the nguni: a case study · the nguni: a case study jenny bester, l.e. matjuda, j.m. rust and h.j....

The Nguni: A Case Study

Jenny Bester, L.E. Matjuda, J.M. Rust and H.J. Fourie

Animal Improvement Institute, Private Bag x 2, Irene 0062, South Africa(E-mail: [email protected])

AbstractThe Nguni is a hardy breed uniquely adapted to the South African environment. Regarded as inferior in thepast, it was decimated by government decree and its gene pool diluted through replacement and cross-breedingwith exotic stock. The recent recognition of its adaptive traits led to its evaluation and development as a beefbreed in the commercial sector. Simultaneously, a mistaken perception of the breed’s inferiority arose in thetraditional sector, despite the fact that it was a low-maintenance breed ideally suited to the low-input farmsystems of the communal farmer. This case study describes the breed and illustrates the potential of the Ngunias a beef breed in both extensive and intensive farming systems. A project with the required infrastructure andsupport systems reintroducing the hardy low-maintenance Nguni breed was initiated in selected communities.In the past, projects for the introduction of exotic cattle breeds into the communal sector invariably failed.This project included support systems, programmes for the improvement of management, a development pro-gramme and a marketing system to facilitate the sale of animals at market-related prices.Thirty-five selected Nguni bulls were introduced into five communities in the Northern Province and six in theEastern Cape Province. These communities had organized farmer groups that were willing to participate in adevelopment scheme and contribute a minimal amount towards the maintenance of the bulls. A further supplyof ten bulls per annum is available. Problems encountered included a lack of qualified staff to monitor theproject and a collective lack of grazing, herd, reproductive and health management. Minimal infrastructurewithin the communal lands and a resultant lack of record-keeping were further constraints. In addition, theland tenure system aggravates the situation, as individuals often have neither right of possession nor the rightof prescription for its use.The project is still in its early stages and carries some associated risks. Certain assumptions were made at itsinception. Among these are that the animals produced will be of market quality, that there are sufficient re-sources to support increased production and that there will be no major droughts or disease outbreaks. Thesuccess of the project also depends on the farmers themselves, as they will have to accept drastic changes totheir current way of producing animals. The project is designed to show that the development of the Ngunibreed in South Africa supports the concept of conservation through utilization in the traditional farming sector.

IntroductionIron Age nomads first introduced the Nguni cattle breed into South Africa in about 600 AD. Theselow-maintenance cattle were ideally suited to the communal farming systems of the settlers and, asfar as can be established, remained relatively unaltered during the next millennium. The advent ofEuropean colonization in the middle of the nineteenth century and the subsequent acceptance of thecolonial farmer as a role model led to the introduction of exotic breeds that eventually diluted anddepleted the original gene pool of adapted livestock. This change was exacerbated by additionalfactors such as a change in the political arena, urbanization, the erosion of cultural beliefs andpractices, and natural disasters. Prior to 1970, a demand for apparently superior breeds in the ruralcommunities led to the haphazard introduction of exotic breeds into communal areas, but with littlesuccess.

During the twentieth century a unique structure was developed in the country, allowing the Ngunibreed to enter the growing commercial sector, and extensive recording facilitated breedimprovement. Thus, while the breed was improved in the commercial sector, it was being eroded inthe rural areas. Fortunately, the inherent hardiness of the breed allowed it to survive and pure-bredanimals are still found in limited numbers in rural communities.

The Nguni is now seen as a source of genetic material well suited to the management style andneeds of the emergent black farmer who requires a relatively low-maintenance and relatively high-

46 Bester et al., The Nguni

output animal. This case study attempts to show the value of the Nguni, gives an example of howthe breed, after value adding in the commercial sector, is being reintroduced into communal cattle-farming systems and highlights some of the problems.

The study examines a project designed to introduce the adapted genetics of the Nguni intocommunal farming systems where erosion of the breed has occurred.

Background

History

Until recently, it was thought that the domestication of Bos primiginius that gave rise to modernAfrican cattle breeds took place in the Near East about 8000 BP (Epstein, 1971), althougharchaeologists had speculated on the likelihood of an area of domestication in North Africa (I. Plug,personal communication, 1994). Recent DNA studies confirmed this hypothesis and showed that theNguni of South Africa could be considered an African taurine with a slight Zebu admixture thatprobably originated from bulls imported from the Arabian peninsula (Hanotte et al., 1998).

African records of domesticated cattle show that they were present in the Nile Valley by 400 BP(Epstein, 1971). Cattle migrated southwards from the northern regions of Africa with their ownersas a result of stressors such as environmental pressure, war and barter. By 300 BC cattle were foundin the Luangwa Valley in Zambia and by 300 AD settled communities with cattle were living insouthern Africa, in areas of eastern Botswana, in Gauteng as far as the Hartebeespoort dam area, theeastern lowveldt and the coastal region of Natal (Plug, 1980).

During their passage from the north of the continent the animals were exposed to the harshextremes of the climate and the tropical diseases of Africa. Natural selection favoured those animalsgenetically suited to this hostile environment. Two separate migrations occurred in the country, onebringing the cattle into the eastern regions, the other into the western regions. Adaptations to theclimate of these areas resulted in the development of different ecotypes. Both Nguni ecotypes andlandrace breeds such as the Afrikaner can be separated on the basis of their genetic distancing (A.Kotzé, personal communication, 2000) (Appendix VI).

A second phase of introduction into South Africa occurred during the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies when settlers brought their European farm animals into the country. The colonists oftenregarded the cattle owned by the Nguni people as inferior. They appeared to perform poorly (as aresult of overstocking) and appeared less uniform, having a wide range of colours and colourpatterns that gave the breed the appearance of an indiscriminate mixture of breeds. This perceptionof inferiority was adopted by the Nguni people, who viewed the high-input, highly productive exoticbreeds as superior to their own and adopted the colonists’ farming practices as their role model. Thefact that the Nguni was able to survive with minimal care was of secondary importance as resourceswere seemingly endless and supplementary feeding and stock remedies were relatively inexpensive.

This perception of inferiority led to the promulgation of an Act in 1934 in which populations ofindigenous breeds and types were regarded as “scrub” (nondescript). Inspectors were empowered toinspect bulls in communal areas and to castrate them if regarded as inferior. Fortunately, the Actwas only applied effectively during the first few years of its existence, as it proved unpopular withstockowners. It was only later that the value of the animals was realized and, in 1985, a committeewas appointed to report on the desirability of having an in vitro germplasm bank for indigenouslivestock and on the control of imported semen from exotic breeds (Hofmeyr, 1994).

It was only recently that scientific evidence showed that the Nguni performed well under optimalconditions while the exotics performed poorly under the prevailing management practices ofcommunal systems (Scholtz, 1988). In 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity was ratified,South Africa becoming a signatory in 1995. The focus of the conservation and utilization of thisvaluable resource of adapted livestock species, eminently suited to the farming systems of the

Swaziland Workshop on Animal Genetic Resources 47

communal farmer, has led to a Southern African Development Community/ FAO/United NationsDevelopment Programme initiative that has enabled the rescue and development of indigenouslivestock breeds in the region.

The Nguni breed description

The Nguni is small to medium in size depending on the prevailing nutritional conditions. The depthis good and is accompanied by a moderate width. Mature cows have fairly short legs with good feet.The dewlap is medium-sized and thin. The cervico-thoracic hump is hardly noticeable in the maturecow but is fairly well developed in the full-grown bull. The barrel of the Nguni is of good lengthand strength, the rump is inclined to droop towards the tail and the rear quarter is light. The head isof good size with a flattish poll; it has a broad-dished forehead, widest between the eyes. The face iswide and straight to slightly convex in profile. The muzzle is broad and the ears have a “refined”look, being small with a sharp apex. In cross-section the horns are usually round and are noticeablylyre shaped in mature cows. Coats are soft, fine and glossy. The udder and teats are small tomoderate (Brown, 1959). The Nguni are unicoloured or multicoloured – white, black, brown, grey,red. There are 80 different colour patterns that are either uniform, spotted or pied (R. Schroeder,personal communication, 1994).

The Nguni characteristics

The profile of the Nguni shows that it developed under a process of natural selection in a highlychallenging environment and that it has the genetic potential to perform better under optimalproduction environments. It is a medium-frame animal with a measure of tick tolerance and diseaseresistance. The summer rainfall area of South Africa is characterized by major seasonal changes inboth composition and quantity of grazing. Smaller animals require lower amounts of maintenance,which is more easily met by the available veldt (Frisch, 1973).

The mechanisms involved in tick tolerance are, as yet, not clearly understood although there isclear evidence of the adaptation (Spickett et al., 1989). Norval et al. (1988) estimated that the meandamage caused by each adult female brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) counted on ananimal in Africa to be 4.4 ± 0.8 g loss in live mass gain. This was confirmed by Spickett et al.(Appendix II). Regular dipping to prevent tick infestation is a costly exercise for the emergentfarmer. As seen in Appendix II the Nguni, with its tolerance of ticks, shows less difference inweaning weight between dipped and undipped cattle (Scholtz et al., 1991). The movement of earsand tails may dislodge insects. Brown (1959) noted that Nguni cows moved their ears vigorouslywhen flies irritated them in the region of the head. The flexible and long tail with a well-developedswitch also assisted in removing irritating insects. In the same publication, Brown investigated thepossibility that skin thickness and hair concentration had an effect on tick infestation, but withinconclusive results.

The Nguni has a great ability to maintain its condition in winter. This may be because of themaintenance of high blood urea when the nitrogen content of the pasture drops. As seen inAppendix II, the Nguni maintained a level of 13 mgs percent in winter while the blood urea levelsof the Simmentaler fell to 7 mgs percent, approaching the minimum for proper nitrogen balance(Osler et al., 1993). However, the authors note that the ability to maintain body condition may be aresult of adaptation to one or more stress factors.

As a selective grazer and browser, the Nguni is able to obtain optimal nutritional value from theavailable natural vegetation, thus enabling it to survive under conditions that bulk grazers such asthe European cattle breeds would find extremely testing. Temperamentally, the Nguni is very docile– another characteristic of an animal in harmony with its total environment (Ramsay, 1985).

The Nguni also has adaptive traits such as walking ability, which enables it to walk long distancesin search of grazing and water. It is also reported to be tolerant of extreme temperatures.


Statement of the problemThere is a general lack of adapted genetic material suited to the needs of the resource-poor cattlefarmer. This problem is particularly acute in the Eastern and Northern Provinces where the originalstock was predominantly Nguni or Nguni-type cattle. A recent Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)in communal communities in these provinces showed that the bull/cow ratio was too low, that thequality of bulls was substandard and that calving percentages were low. These problems stemmedfrom the erosion of the original adapted stock as a result of haphazard replacement or crossing withunsuitable high-maintenance exotic breeds. Exotic breeds tend to lack the adaptive traits necessaryfor survival and production in the rigorous environment of the communal farmer. These traitsinclude tolerance of stressors such as ticks and tick-borne diseases, heat, drought and poor grazing.Furthermore, socio-economic restrictions have forced cattle farmers to buy their stock at slaughter-stock auctions. Established commercial farmers sell these cattle as slaughter animals because theyhave no value as breeding stock. The introduction of this inferior stock into communal farmingsystems is causing a serious degradation of the genetic resource base. An additional causative factorwas poor nutrition, due mainly to bad management practices that had resulted in degraded pasturesand soil erosion. Finally, the lack of an organized infrastructure prevented the transport of stock tomarkets where the animals could be sold at realistic market prices.

Historically, the low production and quality of calves in rural communities gave rise to a generallack of commercialization, as the numbers and quality of slaughter stock were not suitable for thecommercial market. Farmers are thus forced to sell in local markets where prices are not marketrelated, or to sell at low prices to speculators who feedlot the animals before selling them in thecommercial market at market-related prices.

Long-term animal recording will allow for the identification of elite animals and general geneticimprovement, thus reversing the present tendency to introduce inferior genetic material. This willprovide the market with breeding bulls and cows. Combined, these benefits will result in increasedproduction and productivity.

Details of the case studyThe objectives of the project are to:� establish a superior genetic resource base;� facilitate the establishment of effective community management institutions;� develop agricultural production, marketing skills and opportunities;� provide a lasting improvement in the socio-economy of the rural communities;� conserve the genetic resources of the adapted Nguni cattle breed through sustainable

utilization.

Bull selection

Successful commercialization in the communal areas requires a high offtake of early maturingcalves. This increased production is dependent on factors such as low mortality and increasedvigour. In the main, young bulls were selected on the basis of their breeding values. The generalcriteria for selection was for animals with a low birth weight, a high weaning weight and goodmaternal values. The progeny of the bulls was expected to be small at birth, thus reducing thepossibility of calving difficulties. Inherited traits associated with vigour, such as adaptation to theenvironment, contribute to a higher survival and growth rate resulting in calves with a heavier 12-and 18-month weight than the average communal calf crop. This combination of good genetics andadaptive traits should result in an increased production in the communal environment.

The estimated breeding values, reproduction and characterization were established at theAgricultural Research Council’s (ARC’s) Animal Improvement Institute. Estimated breeding valuesof the selected bulls can be found in Appendix II.


Fertility was established by a general examination of the reproductive organs. Semen analysis wascarried out on selected bulls and included values of motility, percentage live sperm and generalmorphology of sperm. Fertility evaluations of the selected bulls can be found in Appendix III.Semen was collected from each bull and cryopreserved for future use. This will allow for the futuredistribution of semen from bulls that prove to have a high performance to the herds of communitieswhere the bulls are less productive.

Parentage of the bulls was confirmed by microsatellite DNA analysis. This analysis allows theidentification of individual animals as each DNA profile is individual-specific. Ten to twelvemicrosatellites were used depending on the breed as specified by the International Society forAnimal Genetics (ISAG).

Thirty-three bulls were bought at a cost of 164 827 rand (R) – an average price of R4 995 per bull– for distribution in communities. A feasibility study and a full needs appraisal carried out incollaboration with the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), the ARC and theprovincial departments of agriculture identified recipient communities in the Northern and EasternCape Provinces. These were selected using the community-based public works guidelines, whichtargeted communities using the following methodology:� Identify the economic development nodes and the economic development areas using the

Local Council Integrated Development Plan;� Identify the locations of poverty pockets, particularly in deep rural areas, using the population

census/household surveys and local knowledge;� Select the cluster areas with the poorest poverty pockets.

Criteria for selection of the farmers

Farmers were selected according to the following criteria. They had to be:� able to articulate their needs;� organized or be willing to be organized;� able to contribute a minimal amount for payment into a Trust account.

Farmers also had to:� agree to be trained as entrepreneurs;� be organized;� contribute a minimal amount towards the purchase, replacement and maintenance of bulls;� be willing to participate in the development scheme;� understand that where a bull has been fully paid for by an individual/group, that

individual/group has no obligation to make it available to the entire community. Where thedonor participates or pays fully for the purchase of a bull, he reserves the right to stipulatehow a bull is used;

� understand that a bull would be sold on the commercial market at a market-related price if itwere found to be unfit or at the end of its useful life and that the proceeds would be put intothe Trust Fund;

� accept that the bull would be replaced every three years.

The scheme is open to new members, who can join at the local level by negotiating with thosewithin the existing structure.

This study then used further selection criteria that included the number of households involved,the average number of cattle per household, the total number of cattle in the community and theherd composition.


Distribution of bulls

It was found that the bull/calf ratio was very low, being in the vicinity of 1:150. It was also foundthat businessmen were keeping bulls in their kraals for breeding purposes and that these animalswere mainly exotic breeds. Cross-breeding with exotic breeds was therefore common.

Effective distribution of the bulls and monitoring of progress was seen as a prerequisite for theproject’s eventual success. Capacity-building within the communities in the form of developingorganizational and leadership skills was seen as a need, especially in the Northern Province. In orderto achieve this, the GTZ, the ARC and extension officers facilitated the formation of commoditygroups headed by a chairman who was selected by the groups themselves. These structures werealready in place in the Eastern Province in the form of farmers’ associations.

In the Northern Province, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) identified the communities ofMbahela, Tsikonelo and Khomela as suitable recipients as they were organized into livestockcommodity groups. In Soetfontein, 20 farmers were encouraged to form a farmers’ association tofacilitate their participation in the project. Pietersburg West, a town 30 km from Pietersburg, wasidentified as an additional peri-urban community. Nine bulls were evaluated and distributed in theseareas before the mating season, with a further seven to follow in the near future.

In the Eastern Cape the Alan Waters community was the first to receive bulls through the project.The problem of accessing the commercial market was addressed by the United States Agency forInternational Development (USAID)-funded organization, Agrilink. Agrilink has facilitated the saleof slaughter stock by bringing buyers in the commercial market into contact with the communitiesand other small-scale farmers. Their infrastructure provides necessities such as loading ramps andsale pens and also arranges auctions in the communal areas by bringing agents and buyers togetherwhen slaughter stock is ready for sale. This arrangement overcomes one of the main problems ofrural communal farmers, namely, market accessibility. Other identified communities in this areainclude Tendergate, the Herschele Democratic Farmers Association, the Quamata Farmers SupportCentre, the Cildara Farmers Association and the Kolomama Farmers Association. To date, 14 bullshave been distributed in this area – five some time ago and nine more recently. Monitoring of theinitial group has been initiated. The model of Agrilink will be applied to the Northern Provinceduring the coming year.

In all cases communities paid R850 per bull. This allowed them to take ownership of the animalsand contributed towards their maintenance. Funds of R0.5 million have been donated by theDepartment of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology under the Poverty Relief Fund. This willprovide approximately 35 bulls for the project. In future, the ARC has undertaken to supply tenbulls per annum from its experimental herd at Loskop Suid and additional bulls will becomeavailable from the Dohne Research Station in the Eastern Cape Province and from a further fourstations in the Northern Province. However, it is estimated that these will be insufficient for thecontinuance of the existing project and for its expansion to other provinces in future. It willtherefore be necessary to find further funding.

Development programmes

Farmers in recipient communities are expected to participate in development programmes that allowfor the monitoring of progress. Concurrently with the distribution of the bulls in the NorthernProvince, the ARC is collaborating with the University of Venda, the farmers and staff of theProvincial Department of Agriculture to structure a programme that will serve the multiple purposesof monitoring the progress of the project, developing the capacity of the farmers, providing trainingfor university students and providing an overextended extension service with human capacity. It isanticipated that this programme will be functional before the first progeny are born.

A full range of backup services is available to the communities in the form of a beef package.These services, provided by the ARC, include beef performance recording schemes, genetic


evaluation, reproduction, genetic resources, quantitative genetics, genetic services and a ForeignService unit. A full description of these services can be found in Appendix IV.

Exit strategy

Farmers will not be encouraged to remove or castrate existing exotic breeds in the communal farmsystems. Rather they will be left in situ, where they are likely to be outperformed by the moreadapted, productive Nguni bulls. Farmers are then more likely to accept the superior performance ofthe Nguni breed, which will have a long-term effect and address the perception problem, namely,that the Nguni is inferior to the larger, more uniform exotic counterparts.

The project is planned as a three-year project. At the end of this period in the Eastern Cape thecommunity will return the bull, which will then be placed in another community. The returned bullwill be replaced by the project. In the Northern Province the communities will contribute towardsthe depreciation value. At the end of the three-year period they will therefore be in a position to buytheir own bulls, which will then become their own property. This empowerment of the community,together with the services provided by the beef package of the ARC, is designed to result in a long-term reversal of the reduced production currently endemic to the communal areas.

BenefitsFarmers will receive the full range of production enhancement services. They will be able toidentify the best management procedures for their environment, which will result in betterindividual animal management and farmer organization. Training and education will furtherimprove the capacity of the farmers and allow them to make informed decisions.

Nguni bulls of superior genetic quality are in the process of being bought and will be introducedinto 30 selected rural communities. This gives the farmers access to Nguni bulls that will improvethe quantity (calving percentage) and the quality (growth, meat quality) of existing herds. In theshort term, the structure of the programme will result in the establishment of effective andlegitimate community livestock management institutions. The use of improved bulls provides thefarmers with the genetic resources necessary to breed slaughter stock that meets the market demandsof high meat and hide quality. The ability to sell stock at market-related prices would translate theirlivestock base into a capital base. Local cattle-processing and trading facilities such as abattoirs,tanneries and stock auctions will play a significant role in local economic development and willencourage job creation in the form of farm labour and staff for the trading facilities.

Constraints and obstaclesThe constraints and obstacles listed below were either envisaged or have already been experienced.

Monitoring. The success of the project is dependent on careful monitoring, which is required tomeasure the performance of the progeny of the bulls. Extension staff at provincial level are requiredfor this monitoring. At present the provinces as a whole are suffering from an acute lack of bothhuman and financial capacity. Monitoring also allows for the early identification of problem areas,which, if dealt with in a timely manner, will not cause the project to falter or fail. Failure of theproject in any community would have far-reaching effects, both on the morale of the community andon the credibility of the project’s organizers.Lack of grazing management. There is little grazing management. Poor grazing results in agenerally low level of nutrition, which is compounded by an excessively high stocking rate.Herd management. Non-productive animals are not removed from the system. This is partlybecause of the traditional practice of maintaining cattle as a form of security and also due to a lackof banking facilities in the more remote rural areas. Inferior bulls are not castrated. These non-productive animals have the potential to dilute the effect of the introduced bulls, which are forced


into competition by the excess of inferior bulls. If not corrected, this could negate the expectedincrease in production in the short term. In the long term the impact of the project may stimulatechange. The high stocking rates have the effect of degrading the pastures and thus reducing theirnutritional levels.Lack of reproductive management. There is often no structured breeding season. This results inthe birth of calves in the winter months when the nutritional status of the pasture is at its lowest.Cows failing to have one calf per year are retained. This reduces the resources available for theproductive cows.Lack of infrastructure. Most communities lack the fenced camps that make for ease ofmanagement. This problem could be alleviated by strategically placed water points, particularly as itis known that the Nguni can walk long distances in search of water.A lack of record-keeping. Successful genetic progress depends on animal identification and thekeeping of regular records. These tasks are not generally perceived as important by communalfarmers who often fail to either tag their animals or to take regular measurements. The onus ofmonitoring the recording will fall on an already overextended extension staff. In the NorthernProvince it is anticipated that the collaboration with the University of Venda will provide thenecessary manpower to support the extension staff.A lack of control of parasites and disease. Dipping is no longer mandatory by law. This hasresulted in a decrease of dipping frequency because dipping is expensive. Farmers either do not diptheir cattle regularly or dilute the dip until it is no longer effective. Careful monitoring will benecessary to prevent these practices. In addition, veterinary services are not readily available in themore remote areas and the cost of treatments and drugs is often prohibitive. It is hoped that theservice offered by the ARC beef package will alleviate this problem.Community-based decisions. As community-based decisions are enforced so that individualscomply, it is often difficult to control management, such as grazing habits. In addition, communitiesare not always profit driven.Land tenure. Although development is causing a gradual movement away from the land tenuresystem it remains a problem. In the tribal system land is owned by the tribal head – thereforeindividuals have neither the right of possession nor the right of prescription for its use. Thedegradation caused by poor management is not as important to the tribal head as the fact ofownership, irrespective of its condition. Individual farmers therefore have difficulty in applyingmore progressive farming methods.Exotic breed influence. Rich businessmen in the communal areas buy exotic breeds such as theBrahman and can afford to supplement during the winter season. These cattle are his security as theyprovide him with a livelihood. The consequences of this unproductive management do not have animmediate effect on the rich farmer but they do affect the poorer farmers.

Risks and assumptions

� The quality of the animals produced would lend itself to effective marketing.� Resources (land, water, genetics and general infrastructure) will be adequate to effect change.� Extension officers can be sufficiently trained in the process.� There will not be a major drought, disease outbreak or any other disaster during the duration

of the project.� Communal farmers will accept drastic changes to their current way of producing animals.

ConclusionThis case study follows the history of an adapted cattle breed of Africa from its origins in the northof the continent to its current status in South Africa. In the middle of the last century the breed was


decimated by government decree. Simultaneously, the gene pool of the breed became diluted in thecommunal sector through cross-breeding and replacement by exotic breeds. This resulted from theperception that the Nguni was inferior compared with the larger exotics, despite the fact that it was alow-maintenance breed ideally suited to the low-input farm systems of the communal farmer. Themore recent realization that this hardy breed was uniquely adapted to the South African environmentled to its evaluation and its development in the commercial sector.

The initial evaluation of the Nguni showed its potential as a beef breed in extensive and intensivefarming systems. When compared with other breeds, cow mass and reproductive performance of theNguni showed it to be the most fertile beef breed in South Africa. It was also shown to be ideallysuited as a dam line in terminal cross-breeding. In addition, its traits of heat, tick and diseasetolerance make it an ideal breed for extensive systems.

In the past, projects for the introduction of exotic cattle breeds into the communal sectorinvariably failed as a result of the introduction of complex technologies that increased productionbeyond the point of sustainability. This case study describes an ongoing project that is designed toencourage the reintroduction of the hardy, low-maintenance Nguni breed into the communal sectorin order to stem the influence of the less well-adapted exotic breeds. This reintroduction isaccompanied by support technology to improve management and a marketing system to facilitatethe sale of animals at market-related prices. In addition, the communities are encouraged to organizecommodity groups or farmers’ organizations to create an infrastructure allowing decisions to bemade based on the common consensus of the community. The combined effects of the projectshould result in its long-term sustainability. However, it will be necessary to monitor its progress inorder to circumvent possible constraints and obstacles.

The history of the Nguni breed in South Africa supports the concept of conservation throughutilization in both the commercial and traditional farming sectors.

ReferencesBrown, D.L. 1959. The Nguni breed of cattle. I. A descriptive review. Empire Journ. of Exper. Agric., 27(108): 277–

290.Epstein, H. 1971. The origin of domestic animals in Africa. Vol. 1. New York, Africana.Frisch, J.E. 1973. Comparative drought resistance of Bos indicus and Bos taurus crossbreds in central Queensland 2.

Relative mortality rates, calf weights and weight changes of breeding cows. Aust. J. Exp. Anim. Husb., 13: 117–133.Hanotte, O., Okomo, M., Bradley, D., Verjee, Y., Ochieng, A., Teale, A. & Rege, J.E.O. 1998. Geographical

distribution and frequency of taurine Bos taurus and zebu B. indicus Y chromosome haplotypes amongst sub-SaharanAfrican cattle breeds. Proc. 4th Global Conf. on Conservation Domestic Animal Genetic Resources, Nepal, 17–21Aug.

Hofmeyr, J.H. 1994. Findings of the committee re a gene bank for livestock. Proc. Conf. Conservation EarlyDomesticated Animals of Southern Africa, Pretoria, 3–4 March.

Norval, R.A., Sutherst, R.W., Kurki, J., Gibson, J.D. & Kerr, J.D. 1988. The effect of the brown ear tickRhipicephalus appendiculatus on the growth of Sanga and European cattle breeds. Veterinary Parasitology, 30: 149–164.

Osler, E.H., Meyer, J.H.F., Linington, M.J. & van der Merwe, P.J. 1993. Adaptability of indigenous cattle. Proc.SASAS Developing Areas Branch Symposium, 11–14 Oct.

Plug, I. 1980. Sulamano and Bulila 1, faunal remains from two Early Iron Age sites in Zambia. Pretoria, TransvaalMuseum. (Unpublished)

Ramsay, K.A. 1985. The Nguni and its future in southern Africa. Annual Nguni Production Sale, Bartlow Combine,KwaZulu-Natal, 12 Sept. (Lecture)

Scholtz, M.M. 1988. Selection possibilities of hardy beef breeds in Africa: the Nguni example. In Proc. 3rd Wld. Cong.Sheep and Cattle Breeding, Paris.

Scholtz, M.M., Roux, C.Z. & Lombard, P.E. 1990. Breeding strategies for beef cattle in the subtropics and tropics:Terminal crossbreeding. Proc. 4th World Cong. on Genet. App. to Livest. Vol. XV, pp. 23–27.

Scholtz, M.M., Berg, L., Bosman, D.J. & Alberts, C. 2000. Beef breeding in South Africa. Pretoria, AnimalImprovement Institute, ARC.

Scholtz, M.M., Spickett, A.M., Lombard, P.E. & Enslin, C.B. 1991. The effect of tick infestation on the productivityof cows of three breeds of cattle. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 58: 71–74.


Spickett, A.M., de Klerk, D., Enslin, C.B. & Scholtz, M.M. 1989. The resistance of Nguni, Bonsmara and Herefordcattle to ticks in a bushveld region of South Africa. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 56: 245–250.

Strydom, P.E., Naude, R.T., Smith, M.F., Scholtz, M.M. & van Wyk, J.B. 2000. Characterisation of indigenousAfrican cattle breeds in relation to meat quality traits. Meat Science, 55: 79–88.


Appendix I

Estimated distribution of the Nguni Breed in South Africa

Commercial herds Communal herds

Commercial herds Communal herds

Nguni breed numbers in South Africa

Year of data collection : 1998*Population figures based on : census at breed levelReliability of data : reliableNo. breeding females : 12 669*No. males used for breeding : 4 686*Total population : 17 355*Population trend : stablePercentage of pure bred females : 90No. herdbook females : 12 669*No. males in artificial insemination : 4Additional information : additional large numbers of unknown purity in rural

areas

Data: SA Stud Book and Livestock Improvement Association70 percent participation of females in the performance testing (AII)

*Population figures on registered animals only. Additional large numbers in rural areas

Northern Province

North West Province

Northern Cape Province

Western Cape Province

Eastern Cape Province

Free State KwaZulu-Natal

MpumalangaGauteng

Northern Province

North West Province





MpumalangaGauteng

Northern Province

North West Province





MpumalangaGauteng

Northern Province

North West Province





MpumalangaGauteng

Northern Province

North West Province





MpumalangaGauteng

Northern Province

North West Province





MpumalangaGauteng

Northern Province

North West Province





MpumalangaGauteng

Northern Province

North West Province





MpumalangaGauteng


Performance data: National Cattle Performance Testing Scheme of South Africa

Herds and females in the breed society and schemeHerds Females (Ó2 years)Year

Society Scheme % Society Scheme %1993 103 82 80 6 913 5 982 871994 104 68 65 7 079 5 135 731995 103 66 64 7 383 5 763 781996 123 78 63 7 786 6 027 771997 131 83 63 8 832 7 141 811998 139 70 50 9 793 6 091 62Breed average 117 75 64 7 964 6 023 76National average 2 821 1 408 50 221 718 157 030 71Source: Scholtz et al., 2000

Birth and weaner weights (male and female)

YearBirth animals

Birth weight(kg)

Weaneranimals

205-day weight(kg)

Average dailygain for age

(g/day)1993 3 859 39 4 533 235 9551994 3 637 40 4 203 239 9731995 3 919 39 4 434 243 9921996 4 129 40 4 720 244 9961997 4 092 39 4 696 238 9721998 3 746 40 4 279 241 981Breed average 23 382 39 26 865 240 978National average 302 798 36 385 377 215 873Source: Scholtz et al., 2000

Twelve- and eighteen-month weights (female)

Year 12-monthanimals

365-dayweight (kg)

Averagedaily gain

for age(ADA)(g/day)

18-monthanimals

540-dayweight (kg) ADA (g/day)

1993 1 190 290 692 823 372 6181994 942 290 689 765 394 6581995 769 306 734 655 379 6301996 980 313 749 779 381 6341997 1 088 303 724 810 394 6581998 1 194 299 713 935 383 638Breed average 6 163 299 716 4 767 384 639National average 132 370 252 596 103 819 328 543Source: Scholtz et al., 2000


Age at first calving and intercalving period

Year First calvinganimals Age at 1st calving

(months)

Intercalving period

animals

Inter-calvingperiod (days)

1993 1 025 31 3 113 4301994 986 31 3 087 4251995 1 022 31 3 300 4221996 1 078 31 3 554 4151997 1 099 31 3 536 4191998 972 30 3 169 408Breed average 6 182 31 19 957 420National average 82 874 34 290 607 423Source: Scholtz et al., 2000

Cow weights

YearaCW-Canimals

Cow weight atcalving (kg)

bBW:CW(%)

cCW-Wanimals

Cow weight atweaning (kg)

dWW:CW(%)

1993 1 759 529 7.3 2 435 535 46.01994 1 855 546 7.4 2 283 546 45.91995 1 466 542 7.5 2 120 549 46.81996 1 550 554 7.4 2 352 551 46.31997 1 812 546 7.3 2 689 541 45.61998 1 638 542 7.5 2 508 548 46.2Breed average 10 080 543 7.4 14 387 544 46.1National average 113 988 490 7.4 178 428 501 45.2Source: Scholtz et al., 2000aCW-C, cow weight at calving; bBW:CW, birth weight: cow weight; cCW-W, cow weight at weaning; dWW:CW, weaning weight:cow weight.

Standardized growth tests (Phase C) – results (male)

Year Testedanimals

Final weight(kg)

Average dailygain (ADG) (g)

Feed conversionratio (FCR)

aADA(g) Age

(days)1993 165 520 1 811 6.85 1 317 3651994 204 524 1 900 6.46 1 319 3681995 294 521 1 871 6.78 1 331 3621996 237 529 1 932 6.55 1 337 3661997 170 528 1 953 6.49 1 333 3541998 192 523 1 924 6.48 1 298 374Breed average 1 262 524 1 898 6.6 1 324 365National average 8 534 455 1 653 6.68 1 149 365

Source: Scholtz et al., 2000aADA, average daily gain for age.


Standardized growth tests (Phase C) – body measurements (male)

Year Testedanimals Height (mm)

Length(mm)

Length:heightratio

Skin thickness(mm)

Scrotumcircum-

ference (mm)1993 165 1 236 1 455 1.18 16 3761994 204 1 236 1 461 1.18 17 3791995 294 1 238 1 461 1.18 16 3761996 237 1 242 1 453 1.17 16 3781997 170 1 246 1 460 1.17 16 3781998 192 1 236 1 460 1.18 15 374Breed average 1 262 1 239 1 458 1.18 16 377National average 8 534 1 214 1 403 1.16 16 365

Source: Scholtz et al., 2000

On-farm growth tests (Phase D) – number tested (male)Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Breed total National total

Tested animals 369 436 575 504 547 822 3 253 59 180Source: Scholtz et al., 2000

Comparison of birth and weaner weights – breed average (male and female)Afrikaner Angus Bonsmara Brahman Braunvieh Drakensberger Hereford Nguni Simmentaler

Birth weight 33 35 36 33 40 36 38 26 39205-day weight 185 215 214 209 220 206 204 155 240aADA (g/day) 743 881 869 863 881 828 810 629 978Source: Scholtz et al., 2000aADA, average daily gain for age.

Comparison of 12- and 18-month weights (female)

Afrikaner Angus Bonsmara Brahman BraunviehDrakens-

berger Hereford Nguni Simmentaler

365-day weight (kg) 211 263 248 254 372 231 262 178 299365-day aADA (g/day) 492 630 583 608 884 541 616 417 717540-day weight (kg) 290 353 325 330 365 310 336 239 384540-day ADA (g/day) 470 592 537 552 605 510 554 396 639Source: Scholtz et al., 2000aADA, average daily gain for age.

Comparison: age at first calving and intercalving period


berger Hereford Nguni SimmentalerAge at 1st calving 37 32 33 35 30 36 34 34 31Intercalving period (days) 450 408 416 442 420 438 399 414 420Source: Scholtz et al., 2000


Comparison: cow weights


berger Hereford Nguni SimmentalerCow weight at calving (kg) 444 484 486 491 530 472 468 353 543aBW:CW (%) 7.5 7.2 7.5 6.6 7.5 7.7 8.2 7.5 7.4Cow weight at weaning (kg) 461 507 499 491 515 487 507 375 544bWW-CW (%) 41.6 46.1 45.3 44.0 45.1 44.1 42.0 44.2 46.1Source: Scholtz et al., 2000aBirth weight : cow weight; bWeaning weight : cow weight.

Comparison: standardized growth tests (Phase C) – results (male)Afrikaner Angus Bonsmara Brahman Braunvieh Drakensberger Hereford Nguni Simmentaler

Final weight 367 467 437 414 495 437 476 321 624aADG (g) 1 267 1 084 1 613 1 325 1 733 1 544 1 811 1 150 1 898bFCR 7.05 6.55 6.69 6.99 7.13 6.96 6.27 6.88 6.60cADA (g) 903 1 245 1 098 1 030 1 277 1 088 1 220 790 1 324Source: Scholtz et al., 2000aADG, average daily gain ; bFCR, feed conversion ratio; cADA, average daily gain for age.

Comparison: standardized growth tests (Phase C) – body measurements (male)


berger Hereford Nguni SimmentalerHeight (H) (mm) 1 208 1 229 1 201 1 244 1 239 1 204 1 265 1 173 1 239Length (L) (mm) 1 325 1 414 1 390 1 356 1 426 1 385 1 457 1 291 1 458L:H ratio 1.1 1.15 1.16 1.09 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.10 1.18Skin thickness (mm) 19 13 16 17 15 16 15 18 16Scrotum circumference (mm) 337 356 346 290 365 349 344 315 377Source: Scholtz et al., 2000


Comparative performance of cattle breeds in extensive and intensive systems (mass in kg;growth in g)

Experimental, number tested (n) Breed averages (performance testing 1976–85)

Trait NguniCharolais

Nguni crossCharolais-

half sib

CharolaisNguni cross/

Nguni NguniCharo-

laisAfri-kaner

Short-horn

Bons-mara

Simmen-taler

Brah-man

Mean no. observations/breed = 23 550Extensive 27 (127) 34 (23) 47 (40) 1.26 28 42 32 34 35 39 32 Body mass 179 (52) 205 (7) 211 (22) 1.15 - - - - - - - Weaning mass (W-mass) 193 (67) 232 (14) 234 (18) 1.2 - - - - - - - Average 186 219 223 1.18 164 228 173 194 197 221 197aADG

body weight 775 900 856 1.16 663 907 688 780 790 888 805 W-mass male 182 (44) 204 (7) - 1.12 176 316 208 232 232 267 251 female 211 (39) 252 (9) - 1.19 - - - - - - -

Mean no. observations/breed = 630Feedlot (male) Final mass 353 (15) 486 (5) 486 (5) 1.38 373 567 407 458 472 554 424 ADG 1 121 1 652 1 765 1.47 1 206 1 761 1 130 1 451 1 449 1 655 1 156bFCR 7.45 6.36 6.58 0.85 7.07 6.69 7.77 7.38 7.02 7.00 7.20

Source: Scholtz, Roux and Lombard, 1990aADG, average daily gain; bFCR, feed conversion ratio.

Preliminary results on milk production and compositionWeeks in lactation (n=6)

Week 1–3 Week 4–6 Week 7–9Milk production (litres) 8.34 5.84 6.69Butterfat content (%) 6.06 5.5 6.61Protein content (%) 3.31 3.13 3.47Lactose content (%) 4.35 4.85 5.1Source: Scholtz, 2000

Mean slaughter live and carcass weights per slaughter group for six different breedsSlaughter weight (kg) Carcass weight (kg)

Breed*S1 (75%) S2 (90%) S3 (105%) *S1 (75%) S2 (90%) S3 (105%)

Afrikaner 283 338 387 148 181 216Nguni 249 302 342 138 171 196Bonsmara 349 412 478 197 236 282Santa Gertrudis 366 446 514 206 254 296Pinzgauer 363 424 522 199 236 312Brown Swiss 401 449 534 222 260 322

Source: Strydom et al., 2000*S=Slaughter groups representing slaughter weights of 75, 90 and 105% of the final weight of thePhase C (112-day) performance test for each breed.


Least square means and standard errors of means (SEM) for sensory meat quality and shearforce measurements of the M. longissimus thoracis of six cattle breeds and three slaughtergroups

Genotype Slaughter group

Bonsmara PinzgauerSanta

Gertrudis Brown Swiss Afrikaner Nguni 1 2 3Aromaa 6.2 6.0 5.9 6.4 6.4 6.1 6.1 6.3 6.1

(0.04) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05)Jucinessb 4.9 5.4 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.5 5.0 5.1 5.0

(0.05) (0.17) (0.11) (0.18) (0.11) (0.08) (0.07) (0.06) (0.06)Flavoura 5.8 6.3 5.7 5.9 6.3 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9

(0.04) (0.08) (0.08) (0.08) (0.08) (0.08) (0.04) (0.04) (0.040)Tendernessc 4.9 5.8 5.3 5.0 5.5 5.9 5.2 5.3 5.3

(0.07) (0.16) (0.16) (0.16) (0.16) (0.16) (0.08) (0.08) (0.08)Residual tissued 4.8 4.2 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.7 4.8 5.1 5.1

(0.06) (0.19) (0.13) (0.21) (0.12) (0.09) (0.08) (0.07) (0.07)Shear forcee

(N/25mmū) 92.3a 101.7a 116.4b 93.3a 95.5a 91.1a 98.5a 97.6ab 90.4b

(1.87) (4.17) (4.17) (4.17) (4.17) (4.17) (2.18) (2.18) (2.18)Source: Strydom et al., 2000a Aroma and flavour: 1=extremely bland, 8=intense.b Initial and sustained juiciness: 1=extremely dry, 8=extremely juicy.c First bite and initial tenderness: 1=extremely tough, 8=extremely tender.d Residual connective tissue: 1=extremely abundant, 8=none.e Means in the same row and within each main effect (breed, slaughter group) that have different letters differ significantly (P<0.05).


Appendix II

Characteristics of the Nguni

Blood urea levels in three breeds of bull from March to August

Breed

Month Simmentaler Afrikaner NguniMarch 21.01 22.31 23.13April 15.78 18.49 20.27May 11.51 13.35 16.09June 0.33 9.89 15.09July 9.32 12.95 16.54August 7.96 11.52 13.33Source: Osler et al., 1993

Relative percentage of animals within three cattle breeds in the low-, medium- and high-resistance class after one and two years of exposure to natural tick infestation

Percentage of animals per resistance classLow Medium High

Breed Sex No. animals 1 year 2 years 1 year 2 years 1 Year 2 yearsNguni 20 30 30 40 15 30 55

Males 10 30 40 60 10 10 50Females 10 30 30 20 20 50 50

Bonsmara 18 56 56 22 17 22 27Males 9 55 44 11 22 34 34Females 9 56 67 33 11 11 22

Hereford 18 50 56 39 33 11 11Males 9 44 56 56 44 0 0Females 9 56 56 22 22 22 22

Source: Spickett et al., 1989

Effect of each engorged female tick on weaning mass of calves

BreedNo.

one-host ticksNo.

multi-host ticksEffect of one engorged

female tick (g)Hereford 3 136.5 164 8.9Bonsmara 2 029.5 164 8.0Nguni 430.5 82 8.6Source: Scholtz et al., 1991


The weaning masses of calves in a non-dipping environment compared with those of calvesdipped every three weeks

Breed No dipping (kg) Dipping (kg) Difference (kg)

Hereford 137.2 166.7 +29.5a

Bonsmara 166.5 184.1 +17.6b

Nguni 164.7 169.1 + 4.4Source: Scholtz et al., 1991NOTE: Difference calculated as dipping versus no dipping.aSignificant difference at 5 percent level.bSignificant difference at 10 percent level.

Summary: Averages of cow mass and reproductive performance of different breeds in SouthAfrica, 1976–1985

Type Breed

Cow mass atweaning

(kg)

Age at firstcalving

(months)

Calvingintervals, 1st– 2nd (days)

Calvingintervals ofcows (days)

Calculatedcalving

(%)Afrikaner 459 41 512 469 72Brahman 477 37 462 441 79IndicusNguni 396 36 442 412 87Bonsmara 466 34 463 434 81Drakensberger 482 40 514 469 72Indicus typesSanta Gertrudis 483 35 501 458 75Angus 455 34 427 425 84Hereford 479 35 428 423 84South Devon 522 36 455 441 79

British

Sussex 555 34 430 430 82Charolais 632 38 446 456 75Pinzgauer 474 34 432 426 83EuropeanSimmentaler 507 34 459 449 77

Mean no. observations/breed 11 119 6 831 3 820 21 294 21 294


Appendix III

Examples of bull selection: Estimated breeding valuesADD = Additive, MAT = Maternal, ACC = Accuracy

CALF SEX SIRE DAM BADD BMAT BACC A2ADD A2MAT A2ACC B1ADD B1ACC B2ADD B2ACC

97117 2 9015 854 -0.7981 -0.9464 74 0.8013 -2.7973 70 -3.0159 37 -1.4921 13

98216 2 9472 11 -1.6118 0.9211 73 1.2701 0.3973 38 -2.9824 18 1.6270 11

98241 2 9472 9411 -1.6443 0.2398 75 1.2064 -2.6521 41 -2.9824 18 1.6269 11

98249a 2 9472 8811 -1.0496 0.2529 75 1.2933 1.5054 47 -1.2651 29 1.9657 11

98181 2 94549 959 -0.7438 -0.0972 75 5.5975 -2.1614 40 4.4495 24 1.6320 16

97273b 2 93499 8854 -0.7967 0.2419 74 11.2220 -3.9351 71 16.7446 57 0.1604 28

95239 2 8912 92109 1.7789 -0.7565 68 2.6441 -3.1194 67 -0.9103 39 0.9105 25

97205 2 92264 938 0.4663 0.0068 77 -0.5719 -6.3459 55 -4.1924 49 -2.6080 40Information supplied by L.E. Matjuda, 2001.aAnimals bought.bAnimals bought and used for other purposes.


Appendix IV

Fertility evaluations of selected bulls

Current semen evaluations of bulls in the distribution projectSemen examination data

Sperm morphology

Tag no. Vol.(cc)

Live sperm(%)

Progressionlive sperm

(%)

Normal sperm(%)

Majorabnormality

(%)

Minorabnormality

(%)9659 4 70 609681 6 80 60958 5 80 70979 10 80 70982 10.5 80 709716 20 80 7097159 80 80 709841 9 90 809843 12 70 709846 13 80 60975 6 80 7094109 2 50 209639 3 80 60 12 31 57940 5 80 60 92 797104 8 90 70 86 13 19817 6 90 70 97 29827 10 80 60 84 2 1498165 3 90 80 91 7 298203 5 90 80 93 0 79875 9 80 70 83 11 69861 9 90 80 97 1 2


Appendix V

Package of services offered by the ARC to developing farmers with beef cattle

MULTIDISCIPLINARY PACKAGE FOR RESOURCE-POOR FARMERS

Elements are listed under the heading of the specific section or division that is responsible for theirexecution.(*) Possible involvement of other institutions

1. Beef performance recording schemes and genetic evaluation� Animal identification and record-keeping� Weighing of animals (phases A, B and D) and all other records� Data processing and indices calculation� Interpretation of indices� Breeding objectives� Selection criteria� Visual evaluation� Utilize selected animals� * Grazing, nutrition and supplementation� * Health (in cooperation with Bayer)� * Marketing (commercialization)� Training in all above-mentioned aspects� Training in economic aspects

2. Reproduction and genetic resources� Rectal examination for reproductive soundness of cows and heifers� Synchronization of females for breeding purposes� Semen evaluation of breeding bulls� Pregnancy diagnosis� Artificial insemination� Artificial insemination training� Consultation with reproductive management� Veterinary support services (health in cooperation with Bayer)� Conservation of endangered breeds (where applicable)� Awareness of alternative breeds (if needed)� Supply of genetic material


3. Quantitative genetics� Data processing� Best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) – estimated breeding values (EBVs)� Training on the above-mentioned aspects

4. Genetic services� Lidcat (genetic material bank), used for individual animal identification after stock theft� Diagnostics� Multi-sire� Characterization� Casein identification� Conventional DNA work� Training in above-mentioned aspects

5. Foreign services unit� * Creating a market for animals


Appendix VI

Genetic distances

Dendogram: genetic distances of southern African landrace cattle breeds

Dendogram: genetic distances of Nguni ecotypes

.10 .08 .07 .05 .03 .02 .00

Angone

Bovine de Tete

Caprivi

Kaokoveld

Pedi

Landim

Nguni

Ovambo

Afrikaner

Kavango

Bonsmara

Drakensberger

Angone

Bovine de Tete

Caprivi

Kaokoveld

Pedi

Landim

Nguni

Ovambo

Afrikaner

Kavango

Bonsmara

Drakensberger

.06 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 .00

Zulu

Swazi

Royal

Bartlow

Venda

Pedi

Shangaan

Tswana

Community-Based Promotion of Rural Poultry Diversity,Management, Utilization and Research in Malawi

Timothy N.P. Gondwe, Clemens B.A. Wollny, A.C.L. Safalaoh,F.C. Chilera and Mizeck G.G. Chagunda

Department of Animal Science, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi,PO Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi. (E-mail: [email protected])

AbstractRural poultry constitutes over 80 percent of the total poultry population and is raised and utilized by about 80percent of the human population, primarily situated in rural areas and occupied by subsistence agriculture. Dif-ferent poultry species are raised, mostly indigenous to the area, except chickens, where traces of Black Aus-tralorp breed can be identified. Most of the species are known by vernacular names that describe their pheno-type. Some phenotypes need help to ensure that they do not disappear from the rural areas. Despite its impor-tance, rural poultry has received little attention in terms of improving its management, productivity and diver-sity. Several constraints such as Newcastle disease outbreaks, predation, poor housing, feeding and matingsystems were identified in earlier studies.A community-based project on improving and sustaining food self-sufficiency through promoting integration,multiplication and intensified utilization of rural poultry has just started in villages in Mkwinda and MitunduExtension Planning Areas (EPAs), Lilongwe Agricultural Development Division. These villages surroundBunda College of Agriculture. The project aims to operate through open-nucleus breeding centres establishedin rural communities and managed by a committee of farmers. The farmers and other community-basedstakeholders are participating fully in all aspects and the community committees make all the decisions. Twobreeding and multiplication centres have been established, one from each EPA, with an additional facility atBunda College to conduct complementary trials. Breeding farmers from within the community will multiplyand distribute breed stock to other farmers. Different species and strains of poultry (chickens, pigeons andducks) will be raised and performance evaluated at the centres. The above average performing birds will beselected as breeding stock for farmers. Distribution will be through the traditional stock-sharing system. Theproject plans technical interventions such as Newcastle disease vaccination, feed supplementation and earlyweaning. Village committees and breeders will be trained in rural poultry management to sustain the pro-gramme afterwards.The project is in the early phase of implementation and aims at increasing flock sizes and flock integrationamong rural households; improving productivity through selection and evaluation; reducing mortality; and im-proving the nutritional, social and economic contribution of poultry biodiversity to rural human communities.These communities include malnourished children, the aged and female-headed households. It is thus intendedto improve food security and the management of poultry genetic resources.

IntroductionIn Malawi, about 86 percent of the population lives in rural areas, where most people practisesmallholder subsistence farming (NSO, 2000). The majority of the people are resource poor, andover 60 percent are food insecure (NEC, 1999). These farmers grow different crops and are thecustodians of more than 80 percent of the total national livestock population (Go, 1998). Theirannual per capita income could be as low as the equivalent of US$74 (Gondwe et al., 1999), mainlyderived from crop production. The most dominant species are poultry species and more than 80percent of the national poultry population is kept in rural areas. Chickens constitute the majority (83percent), followed by pigeons (14 percent) and ducks (2 percent). Most of these are indigenous,except chickens, where traces of Black Australorp breed can be found. This breed was introducedthrough a cross-breeding programme that has existed for over 40 years and is an attempt to improvethe local chicken (Go, 1998). In most households, women and children are caretakers of traditionalpoultry kept under a free-range extensive system.

70 Gondwe et al., Rural Poultry Diversity

Malawi has an annual animal protein consumption of 6.0 kg per capita, which is well below theaverage for Africa (12.0 kg). This low protein intake causes high maternal mortality and is why over50 percent of children in rural areas are malnourished (NEC, 1999). Poultry in rural areas could playa role to contribute to the nutritional status of the people in these areas. The government hasattempted to improve local chicken production through cross-breeding with the dual-purpose breed,Black Australorp. The programme seems to be failing because of technical constraints, thecomplexity of farming systems and the different uses to which farmers put their indigenous poultry,which the cross-breeding programme did not take into account. The Black Australorp seems not toadapt well to the harsh village-scavenging environment. Against this background, efforts were madeto initiate studies and improvement programmes for rural poultry, taking account of the existingdiversity, the role of poultry for society, and the prevailing farming systems. The paper describes acommunity-based project that aims to contribute to food self-sufficiency among smallholder farmersthrough promotion and improvement of poultry species in an integrated system without changingthe cultural and farming system.

Project research area and background studiesThe project has been initiated by the Lilongwe Agricultural Development Division (LADD),specifically in villages of Mkwinda and Mitundu Extension Planning Areas (EPAs). These arevillages that surround the Bunda College of Agriculture. In these villages, researchers have alreadyconducted studies on the evaluation of poultry biodiversity, on-farm and on-station speciescharacterization and flock monitoring (Gondwe et al., 1999). A catalogue of local names for poultryin Chichewa was established (Table 1). Most of the names were descriptive and based onphenotype: feather plumage, legs, tail feathers, head, other features or simply colour.

Monitoring studies determined the prevalence of different types of poultry within species in thearea (Table 2). From these, it was noted that there were relatively few examples of phenotypesKansilanga, Tsumba and Kameta in flocks. Traces of Black Australorp breed were identified butconstituted an insignificant proportion of the total chicken population.

But Simboti and Kachibudu were missing among the flocks. These phenotypes need specialattention if they are to be saved from extinction. Few examples of Kawangi were seen in duckflocks, while phenotypic diversity distribution was equal in pigeons. The proportion of pigeons andducks in relation to chickens was low and needs to improve. The same trend is being observed fromcurrent monitoring results.

Distribution of flocks by age groups was in favour of old birds (over 52 weeks) in chickens andducks and growers (20–30 weeks) in pigeons. This showed that farmers keep their birds for a longtime. The proportion of chicks and ducklings less than ten weeks old was small. This suggests highmortality rates caused by diseases and predators. This age group is vulnerable and needs care. Inpigeons the number of squabs is low since this is the group that is mostly consumed. Growers,mature and old pigeons are used for breeding. Inbreeding within flocks is probably occurringbecause of the lack of a cockerel-exchange system and record-keeping.

The major constraints to poultry production were outbreaks of Newcastle disease among chickensin the months of September to December every year; predators that fed on pigeons, chickens andducks; and poor housing and prolonged weaning periods for chickens and ducks. There is alsohaphazard sharing of breed stock among relatives, friends and others, within the village rather thanbetween villages.


Table 1. Catalogue of local names of poultry in Chichewa

Species Name Phenotypic description Basis for the name

Kachibudu Without tail feathersKameta Naked neckMasapa Feathers on legsKambwata / Simboti Dwarf with short legsKansilanga Frizzled (with rough feathers)Tsumba Feather hill on head

Physical appearance

Kawangi Black with white spots resembling a predator onchicks called Kawando (guinea-fowl type)

Chiphulutsa Greyish, ash-coloured

Colour

India Came from India (exotic)

Chicken

Mikolongwe Bought from veterinary centres (BAs)Origin

Yoyera White in colourYakuda Black in colour

Ducks

Kawangi Coloured like a chick predator

Colour

Boli Black with white stripes around neck (zebra type)Nyemba Bean-colouredKaphulusa Greyish, ash-coloured

ColourPigeons

Chimwendomphako Large with feathers on legs Physical appearanceSource: Gondwe et al. (1999)

Table 2. Flock structure and distribution of different types of poultry in Mkwinda EPA, LADD

Species / Type Type Percentage of population

Chickens Chiphulutsa 13.4Kameta 0.3Kansilanga 0.3Kawangi 12.2Mikolongwe 0.6Tsumba 0.2Yakuda 40.4Yofira 16.4Yoyela 16.2

Pigeons Boli 27.1Chimwendomphako 15.0Chiphulutsa 16.4Kapambwe 7.9Mpheta 11.4Nyemba 7.1Yoyela 15.0

Ducks Kawangi 5.4Yakuda 63.6Yoyela 31.0


Approach to the community-based projectThis project is designed to promote diverse breeding of poultry species in rural areas while at thesame time putting necessary intervention measures in place to deal with identified constraints.Unlike other projects related to poultry, such as the Bangladesh (Jansen, 2000) and Egyptian models(Kolstand and Abdou, 2000), the current project concentrates on indigenous poultry species ofchicken, pigeon and duck. The goal is to improve meat and egg production and sustaindiversification within flocks utilizing the existing free-range system. All management decisions aretaken and implemented by the community and accompanying research is based on full farmerparticipation.

Breeding and performance testingThere are two breeding centres established in the Chatenga and Chinungu villages of Mkwinda andMitundu EPAs, respectively. These sites were identified upon agreement by traditional chiefs, fromthe surrounding areas, in prior consultation with government extension officers from the EPAs.Clubs were formed to run the centres and the activities of the project. These include assisting inconstructing traditional poultry houses, working out the administration of vaccines and theassociated logistics through a contributory system and later running the stock distribution andsharing system from the breeding centres. The breeding centres are therefore fully under the controlof the rural people through the club committee. The construction of the Chatenga centre is underway and almost complete. An additional centre to provide facilities for complementary on-stationresearch has already been established at Bunda College.

At these centres, indigenous chickens, pigeons and ducks will be stocked for multiplication andimprovement. Each bird will be individually identified through numbered wing and leg bands. Allbirds will be raised under the traditional free-ranging system. Supplementation will consist oftraditional maize bran. The birds will be under performance evaluation for meat, egg production,hatchability, mothering ability and adaptation. Young cocks will be evaluated for growth traits untilthey start crawling (reproductive maturity, at 20 weeks), and the top 10 to 25 percent will berecommended for breeding purposes and distributed to farmers. Selection will eventually be basedon an index, taking into account different traits of use at village level. The hens will be evaluated foregg production, hatchability and mothering ability, among other traits.

Some farmers with high flock diversity have been selected as breeders and fertile-egg producers.To date, ten farmers have been chosen. They were selected in consultation with field extension stafffrom Mkwinda EPA. The process for Mitundu is currently ongoing. The farmers will have theirbirds individually tagged and evaluated at the breeding centres. There will be sharing of breed stockbetween the breeding centres and fellow farmers.

The organization of an open-nucleus breeding system for rural poultry is outlined in Figure 2.Production farmers will obtain superior breed stock from breeder farmers and from the breedingcentres. Breeders will obtain top young evaluated cockerels from the breeding centres.

There will be cockerel exchange among breeding centres and breeder farmers, based on a six-month cycle, established to reduce the chances of inbreeding.

Farmers interested in having their birds tested must bring six-week-old cocks to the breedingcentre, where they will be evaluated until they reach 20 weeks of age. Depending on theperformance, the birds will be recommended for use in breeding or for consumption.


Figure 1. Flock distribution by age groups in Mkwinda EPA: chicks, ducklings and squabs (1–10weeks); grower (>10–≤≤≤≤20 weeks); grower/layers (>20–≤≤≤≤30 weeks); mature (>30–≤≤≤≤52 weeks); old(>52 weeks).

Breeding centres and breeders will have their birds vaccinated against Newcastle disease. Otherfarmers in the villages will also be encouraged to vaccinate their birds. This will be facilitated byfield workers from EPAs, but coordinated by the club committee. Vaccines will be shared at costrecovery through monetary and egg contribution to a revolving fund run by the committee. Earlyweaning will be encouraged with chickens to increase the laying cycle. The hens will be forced toabandon their chicks at the sixth week to induce laying. Promotion of feed supplementation andprotection of chicks from day and night predators is planned.

Research component of the projectIn direct collaboration with the community farmers the project conducts research to characterizeindigenous poultry, aiming to develop appropriate technologies and interventions. An on-farmmonitoring study is in progress where a flock census is taking place. Every household in Mkwindaand Mitundu EPAs has been asked to provide information on:� flock structure (distribution by age, type and sex over time);� growth;� egg production and related traits;� mortality and its causes;� sociocultural factors and effects ;� contribution of different poultry species to human diets and income generation; and� testing of interventions.

A meat preference and acceptability test trial with farmers is taking place. Meat from chickens,ducks and pigeons of two different age groups is being evaluated.

There will be attempt to generate genetic parameters (h2, genetic correlations) for chickens bytracing the pedigree through the hen. Hens from the centres will have their chicks traced up to

16%

71%

6% 1% 6%

squabs grower grower mature old

2% 19%

21%

12%

46%

chicks grower layers mature old

6% 9%

13%

7%65%

duckling grower layers mature old


several hatches and generations. Because flock species are under a free-ranging system, it is notpossible to trace pedigree through the cockerels that will be distributed to farmers. These cockerelswill join others in the flocks, where mating will be random. However, hens and their hen offspringwill be followed. There is a hen pedigree recording system at the Bunda breeding centre and thiswill be expanded to the village breeding centres and farmer breeders to increase the number ofrecords. Through individual identification, individual records will be collected.

Farmers will be given training in rural poultry management, supplementation, housing, diseasecontrol and record-keeping. Breeders will receive training in the creation of local multiplicationcentres, the cockerel-exchange system and periods of exchange, and early weaning. The committeewill be trained in management issues. Some farmers will be selected and trained to be techniciansfor the administration of the vaccines. This training will equip farmers with techniques to use afterthe project phase, and this will help ensure sustainability.

The farmers are at the centre of the project and are involved in making decisions concerningproject activities. This has started well, through an observed participation in the formation ofcommittees, the selection of sites, the construction of structures and the administration logistics forNewcastle disease vaccine. Farmers will also be responsible for sales and their proceeds at thebreeding centres (culled stock, breed stock and excess birds and eggs) and the security of the centres(through community police). The project targets resource-poor farmers in rural areas and includes:families with malnourished children under five; female-headed, poor households or families; oldpeople without external support, but capable of carrying out minor activities such as keepingpoultry; and others below the poverty line.

The project has involved the extension workers from the Ministry of Agriculture at EPA level asfront line staff. These workers will also be involved in training and will have an extension advisoryrole. It is expected that non-governmental organizations dealing with the promotion of food securityin rural areas will be interested in collaborating.

Expected output from the projectIt is expected that breeding and multiplication centres for breed stock will produce seed stock fordifferent species of birds that will be distributed among farmers in the villages. This will directlycontribute to improved village poultry production, resulting in an increased animal protein intakeamong smallholder farmers. The project incorporates poultry production within existing farmingsystems and this will ensure a sustainable contribution to food security. Farmers will be equippedwith technologies that will address current constraints and hence improve their poultry production.Applied technologies will be developed for researchers and extension workers to assist the farmerseffectively.

The smallholder resource-poor farmers will therefore benefit from the integration of different spe-cies nutritionally, socially and economically. This will also lead to sustainable conservation, bettermanagement and improvement in the utilization of indigenous poultry genetic resources.


Figure 2. Interaction between farmers, breeders and evaluation centres in the villages

Sustainability of the projectThe active participation of farmers will make the programme sustainable after the initial fundingphase. The project is taking place in the villages, using traditionally kept indigenous species and theexisting farming systems. Farmers are also decision-makers and in control of the breeding centres.Acquisition of breed stock (live birds and fertile eggs) from breeding centres and breeder farmerswill include traditional stock-sharing systems, locally known as chipazga or chakhola. This ensuresthat farmers have access to the species they need. The contributory vaccination programme will besimple and affordable by all farmers through cash payment or any other method of payment agreedby the community.

Farmers will be in control of bird sales at breeding centres and the vaccine revolving fund. Thetraining component will also contribute to the sustainability of the programme.

The cycle of operations between the breeding centres, breeder farmers and production farmersincludes activities of a cockerel-exchange programme, which works with indigenous species that arealready adapted to the local environment.

AcknowledgementThe authors gratefully acknowledge the funding received for this project (SADC/UNDP/FAO RAF 97/032), which isunder the project on Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources in the SADC region.

Breeder farmerProduces femalesProduces fertile eggsSells excess and old cocksObtains top young cocks

Breeding andperformance testing

centres: Multiplication,evaluation and selling

excess and culled cocks Productionfarmers

(includesvulnerable

groups)

Market

Breeding stock

Live birds,eggs


ReferencesGo, M. 1998. National livestock development master plan. Final report. Lilongwe, Malawi, Department of Animal

Health and Industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation.Gondwe, T.N.P., Ambali, A.J.D., Chilera, F.C., Lwesya, H. & Wollny, C.B.A. 1999. Rural poultry biodiversity in

Lilongwe and Mzuzu Agricultural Development Divisions (ADD), Malawi. Malawi J. Science and Technol., 5: 17–25.

Jansen, H.A. 2000. Structures for improving smallholder chickens in Bangladesh: breeding strategy. In S. Galar, J.Boyazoglu & K. Hammond, eds. ICAR Technical Series No. 3. Workshop on Developing Breeding Strategies forLower Input Production Environment, Bella, Italy.

Kitalyi, A.J. 1997. Village chicken production systems in developing countries: What does the future hold? WorldAnimal Review, 2: 48–53.

Kolstand, N. & Abdou, F.A. 2000. NORFA: The Norwegian–Egyptian project for improving local breeds of layinghens in Egypt. In S. Galar, J. Boyazoglu & K. Hammond, eds. ICAR Technical Series No. 3. Workshop onDeveloping Breeding Strategies for Lower Input Production Environment, Bella, Italy.

NEC. 1999. Annual economic report. Lilongwe, Malawi, National Economic Council of Malawi, Ministry of Finance,Economic Planning and Development.

NSO. 2000. Press report on national statistics, 1998. Zomba, Malawi, National Statistical Office.

Community Initiatives in Livestock Improvement:The Case of Kathekani, Kenya

Joyce Njoki Njoro

Intermediate Technology Development Group - Eastern Africa (ITDG-EA)PO Box 39493, Nairobi, Kenya

IntroductionKenya is a country located in East Africa. It borders Uganda to the west, Ethiopia and Sudan to thenorth, Somalia to the east, and the United Republic of Tanzania to the south. The equator intersectsthe country. The population of Kenya stands at 28 million people according to the 1999 nationalpopulation census. Only 20 percent of the land is of high agricultural potential. The rest is arid andsemi-arid, best suited for livestock production. Kenya experiences a bimodal pattern of rainfall withthe rainy season extending from March to May and from October to December. Occasionally therains are below normal for consecutive seasons, leading to drought.

The Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) plays a major role in biodiversityconservation, but with greater emphasis being laid on in situ conservation of agriculturalbiodiversity, particularly focusing on crops. ITDG is an international development agency workingwith marginalized communities in seven developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America todevelop and adopt appropriate technologies to enhance their skills and economic status. ITDGbegan in 1967 based on the then radical ideas of Dr Fritz Schumacher, author of the best-sellingbook Small Is Beautiful. ITDG’s vision is “A more equitable and just world in which technologyenriches and benefits the lives of the poor. In the context of East Africa it is our wish to improvelivelihoods of marginalized people in the region”. Its mission statement is to build the skills of poorpeople in developing countries enabling them to improve the quality of their lives and those offuture generations.

ITDG Eastern Africa (ITDG-EA) works in five technology areas – agriculture and pastoralism,small-scale manufacturing, rural transport, building materials and shelter and energy. Since 1996,ITDG-EA has been implementing the Marginal Farmers Project in Kathekani through the RuralAgriculture and Pastoralism Project (RAPP). The objectives of this project are:� to develop the capacity of the community to address its own livestock issues, with access to a

range of technical options;� to establish a sustainable decentralized animal health system, with access to its own training

capacity and referral system, and incorporation of effective existing local knowledge;� a community-based tsetse fly control project.

Kathekani – the backgroundKathekani is a dryland farming area in eastern Kenya. It lies in ecological zones 5 and 6. Thesezones are characterized by low rainfall and high temperatures averaging 25–40 °C. The rainfallpattern is bimodal, with the distribution and reliability being poor. Average rainfall is about 600 mmper annum. The dominant tree species are Commiphora and Acacia. Grasses commonly found inthis area are Cenchrus ciliaris and Eragrostis superba. It is a newly settled area with 3 000 farmfamilies made up of about 17 300 people. The community members in this area are agropastoralists.The area is only suitable for drought-tolerant crop farming because of unpredictable rainfall, whichfrequently causes crop failure. The crops grown are sorghum, cowpeas, grams and millet. Only oneout of four seasons is successful.

78 Njoro, Community Initiatives in Livestock Improvement

The livestock management systems in this area have been extensive. Commonly reared types oflivestock are cattle, goats, sheep and chickens. The East African goat is the breed traditionally keptby this community. However, there are other breeds, such as the Galla. Increased human populationhas resulted in subdivision of the land, leading to changes in land tenure systems. This has increasedthe demand for food from livestock sources and other resultant socio-economic needs, leading todevelopment of semi-intensive systems of livestock production.

The area borders Tsavo East National Park, a source of tsetse. It is thus highly tsetse infested,leading to heavy cattle losses from trypanosomiasis. This has compounded the land use problemwith more land being opened up by the community for cultivation as farmers look for alternativelivelihoods. The amount of grazing land has thus been reduced, creating a major constraint inlivestock production despite the use of on-farm crop residues for nutritional purposes, a practice thatis not adequate.

Efforts to control tsetse through trapping technology supplied by ITDG-EA have helped to reducelevels of tsetse and farmers are beginning to restock. Disease incidence has been lowered as a resultof the reduced tsetse population. Nevertheless, farmers prefer to start restocking through goatkeeping as a low-risk investment.

The major production constraints in the area are related to poor extension services provided by thegovernment, a low resource base and frequent drought. The community faces many challenges, suchas wild animal migration, environmental degradation, poverty and food shortages. The ability ofindividual households to identify and mobilize resources to overcome difficulties is low. The use ofParticipatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) surveys combined with workshops to chart the way forwardhas been very effective in addressing these challenges.

Culture and goat breed conservationGoats are culturally very important to the Akamba community of Kathekani for various reasons:� Dowry payments. During the introductory visit in a marriage process, the suitor must offer

goats as gifts to the would-be parents-in-law as a gesture of a budding friendship between thetwo families. This implies that if a man has no goats, he has constraints when consideringmarriage. The colour of the goat used is always white;

� Sacrificial purposes. White goats used also to be used for sacrifices to the gods;� Witchdoctor payments. The colour black was an essential feature of such payments;� Social purposes;� Honour. It is honourable to slaughter a goat for a close relative, in-law relatives or a close

friend when they visit your homestead or to mark other social occasions;� Prestige.

It is prestigious to own goats and therefore a man who does earns much respect from the othercommunity members. This became clear in an interview in Kathekani, when a farmer stated:“Without goats you are not a man, you are nothing”. These cultural requirements necessitatedpropagation of particular breeds within the community, which was an incentive towardsconservation.

Objectives of the community initiative

The farmers’ objectives in improved breeding initiatives are mainly to improve livelihoods of theKathekani farmers through higher production of their livestock to ensure food security. This can beachieved through:� building a strong local community capacity to address livestock production constraints;


� improving household income through the sale of goats for slaughter and the young crosses forbreeding;

� exploiting the existing local gene pool for goats to achieve higher productivity of goats.

Goat management systems

Land in Kathekani is individually owned and therefore farmers graze within their own farms. Thecattle population is 21 000 and that of goats is 60 000 (1997 livestock survey by ITDG). Thelivestock breeds reared are indigenous. The livestock management system in Kathekani is semi-intensive. Grazing is either done individually or communally. Goats are watered in rivers, whichcriss-cross the area abundantly.

Although supplementation feeding of goats is minimal, it is still carried out on a small scale.Mineral supplements and on-farm by-products are used. Commonly used farm residues are maizestovers, cowpea and green gram pods. Maasai love grass and acacia pods are also used. Usually, thisis used for sick animals, pregnant ones and the rest of the flock when the pastures are inadequateand when on-farm by-products are available. No commercial concentrates are provided.

Minerals for the goats are acquired locally through natural salt licks that are found along thewatering points. Almost every farmer has access to these points. Those who cannot access the saltlicks, or are unwilling to take their animals there because of mixing, purchase locally made salt. TheNgiluni farmers group from Kathekani makes the salt from bones, termite mounds, bricks andcommon salt. They sell it to other farmers for 80 shillings (K Sh), or around US$1 per kg.

Existing goat genetic resourcesThe indigenous goat reared by the Kathekani community is the East African goat. The Galla goat isalso reared by a group of farmers but is not widespread. The community became interested in theGalla goat because of its positive traits. Two breeds form the goat gene pool, which the farmers areexploiting to improve their goat production. The major driving force behind the initiative is marketdemands, which are dictating the product to be produced. A description of these breeds follows.

East African goat

This is one of the most successful domestic stocks in the semi-arid lands. It is found all over EastAfrica from the desert to the urban areas. The colour ranges from pure white to pure black withvarious intermixes of roan and speckled brown. Males have pronounced manes running the fulllength of the back. Horns are 2.5–20 cm in length. Tassels are found in up to 30 percent of thebreed. Adult males attain weights up to 35 kg and females 25–30 kg. Sexual maturity is attained atfive to six months of age. The East African is superior to the Galla in fertility (89.4:75.5 percent),prolificacy (24:6 percent) and return to oestrus (it has a short postpartum interval, nine days shorterthan that of the Galla).

The East African has a slow growth rate. Yearlings rarely exceed 20 kg. They are kept mainly formeat, as their milk is rarely sufficient for more than a single kid. They have potential for selectionand are therefore a useful base in an upgrading programme. Their greatest asset is the ability tosurvive. The East African has more tolerance than the Galla to trypanosomiasis, internal parasitesand pasteurellosis. This is demonstrated by low kid mortality.

Galla goat

The Galla is indigenous to the northern areas of Kenya. Its other names are the Borana and theSomali breed. It is further classified into two types: the Degyir, a medium-sized and a larger purewhite type, and the Degeun (Devandra and McLeroy, 1982). Bucks have an adult weight of around70 kg, and does 45–55 kg. The Borana keep them for their milk: yields are higher than the East


African. Given favourable conditions, the Galla continues to gain weight until it is eight years ofage. At the end of its reproductive life, it still has considerable sale value, for meat.

Characteristics to qualify for registration in the Kenya Stud Book (a quality control farmer's centrefor all livestock breeds) are as follows: animals must be white haired with a black skin, nose, feetand undertail. The other subtype is coloured around the head and lower legs with a black stripealong the spine.

Galla females continue to breed and rear kids up to ten years of age. They have a strong dentalsystem and are therefore rarely culled because of dental problems. They are docile, easy to handleand thrive best at low altitudes, preferably in acacia-bush country. They have a remarkable power ofcompensatory growth after a long dry season. They have high wither height and long bodies,allowing them to utilize browse that cannot be reached by the East African species. Femalesproduce 20-kg kids at weaning. They can loose up to 10 kg of body weight during lactation (10–15 percent) but, given the opportunity, they will regain this in two to three months.

Breeding programme and the involvement of groupsThe approach adopted by farmers is communally managed utilization of locally available goatgenetic resources among the resource-poor farmers. The Galla and the East African goat are used asa local goat gene pool for the arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya, which the local community isexploiting to harness positive traits. In the case of Kathekani this is achieved through a groupapproach. The breeding programme is communally controlled through the formation of groups withthe clear goal of improving goat productivity.

Farmers have formed themselves into nine groups. Each group has an average of 15 members.Each farmer selects the best performing East African buck and does. The breeding material isacquired by selecting from the existing flocks. The poor-performing bucks are castrated and thefemales culled. The farmers are left with the best performers for breeding. This is a prerequisite forintroduction of other genetic material of Galla origin. Existing farmers’ by-laws stipulate that:� All the poor-performing East African bucks in a farmer's flock have to be castrated before

introduction of the group Galla buck.� Those members unwilling to castrate their East African bucks should ensure physical

separation once the Galla buck is introduced. They relocate them to their distant relatives orclose friends.

� Each farmer within a group should put up a housing structure for all his goats to protect themagainst extreme weather and predators (the Tsavo national reserve is nearby).

� In order to allow for procurement of the Galla buck, each farmer has to make a monetarycontribution as stipulated by the group.

For quicker results, farmers have targeted the Galla buck rather than the doe for cross-breedingwith the East African. After castration of all the poor performers and physical separation of theother East African bucks in the flock, the only mating option for their does is the group’s Gallabuck. However, should the need arise, the East African goats can always be accessed for breedingpurposes.

For breeding purposes, the Galla goat is procured from the neighbouring districts. The last batchwas purchased from the Orma Borana of Tana River district. Useful background information on thebreeding stock is also provided.

Since the rearing system is semi-intensive, the goats graze on natural pastures. Each groupmember is allocated the Galla buck to utilize and mate with the rest of the herd for one month. Thechoice of one month is to ensure that other members do not wait too long before getting a chance tohave the buck. After one month, the farmer hands over the buck to the next beneficiary. Todetermine who the next beneficiary will be, members carry out a ballot every month. Those whohave already benefited are usually excluded from this ballot. If a member wins the ballot and for


some reason does not require the buck during that month, he can pass it on to a member of hischoice. Reasons why members sometimes forfeit their chance include: pregnancy of all their does,not having fulfilled the group’s conditions (such as castration and selection of their bucks), andfailure to have a housing structure for their goats.

The buck is supposed to rotate among all members in the group. During the period when the goatis in the custody of one member, access should not be denied to other members. Members presenttheir does on heat to the buck for mating and then take them back once they have mated. Once allmembers have had a chance, after a full rotation, the members exchange their bucks with othergroups to prevent inbreeding.

Two economically viable group members have purchased their own Galla bucks. They graze thesebucks with their other flock and they are not free for rotation to other members. These membershave the long-term intention of being Galla breeders for multiplication and distribution to the otherfarmers for breeding.

The following measures are taken to prevent uncontrolled breeding:� Bucks are exchanged among the groups once all members of a group have had custody of the

Galla buck. So far, a full rotation has not yet been achieved.� Individual members intend to exchange their bucks with each other once the F1s are mature

enough to be mated.� Each farmer ensures that he grazes his animals separately to avoid mixing them with those of

his neighbours, so that only the Galla buck is allowed to mate.� Watering is either done at home or at a nearby river. To avoid mixing, farmers water their

animals after other community members have finished. However, this is not foolproof andaccidental uncontrolled breeding may still occur.

� To prevent goats mixing at the salt licks, most of which are communal, some farmers haveopted to purchase the locally made salt from Ngiluni farmers group.

� Records are kept of the bucks used for breeding, especially the Galla bucks.

The breeders association is a steering committee that coordinates all the activities of the breedinggroup. Each of the nine groups has representation in the breeders group. The group deals centrallywith all procurements and also links the breeders to other service providers. The breedersassociation was the founder of this initiative. This is a forum in which the interests of groupmembers are discussed. They form linkages with other partners in goat breeding.

The community initiative

Support

Several institutions are involved in the support of the community initiative in different areas andcapacities.

Technical support:� The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) provides technical

information required by the breeders through extension services. This concerns theidentification of good breeding bucks, the provision of movement permits, animal health andproper goat management practices.

� Community-based animal health workers (CAHWs) are farmers trained in basic animal healthtechniques. CAHWs are selected by their communities. So far, 43 have been trained inKathekani. They are in the front line of animal health delivery at the community level. Theyattend to all emerging cases and refer those they are unable to deal with to the governmentveterinary personnel.


� Ethnoveterinary practitioners provide inexpensive services to the livestock breeders for thevarious livestock ailments they can treat. There are ten of these registered traditional healers.

Logistical support:� On request, ITDG-EA provides the farmers with help to transport newly acquired goats.

Capacity-building:� ITDG-EA also offers capacity-building through training in small-business skills, fodder

conservation, pasture establishment and making salt licks. The farmers have also been takenfor study visits to other areas where breeding programmes are being implemented.

Socio-economic support:� Butchers and livestock traders provide the marketing channels for goats reared for slaughter.

Sustainability

1. Sense of ownership� Farmers make a great financial contribution towards this initiative with very little external

support, giving them a sense of ownership.

2. Strengthened institutions� The community’s capacity to run the project has been greatly enhanced through relevant

training and study visits to other breeding programmes in other areas. The small-scalebusiness skills training helps farmers to view farming activities as business ventures.

� Linkages with partners, e.g. MoARD, CAHWs and livestock traders. The communitytherefore knows where to obtain information and technical advice.

3. Group approach� This ensures that all members are responsible to each other, giving a sense of accountability

and transparency with inbuilt monitoring systems.

Monitoring

The farmers monitor the initiative’s progress themselves. This is done in the following way:� Members keep simple records to identify the buck used for breeding. Bucks are identified

through their phenotypic qualities and by the group that originally owned the goat.� The health of the buck is also a pertinent issue. In case of sickness, the group member with

custody of the goat bears the cost. The member should also report the matter to the groupofficials and inform them about the nature of the illness and the course of treatment adopted.In such a case, the group takes responsibility if the goat eventually dies. The animal healthcomponent is the concern of community animal health workers.

� Financial records of the members’ contributions are kept by the groups’ officials.

Outcome

The anticipated and realized monetary benefits of the project have encouraged farmers to adopt thisbreeding initiative. The Galla/East African crosses are attaining much higher market weights in ashorter period than the East African goat. The goats are also preferred by butchers and tradersbecause of their size. An East African goat of 25 kg (live weight) fetches K Sh 1 500 (US$20),while a cross of 45 kg fetches K Sh 5 000 (US$67) and a Galla of about 65 kg is worth K Sh 8 000(US$107).


The farmers’ livestock management practices have improved. Farmers are more in control of theiranimal health problems than before, which can be seen from, e.g., the improved housing, the prompttreatment of sick animals and deliberate efforts to watch out for breeding diseases. This has led tothe production of high-quality carcasses with fewer losses.

Moreover, greater linkages between the community members and other partners with a stake in thebreeding initiative have evolved. Farmers are in a better position to network and access informationthey require for their livestock production needs.

Constraints

� Limited availability of pastures, especially during drought;� Lack of adequate resources to increase the number of Galla bucks to ensure that each farmer

has at least one, thus increasing the Galla genetic resource base. This has led the farmers touse their East African goats when the Galla goat is in the custody of other farmers;

� Risk of uncontrolled breeding during watering and grazing;� Predation on livestock by wild animals from the national park;� Lack of appropriate breeding policy for the arid and semi-arid lands;� Low level of literacy leading to poor record-keeping. Some members attempt to keep records

by committing them to memory;� Inadequate goat nutrition as a result of constant droughts;� Lack of a clear breeding policy.

Lessons learned

The following lessons have been learned by community members and partners:� Community-based knowledge and practices represent a strong tool in community livestock-

breeding programmes. This leads to a demand-driven participatory planning approach wherethe interests of the community are well catered for.

� In situ conservation cannot be successful if it is conducted for its own sake. Benefits must befelt at the community level.

� Breeding programmes are successful if developed as an integrated livestock production packageand not in isolation. Such a package should incorporate the farming systems in a particular area.

� Organized community activities lead to faster realization of development objectives.

ConclusionThe initiative is in a nascent stage. At the moment, farmers focus on immediate or short-termbenefits as opposed to long-term benefits. The cross-breeding method is criss-cross mating, butinstead of using tropical breeds, indigenous breeds are used. Some of the farmers are upgradingtheir Galla without a firm idea of the level they want to achieve. As a result, it is clear that thefarmers are not quite focused on what end product they require. They thus need technical guidancefrom professional breeders to help them map out their breeding strategy and long-term objectives.Technical guidance could also be a clear breeding policy to guide them on the way forward in theirbreeding programmes.

At the moment, the Kathekani farmers are responding to market forces in their strategy ofexploiting their existing gene pool. But market forces are dynamic. Changes in the social fabricoccur, and questions arise as to what incentives will be required to ensure that the farmers conservetheir breeds voluntarily, and whether the focus should be on pure breed conservation or indigenousgene pool conservation.


ReferencesDevandra & McLeroy, G.B. 1982. Goat and sheep production in the tropics. London, Longman.ITDG-EA. 2000. Community-based animal health care in East Africa. Experiences and case studies with particular

reference to Kenya. Nairobi, Intermediate Technology Development Group – Eastern Africa.ITDG-EA. 2000. Marginal farmers project review report. Nairobi.ITDG-EA. 2001. The role of community-based animal health care in rural development: ITDG-EA's experiences.

Nairobi.Okeyo, A.M. et al. 1985. Fertility levels, postpartum intervals and other reproductive performance traits in the East

African goat, Galla and their crosses at Ol Magogo Collaborative Research Support Programme. Proc. 4th SmallRuminant Collaborative Research Support Programme. Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Kenya.

Skea, I. 1988. Keeping goats in Kenya. Nairobi, Ministry of Livestock Development.Skea, I., Lenemiria, D., Skea, R., Neugebauer, S. & Mathewman, R.W. 1990. Study of Galla goat production in a

semi-arid environment in Kenya. Nairobi, Embu-Meru-Isiolo Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Programme.

The State of the Basotho Pony in Lesotho

Tamolo A. Lekota

Animal Production Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, PO Box 239, Othing 700, Lesotho

IntroductionThe origin of the Basotho Pony can be traced back from that of the Cape horse, which formed thefoundation stock. According to Thomton (1936), horses were first sent out to the Cape by the DutchEast India Company in 1652. They were Java horses of a strong Persian and Arab strain. Murphy(1997) says that the first horses appeared in Lesotho around 1825, captured from the Zulu and laterfrom the Boers. In 1870, the Basotho Pony was known among Europeans as a breed or type. Exportsof the ponies grew, and their fame spread throughout South Africa and became enhanced during theAnglo-Boer War. Some authors claim that the Basotho Pony was known and recognized as adistinct breed around 1850. This horse has been developed through natural selection (Rantletse,2001).

The total Basotho Pony population in Lesotho is estimated to be 98 000 to 112 000. Of these, 63percent are found in the foothills and mountain areas. The horse is a source of pride in Lesotho andthere are a large number of competent riders in rural areas. In some areas of the country the horse isthe only alternative to travelling on foot. Horses are used mainly as a mode of transport over therugged topography of Lesotho. Basotho Ponies are also used by tourists for trekking, which is asource of income for a few communities. In some parts of the country, horses are used as draughtanimals, mainly for ploughing, planting, carding and cultivating the fields (Rwelamira, 1998).

For many years, Lesotho, like many other countries, regarded the horse as having lost its place inthe modern world, because it had ceased to be an animal of economic importance. The BasothoPony is a natural resource of the country, but, as yet, no serious efforts have been made to exploit itcommercially.

The Basotho Pony is famous for its stamina, docility, extremely hardy hoof, endurance, goodtemperament and sure-footedness, and the name has remained a valuable “trademark” to this day.Basotho Pony populations have been observed over many years. There have been declines inpopulation caused by outbreaks of diseases and poor control of them. The reaction of Basotho horsebreeders was to cross-breed the ponies with newly introduced breeds, which led to a loss of theBasotho Pony characteristics. In 1975, this deterioration was revealed by a study.

The reasons why the Basotho Pony has developed such a good reputation among horse breeds areas follows: Lesotho presents an ideal environment for the breeding and rearing of horses as it has adry mountain climate with consequently low incidence of pandemic diseases. Its mountain pasturesand high veldt have the potential to yield ideal grazing for horses, and farmland can produce high-quality fodder.

Basotho Pony developmentThe main report of the Lesotho National Livestock Development Study in 1999 demonstrates thatthe accelerated development of the Basotho Pony began with the Basotho Pony Project, when Arabblood from Egypt and the Connemara Pony from Ireland were introduced. The latter breed has acommon Arab ancestry with the Basotho Pony and has similar size, conformation, temperament,stamina and hardiness, but larger bones, better hind legs and superior fertility rates.

In the early 1950s, the Basotho Pony was facing extinction. For many years there had beendemand for the Basotho Pony from countries such as Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania,Zambia, Malawi and South Africa, but it was only on 8 May 1973, during a donor conference, that

86 Lekota, The Basotho Pony in Lesotho

Ireland agreed to establish the Basotho Pony Project to respond to the demand from countries wherethe Basotho Pony’s potential was known. In 1978, the National Stud was established under anagreement reached between the Governments of Lesotho and Ireland in 1976. The stud coversapproximately 1 500 hectares and comprises rangelands and arable land.

In 1984, a marketing and trekking centre was also established to use and market the Basotho Pony.This centre extends over 436 ha, comprising rangelands and 6 ha of arable land at Molimo Nthuse.

In order to survive the harsh environment, the Basotho Pony developed particular geneticcharacteristics such as the ability to endure extremes of temperatures and live on variable qualitygrazing. It developed thick-walled hooves to negotiate the mountain terrain, an ability to triple(tripling is a two-time lateral gait, slightly fasten than a trot, in which fore and hind legs on the sameside work together), a relatively docile temperament, intelligence and good speed.

The breed reached its peak quality by the turn of the century and during the Anglo-Boer War of1899–1902. The rapid decline in the quantity and quality of the breed in the twentieth century isgenerally attributed to a number of factors including the following: up to 30 000 of the best stock,particularly stallions, were sold to both sides during the Anglo-Boer War. By 1906, Lesotho wasdepleted of its best stock as the stallions, sold to the belligerents during the war, had been castrated.

Export demand for good geldings led to further depletion of available good-quality stallions fordomestic breeding. The blizzard of 1902, combined with malnutrition and bad managementpractices, depleted the numbers and quality of Basotho Ponies further, hastening the decline inconformation and performance. Breeding and cross-breeding was largely unregulated and theintroduction of thoroughbred stallions led to further deterioration in the skeletal quality and theability to endure the harsh environment. There was no central marketing strategy for ponies andboth breeding and trade were unregulated. Ponies were not regarded as marketable commodities inthe same way as cattle, sheep and goats.

Production systemThe production systems can mainly be divided into intensive and extensive systems, wherebyintensive refers to the activities of the National Stud and the Marketing Centre, while extensiverefers to the mare camps system.

The National Stud (intensive system)

The National Stud produces top-quality young stock follies and colts, which are sold to Basothohorse breeders at subsidized prices to enable them to improve their horse herds. The National Studis a research and resource centre. It conducts research on different types of horse fodder. It is visitedby horse breeders who wish to obtain appropriate zootechnical knowledge about horse breeding andmanagement. Record-keeping at the centre is of a high standard. The stud is an educational centrefor scholars all around the country. The stud was planned to accommodate 40 breeding mares andfour high-quality Sesotho stallions to fulfil its objectives. The problems currently faced by theNational Stud and the Marketing Centre are horse poisoning by senecio, snake poisoning and thosearising from their status of not being fully commercialized.

The mare camps (extensive system)

This is another branch of Basotho Pony breeding activities, operating throughout the country. Theduties of the part of the Equine Section (Department of Livestock Services) responsible are toinspect and register mares, stallions and the progeny of the registered stud herd. In addition, farmersare trained in Basotho Pony breeding and management principles. In order to achieve this objective,the field extension programme encourages farmers to form an association that breeds horses usingpasture breeding. This is described by Marrow (1986), who judged it to be the most adequate systemto be employed in horse breeding because of its biological aspects of reproduction.


Marrow (1986) emphasizes the importance of pasture breeding and the mare camps wereestablished based on the following:� The stallion performs all the work and the owner only needs to supervise the herd.� The stallion is much better than his human companions at heat detection, thus, in natural

breeding the herd will have a better conception rate than in hand breeding.Regular ovulation and conception occur in mares in contact with a stallion, although this is not the

case with mares kept with a stallion throughout the year. Marrow (1986) sets out the disadvantagesof pasture breeding, which are encountered in the mare camps, although they are of limitedimportance in the case of the Basotho Pony. The greatest disadvantage is the loss of supervision.When valuable animals are involved, pasture breeding is impractical because the risk of injury ishigh. However, this applies to breeds other than the Basotho Pony, because of the latter’stemperament. The ponies are both gregarious and shy by nature and quickly establish a socialhierarchy in which inexperienced stallions will always be exposed to injury while the “boss” marewill prevent other mares from being covered when she is in oestrus.

It is also dangerous for young foals to be turned out with a stallion that is not of comparable size,because when he takes over a group of mares for any reason, he will attack the foals that he has notsired. Again, this does not apply to Basotho Ponies as they have good parental character. Marrow(1986) describes these disadvantages as opposed to the advantages of hand breeding, which wasused in Lesotho when stallions were kept at livestock-improvement centres. The hand-matingsystem had very poor conception rates, while in mare camps the conception rates and foalingpercentages have improved tremendously since the introduction of extension and registrationprogrammes. History shows that hand mating has been employed unsuccessfully since 1906, whenvaluable Arab stallions were used to assist the development of horses in Lesotho. McCormack(1986) explains that mare camps are a key to the future role of extension in correct breedingmanagement and encouraging teamwork and cooperation among farmers. Mare camps have thefollowing advantages, as observed by equine technicians:� They provide a controlled breeding programme and good management.� They encourage cooperation among farmers, because they control the centres.� Farmers do not have to take the trouble of going to the livestock-improvement centres during

the mare oestrus.The mare camps, like any other established centres, have disadvantages, too:� Mares are grouped together and therefore are easily accessible to thieves.� There is little commitment of the government to combat stock theft.� Mare camps are not fenced, hence stallions of inferior quality are able to intrude.� A reliable herder is needed, however difficult to find, as he/she must fully understand his/her

role in keeping records.� Unless horses are tested prior to breeding, transmission of venereal diseases such as dourine

could cause havoc.

Policy and strategies of the Equine SectionThe policy of the Equine Section is governed by the following broad objectives:� To ensure that the Basotho Pony continues to provide an efficient mode of transport for the

rural population, particularly those who are living far from roads;� To maintain and improve the genetic and phenotypic characteristics of the Basotho Pony;� To develop the export of the breed and internal markets for it.

The development programme of the section is promoted by the following strategies:� Facilitating the formation of Basotho Pony Associations;

88 Lekota, The Basotho Pony in Lesotho

� Investigating, controlling and testing for diseases that can hinder improvement in the qualityand quantity of the breed (e.g. dourine);

� Supporting the horse owners in organizing races and attendance at shows;� Facilitating increased commercialization of the Basotho Pony in order to make an additional

contribution to farm income.

In order to achieve its objectives, the Equine Section is involved in the following activities:� Countrywide extension;� The Marketing and Trekking Centre at Molimo-Nthuse;� The Basotho Pony National Stud at Thaba Tseka.

AcknowledgementsMy sincere gratitude goes to Mr J.L.S. Rantletse, head of the Equine Section at the Department of Livestock Services inMaseru, who supplied me with all the relevant information for this paper, and to Mr N. Mopeli, an Equine ExtensionOfficer in Thaba-Tseka, whom I interviewed. I would also like to thank Ms M. Masenyane and Mrs M. Mofelehetsi,who helped me type the paper.

ReferencesMcCormack. 1986. Basotho Pony project: extension and registration. Report, pp. 9–21.Marrow, D.A. 1986. Current therapy in theriogenology: 2. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of reproduction

diseases in small and large animals, pp. 635–645, 666–667.Murphy, A. 1997. Basotho pony project: ex-post evaluation report, pp. 22–38.Rantletse, J.L.S. 2001. Equine Section. Layout. (Unpublished)Rwelamira, J.K. 1998. Economic aspects of draught animal power, pp. 9–10.Thomton, R.W. 1936. The origin and history of the Basotho Pony, pp. 12–33.

Community-Based Livestock Improvement andConservation: Experiences from Open-Nucleus Breeding

Programmes in West Africa

Chia Valentine Yapi-Gnaoré,1 B. Dagnogo2 and B.A. Oya2

1Centre National de Recherche Agronomique (CNRA), Station Elevage 01,BP 633 Bouaké 01, Côte d’Ivoire. 2Agence Nationale pour le Développement Rural

(ANADER), Région Centre-Nord 01, BP 3616, Bouaké 01, Côte d’Ivoire

AbstractNew priorities in livestock development were set following the 1972–1973 drought in the Sahel. These newpriorities included a community-based national sheep improvement programme emphasizing smallholders.The primary goal was the improvement of the performance of the breed. Nevertheless, the focus of all activi-ties was directed at the utilization and conservation of the local Djallonké sheep breed. The breeding strategyfollows that of an open-nucleus breeding scheme with selection based on individual performance of the localbreed, Djallonké. The selection scheme included three phases: an on-farm preselection phase, an on-stationfirst selection phase and an on-station final selection phase followed by the distribution of selected rams tofarmers for mating. The selection yielded two categories of rams: the first-category rams, used in base flockmating and, the second-category rams sold to other farmers. All the farms involved throughout the countrywere instructed to breed only the local breed of Djallonké sheep. About 14 000 Djallonké breeding ewes,raised on 170 smallholder farms, were involved in the selection programme of the local Djallonké. The breedis highly appreciated because of its ability to tolerate trypanosomiasis. The Djallonké sheep live and reproducein the tsetse-infested zones of the tropical humid and subhumid ecological environments. Despite some diffi-culties, farmers are in the process of organizing sheep-breeders associations to continue the breeding and con-servation of the local Djallonké sheep initiated by the Government of Côte d’Ivoire.

IntroductionThe history of livestock development in Côte d’Ivoire began very recently. It started with thedrought of 1972–1973 in the Sahel. Because the future of the country’s livestock supplies were atrisk during that period, a very high priority was set on livestock development, particularly on short-or medium-reproductive-cycle species (MPA, 1976). A campaign to promote livestock productionthroughout the country was launched. An extension agency, Société pour le Développement de laProduction Animale (SODEPRA), was created and located in five regional offices (Centre, Nord,Ouest, Sud-Ouest, Sud-Est). In 1977, SODEPRA’s central regional office initiated the nationalsheep programme, Programme National Ovin (PNO). Three major activities were assigned to thePNO. These activities were:

� The creation of the national sheep centre, Centre National Ovin (CNO): The CNO had theobjectives of selecting farmers and providing them with improved breeding stocks ofDjallonké sheep, testing out new sheep production techniques and training sheep farmers andextension workers. A special programme was later initiated to establish, after the training, anew generation of young sheep farmers – the Programme d’Appui à l’Elevage Ovin (PAEO).

� The creation of a state farm for commercial sheep production: The commercial productionunit had a mandate for large-scale sheep production through the utilization of the Stylosantheshamata cover crop in the cassava cropping system.

� The provision of technical assistance to sheep producers: The tasks to be carried out wereorganizing sheep producers in rural areas, promoting and rationalizing private or communalsheep enterprises, encouraging villagers to establish new flocks using modern techniques andorganizing the production and marketing of slaughter animals. In addition, the technical

90 Yapi-Gnaoré, Dagnogo & Oya, Community-Based Livestock Improvement

assistance service collaborated with the veterinary health service in vaccinating farmers’flocks against major diseases (Peste des Petits Ruminants [PPR] and Pasteurellosis) once ayear and oversaw the prophylactic programme.

After several years of extension work through the activities of the PNO, a selection programme onpure-breed Djallonké sheep was initiated in 1983 in the central and northeast regions of Côted'Ivoire. It was later extended to other regions of the country. The primary objectives of theselection programme were to improve growth and live weight of pure-breed Djallonké sheep andprovide smallholder sheep farmers with improved breeding animals. Although the primary goal wasthe improvement of performance, the focus of all activities was directed at the utilization andconservation of the local Djallonké breed of sheep.

Role of communities in conserving animal genetic resourcesThe selection programme (Programme National de Sélection Ovine [PNSO]) was designed as adevelopment project with smallholder farmers being the primary target. One of the majorrequirements was farmers who breed only local Djallonké sheep. All the farms involved wereinstructed to breed only Djallonké sheep and eliminate animals showing another sheep typephenotype from their flocks. The programme was designed to include the maximum number ofDjallonké sheep raised in the country. However, not all farms were included in the programme. ThePAEO contributed significantly to the PNSO. A total of 209 Djallonké farms were established. Eachfarm received at least 150 breeding Djallonké ewes, which were automatically included in theselection programme.

The major reason for promoting the local Djallonké breed was its adaptation to the physicalenvironment of Côte d’Ivoire. The climate of the region is of the sudano-guinean type. Annualrainfall during the study period was 1 112 mm, with the lowest monthly rainfall in December(7 mm) and the highest in August (201 mm). The average temperature was 26 °C and ranged from19 to 35 °C. The vegetation consists of arboreal savannah. The breed is known in tropical humidand subhumid environments for its adaptation. It is widely believed to be trypanotolerant, mainlybecause of its ability to live and produce in the tsetse-infested zones. Sheep coming fromneighbouring countries find it difficult to survive in the Djallonké environment. In addition, it iswidely believed that the Djallonké has better taste and better carcass characteristics.

Community mobilizationThe PNSO activities started in 1983 with farmers involved in the extension service of the PNO.Based on their experiences and skills in modern sheep production techniques, some farmers werechosen to participate in the programme. These farmers were recognized to be capable of keepingrecords of their flocks, correctly identifying their animals, following the prophylactic programmeand giving their animals supplements during critical periods. The enrolled farms comprisedsmallholder flocks and the two state farms. The smallholder flocks were those of the traditionalsheep farmers and those established through the PAEO programme. Further requirements for thefarmers to be registered with the extension service included the holding of property rights to theland where their farm was located, easy access to a water source (river or agropastoral dam) andeasy access to the farm by car. The principal objective was to help farmers, most of whom aresmallholders, to move from traditional husbandry practices to new, improved managementtechniques.

Farmers were taught how to build night enclosures, shelters, collecting yards, sorting pens (withtraditional local material) and footbaths. They also learned how to castrate unwanted rams, toidentify lambs at birth and to keep records. Lambing events to be recorded included theidentification of lambs at birth, the recording of dates of birth, sex of lamb, birth type, birth weights


and 80-day weight. Lamb identification numbers were given as series of consecutive numbers basedon the mating period and the number of ewes mated in each flock.

Lambs were born on the participating farms. Participating farmers used low- to medium-inputproduction systems. Flock management varied from exclusive utilization of natural savannahpasture with few supplements on smallholders’ farms to the use of natural and cultivated pasturewith a high level of supplements on state farms. Supplements were provided to nursing ewes andduring the dry season. Supplements were combinations of various agricultural and agro-industrialby-products. Cereal by-products were often used. Salt lick and water were provided ad lib.

Vaccination against major diseases (PPR and Pasteurellosis) was provided free of charge throughthe veterinary health service. Endoparasite and ectoparasite controls were performed once or twice amonth depending on the season. It was the responsibility of the farmers to carry out thosetreatments. Until 1998, veterinary products and fencing material were available at subsidized prices.

Farmers contributed to the programme by selling their selected ram lambs to be monitored untilthe final selection process. They offered their farms as field training laboratories for futurecandidates in the process of establishing their sheep farms. The number of farms and breeding ewesincreased in all the regions (Tables 1a & 1b). In March 1999, 143 farms were involved in theprogramme, which represents 17 000 breeding Djallonké ewes (88 percent from smallholder farms and12 percent from one state farm).

The governments of Côte d’Ivoire and France and the European Community, through theEuropean Development Fund, provided funding for the selection programme. Since 1999, the Côted’Ivoire Government has funded the programme on its own. In the long run, farmers will take overthe management of the programme and will be responsible for organizing funding through theirfarmers’ organization, l’Association pour la Promotion du Djallonké de Côte d’Ivoire(APRODJALCI).

Organization and coordination of the programmeThe breeding strategy follows that of an open-nucleus breeding scheme with selection based onindividual performance of the rams. The structure of the PNSO is composed of one centralperformance evaluation station for rams (the nucleus) and farmers’ flocks of only breeding ewes(the base population). The flock of selected rams maintained at the PNSO performance-testingstation is considered to be the nucleus. The station holds only selected rams. There is no ewe in thenucleus flock on station. The ewe flocks are those of the farmers.


Table 1a. Evolution of number of flocks and breeding ewes in the PNSO from 1984 to 1994 underthe SODEPRA extension service

SODEPRA RegionsYear

Centre Nord Sud-Est Ouest & Sud-Ouest

Total

Flocks 35 - - - 351984Ewes 2 987 - - - 2 987Flocks 32 - - - 321985Ewes 3 488 - - - 3 488Flocks 36 13 3 1 531986Ewes 3 977 1 370 450 300 6 097Flocks 40 13 3 14 701987Ewes 5 909 1 305 407 1 090 8 711Flocks 43 14 8 11 761988Ewes 5 956 1 961 566 676 9 159Flocks 62 16 10 12 1001989Ewes 7 727 1 500 621 730 10 578Flocks 60 10 8 8 861990Ewes 7 548 1 430 449 589 10 016Flocks 51 9 7 10 771991Ewes 8 406 1 606 359 823 11 194Flocks 60 0 7 4 711992Ewes 9 268 0 411 460 10 139Flocks 73 0 5 4 821993Ewes 9 871 0 301 494 10 666Flocks 89 0 3 921994Ewes 12 453 0 196 12 649

Table 1b. Evolution of number of flocks and breeding ewes in the PNSO from 1995 to 2000 underthe Agence Nationale pour le Développement Rural (ANADER) extension service

ANADER RegionsYear

Centre Centre-Nord

Centre-Ouest

Nord Ouest Est Sud Sud-Ouest

Total

Flocks 25 51 07 0 0 9 2 0 941995Ewes 3 040 7 784 1 265 0 0 735 185 0 13 009Flocks 32 57 7 0 0 13 2 0 1111996Ewes 3 910 9 267 1 322 0 0 1 362 145 0 16 006Flocks 31 60 7 0 0 22 3 0 1231997Ewes 3 450 10 147 1 280 0 0 1 799 205 0 16 881Flocks 29 59 12 12 5 22 4 0 1431998Ewes 3 834 8 254 1 416 923 237 1 894 310 0 16 868Flocks 24 52 14 4 5 17 2 0 1181999Ewes 3 225 7 619 1 181 190 202 1 633 171 0 14 221Flocks 24 55 11 6 5 20 2 0 1232000Ewes 3 225 7 631 971 283 202 1 838 171 0 14 321

The selection scheme included three phases: an on-farm preselection phase, an on-station firstselection phase and an on-station final selection phase followed by the distribution of selected ramsto farmers for mating. Mating was scheduled from the programme headquarters. Selected breedingrams were brought to the farms for a mating period of about 45 days. Ewes were mated every eightmonths to a group of sires in a ratio of 1 to 30 with the number of sires in a group varying from 1 to13. Replacement females were produced within the flocks. However, farmers were allowed topurchase ewe lambs from other participating farmers.


When the first-born lamb reached about 80 days of age, individual lamb weights were recorded.Subsequent weights were taken at about 23-day intervals. Two or three weights of each lamb bornon a farm were recorded and used to estimate 80-day weight. Male lambs were selected based on80-day weights, linearly extrapolated using recorded weights. Lambs having a weight equal to flockaverage plus one standard deviation were selected. In practice lambs having a weight greater orequal to 13 kg were selected and were bought from the farmers based on their live weights. Non-selected ram lambs were castrated. More and more farmers preferred not to castrate their non-selected lambs and to raise them in a separate flock away from the ewe flocks.

Animals, selected from various farms, were transferred to and maintained at the centralperformance testing station managed at the programme headquarters. The rams were selected basedon their weights at 180 and 365 days of age on-station. Animals were weighed three or four timesover a period of 10 to 12 weeks and their 180-day weights linearly extrapolated. Those with 180-dayweights less than 20 kg were culled. From 1987, rams with weights greater or equal to 23 kg wereclassified as first-category rams; those with weights between 20 and 23 kg were classified assecond-category rams. Selected rams continued to be monitored with a second series of three orfour weighings until they reached 12 to 14 months of age. The final selection was made based ontheir 365-day weights. The selection yielded two categories of ram: first-category rams were used inbase flocks' mating and second-category rams were sold to non-PNSO farmers (Table 2). Therequired weight at 365 days of age to qualify as a first-category ram was 35 kg. Rams weighingbetween 30 and 35 kg were classified as second-category rams.

On-station animals were maintained on pasture (savannah and cultivated pastures of Panicum,Centrosema and Stylosanthes spp.). Ram lambs were raised on savannah pasture in order to allowthem to get used to grazing on natural pasture, the most common management practice insmallholder flocks where they would later be used. In addition to pasture, ram lambs received 500-700 g/head of concentrate of cottonseed cake, wheat bran and molasses per day. In the dry season,rams received mixed Panicum–Centrosema hay and rice straw. They were treated for external andinternal parasites, vaccinated against PPR and ovine brucellosis. A checkup for ovine brucellosiswas also performed.

Benefit distributionFarmers in the base population use the selected rams from the nucleus for mating. In return, ramlambs born on those farms are bought and brought to the nucleus for evaluation and eventuallyselected (or not) to be sires. The price offered for the ram lambs constitutes substantial revenue forthe farmers.

The number of selected breeding sires in the nucleus available for mating fluctuates between 180and 200 animals annually. Furthermore, 100 to 120 second-category rams are sold every year tofarms not in the selection programme. Over the past 15 years, the programme has produced morethan 1 000 first-category selected breeding sires for the base population and about 2 000 second-category rams sold to non-base population flocks (Table 2). The dissemination of the selected ramsis so effective that the number of second-category rams produced every year is not enough to satisfydemand.

As far as we know, the PNSO programme is a unique selection programme applied to the localDjallonké breed in West Africa. Over the years, various West African countries (Burkina Faso,Ghana, Togo, Sao Tome and Principe) have imported Djallonké sheep from Côte d’Ivoire either aslive animals (rams and ewes) or semen.


Table 2. Number of ram lambs selected on-farm and selected breeding sires in the PNSO from1984 to 2000

Year On-farm selected ram lambs 2nd category rams 1st category rams

1984 206 0 511985 230 0 631986 305 65 641987 497 87 791988 512 118 1281989 469 124 1411990 0 133 101991 406 304 441992 371 96 341993 599 128 211994 858 134 341995 526 131 411996 443 195 1031997 337 90 361998 313 157 951999 361 76 462000 212 65 136Total 6 645 1 905 1 127

Local concepts of breedsFarmers use various phenotypic characteristics to recognize the breed. These characteristics includethe length of the tail and the ears, the shape of the horns, the form of the face, the shape of thescrotum, the presence of mane or neck ruff on the males and the height of the animals. Djallonké isthe name used for the breed. It is the small, horizontal-eared and thin-tail-hair breed of sheep widelydistributed throughout the humid and savannah zones of West and Central Africa. It is classifiedamong the thin-tailed-hair sheep, within the subgroup of tropical dwarf sheep, based on fleece andtail types (Epstein, 1971). It is a compact breed with a small mature height and size (Rombaut andVan Vlaenderen, 1976). Rams are horned but females are usually polled. The presence of mane orneck ruff on the males is a typical characteristic of the breed. Coat colour varies from spotted blackand white to solid black or white. Any sheep showing different characteristics is not considered aDjallonké sheep. The importance of the Djallonké sheep for the farmers lies in its trypanotolerance.

Critical lessons learned from implementing the programmeFarmers are motivated as long as funds are available and inputs are available at subsidized prices.The decline in number of farms and breeding ewes occurred with the change that took place in theorganization and coordination of the programme. In 1990, the number of farms was 86 comparedwith 100 in the previous year, as a result of the government withdrawing subsidies on veterinaryproducts and fencing material. Since 1998, flock sizes and numbers have been declining becausefarmers are required to deposit their recording sheet with the nearest extension office and pay for theuse of rams for mating. The number of flocks (breeding ewes) fluctuates from year to year, as newflocks enter the base and some leave, because of the openness of the programme. Out of the 209farms that were established through the PAEO programme, only 175 are still operating. Some are inthe process of closing down although they have loans to pay off.

The farmers are not all equally motivated. Although all flocks were supervised by the sameservice, uptake of the extension package differed from one flock to another. Farmers did not allhave the same purchasing power, the same educational background and family situation. About 50farms closed for various reasons. The deep financial involvement of the government at the


beginning of the programme has led to a belief among the farmers that they should always beassisted. Any change that requires their financial involvement is seen as a reason to withdraw.

The desire of the farmers, most of whom are smallholders, to move from traditional husbandrypractices to new, improved management techniques has been the major factor that has kept theprogramme going. Extension officers have to be very closely involved in all aspects of theprogramme from the beginning and financial support should be available and non-interrupted. Aveterinary health service should be available. Agro-industrial production plants are essential. Theyshould be able to provide the by-products needed for feed and be in the proximity of most farms.

Genetic analyses of the programme indicated that genetic values of the animals have beenmaintained or slightly increased during the period of selection. The poor nutritional conditions ofmost smallholder farms and the fluctuating economic and social conditions of the farmers interferedwith the ability of the Djallonké sheep to express their genetic potential.

Despite these impediments, raising Djallonké sheep as a modern and profitable enterprise hasbecome a cultural habit in Côte d’Ivoire as indicated by the number of farms and farmers’associations established throughout the country. They include the following: Association desProducteurs d’Ovins et Caprins du Sud (APROCASUD), Association Professionnelle des EleveursMountonniers du Centre (APEMCE) and Groupement des Eleveurs Professionnels de PetitsRuminants de Boundiali (GEPPRB). Nevertheless, communication among members of the interestgroups is considered a very important issue because some of the members feel left out if they are notinformed about various events. Furthermore, for the activity to be viable, it should be an integralpart of the whole farming system; the only activity of many of those who gave up being part of theprogramme was raising sheep.

ReferencesEpstein, H. 1971. The origin of domestic animals of Africa. Vol. 2. New York, Africana. 719 pp.MPA. 1976. L'élevage en Côte d'Ivoire. Programme de développement. Bureau des Projets. Ministère de la Production

Animale, Côte d’Ivoire. 21 pp.Rombaut, D. & Van Vlaenderen, G. 1976. Le mouton Djallonké en Côte d’Ivoire en milieu villageois: Comportement

et alimentation. Rev. Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop., 29(2): 157–172.

the nguni: a case study · the nguni: a case study jenny bester, l.e. matjuda, j.m. rust and h.j....

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