public communication cannot afford to be

overlooked. A visual image not only fortifies what the audience reads and hears, but

also

titillates and delights them. It is a persuasive vehicle that can make educating or

creating an

experience easier as the audience absorbs the visual information presented to them,

thus resulting

in prompt action and positive response to the message being conveyed. Therefore, it is

importantto select an appropriate visual image that can be combined and intricately woven with

written

and spoken words to form a unified communication unit effectively enhancing and

refining the

message(s) being conveyed (Horn, 1999).

Past research in the realm of design and visual communications has indicated that

there is

a significant need to focus on the role of logos in branding and marketing campaigns.

Todays

society is extremely visually oriented and they use logos as a recognition aid,

speeding selection

of the preferred product (Henderson & Cote, 1998, p.14). This consumerist nature of

the public

when selecting preferred products indeed translates to how citizens can operate as

political

consumers. In Dion Dennis (2002)Inventing W, The Presidential Brand: The Rise

of QVC

Politics, he makes this point by taking the following statement and substituting the

word

Page 6NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 6 politicians where the word companies is used and citizens where the word

consumer is

used:Todays society is undeniably brand conscious. Were attracted to brands that project messages we like Forward thinking companies [politicians]understand that if their brand carries a message, it carries equity. Companies

[politicians] now are using that equity to deepen relationships with customers

[citizens] by offering supporting products that reflect the personality of thebrand. Its called relationship marketing and it works

(Dennis, 2000, as cited in Hockett, 2005, p. 91).


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Furthermore, Johnson-Cartee and Copeland (1991) stated that voters no longer

experience

politics first-hand. Elements and pieces of knowledge are given to political consumers

through

the mass media system. Mass media has created symbols for the public to interpret on

their own.Through these symbols, the voting public simplifies the political realities they should

experience,

e.g., the differences between Candidate X and Candidate Y, Democrats and

Republicans, etc.

(Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 1991). Logos help create these simplified political

realities and

enable the public to view the vast political landscape as knowable, understandable and

easy to

navigate through.

The U.S. 2008 presidential campaign demonstrated how visual communications play

apivotal role in promoting and developing an effective campaign strategy. The 2008

presidential

election was an election of many firsts. Not only did the nation elect its first African-

American

president but it was also the first time that a relatively unknown candidate was

catapulted to the

front line for nomination by his party and unexpectedly bested the other candidate. In

a time

when Americans were frustrated with issues that plagued the Bush administration

the war in

Iraq, the banking and mortgage crisis, the rising cost of health care and energy, and

unemploymentObamas overall campaign message communicated themes of

change and a

mandate for change (Organizing for America, 2010). Obamas marketing team

seized the

opportunity to enhance that focus not just in words and eloquent delivery of speeches

and

Page 7NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 7 messages by the candidate, but also by crafting a visual design concept that fit and

was

consistent with the theme of his campaign, all of which effectively helped in

presenting him as a

solid leader.

It is interesting to note how the success of the Obama campaign triggered among

many

communication practitioners, graphic designers and political campaign strategists a

renewed and

revitalized emphasis on the need for a comprehensive logo design that could serve as

a


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cornerstone of a candidates brand. The Obama logo was featured consistently on

all of the

websites, signage, and marketing materials. Moreover, from a design standpoint, the

Obama

campaign logo was a complete and total departure from the stylistic norms of other

presidentialcampaign logos, yet was one that resonated with millions of Americans (Heller,

2008). It would

behoove campaign strategists and supporters to leverage party resources toward the

development

of a logo for a political candidate in future elections.

This capstone focused specifically on the use of candidate logos as a political

campaign

tool. Understanding what has made other presidential campaign logos successful can

equip

designers with knowledge of what to incorporate and consider in future logo designs.

The capstone begins by clearly delineating a logo versus a brand, explaining thepurpose

of logos and why they are integral in political campaigns. Next, the literature review

looks at the

role of the target audience (voters) when they view a logo/visual image. This section

delineates

different voter types and how each voter type would process visual information as it

relate to

logos. The literature review also examines several communication theories of

emotion,

information processing, appraisal and affective intelligence. Knowledge of the

existing

theoretical and empirical applications of communication and visual design concepts

will be

useful for communications practitioners and designers in the creation, development

and/or

Page 8NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 8 selection of productive visual elements that would supplement, if not dominate, a

politicalcampaign.

The sheer success of the 2008 Obama logo invites a systematic analysis of how a logo

can be successfully used by a political candidate to convey key themes of his or her

campaign,

contribute to a candidates positive image and serve as a face of what the candidate

represents.

While for years, presidential candidates have employed political logos to supplement

their

campaign, it has only been in recent years that the use of campaign logos has garnered

much

attention from the general public. To accommodate this recent interest, this capstone

conducts a


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semiotic analysis of three of the more recent presidential logos: Barack Obamas O,

George

W. Bushs W, and John McCains Naval Star (Figure 1).

This semiotic analysis is important because it explores the various factors that render

the

meaning of a political logo effective. The analysis highlights the importance anddegree of

influence that these political logos had on the public. Discussing the strengths and

weaknesses

of each logo will ostensibly equip campaign strategists, designers and party affiliates

with a

foundational knowledge and a set of best practices on what characteristics to consider

and

incorporate when creating a logo for future presidential candidates and their

campaigns.Figure 1: Barack Obamas O, George W. Bush W and John McCains Naval Star (Source:

4.president.org).

Page 9NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 9 BACKGROUND: THE LOGO AS A VISUAL COMMUNICATION TOOL

Defining a Logo vs. a BrandPolitics is a symbolic world (Johnson-Cartee, 1991, p. 1). In the realm of politics,

symbols and logos are widely used to represent political figures, ideologies and social

issues

(Young, 2009). For example, the donkey and elephant logos are symbols of the

Democratic and

Republican parties, respectively. To the American public, the donkey and the

elephant serve

as powerful reminders and are visual shorthand for all of the political ideologies that

each of

these parties represent. In essence, these animals are the visual representation of the

Democratic

and Republican brands.

It is important to clarify and delineate between the terms logo and brand. While

they

are many times used interchangeably, logos and brands differ in their form andfunction

even if they work in tandem to serve an important purpose in visual communications.

A brand

is a visual tool that serves as a companys/organizations perceived image and

reputation. It is

an emotional tie that visually exudes the intangible characteristics of an organizations

overarching goals, beliefs, promises and purpose, making a connection with its

audience

members (Pittard, Ewing & Jevons, 2007). Therefore, a brand is integral to instilling a

positive

image of the organization and the product/service they produce.Being that a brand is a type of visual tool, a logo functions as the face of a brand


12/51

(Rand, 1991). Paul Rand (1991) further defines a logo as a flag, a signature, an

escutcheon

and is an identifier that derives its meaning from the quality of the thing it

symbolizes, not the

other way around. For all intents and purposes, a logo provides viewers with instant

recognition of an organization. It directly influences the viewers impression of thatorganizations product or the service it provides (Gernsheimer, 2008).

Page 10NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 10 LITERATURE REVIEW

Defining the Role of the Target Audience: The Voting PublicIn todays partisan society, the dissemination of a candidates ideologies and political

stance is a complex and challenging task. For any presidential candidate, the

overarching goal isto persuade voters to vote for him/her and get elected. In order to achieve that goal,

the

candidate must display mass appealostensibly be everything to everyone and

properly

communicate his/her ideals to the voting public. The development of a candidates

image is

critical during an election campaign period, for their projected image, which must be

perceived

as positive and all-embracing if not the ultimate candidate, is a large, determining

factor of

success. Previous research claims that the publics voting intentions are commonlyfocused on

the projected image of a candidate instead of a candidates policy concerns (Guzman,

2009). In

such instances, utilizing a visual design system such as a logo to communicate a

candidates

political ideals, character and integrity is a practice that warrants further study and

insight. As a

whole, the general public is very aware of visual symbolsmost especially, an

organizations

logo. As graphic designer Paul Rand said, If in the business of communications,

image isking, the essence of this image, the logo, is a jewel in its crown (Rand, 1991 as cited

in

Gernsheimer, 2008, p. 1).

Existing theoretical literature on visual communication provides a high level view of

its

function and highlights its importance when considering a logo design in a political

campaign.

In visual communication, the role of the audience is central since the purpose of an

image is to

influence and persuade the audience about a belief of the past, present or future

through the


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presentation of a two-dimensional object (Tyler, 1992, as cited in Bennett, 2006).

Both the

theories of semiotics and of rhetoric acknowledge that the audience plays a proactive,

if not a

Page 11NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 11 more dynamic role, in this process of persuasion. In semiotics (i.e. the study of signs,

symbols

and their interpretation), the audience holds or recognizes certain beliefs and reads

messages

based on these beliefs (Tyler, 1992, as cited in Bennett, 2006, p.37). Hence, the

interpretation

of a visual image is often specific to that individual. The rhetorical view of

communicationdesign, on the other hand, categorizes the audience as a dynamic participant where

with the

designer they co-construct the meaning and interpretation of a visual image (Tyler,

1992, as cited

in Bennett, 2006). As previously stated, the interpretation of a visual image is on the

whole

subjective making it even more imperative for any logo designer to capture a positive,

all-

encompassing appeal that will achieve the goal of a candidates election, regardless of

varying

individual interpretations given to it.The theoretical foundations of semiotics and rhetoric discussed above are seen in

Nimmo

and Savages (1976) empirical findings regarding a voters interpretation of a

candidates image.

In their study, many respondents defined the term image as a mental construct,

while others

defined it as visible attributes of a product, object or personthat is projected or

transmitted

to the consciousness of an audience. Combining these definitions, Nimmo and

Savage

concluded that the process of image making is an interactive one, shared by the voterand

candidate, and in any case a profoundly important occurrence in any campaign

(Nimmo &

Savage, 1976, as cited in Kendall & Paine, 1995, p. 26). They insinuate that the goal

of a

political candidate as a designer of his own logo image is to generate a favorable

response of

himself to his audience while still allowing that same audience to develop an

independent, albeit,

positive interpretation of the candidate. When the audience plays a proactive role in

the


14/51

interpretation of the image, they get a sense of empowerment and ownership as a co-

constructor

or co-designer of the image with the candidate. This contributes to a more favorable

view of the

Page 12NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 12 candidate and is consistent with the rhetorical view of visual communication. A logo

should not

just be a means to an endi.e., a visual that lets voters know this is Candidate A and

he/she is

different from Candidate B. The development of a political campaign logo should be

comprehensivea purposeful, visual representation of the candidate, and one that

resonates

with the public.To better understand the importance of a political logo and how a logo and image will

positively resonate with the public, it is important to also understand voter types and

how they

process visual information. Kendall and Paine (1995) highlighted two models of

voting publics:

(1) the rational votermodel and (2) the active votermodel. The rational voter model

assumes

that voters will make their decisions under complete certainty, conduct the most

comprehensive

gathering of information on a candidate and take into account all other plausible

alternatives byordering them into some sort of evaluative criteria (Kendall & Paine, 1995). The

rational voter

model has limited empirical evidence since most voters do not have access to or even

have the

time to gather the most comprehensive information that enables them to exhaustively

evaluate

political candidates. The limitations of the rational model lead us to Nimmos (1978)

review of

voter models focusing specifically on the activevoter. As opposed to the rational

model, the

active voter model postulates that a person engages in voting as a minded behaviorand not

necessarily a rational one (Nimmo, 1978 as cited in Kendall & Pane, 1995). To

clarify, the

active voter model posits that the voting process is one where the audience receives

and

interprets symbols and campaign images in accordance with their own perspectives

and opinions

(Nimmo, 1978 as cited in Kendall & Pane, 1995). While rational voters aggressively

and

actively seek all information about the candidates, the active voters are also engaged,

but differ


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from rational voters in that they seek information by selecting and sifting through

the political

Page 13NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 13 environmenta barrage of information regarding a candidates policy positions,

leadership

qualities and character on top of prior performance and experience (Brader, 2006).

Although

these models present some accurate behavior on the part of the voting public, they are

actually

incomplete. Both the rational and active models focus only on a demographic of the

voting

public who are considered proactive on different levels. These models do not take into

consideration a large amount of the voting population that would generally fall in acategory of

the apathetic voterorinattentive public (Kendall & Paine, 1995).

In general, a lot of people do not focus on politics and issues that are remote to them,

or

only do so when the issues personally affect them. People are generally cognitive

misers,

using shortcuts or heuristics when making voting decisions (Graber, 1985, as cited in

Kendall &

Paine, 1995, pg. 23). A campaign logo and the image that it projects is an example of

such a

heuristic. The public is selective in what they hear or read about the candidate andprefer to hear

what they want to hear. So it is important that communication practitioners capture

the publics

interest in visuals, where one look captures all they want to know. A candidates

political

campaign logo should resonate not just among rational and active voters but also to a

major

section of the voting public that falls under the categories of apathetic and inattentive.

It is this

specific voter demographic where a logo can have a great impact and merits more

focus andstudy. One should, however, remember that this large part of the voting population is

not

necessarily lacking in reason because many people are highly intelligent and capable.

While

they may not be actively seeking information about a candidate, they may rely on

their ability to

provide a more meaningful interpretation of a candidate through the logo, the visual

image that

was created to summarize a candidate.

Page 14NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective


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14 Understanding the role of the audience and voter types puts the importance of logo

development into perspective, as it is not beyond the apathetic/inattentive voter

population to

rely on and utilize a visual image to navigate through a busy political landscape. Onecharacteristic that a logo must have is that it is aesthetically pleasing to the viewer.

This next

section will discuss effective design principles to be considered when creating a logo.

It will

focus on the visual characteristics that can render a logo effective for the types of

voters

discussed above.

Effective Logo Design PrinciplesVerbally communicating a campaign message or a candidates brand may be quite a

daunting task. This is where a logo design presented to the eyes of the voting public

can helpelucidate a more meaningful interpretation that message, consistent with the expected

goal and

objective of the political campaign or the candidate. Previous literature on the subject

of logos

have not determined a universal set of predictions on what types of designs should be

selected

and/or created in order to achieve the desired response for a logo specifically in a

political

campaign. However, this literature review looks to a study conducted by Henderson

and Cote

(1998) that involved an evaluation of two main dimensions ofresponse and design of

corporate/company logos. The analysis outlined the characteristics and principles of

logo design

that can powerfully increase a logos chances of being considered aesthetically

pleasing to

viewers, thus evoking a desired response from them.

Henderson and Cote (1998) examined how variations in the design of a logo

influenced

individuals responses along a variety of response dimensions. The evaluated

response

dimensions included: (1) correct recognition - respondents in the study correctlyrecognizing

logos seen in the past; (2)false recognition - respondents believe they recognize a

logo, although

Page 15NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 15 have not seen it in the past; (3) affect- likability of the logo; and (4)familiar meaning

- the

logos ability to capture a clear connotation of the product, service or company the

logo


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represents. The evaluated design elements included: (1) elaboration - complexity,

activeness

and depth of the logo; (2) naturalness - an accurate depiction of the product/service it

is

representing; (3) harmony and proportion - balance and the relationship between

horizontal andvertical dimensions; (4)parallelismthe placement of the images lines and elements

being

adjacent to each other; (5) repetitionhow similar elements are to each other within

the image;

and (6) roundnessthe use of circular elements (Kohli, Suri, & Thakor, 2002).

Henderson and Cotes 1998 study recommends three best practices that

communications practitioners and graphic designers should take into account when

creating a

strong and affective logo for their target audience: (1) create or select a moderately

elaborate

logo; (2) the logo should exhibit an element of naturalness; and (3) the logo shouldhave a high

level of meaning to its viewer. Descriptions of the three best practices are as follows:

Best Practice #1: Create or Select a Moderately Elaborate Logo.

The Henderson and Cote (1998) study found that a moderately elaborate logo design

is

the most effective. With regards to design, an elaborate logo does not refer to the level

of visual

intricacy per se. It is comprised of characteristics such as complexity, activeness and

depth and

it is judged in its ability to utilize simpler design elements while capturing the concept

or essence

of the image (Henderson & Cote, 1998). A logo designer needs to achieve a moderate

balance

between too much and too little in order to sustain a viewers interest for a longer

period of

time. Therefore, a logo should strive for creative use of simplistic visual elements, but

moderate

elaboration in characteristics of complexity, activeness and depth so that regardless of

repeated

Page 16NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 16 exposure to the logo, the viewer remains interested and/or develops an increased

likability of the

logo with more frequent exposure. Applying this practice to a political logo, a logo

that is

visually too simple may not provoke the viewers internal desire to know the

candidate better,

may simply find the candidate boring, or even worsesimilar to his/her competitors.

An overly

complex logo, on the other hand, may ultimately leave the viewer confused about the

candidate.


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Theoretical Application: Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). This practice of

developing a moderate and yet elaborate logo has theoretical foundations rooted in

the

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion. In the ELM, elaboration refers to

the

generation of cognitive responses to communication messagesmessages that caninclude visual

images such as a logo. The ELM asserts there are two routes to persuasion: (1) the

central/systematic route which is a process that requires a greater amount of thought

with an

individual having a high motivation and ability to process information; and (2) the

peripheral/heuristic route which occurs when the individual has low motivation and

ability to

process information and obtains information by reliance on superficial cues, such as

credibility

of the source and source attractiveness, etc. (Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002).

Therefore, amoderately elaborate logo can effectively satisfy both routes to persuasion and thus be

more

effective in persuading its audience regardless of how they process information

presented to

them. A moderately elaborate logo design perhaps can offer elements that deliberately

provide

an opportunity for several interpretations to the same image thereby enhancing

cognitive activity

of an audience who processes information through the central/systematic route. The

central

route audience draws their own conclusions from the logo, which would normally be

in sync

with the purpose of the logo. These audiences can find a direct intellectual connection

with

candidates through their logo. Individuals who are less inclined to do in-depth

information


processing and would prefer to rely on heuristics, e.g. the superficial cues of a logosuch as

bright colors or the use of a familiar image, will likewise find satisfaction and a sense

of

identification as they quickly form their conclusions based on surface characteristics

of the

design -- what is presented to them in the logo. Drawing on the literature regarding

the types of

voters, it appears that rational and active voters are more likely to follow the

central/systematic

route while apathetic/inattentive voters are more inclined to follow the

peripheral/heuristic route.

Theoretical Application: Motivation, Ability and Opportunity Framework. Another


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theoretical framework that supports Henderson and Cotes suggestion to use

moderately

elaborate logos is the Motivation, Ability and Opportunity (MAO) model. The MAO

model

tends to target members of the inactive public and attempts to engage them in a level

ofinformation processing that is higher than the superficial level. The motivation

component is

responsible for the heightening of arousal so audiences will allocate cognitive

resources to

process information or continue to process information (Hallahan, 2000). Within this

framework, proposed techniques to enhance audience motivation include the use of

novel

stimuli, moderately complex messages, and sources that are attractive or similar to the

audience

(Hallahan, 2000). Therefore, a moderately elaborate logo should employ techniques

thatenhance a voters ability to process messages by tapping into the individuals schema

and

existing cognitive resources and appeal to his/her identity. One such way to

accomplish this is to

use a combination of graphics, text and narration, concrete words and images, and

recognizable

marks (logos, logotypes, trademarks and symbols). The logo designer should be

visually creative

while avoiding distractions or complex arguments that will take away from the

message and

must include interactive illustrations or images (Hallahan, 2000).


Best Practice #2: Create a Logo with a Natural Image

Another factor that contributes to positive affect for a logo is naturalness. Naturalness

in

a logo is the degree to how the design depicts the commonly experienced object

(Henderson &

Cote, 1998). Henderson and Cote (1998) determine that there are two waysnaturalness can be

achieved: representative (the degree of realism in a design) and organic (designs made

of natural

shapese.g., not geometric shapes but irregular curves). It is important to take into

consideration that the concept of naturalness in a logo should not be as natural as an

image as

seen in a photograph. A simpler, yet accurate depiction of the intended object is

appropriate and

more satisfying to look at (Henderson & Cote, 1998). This complements

Gernsheimers (2008)

text that outlines ten elements to create an enduring logo. It states that a properly

designed logo


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is one that is simple in its construction but not necessarily in concept (Gernsheimer,

2008).

The concept should have depth and breadth with all its complexities, while projecting

it in a logo

image that is simple and easy to understand. When a logo has a simplistic level of

natural andrecognizable visual elements, it facilitates identification for its viewers.

An example of simplistic naturalness is seen with the evolution of the Prudential

logo

(Figure 2). The logo was used to visually communicate that Prudential is the rock

you can rely

on, (Prudential, 2010). Although the logos from 1870 to 1940 essentially exhibit a

high level of

representative naturalness, they are extremely detailed and visually busy in their

design. In

1984, Prudential began simplifying the level of representative naturalness by

employing basicgeometric shapes to construct the rock image, which turned out to be abstract and

almost

unrecognizable as the well-known Prudential symbol. As such, in 1990, the logo

was

recreated with a more organic naturalness. In this case, it was Prudentials most

effective logo.

Page 19NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 19 The image remains that of a simplified, organic rock as a silhouetted familiar image

connoting

solidity, gracefulness and history (Prudential, 2010).

Best Practice #3: Create a Logo with a High Level of Familiar Meaning.

Another effective practice is to create a logo that displays a high level of familiar

meaning to its viewers. The easier a logo is interpreted by its viewers, the higher the

likelihood

for recognition and being evaluated more favorably overall (Kohli, Suri, & Thakor,

2002).

Henderson and Cote (1998) also found that logos which share similarities to popular,

more wellrecognized logoswhile more likely to be falsely recognizedcan still be positively

evaluated.

Theoretical Application: Dual Process Theory. Empirical evidence that provides

further

explanation about the variances in logo preference is seen in Groves and Thompsons

(1970)

Dual Process Theory. This theory assumes that two underlying neural processes affect

the

response to a stimulus: (1) habituation, a decrease in responsiveness and (2)

sensitization, an

increase in responsiveness (Janiszewski & Meyvis, 2001). Sensitization depends on

stimulus


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intensity. For example, a high contrast stimulus is more interesting than a low-

contrast stimulus;

a complex stimulus is more stimulating than a simple stimulus; and a significant

stimulus is more

stimulating than an irrelevant stimulus (Janiszewski & Meyvis, 2001). This

assumption is intandem with Henderson and Cotes findingssalient logos are more meaningful, are

conceptually fluent and are more likely to be accepted by the viewer (Janiszewski

& Meyvis,

2001). Factors of habituation are dependent on the intensity of a stimulus. Essentially,

a lessFigure 2: Evolution of the Prudential Logo. (Source: Prudential advertising campaign)

Page 20NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 20 intense stimulus will result in stronger habituation and thus a decrease in

responsiveness and

interest at a faster rate (Janiszewski & Meyvis, 2001). Habituation at a faster rate will

result in

loss of interest among viewers. For a logo to be effective, it should contain a

meaningful design

that conveys a message that will not dissipate too quickly and instead enhance or

heighten the

intensity of the viewers interest.

After gaining a better understanding of successful design principles, it is also

important toconsider that an aesthetically pleasing logo may not always communicate the correct

message.

To understand this phenomenon, the next section of this literature review will look at

how factors

of emotion can affect interpretation of a visual image and how a design should be

visually

structured to elicit the correct emotion or a positive interpretation.

Emotion in Logo InterpretationGreen and Loveluck (1992) laid out a psychological, theoretical framework that

contributes to our knowledge of how individuals view and interpret a corporations

logo. Thefindings from this reading merits inclusion in this literature review, as there are many

aspects of

corporate logo design that can translate to and inform design practice in the

development of

political logos. Green and Loveluck (1992) lay out three sources of information that

contribute to

a persons understanding of a symbol: (1) the purpose of the communication; (2) the

properties

of a symbolreferential and graphical; and (3) the context in which the symbol is

seen. To

clarify the first source of information, it is extremely important for individuals tounderstand that


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properties of a symbol should be designed to communicate information about a

corporation

and/or organization and to treat the symbol as relevant to what the company wants

to say

about itself just as in a speech context we treat utterances of another person as

relevant to thatcontext (Green and Loveluck, 1992, p. 39). The second source of information that

contributes

Page 21NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 21 to a persons understanding of a symbol can be best described using the example of

the most

recent version of the Prudential Logo (Figure 2). The referential properties of a

symbol alludeto what the symbol actually depicts. In this case, the symbol depicts a large rockthe

famous

rock of Gibraltar. The graphical elements of the symbol refer to how the image is

constructed

for the viewer. Referencing the Prudential logo, the graphical elements of the logo

incorporate

the use of a two-toned image (light blue and white), where the rock image is

circumscribed

within a circle, using simple and bold lines to create the whole image. The use of

these types of

elements and the choice to incorporate the graphical elements in this way can connotedifferent

meanings to different people. To further clarify this concept, the use of simple and

bold lines to

create the rock logo can convey that the organization or company it stands for exhibits

characteristics of strength and powerpositive attributes that exemplify a life

insurance

company dedicated to serving and protecting the wealth of both individual and

institutional

customers. To another person who may not be familiar with Prudential, the use of an

icy blue

color can be off-putting to a viewer. Icy blue can connote characteristics of being acompany

that is cold, not personable or not caring of their customers. In this instance, it is

plausible that

the same logo evoking a positive response in the first example, can elicit a negative

response

with another individual who had an unfavorable customer experience with Prudential.

The graphical and referential properties of a symbol as well as the context in which a

symbol is seen can produce various interpretations of its message. This is because

visual

interpretations are almost always attached to emotion. Verbal communications tend to

leave


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their audiences in a more rational, logical and linear pathway of thought, while visuals

have the

tendency to resonate with their audience on an emotional level, which in turn, can

socially

engineer change in beliefs and in attitudes (Joffe, 2008). Because emotions are

affected by the

Page 22NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 22 quality of visual materials, it is essential to look into literatures regarding theories of

emotion on

information processing and their application in order to help communication

practitioners,

communication strategists, visual designers and candidates alike understand what

elements ofemotion to consider when creating an meaningful political campaign logo.

Theoretical Application: Color Theory. When a person sees a logo, they are

essentially

looking at the formation of carefully crafted colors and the shapes of those colors. The

appropriate use of color therefore is a powerful tool that stirs the emotion of viewers

and allows

them to see in the logo the total expression of the candidates personality.

Extensive literature on color theory provides a set of theoretical constructs and

guiding

principles that can be used to create harmonious color combinations that will render a

logo asaesthetically pleasing or extremely relevant. The assumption that color is a tool to

evoke

emotion is seen in Johann Wolfgang von Goethes (1810)Zur Farbenlehre (Theory of

Color.) In

Zur Farbenlehre, Goethe divided all colors into two separate groups believing that

colors are

linked to emotion. One group consisted of warm colors, i.e., red to orange to yellow,

which

normally produces excitement among their viewers. On the other hand, cool colors,

i.e., green to

blue to violet, produce unsettled feelings (Stone, Adams, & Morioka, 2006).Referring to

Figure 3, Goethe claimed that the combinations of IC, IIC, IIIC, and IIA in his color

triangle

produced a serene color palette (Stone, Adams, & Morioka, 2006). In accordance

with the

previously discussed concept of subjectivity in visual communication, this color

palette is

interpreted as such by its viewer. Depending on how this color combination is used

and what it

is used for, will determine if this palette really is considered serene.

Page 23


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NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 23 It is important to note this subjectivity exists because the human eye and brain

experience colorphysically, mentally and emotionally (Stone, Adams, & Morioka,

2006).

Consequently, colors themselves have meanings that are culturally defined and agreed

upon, so it

is important to have a grasp of the various meanings and investigate how colors differ

culturally

before selecting colors for a logo.

Supplemental literature further shows colors effect on emotion through Braders

(2000)

study in the use of emotional appeals and political ads in the 2000 election. One area

of his

study focused on color in political advertisements and found that color is related to

emotionalcues. While his study focused specifically on political advertisements cuing emotions

of fear

and enthusiasm, this can certainly be translated to the selection of colors in the

development of a

political logo. He found that specific color schemes appeal to primary emotions. For

example, a

black and white color scheme or a dim/dark color palette connote fear or anger, while

bright and

colorful imagery produces the opposite effect, by cuing emotions of enthusiasm or

pride (Brader,

2006).Emotions are reactions that are short-lived, intense and directed to some sort of

external

stimuli, whether it be an event, object, image or person (Nabi, 2002). Therefore, in the

realm of

politics and political elections, evoking the right emotion at the right intensity and at

the rightFigure 3: Goethes Color Triangle. Color Mixing and Goethes Triangle.

Page 24NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 24 time can convince a voter to cast their vote for the candidate they emotionally connect

with. The

following theoretical applications contribute to understanding the role of emotion as it

relates to

the design realm.

Theoretical Application: Appraisal Theory. The core tenet of appraisal theory is that

emotions are drawn out by an individuals evaluations of events and situations

(Roseman &

Smith, as cited in Scherer, Schorr and Johnstone, 2001). With regards to the

development of an


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image such as a campaign logo, designers, communication practitioners and campaign

strategists

would aim to create an all-encompassing logo that elicits the proper emotion,

ostensibly sending

out the proper message about the candidate. It is plausible that an image deemed

positive by oneindividual may evoke a negative emotion in another individual. Appraisal theory can

provide an

explanation for the differentiated nature of emotional responses to a visual image.

While there is

limited literature on the subject of logo design, Desmet (2002) examined how

appraisal theory

can inform practitioners on how the appearance of products (product design) can

evoke specific

emotions in the viewer (Demir, Desmet & Hekkert, 2009). In his assessment, he

narrowed

product appraisal (the effect of a product on ones well being) down to four maintypes: (1)

relation of a product to ones goals; (2) sensorial appeal of the product; (3) the

legitimacy of an

action represented by the product; and (4) novelty of the product (Demir, Desmet &

Hekkert,

2009). With the first product appraisal, the relation of a product to ones goals, the

end user is

concerned with how does this product meet my goals, beliefs, or standards? And

how is it in

line with my personal well being? The second appraisal, sensorial appeal, refers to

our

dispositional likes, tastes or attributes in a product. A product that is in line with our

attitudes

will be appraised as appealing, while one that is not in line with our attitudes is

unappealing.

The third appraisal, the legitimacy of an action represented by the product, depends

on whether a


product is perceived to meet our standards and reflect the norms and beliefs of how

things should

be. The fourth appraisal focuses on the novelty of the product. Novelty refers to how

much a

product deviates from the norm or from our expectations of how it should be. A

product

appraised as novel, will result in an emotion of pleasant surprise from the viewer.

Another design study relying on the core assumptions of the appraisal theory were

seen in

Normans (2004) article that incorporated the role of mentalprocessing and its effects

on

affective responses. He asserts that processing occurs on three different levels, and to


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complement each of these levels, he proposes three design strategies:(1) Visceral: governs responses through direct perception.

Design strategy recommended: design for appearance.(2) Behavioral: involving learnt but automatic affective responses.

Design strategy recommended: design for ease of use.(3) Reflective: involving affective responses due to conscious thinking.

Design strategy recommended: design for reflective meaning.(Norman, as cited in Demir, Desmet & Hekkert, 2009, p.41).

Theoretical Application: Affective Intelligence. For further insight and understanding

into the role of emotion within visual images and its influence on political behavior, it

is

necessary to focus on Marcus, Neuman and MacKuens (2000) theory of affective

intelligence

which states that there are two parallel emotional systems in operation that work to

shape the

voting citizens choices and political behavior (as cited in Brader, 2006). The first is

the

disposition system, which regulates the motivation of a person to act on their existing

political

habits, e.g., partisanship, prejudice toward a candidate, or predispositions. The second

is the

surveillance system, which is triggered by a threatening condition of awakening

citizens into

an anxious state that encourages them to consider other choices (Brader, 2006). With

images

that evoke a positive mood for the viewer or if a viewer is already in a positive state,

viewers

tend to engage in top-down processing, relying on pre-existing beliefs or heuristics

such as avisual image. On the other hand, with images that evoke a negative mood, or if a

viewer is in a

Page 26NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 26 negative mood, viewers tend to engage in bottom-up systematic processing, where

interpretation of an image comes from data or information given to the viewer

(Schwartz, 2000

as cited in Brader, 2005).

For the purposes of this literature review, it is important to focus specifically on

positive

emotional appeals that would help create an effective political logo because in a

presidential

election, a logo serves as the shorthand image of a presidential candidate. Braders

(2005)

research looked at enthusiasm (a positive emotional appeal) and its impact in an

election

campaign. He revealed that the findings were in accord with the theory of affective

intelligence,

whereby enthusiasm appeals led viewers to rely on their pre-existing beliefs andpreferences to


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choose a political candidate. In addition, enthusiasm appeals generated more overall

interest in

the candidates political campaign (Brader, 2005). Perhaps the theory of affective

intelligence

suggests that a logo might have the most positive effect on people who already hold

the sameviews as the candidate, reinforcing their existing loyalties to that candidate and the

party it

represents. In order to garner a positive response across political party lines and

resonate with

others that many not hold the same pre-existing beliefs, the logo must be structured

and designed

in a way to positively promote the stability of the candidate to become the president.

Literature Review SummaryAs discussed throughout this literature review, a political logo is an integral piece of

communication when structuring a political marketing campaign. The design

practices andprinciples as well as the theoretical foundations presented in this literature review are

a

summation of criteria and elements to be considered when creating an effective logo.

This

includes several design best practices such as: (1) the creation or selection of a

moderately

elaborate logo; (2) must exhibit an element of naturalness; and (3) have a high level

of

Page 27NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 27 meaning to its viewer. The first two practices lean more towards design principles and

focus on

graphical properties that render a logo aesthetically pleasing. While logos can be

aesthetically

pleasing, that may not mean they are effective. Therefore, the third best practice

suggests that

designers and practitioners should greatly consider the referential properties of a logo,

which

warrants a strong focus on factors such as emotional elements in the processing of avisual

image. This affects how a logo image is received and interpreted when viewed by the

audience.

While this literature review established criteria that were not specifically geared

toward

political logo design, this capstone will also investigate if such practices and

principles are

applicable to presidential campaign logos. Incorporating and adopting general best

design

practices as they relate to logos may contribute to an aesthetically pleasing political

candidate

logo. A logo can ostensibly serve as a powerful mode of political communication in a


28/51

presidential campaign. The next section of this capstone will discuss the methods used

in

tandem with these best practices garnered from this literature review to analyze the

effectiveness

of three presidential logos.

Page 28NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 28 CASE PROFILEThe literature review focused on theories and principles of design that result in the

production of an effective corporate or organization logo. It is noted, however, there

is a lack of

literature that zeroes in on the design of a political logo that is powerful and

encompassing of a

political candidate. It is therefore interesting to be able to see to what extent the bestpractices for

logo design by companies or other organizations can be applied to the logo design for

a political

candidate. How are the processes of creating a corporate logo similar or different

from that of a

political logo? Where are the points of convergence and divergence when it comes to

best

practices and principles of design? Will the same principles and practices applied in

an effective

or highly successful corporate logo design result in a successful political logo? Just as

aneffective corporate logo design translates into company profits, will an effective

political logo

translate into election of a political candidate? This capstone aims to investigate the

principles

and best practices in corporate logo design and how they can be successfully applied

to creation

of political logos. This capstone uses a semiotic analysis approach in order to inform

our

understanding of the effectiveness, strengths, weaknesses, and how an individual can

derive

meaning from a political logo image.Choice of LogosThis capstone is timely in that both during and after the 2008 presidential election,

political campaign strategists, marketers and graphic designers saw merit in Obamas

implementation of a powerful and effective logo from the beginning of his campaign

until after

his election as president. Understanding the elements of what makes a political logo

effective

will be beneficial for future candidates announcing their intent to run for the 2012

presidential

election and beyond.

Page 29


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NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 29 To satisfy the recent interest in this area, this capstone will look into the political

campaign logos of two successful presidential candidates (Barack Obama [2008] and

George W.

Bush [2004]), and that of an unsuccessful candidate (John McCain [2008]). It is

important to

note that this capstone does not solely attribute the successful election of Presidents

Obama and

Bush to their respective logos, although the impact of their logo designs may be

rendered

effective and successful in highlighting the candidates that increased the public's

interest in

getting to know them more. Conducting a semiotic analysis on a logo used by a

winning

candidate versus that of candidate who did not win offers a contrast that providescontext on how

an aesthetically pleasing logo can sometimes convey unintended meaning.

Although there are many variations of the presidential candidate logos (due to the

voting

public posting different iterations that may not have been the original version), this

capstone

chose to select logos from a presidential candidate logo and website repository called

www.4president.org.

Semiotic AnalysisSemiology is essentially the study of "signs" and hence, semiotics can equip sign or

logoanalysts with the proper tools to enable them to systematically approach sign systems

in order to

understand how a sign or signal produces its meaning (Penn, 2000). The concept of

semiotics

has its foundation rooted in Ferdinand de Saussures work in structural linguistics. A

linguistic

unit is called a sign, and a sign is divided into two parts: (1) a signifierthe form it

takes; and

(2) thesignifiedthe concept it represents (Penn, 2000). These two concepts are

closely related

and inter-connected to each other. While the signifier and signified can be analyzedseparately,

they only exist as components of a total sign system and, therefore, they cannot exist

without

each other. It is important to keep in mind that in delving into the meaning of a sign,

the

Page 30NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 30 assessment of its two partsthe signifier and the signifiedare taken togetherwhen in


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relationto their structures and their structural relationships with other signs (Dyer,

1986, p.

123). From Saussures foundation of semiotics, other scholars have developed

different

variations on how to analyze images.

Images have a polysemic (ambiguous) nature, therefore variances in sign/symbolinterpretation are influenced by factors such as: (1) culture; (2) the individual; and (3)

elements

of the image such as typography, captions and colors (Penn, 2000). Penn notes that

because of

their polysemic nature, images sometimes require accompanying text. The

accompanying text,

referred to as anchorage serves to clarify and disambiguate the image (2000). At

other times,

both the image and text are presented simultaneously to clarify the overall meaning of

the image.

This is what is referred to as relay. It is important to note that written and spokencommunication differs from visual communication in that with written and spoken

language,

signs appear to the audience in a controlled and carefully calculated sequence.

However, in

images, all elements of a visual sign are presented to the viewer simultaneously,

where there is

less control in dictating the message sequence to its viewer (Penn, 2000).

Based on the foundations formed by Saussure and Pierce, other scholars have

examined

and focused on different aspects of sign relationships. Moriarty (2005) asserts that in

the theory

of signs there is a notion of oppositions and their role in creating meaning that

should be

considered. In this regard, a semiotic analysis would then consider the difference

between the

denotative and connotative meanings of signs.

Denotative versus Connotative Relationships. When conducting a semiotic analysis of

an image, a denotative inventory would consist of a direct and specific description of

the

signified. This inventory is a literal description of what the viewer sees. To conduct a

Page 31NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 31 connotative inventory is to actually delineate what meaning the visual image evokes.

Moriarty

(2005) refers to this as the cultural baggage related to or associated with the visual

image.

Highlighting the cultural knowledges and syntagm associated with an image can

provide the

viewer with further insight and information into the images meaning.

An example of cultural knowledges needed to provide context to an images

meaning


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is seen in the selection of an eagle as American Universitys mascot. In order for a

viewer to

properly draw a connection with the eagle representing American University, it is

useful to know

is that in the United States, the eagle is a symbol of America and patriotism. First

President, George Washington expressed a dream of having a national university in Washington, D.C.the nations capital (American University: History, 2011). After

understanding this context of why the university was built, American University can

be

meaningfully embodied in the form of an eagle.

Exploring the syntagms or syntagmatic relations of a sign informs how the elements

of

a visual are juxtaposed and patterned can elicit various meanings and interpretations.

Such

elements include: color, size, positioning, cues of emphasis and relationships of the

elements to

each other (Penn, 2000). Penn (2000) demonstrates a syntagmatic relationship using aGivenchy

perfume advertisements choice of typeface. She systematically outlines the elements

of case,

orientation, letter proportion and typeface style to derive visual meaning from the

word

Organza in the advertisement. (Refer to Figure 4 for an image of the advertisement

and Table

1 for the results.) It is important to note her analysis included the unchosen

syntagmatic

elements in order to understand what other typeface options could have been

incorporated into

the image. Utilizing other syntagmatic elements would have changed the visual

meaning of the

typeface and the advertisement as a whole.

Page 32NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 32 Penn describes the font selection of the word Organza as handwritten suggests

an

afterthought: a caption supplied to the already complete image. The Z is drawn with aflourish

and the letters are clearly formed italicized capitals, suggesting perhaps flair,

optimism and

extraversion (Penn, 2000, p. 235). Incorporating the other syntagmatic choices from

Table 1

and manipulating the advertisement to display the word Organza in a form opposite

from the

advertisemente.g., using lowercase letters, roman orientation, expanded proportions

and a serif

fontthe visual meaning of the word Organza will ostensibly change. Figure 5

shows a


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mock Givenchy advertisement with a new set of syntagmatic elements. The

manipulated

advertisement loses the original suggestion of flair, optimism and extraversion.

While the

choice in typeface it is still visually appealing, the new font combined with the

original image ofthe woman and the perfume bottle gives off a completely different vibe. The

manipulated

advertisement now seems to imply the perfume is for more conservative, subdued,

classy and

elegant types of women.Figure 4: Givenchy Organza advertisement.

Page 33NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 33 Semiology is applied to a variety of sign systems ranging from fashion, architecture,

and

consumer products to publicity methods (Penn, 2000). The goal of the semiotic

analysis is to

elicit the cultural knowledge that is required for the viewer to understand the image

and its

intended meaning (Penn, 2000). Considering Moriartys notion of opposition, Penn

outlines a

semiotic analysis approach that is best applied to advertising images. This approach is

most

closely related to an analysis of logos, as logos are in essence, a form of anadvertising image

for a presidential candidate. This capstone models the semiotic analysis method

created by Penn

(2000) in the comparative study of the effectiveness or non-effectiveness of the

political

campaign logos of Obama, Bush and McCain. Each of the three presidential candidate

logos

was analyzed denotatively then connotatively, following the steps outlined in Figure

6.Figure 5: Typeface change in the word Organza


Page 35NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 35 CASE ANALYSES & DISCUSSION

Denotational Inventory

The capstone used Penns (2000) semiological method of analysis. The analyticalprocess


33/51

began by conducting a denotational inventory of each presidential (Obama, G. W.

Bush and

McCain) candidate logo. The inventory focuses on the literal elements of the logo,

which were

grouped into two main components: text and images. The text inventory for each

candidate logotook into account the location of text, the characteristics of the font and the color of

text. The

image inventory notes the use of colors, shapes and textures, and how these elements

were

combined to create an image. Appendix A (page 58) features a full table showcasing

the

denotational inventorys findings.

Higher Levels of Signification (Connotative Inventory)The connotative inventory builds on the groundwork laid out by the denotational

inventory in order to create a more meaningful analysis of the elements used in the

discussion.The connotative inventory asks a series of related questions for each specific element

(Penn,

2000). Examples of questions in a connotative inventory are listed in Figure 6.

Conducting a

connotative inventory is essential because visual elements are polysemic and the

various

interpretations of a visual image can contribute to more than one higher order sign.

Highlights of the connotative analysis of the three political logos derived from the

discussions of several important elements of the logo are presented. Comprehensive

tables

(Appendices B, C and D on pages 59-61) showcase the full results of the connotative

inventories

conducted for each of the presidential candidate logos.


Element 1: Text.

In all three of the presidential logos, the names of both the presidential candidate and

theirvice presidential running mate are featured, with the presidential candidates

name listed ontop. This connotes that the presidential candidate should be the viewers main focus.

While

their running mate remains important, the name rests below the presidential

candidates name

implying a more subordinate position and supporting role. This concept of primary-

subordinate

positioning of the names in text is conveyed more effectively and clearly in the logos

of both

Obama and Bush than that of McCains. Although Biden's name utilizes the same

typeface as

that of Obamas name, the size of Obama's name is larger and more prominent,

suggesting the


34/51

more important role of a U.S. President. The same is observed in Bushs 2004 logo

where

Cheneys name is smallerthan that of Bushs. On the other hand, the typeface and

size of

McCains name in his campaign logo is the same as his running mate, Palin. The

similarity intypeface and size as a design choice can elicit varying interpretations from different

viewers. It

can connote equality in importance of McCain and Palin as candidates and the

positions they are

seeking. For voters who want to see a woman serving in a high position as the Vice

President of

the United States, this equal font size may be viewed favorably because it reinforces

the idea that

there is no reason why a woman cannot serve in a high political office as the

presidents back up.

The McCain/Palin logo suggests that McCain and Palin have equal abilities to run thecountry

and strengthens the position of gender equality. Alternatively though, this logo may

not sit well

with viewers who want to see a distinction between the role of the president and vice

president.

It can run the risk of being counterproductive when other viewers and the media start

to shift the

attention to the vice presidential candidate and in his/her qualifications to the

Presidents

successor should he become incapacitated. As can be seen throughout the campaign,

the media

Page 37NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 37 coverage portrayed Palin as unfit to serve as McCains backup. As seen in the

unfortunate

interview with Katie Couric and the Saturday Night Live parodies, Palins political

inexperience

and naivete became a source of humorous mockery of her capabilities and what she

stands for.At a pivotal point in the campaign, Palin's lack of achievement became the center of

focus

instead of McCain's experience, abilities and achievements.

The choice of the style of fonts/typefaces is another area of focus when it comes to

designing of a political logo. The typeface style selected can have a direct or indirect

impact on

the viewer who can attach various meanings based on font used. As seen in the

Givenchy

Organza perfume logo example, the overall visual meaning of an image with

supplemental text

is guided by its typeface selection. Alterations in the formatting of lettersthe

selection of a


35/51

serif font versus a sans serif fonthave an impact in the connotation. Figure 7 offers

the visible

differences between the serif and sans serif fonts. The red lines in the last example

indicate the

location of the serifs on a letter.

The denotational inventory (Appendix A) shows that each candidate utilized thefollowing font types in their campaign logos:- Obama/Biden: Small capital letters, serif font

Page 38NeeWhat Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective 38 - Bush/McCain04: Bold capital letters, sans serif font- McCain/Palin: Capital letters, (technically) a sans serif font

Many studies have been conducted regarding the readability of serif versus sans serif

typefaces.

Studies have shown that serif typefaces are more readable than sans serifs; however,

other

studies contradict those findings and found the reverse to be true. Regardless of the

disparities in

these findings, one result that was consistent across these studies was that viewers

deem

typefaces to be the most readable when exposed to typefaces that they are more

accustomed to

and are often seen (Felici, 2003). Typical texts (books, newspapers, magazines)

traditionally

utilize serif fonts for large amounts of text while a sans serif type is more oftenutilized in a

display role making titles and headings in advertisements more prominent (Felici,

2003).

Utilizing capital letters is a typical design choice for a typeface in a display role, and

each

candidate effectively does this. Bush follows the norm by using a bold, sans serif

typeface which

is a solid choice of lettering. This can connote the stance of business as usual, which

may be

acceptable but does not stand out as much to the viewer. Obama, on the other hand

goes againstthe norm of display roles by using a serif font. Obamas typeface is different from

the

standard although it remains aesthetically pleasing and is an effective message

conveyor of a

promise of hope and change. Using a polished, contemporary and atypical font such

as the

serif font in the Obama/Biden logo is visually consistent with those themes, connoting

to viewers

that Obama and Biden can provide a complete change from the Bush administration.

McCain

and Palins typefac

the obama logo was that brilliant

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