the need for regulating lead paint second edition

The Need for

Regulating Lead Paint

Toolkit for establishing laws to eliminate

lead paint

Second Edition

GLOBAL ALLIANCE TO ELIMINATE LEAD PAINT

Outline

• Background

• What is paint?

• Why lead paint is a problem?

• Justification for setting a 90 ppm limit

• Summary

• References

• Point of contact

2


Background

• Lead is a versatile and widely used toxic substance.

• Compounds of lead are added to paint to obtain specific characteristics,

e.g. colour, rapid drying, corrosion resistance.

• Paint with lead is used for decoration of interior and exterior surfaces

in homes and public buildings, on roads and bridges, and also on toys, furniture and

playground equipment.

• This presentation will explain why lead paint is of concern,

and why it needs to be regulated.

3


What is paint and how can be described?

• By its solvent base:

➢ water-based paint - commonly called latex or acrylic paint

➢ organic solvent-based paint - commonly called alkyd paint

• By its intended use, e.g.:

➢ decorative paint - commonly used for aesthetic or architectural purposes

➢ industrial paint - commonly used for corrosion protection or for reflecting road safety marks and traffic signages, etc.

• By its final appearance, e.g.:

➢ enamel paint - hard, glossy and opaque finish

4


See Module E for more information on alternatives to lead in paint

Lead Compounds Have a Range of Functions in Paint

Lead can be added to paint in the form of pigments, driers and anti-corrosive agents, resulting in extremely high lead content.

Pigments - The most commonly used lead pigments are lead chromates and lead molybdates which are bright yellow, orange or red in colour.

➢ Lead carbonates and lead sulfates can be used as white pigments, but are rarely used since lead-free alternatives perform better.

➢ These pigments can also be used in a mixture with other pigments to produce bright colours such as green and purple.

Alternative, non-lead compounds exist for all the functions of lead in paint and result in paint of equivalent quality.

5


Contribution of Components to the Lead Content of Paint

6

• Concentration is expressed in terms of the proportion of lead to the weight of the total non‐volatile part of the product, or of the weight of the dried paint film.

• A range of units may be used e.g. ppm, %, µg/g, mg/kg

➢ 10 ppm = 0.001% = 10 µg/g = 10 mg/kg

• Lead-based pigments may contribute around 1500 to >100 000 ppm, depending on whether they are mixed with other pigments or used alone.

➢ Red and yellow paints may have particularly high lead content.

• Lead-based driers may contribute around 1200 to 6000 ppm or more, depending on whether they are mixed with other driers.

• Where there is unintended contamination, this typically contributes ≤90 ppm.


Why is Lead Paint a Problem?

7

Persistence in the environment

• Lead paint is a source of lead exposure during its manufacture, application and removal.

• Lead paint breaks down over time, fragmenting into flakes and dust that can contaminate the domestic environment.

• Lead is persistent in the environment, and when released can remain there indefinitely.

• Lead paint can leave a legacy of potential human exposure for many years into the future – children are particularly vulnerable.


Why is Lead Paint a Problem? (continued)

8

Types of exposure

• Lead paint that is peeling, chipping, chalking or cracked is a health hazard, however, intact lead paint in good condition is usually not a hazard.

• Lead dust is created when lead paint is scraped, dry sanded, heated or burned, or when painted surfaces rub together. Lead chips and dust can settle on surfaces and objects that people touch. Settled lead dust can re-enter the air when people vacuum, sweep, or walk through it. Dust from lead paint can contaminate soil.

• Lead in soil can be a source of exposure when children play on the ground, or when people bring soil into the house on their shoes. Plants can absorb lead from the soil and lead can enter the food chain. Lead present in soil may also migrate into underground water in certain circumstances.


Why is Lead Paint a Problem? (continued)

Health impacts

• Lead is a multi-system toxicant affecting many systems of the body.

• Children can be highly exposed because they spend time on the ground and in contact with contaminated soil and dust, they frequently put their hands to their mouths and absorbs more lead from the gut than adults.

• Childhood lead exposure can damage the brain and nervous system resulting in decreased IQ, behavioural problems and reduced educational level – these may be irreversible.

• Lead also causes a significant burden of disease through other long-term impacts on health, such as: reduced IQ, antisocial behaviour, cardiovascular & renal disease.

See Modules B i. and B ii. for more information on the health and environmental impacts of lead

9


Why a 90 ppm Limit on Lead Content?

• Lead is harmful at all levels of exposure, so there is no safe level of lead

exposure.

• There is no therapy that can reverse the effects of lead on brain development

and the cardiovascular system.

• It is essential to limit exposure to lead as much as possible.

• A limit of 90 ppm is the lowest maximum level currently required by any

country.

10


A 90 ppm Limit on Lead Content is Technically Feasible

• Non-lead-based pigments, dryers and anti-corrosives are widely available for oil-based paints, and are used by many manufacturers to produce high quality paints

• Paint made with compounds that are not lead-based will have a lead content <90 ppm

• If care is taken to source uncontaminated raw material ingredients the lead content can be much lower than 90 ppm

11


A 90 ppm Limit on Lead Content Promotes Trade

• 90 ppm is becoming an accepted international standard around the world for lead levels in paints

• As awareness about danger of lead paint grows there will be an increasing demand for safer paint

• Already used in a number of countries, e.g. Canada, Cameroon, China, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Nepal, the Philippines, the United Republic of Tanzania, and the United States of America

12


Additional Information Available on WHO WebsiteTechnical brief – detailed

information

Policy brief – summary

information

https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333840 https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333812

13

https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333840





Summary

• Lead paint can contain a range of lead compounds for different purposes

• Lead paint can cause a long-lasting hazard to health in all age groups, however,

children are especially vulnerable

➢ There is no known safe level of exposure to lead

• Paints with the required properties can be made without adding lead

• As more countries regulate lead paint the market for such paints will continue to shrink

• Stopping the addition of lead to paint makes public health and business sense

14


References

1. Global elimination of lead paint: why and how countries should

take action: technical brief (2020) World Health Organization


2. Global elimination of lead paint: why and how countries should

take action: policy brief (2020) World Health Organization


Module A i.

15




Disclaimer

16

Toolkit for establishing laws to eliminate lead paint, second edition

ISBN 978-92-4-003454-9 (electronic version)

ISBN 978-92-4-003455-6 (print version)

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Suggested citation. Toolkit for establishing laws to eliminate lead paint, second edition. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.

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Please contact the Chemicals and Health Branch of the United Nations Environment Programme and the Chemical Safety and Health team of the World Health Organization should you have any questions.

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lead paint

Second Edition

Overview of the

Global Alliance toEliminate Lead Paint

and Global Status of Laws


• Overview of the Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paint

• Publications available from the Lead Paint Alliance

• Status of Lead Paint Laws globally

• Point of Contact

Outline

2


Early 1900s:

The hazard of lead paint was recognized by doctors a long time ago

1920s-30s:

Initial actions by countries to ban the use of lead carbonates and sulfates in paints through ILO Convention on White Lead. (Effective in 1923, ratified by 63 countries)

1970s-90s:

A small number of countries began to look again at problem of lead in paint, and to introduce more comprehensive laws.

2000-2021:

Lead paint laws have become more restrictive as the health hazards of lead have become better understood and more countries are beginning to introduce laws.

Brief Global History of Lead Paint Laws

3


Global• 2009: Lead in Paint as a SAICM Emerging Policy Issue • 2011: Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paint• 2017: Resolution on lead paint at the Third UN Environment Assembly (UNEA 3)• 2017: World Health Assembly Chemicals Management Roadmap• 2019-2022: SAICM GEF project: Aim for 40 or more countries to pass lead paint new

laws or improve existing laws

Regional• 2012-2015: IPEN EU SWITCH-Asia Lead Paint Elimination Project (6 new regulations)• 2014-2017: UNEP-IPEN GEF Lead Paint Elimination Project in Africa (4 new regulations)

National• An increasing number of countries are drafting and passing laws

Visit https://saicmknowledge.org/content/lead-paint-law-map for up to date information

Growing Momentum

4

https://saicmknowledge.org/content/lead-paint-law-map


• Modeled on successful Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles

• The lead Paint Alliance is a voluntary partnership jointly led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Health Organization (WHO), it includes all relevant sectors (international organizations, governments, NGOs, industry). • The Alliance is guided by an Advisory Council which is chaired by the United

States Environmental Protection Agency (see slide no.7)

• Lead Paint Alliance set a goal: The primary goal of the Lead Paint Alliance is to prevent children’s exposure to paint containing lead and to minimize occupational exposure to lead paint. Its broad objective is to achieve the phase‐out of the manufacture and sale of paints containing lead and to eventually eliminate the risks that such paints pose.

Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead PaintLead Paint Alliance

5


• Works toward establishing lead paint laws in every country➢ As of 31 December 2020, only 41% of countries have confirmed that they have legally

binding controls on the production, import, sale and use of lead paint➢ Voluntary national standards and labelling not effective

• Promote proven successful approach in countries ➢ Government engages with relevant ministries and stakeholders➢ Drafting group develops legal limit on lead in paint considering Model Law➢ Raise awareness to promote the law

Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paint (cont.) Lead Paint Alliance

6


• The Lead Paint Alliance is guided by an Advisory Council (with members from governments, industry and NGOs)

• The Advisory Council is advising the co-secretariat (UNEP and WHO) on the following points: • Encourage the work of the Lead Paint Alliance.• Review, monitor, propose, and assist in the implementation of actions and plans of the Lead Paint Alliance

to promote consistency with the overall goal and objectives of the Lead Paint Alliance.• Review progress of the Lead Paint Alliance activities.

Colombia

United States of America (Chair)

Kenya Republic of Moldova

Thailand

Go

vern

me

nts

NGOs Industry

Lead Paint Alliance Advisory Council

7


The goal is to establish lead paint laws in every country

Lead paint elimination is gaining momentum globally

This problem can be solved in the foreseeable future

Key steps countries can take:

✓ Identify and obtain support from main government ministries and stakeholders for the development of lead paint laws

✓ Raise awareness about the need on establishing a legally binding control on lead paint✓ Convene drafting committee to draft a law✓ Conduct public review of draft law✓ Promulgate the law

Module A ii.

Solving the Problem TogetherHow it can be done

8


• Alliance developed the Model Law and Guidance for Regulating Lead Paint

• Requested by governments

• Supported by Industry and NGOs

• Provides best available and practical approach to a lead paint law

• Includes a 90 parts-per-million (ppm) total lead limit in paint

• Adaptable to each country’s regulatory framework

Lead Paint Laws Mandatory legal mechanisms that establishes enforceable limit on lead in paint and binding control measures, with penalties for non-compliance. Examples: regulations, statutes or mandatory standards

See Module J ii. for more information on developing legal limits on lead paint

Model Law

9

https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/model-law-and-guidance-regulating-lead-paint


• One of the tasks of the Lead Paint Alliance is to raise awareness of the toxicity of lead to human health and the environment

• The Business Plan of the Lead Paint Alliance identifies an awareness campaign as a priority action

• The first International Lead Poisoning Prevention Week was established in 2013 – it takes place in the last full week in October

• Range of communication materials available in 6 UN languages for use in local campaigns

• The campaign-designated webpage is available in 6 UN languages. The event organizers can easily scroll down to access the repository of materials, registration form, list of registered events etc.

See Module I. for more information on conducting awareness-raising campaigns on lead and on International Lead Poisoning Prevention Week of action

* Visithttps://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead-poisoning-prevention-week for more information on awareness-raising

Organizing Awareness-Raising Events

10


Development of tools and materials to support

countries and stakeholders to adopt lead paint laws

focusing on legal drafting, awareness-raising and

technical aspects

Successes

Challenges

Support to countries in drafting and reviewing

lead paint laws

Over 100 Partners* from governments, NGOs, industry and

academia

Organization of the International Lead

Poisoning Prevention Week, with increased

number of participants each year

Limited capacity and government

commitments in developing countries to introduce and enforce

lead limits

Limited technical capacities or resources to formulate paint with

no lead compounds

Alternatives to lead additives not always available and lack of

awareness of alternatives

Need to engage with industry to promote

compliance

* Visit https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we-do/emerging-issues/global-alliance-eliminate-lead-paint-1 for up to date information

Lead Paint Alliance: Successes and Challenges

11

https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we-do/emerging-issues/global-alliance-eliminate-lead-paint-1


Visit https://www.unep.

org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we-

do/emerging-issues/global-

alliance-eliminate-lead-paintfor more

information

Updated Lead Paint Regulatory Toolkit

Model Law Global Status Update: December 2020

International Lead Poisoning Prevention Week Campaign

Materials

Steps to establish a lead paint law

Lead Paint Alliance quarterly newsletter

Lead Paint Alliance FAQ

Policy and Technical Brief: why and how countries

should take action

Brief guide to analytical methods for measuring lead in paint

Brief guide to analytical methods for measuring lead in blood

Publications from the Lead Paint Alliance

12

https://www.unep.org/toolkit-establishing-laws-eliminate-lead-paint

https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we-do/emerging-issues/global-alliance-eliminate-lead-paint

https://www.unep.org/resources/factsheet/suggested-steps-establishing-lead-paint-law

https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/chemicals-waste/what-we-do/emerging-issues/global-alliance-eliminate-lead-paint/faq



https://www.unep.org/resources/report/2020-update-global-status-legal-limits-lead-paint

https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240005167


https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/10665-333914


WHO is regularly updating an interactive map and database* showing status of national lead paint laws as provided by governments to UNEP and WHO.

The database shows the title, the year a country passed its lead paint law and a description of the law main provisions.

*Visit https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/indicator-groups/legally-binding-controls-on-lead-paint

Lead Paint Law StatusGlobal Health Observatory, as of 31 December 2020

13

https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/indicator-groups/legally-binding-controls-on-lead-paint


100.0%2 countries

38%14 countries

78% 43 countries

28%11 countries

11%6 countries

45%5 countries

About 41% of countries (79)

have laws

* Visit for additional information https://saicmknowledge.org/content/lead-paint-law-map

Data as of 31 December 2020, as presented in the 2020 UNEP Global Status Update

Global Status Update on Lead paint LawsPercent of Countries with Lead Paint Laws in each UNEP Region

14

https://saicmknowledge.org/content/lead-paint-law-map



1. Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paint website, hosted by UNEP - Access here

2. 2020 Update on the Global Status of Legal Limits on Lead in Paint (2020) United Nations Environment Programme - Access here

3. Global Health Observatory: regulations and controls on lead paint World Health Organization – Access here

4. International Lead Poisoning Week of action– Access here

References

15



https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/indicator-groups/legally-binding-controls-on-lead-paint

https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead-poisoning-prevention-week


Disclaimer

16




























The Health Impacts of Lead Exposure


lead paint

Second Edition


Outline

2

• Background

• Pathways and routes of exposure to lead and lead paint

• Health effects of exposure

• Who is at risk?

• Societal, economic and health impacts of control measures

• Benefits of action

• Summary


Background

3

• Lead is a versatile and widely used naturally occurring element

• Human activities result in environmental contamination:

➢ Mining and smelting, manufacturing, use, recycling and disposal of products made with lead

• Lead compounds can be used in the manufacture of paint to give properties e.g. colour,

rapid drying, corrosion resistance; continue to be used in some countries (see Module E.i)

• Lead is a human health hazard

• Lead paint is a significant source of human exposure


Sources and Routes of Exposure to Lead from Paint

4


Two Main Routes of Exposure to Lead Paint

5

• Individuals can become exposed to lead from paint through

environmental and occupational sources.

• The most important routes of exposure are:

➢ Ingestion of dust and paint chips –

the main route of children’s exposure

➢ Inhalation of fine particles and fumes –

the main route of occupational exposure.

Photo credit: IPEN

Photo credit: WHO/SEARO/Hayley Goldbach

Source: World Health Organization. (2020). Global elimination of lead paint: why and how countries should take

action: technical brief. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333840 – Reference 1.

Source: World Health Organization. (2020). Global elimination of lead paint: why and how countries should take

action: policy brief. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333812 – Reference 2.




A Major Source of Exposure: Lead in Dust

6

• Isotopic studies confirm that lead in paint contributes to lead in dust

• Deteriorating lead paint is associated with higher amounts of lead in household dust and soil

Source: Dixon S, Wilson J, Galke G (2007). Friction and impact surfaces: are they lead-based paint

hazards? J Occup Environ Hyg. 4(11):855–63. doi:10.1080/15459620701655770 – Reference 6.

Source: Lucas JP, Bellanger L, Le Strat Y, Le Tertre A, Glorennec Ph, Le Bot B et al. (2014). Source

contributions of lead in residential floor dust and within-home variability of dust lead loading. Sci Total

Environ. 470(471):768– 79. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.028 – Reference 7.

Photo credit: WHO/Yoshi Shimizu

• Lead content in paint correlates with lead content in dust:

➢ 50% increase in window paint lead was associated with a 5%

increase in floor dust lead (Dixon 2007)

➢ exterior railings with a lead loading of ≥2.6 mg/cm2 associated with

approx. 50% higher lead loading in household dust (Lucas 2014)


Lead in Dust Associated with Increased Blood Lead

7

• Pooled analysis of 12 studies showed

lead-contaminated house dust is major

source of intake for children with blood

lead concentration of 10-25 µg/dL

(Lanphear et al., 1998)

Source: Lanphear BP, Matte TD, Rogers J,

Clickner RP, Dietz B, Bornschein RL et al.

(1998). The contribution of lead-contaminated

house dust and residential soil to children’s

blood lead levels. A pooled analysis of 12

epidemiologic studies. Environ Res. 79:51–68

(https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3859,

accessed 13 April 2020) – Reference 8.

Photo credit: WHO PhotoLibrary


Health Effects of Lead Exposure

8

• Lead is a multi-system toxicant. No known level

of exposure without harmful effects

• Mimics calcium and iron in the body so has

effects in multiple body systems

• Accumulates in bone

• Long-term effects include reduced IQ, antisocial

behaviour, cardiovascular & renal disease in adults

• Often onset of symptoms are insidious, such as

anaemia, colic, etc.


Lead Accumulates in the Body

9

• Lead binds to red blood cells and distributes to soft tissues, e.g. brain and kidneys, and bone.

• Lead absorption is increased when there is nutritional deficiency e.g. calcium or iron

deficiency.

• Lead is stored in bone for many years (half-life = 10–25 years)

➢ In adults 90% of body burden may be in bone.

• Lead in bone provides a store from which lead can move back

into blood and to target organs.

➢ Lead can remobilize from bone during pregnancy,

lactation and the menopause.


Low-Level and Chronic Exposure

10

• Low-level exposure – features of poisoning may be subtle e.g. reduced IQ, impaired

hearing, increased risk of hypertension.

• Features of overt poisoning include: anorexia, abdominal colic, constipation, fatigue,

mood changes, anaemia and developmental regression in young children.

• Lead poisoning may be misdiagnosed e.g. as appendicitis, psychiatric illness.

• Low-level and chronic exposure is often the type of exposure caused by

lead paint


Acute and Sub-Acute Lead Poisoning

11

• High dose acute/sub-acute exposure can cause lead encephalopathy

with irritability, ataxia, coma, convulsions, death:

➢ e.g. >400 children have died in NW Nigeria from environmental exposure to lead.

• Severe lead poisoning is possible from repeated ingestion of lead paint chips (pica).

➢ Note: pica is a syndrome of an appetite for non-nutritional substances

Source: Thurtle N, Grieg J, Cooney L, Amitai Y, Ariti C, Brown MJ, Kosnett MJ, Moussally K, Sani-Gwarzo N, Akpan H, Shanks L, Dargan PI (2014). Description of 3180 courses of chelation with

dimercaptosuccinic acid in children .5 years with severe lead poisoning in Zamfara, northern Nigeria: a retrospective analysis of programme data. PLOS Medicine, 11(10):1-18. – Reference 3


Who Is At Risk?

12

• Children are especially vulnerable due to greater exposure

risks from:

➢ Spending more time on the ground and in contact with

contaminated soil and dust,

➢ Hand-to-mouth activity, mouthing,

➢ Absorbing 4–5 times more lead from the gut than adults, and

➢ All children have nutritional deficiency (e.g. calcium, iron) which

increases bioavailability of lead.

• Exposure may already occur through

maternal cord blood (in utero)

Source: Childhood lead poisoning. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010

(https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/136571 , accessed 12 February 2021) – Reference 4



Who Is At Risk? (Continued)

13

• The foetal period and early childhood are critical

periods for neurological and organ development

• Damage to the neurological system may be irreversible

➢ Reduced potential for intellectual development

➢ Increased likelihood of behavioural disorders

• Children can even express long-term

effects in adulthood

Source: Health effects of low-level lead. National Toxicology Program Monograph. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of

Health; 2012 (http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/hat/noms/lead/index.html, accessed 12 February 2021) – Reference 5

Photo credit: Calonzo/EcoWaste Coalition

http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/hat/noms/lead/index.html


Pregnant Women Are Also Vulnerable

14

• Pregnancy mobilizes lead stored in bone, releasing it back into blood where it

can be circulated to maternal tissues and the fetus

• Lead exposure may cause reduced fetal growth

• Lead exposure in pregnancy increases risk of complications e.g. hypertension,

premature birth


Workers Also Need Protecting

15

• Study in Kenya found significant lead exposure in

workers making paint

➢ 78% of air samples exceeded US 8-hour permissible exposure

limit (50 µg/m3)

➢ 75.6% of blood samples >30 µg/dL lead

• Workers spraying and stripping lead paint, as well as

home renovators can have high exposures

Source: Were FH, Moturi MC, Gottesfeld P,Wafula GA, Kamau GN, Shiundu PM. (2014) Lead

exposure and blood pressure among workers in diverse industrial plants in Kenya. J Occup

Environ Hyg. 2014; 11(11):706–15 doi:10.1080/15459624.2014.908258 – Reference 9.


Lead Exposure Causes Significant Burden of Disease

16

Estimates from Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), 2019 data:

• 0.90 million deaths from long-term effects

• 21.7 million disability adjusted life years (DALYs) lost

• Estimated to account for:

➢ 62.49% of the global burden of idiopathic developmental intellectual disability

➢ 7.19% of the global burden of ischaemic heart disease

➢ 8.21% of hypertensive disease

➢ 5.65% of the global burden of stroke

Source: Estimates from Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation – Reference 10


Distribution of IQ scores in sample population

Mean IQ = 95

Small Average IQ Reduction Can Have Large Societal Impacts

17

Distribution of IQ scores in sample population

Mean IQ = 100

Source: Little things matter. Canadian

Environmental Health Atlas; 2014

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6K

oMAbz1Bw, accessed 9 February

2021). Images reproduced with

permission – Reference 11.

A 5-point loss in IQ (intelligence quotient) might not affect the ability of an individual to live a productive life. But if that loss is experienced by a large proportion of a population, the implications for that society could be profound.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6KoMAbz1Bw


Small Average IQ Reduction Can Have Large Societal Impact (Notes, Slide 17)

18

• Professor Bernard Weiss, a behavioural toxicologist at the University of Rochester, New York, USA,

examined the societal impact of seemingly small losses of intelligence. Imagine an unaffected

population numbering 260 million people (such as that of the USA) with an average IQ of 100 and a

standard deviation of 15 (left-hand graph). In that population there would be 6 million people with

IQs above 130 and 6 million below 70.

• A decrease in average IQ of 5 points would shift the distribution to the left (right-hand

graph). The number of people scoring above 130 would decline by 3.6 million

while the number below 70 would increase by 3.4 million.

Source: Gilbert , Weiss B. A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2 ug/dL. Neurotoxicology.

2006 September ; 27(5): 693–701 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2212280/pdf/nihms37310.pdf

By Bruce Lanphear and the Canadian Environmental Health Atlas.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2212280/pdf/nihms37310.pdf


Economic Costs of Lead Exposure Are High

19

• Estimated economic losses due to reduced IQ is ~1.2% of global GDP (see Module B.iii for

additional information)

• Largest economic burden is borne by low- and middle- income countries – approx.

$977 billion

• Regional economic losses:

➢ In Africa approx. $134.7 billion (4.03% of regional GDP)

➢ In Latin America and the Caribbean approx. $142.3 billion (2.04% of regional GDP)

➢ In Asia approx. $699.9 billion (1.88% of regional GDP).

Source: Attina TM, Trasande L. Economic costs of childhood lead exposure in low- and

middle-income countries. Environ Health Perspect. 2013 Sep;121(9):1097-102 – Reference 12


Economic Benefits of Action Are Significant

20

• Banning lead paint now saves costs in future

➢ Avoids future costs of lead exposure resulting from use of lead paint now, such as cost of

reduced IQ, cost of criminality

➢ Avoids future remediation costs

o Estimated costs of remediating lead-painted homes:

France: US$ 194 – 499 million

USA: US$ 1 – 11 billion

Source: Pichery C et al. Childhood lead exposure in France: benefit estimation and partial cost-benefit analysis of lead hazard control. Environmental Health. 2011;10:44 – Reference 13

Source: Gould E. Childhood Lead Poisoning: Conservative Estimates of the Social and Economic Benefits of Lead Hazard Control. Environ Health Perspect, 2009;117: 1162-1167 – Reference 14


The Lower the Lead Content, the Lower the Hazard

21

By reducing lead in paint, we can protect vulnerable

populations and public health. For example:

• Children who eat flakes of lead paint can develop lead

poisoning

• The lower the lead content the less likely a child will eat

enough paint to cause harm

➢ 500 ppm of lead in paint – regular ingestion of 6-7 flakes of paint

could reduce IQ

➢ 90 ppm of lead in paint – harmful dose is ~31 flakes

• Similar reasoning applies to lead in dust originating from

paint

Photo credit: Lushomo communications


Lead Poisoning Prevention Policies Have Proven to Reduce Population Blood Lead Levels (USA)

22

Source: Brown MJB,

Falk, H (2015) US

Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention,

personal communication


Summary

23

• Lead exposure causes toxic effects in multiple body systems; some effects are

irreversible; children, pregnant women and some occupational groups are

particularly vulnerable.

• There is no known level of lead exposure without harmful effects.

• Lead exposure has both an individual and a societal impact.

• Lead poisoning is preventable: implementation of lead control measures has

significantly reduced population-level blood lead concentrations in several countries.

• Removing lead paint as a source of exposure will have significant health and

economic benefits.


More Details Are Available on the WHO Website in Six UN Languages

24

Technical Brief – Detailed

information

Policy Brief – Summary Information

https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240005143 https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240005143




References

25

1. World Health Organization. (2020). Global elimination of lead paint: why and how countries should take action: technical brief. World Health

Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333840.

2. World Health Organization. (2020). Global elimination of lead paint: why and how countries should take action: policy brief. World Health

Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333812.

3. Thurtle N, Grieg J, Cooney L, Amitai Y, Ariti C, Brown MJ, Kosnett MJ, Moussally K, Sani-Gwarzo N, Akpan H, Shanks L, Dargan PI

(2014). Description of 3180 courses of chelation with dimercaptosuccinic acid in children .5 years with severe lead poisoning in

Zamfara, northern Nigeria: a retrospective analysis of programme data. PLOS Medicine, 11(10):1-18

4. Childhood lead poisoning. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010 (https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/136571,

accessed 12 February 2021)

5. Health effects of low-level lead. National Toxicology Program Monograph. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes

of Health; 2012 (http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/hat/noms/lead/index.html, accessed 12 February 2021)




http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/hat/noms/lead/index.html


References (continued)6. 6. Dixon S, Wilson J, Galke G (2007). Friction and impact surfaces: are they lead-based paint hazards? J Occup

Environ Hyg. 4(11):855–63. doi:10.1080/15459620701655770

7. 7. Lucas JP, Bellanger L, Le Strat Y, Le Tertre A, Glorennec Ph, Le Bot B et al. (2014). Source contributions of lead in residential floor dust and within-home variability of dust lead loading. Sci Total Environ. 470(471):768– 79. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.028

8. 8. Lanphear BP, Matte TD, Rogers J, Clickner RP, Dietz B, Bornschein RL et al. (1998). The contribution of lead-contaminated house dust and residential soil to children’s blood lead levels. A pooled analysis of 12 epidemiologic studies. Environ Res. 79:51–68 (https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3859, accessed 12 February 2021)

9. 9. Were FH, Moturi MC, Gottesfeld P,Wafula GA, Kamau GN, Shiundu PM. (2014) Lead exposure and blood pressure among workers in diverse industrial plants in Kenya. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2014; 11(11):706–15 doi:10.1080/15459624.2014.908258.

10. 10. Global lead exposure. In: GBD Compare [website]. Seattle (WA): Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington; 2019 https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/, accessed 12 February 2021

26

https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/


References (continued)11. 11. Little things matter. Canadian Environmental Health Atlas; 2014 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6KoMAbz1Bw, accessed 9

February 2021)

12. 12. Attina TM, Trasande L. Economic costs of childhood lead exposure in low- and middle-income countries. Environ Health Perspect. 2013 Sep;121(9):1097-102

13. 13. Pichery C et al. Childhood lead exposure in France: benefit estimation and partial cost-benefit analysis of lead hazard control. Environmental Health. 2011;10:44

14. 14. Gould E. Childhood Lead Poisoning: Conservative Estimates of the Social and Economic Benefits of Lead Hazard Control. Environ Health Perspect, 2009;117: 1162-1167

27

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6KoMAbz1Bw


Additional References

• Lead poisoning and health, Fact sheet. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019 (in Arabic, Chinese, English,

French, Russian and Spanish) (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health,

accessed 12 February 2021)

• Preventing disease through healthy environments. Exposure to lead: a major public health concern;

Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019 (https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-CED-PHE-

EPE-19.4.7-eng, accessed 12 February 2021)

• Chemical safety: Lead and lead paint, Questions and answers. Geneva: World Health

Organization; 2020 (in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish,

https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/chemical-safety-lead-and-lead-paint, accessed 12

February 2021

28

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health

https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.7-eng

https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/chemical-safety-lead-and-lead-paint


Disclaimer

29




























Analytical Methods for Measuring Lead

in Blood


lead paint

Second Edition


Outline

• Background

• Reasons for measuring lead in blood

• Blood sampling

• Brief information on different analytical methods

• Quality control considerations

• Summary

2


Background

• Lead exposure is primarily assessed through its

measurement in whole blood (venous blood).

• The most common laboratory methods to measure

blood lead concentrations are:

➢ Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)

➢ Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)

➢ Anodic Stripping Voltammetry (ASV)

Analytical methods differ in their limit of detection, accuracy, costs

and technical requirements (e.g. sample preparation,

calibration, and skilled personnel)

3


Reasons for Measuring the Blood Lead Concentrations

• To determine the need for the active management and medical interventions to

address lead exposure, such as identification of, and removal from, the source of

exposure, or chelation therapy;

• To determine the effectiveness of risk mitigation measures;

• As part of a health screening or surveillance programme to identify lead-

exposed children;

• For exposure and risk assessment, for example a prevalence study of

lead exposure related to lead paint or other sources;

• For occupational monitoring

4


Measurement Units

• The commonly used units for reporting blood lead concentration are

micrograms of lead per decilitre of blood (μg/dL), micrograms per litre

(μg/L) and micromoles per litre (μmol/L).

• The conversion factor between mass and molar units is the atomic mass of

lead: 207.19.

• For conversion from mass to molar units the value should be divided by the

atomic mass.

• For conversion from molar to mass units the value should be multiplied by

the atomic mass.

5


Blood Sampling

• Essential to avoid external contamination of the sample.

➢ Personnel should be trained in good sampling and handling techniques to avoid contamination.

➢ Collect, store and transport samples in a lead-free environment.

➢ Thoroughly cleanse the skin around the puncture site.

➢ Use lead-free sampling equipment and tubes. If not available send 'blanks' from same batch

to the laboratory for testing of background lead content.

• Observe universal biosafety precautions.

6


Blood Sampling (Continued)

• Collect whole blood in a tube containing EDTA or heparin.

➢ Invert the filled tube 8–10 times to ensure adequate mixing.

➢ Clotted samples should be rejected – analytical results will be unreliable.

• Make sure to label the tube with the patient's identification details.

• Refrigerate samples (<4ºC) that are awaiting analysis – do not freeze.

➢ Note: does not apply to samples measured using point-of-care device, which should

be kept at room temperature.

7


Choice of Analytical Method is Determined by Resources and Needs

Resource issues include:

• Availability of trained laboratory staff;

• Cost of reagents and other materials e.g. special gases, compressed air;

• Typical number of analyses needed (cost per analysis)

➢ Economy of scale possible with methods that allow multiple analyses;

• Special operating requirements e.g. reliable electricity supply, cooling water.

8


Choice of Analytical Method is Determined by Resources and Needs

Need for required limit of detection varies according to the reason for the analysis.

For example:

• Population studies –method accurate to <1 µg/dL may be needed, e.g. geometric

mean blood lead concentration in USA in 2011–12 was 0.973 μg/dL.

• Confirmation of lead exposure and decisions on management – method

accurate to 5 µg/dL acceptable.

• In severe cases of poisoning – method to accurately measure

>65 µg/dL may be needed

9


Analytical Methods Used to Measure Lead in Blood

Laboratory methods:

• Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS)

• Electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS) or graphite furnace

atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS)

• Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)

• Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) - Point-of-care or field-testing

methods

• ASV technique

• Portable ASV device

10


Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS)

• Short analysis time (seconds)

• Relatively easy to use

• Relatively few interferences

• Relatively low capital and running costs

• Large sample size usually needed

• Relatively high detection limit (5 µg/dL)

• Cannot be left unattended (flammable gas)

11


Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS) or Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS)

• Low detection limit (˂1µg/dL)

• Can analyse small samples (50–100 µL)

• Can be fitted with autosampler so multiple samples can be processed

• Well documented applications

• May be left unattended

• No need for sample preparation

12


Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)

• Very low limit of detection (0.02 µg/dL)

• Can analyse small samples (50–100 μL)

• Very fast analysis time (˂1min)

• Wide analytical working range

• Multi-element capabilities and can be economical if used for large

sample runs

• Potential to perform isotopic ratio analyses with some forms of

ICP-MS, which may help to identify the source of the lead

13


Portable ASV

• Small sample size (50 μL)

• Can be used at non-laboratory sites

• Uses finger prick (capillary sample), though venous samples can also be used

• Simple to use, does not require skilled laboratory personnel

• Low purchase and running costs

• Rapid results

• Has comparable accuracy with laboratory-based methods

14


Portable ASV - Limitations

• Limited analytical working range

• Levels above 5 µg/dL should be confirmed by a high-complexity laboratory method

• High risk of sample contamination

• Risk of low-biased results on venous blood collected with certain types

of evacuated blood tubes

15


Quality Control Considerations

• Important that analytical results are reliable.

• Laboratory should have in place an adequate quality management system e.g.:

➢ Standard operating procedures;

➢ Documented training and monitoring of staff performance;

➢ Use of certified reference standards;

➢ Internal quality control procedures – daily checks of analytical accuracy;

➢ Participation in external quality assessment scheme e.g. US LAMP.

16


Laboratory Quality Assurance - LAMP

• A voluntary program that focuses on assuring the quality of blood lead,

cadmium, and mercury analyses.

• Each quarter US CDC provides spiked blood samples, which are analyzed by

participating laboratories who return the results to CDC.

• CDC provides detailed reports on the laboratories about how well they performed

these analyses.

• No charge for participation.

LAMP program:

https://www.cdc.gov/labstandards/lamp.html

17

https://www.cdc.gov/labstandards/lamp.html


Summary

• Measurement of the blood lead concentration is the most widely accepted method for

identifying lead exposure and having the possibility to carry out this analysis is important

for public health, occupational health and the clinical management of lead poisoning.

• A range of analytical methods are available – the decision about which one to use is

determined by the available resources and the limit of detection required.

• Point-of-care devices are available and have a role in screening for lead exposure.

While they have been used to guide clinical management in extreme

circumstances, this use should be validated by laboratory measurements.

• Quality assurance procedures are important to ensure the

reliability of analytical results.

18


Available WHO Resources

• Brief guide to analytical methods for measuring lead in blood, second edition


19



References

1. World Health Organization (2020). Brief guide to analytical methods for measuring lead in blood, 2nd ed.

World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333914. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO

2. Measurement procedures for the determination of lead concentrations in blood and urine: approved guideline,

2nd edition. CLSI document C40-A2. Wayne, PA, United States of America: Clinical and Laboratory Standards

Institute; 2013.

3. Neri AJ et al. Analysis of a novel field dilution method for testing samples that exceed the analytic range of point-of-

care blood lead analyzers. Int J Environ Health Res. 2014; 24(5):418-428)

4. Komárek M et al. Lead isotopes in environmental sciences: A review. Environment International. 2008; 34:562–577

5. Brown MJB, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, personal communication, 2015

6. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Lead and Multi-Element Proficiency website

https://www.cdc.gov/labstandards/lamp.html.

20



References – Sample Collection

1. Step-by-step guide for collecting capillary sample. US Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention:

Poster: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/dls/pdf/Poster_Capillary_Blood.pdf,

accessed 15 February 2021

Video demonstration: Mission Unleaded: How to test children for lead

with maximum accuracy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2p2qREch9g, accessed 15

February 2021

2. Guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy. Geneva:

World Health Organization; 2010

(https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44294, accessed 15 February

2021)

21

https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/dls/pdf/Poster_Capillary_Blood.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2p2qREch9g



Disclaimer

22




























Analytical Methods for Measuring Lead

in Paint


lead paint

Second Edition


• Objectives of lead paint testing

• Options for measuring lead paint – new and existing paint

• New paint: options for laboratory analysis of lead content

• Existing painted surfaces: options for off-site and on-site analysis of lead content

• Issues around national laboratory capacity for measuring lead in paint

• Using lead paint analyses to investigate new paints on the market

• Summary and References

Outline

2


• To determine if paint meets the regulatory requirement for permitted lead content

• Paint manufacturers and importers – to obtain documentation of compliance with lead

paint limit

➢ Third-party laboratory testing: use a nationally or internationally accredited laboratory that can

measure the lead content to the required limit (e.g. 90 ppm) to support a Declaration of Conformity

• Government – to test for compliance with lead paint limit

➢ Use a nationally or internationally accredited laboratory or

suitable portable analysis technology to test for compliance

with regulatory limit

Objectives of Lead Paint Testing

3


Reasons for Analysing the Lead Content of Paint

• New paint for sale:

➢ Assess the availability of lead-containing paint in the market and the need for better

government regulation and enforcement

➢ Provide consumers with information so they can choose non-lead paint and can push for

government controls on lead paint

➢ Draw attention to companies that produce lead-containing paint and encourage them to

reformulate their products voluntarily

• Existing paint on structures:

➢ Assess potential sources of exposure to lead from existing paint on structures,

e.g. in homes, schools and playgrounds, and the possible need for mitigation

measures

4


New paint for sale:

1. Laboratory analysis (three methods:FAAS, ETAAS, ICP-AES )

2. High-definition portable X-ray fluorescence analysis (HDXRF)

Existing painted surface:

1. Laboratory analysis (three methods)

2. Portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis (on-site)

3. Chemical test kits (on-site)

Options for Measuring Lead in Paint

The choice of method depends on several

factors e.g. the level of accuracy required, the substrate to be tested (new paint or painted surface), the analytical

equipment, and the cost.

5


• Measuring total lead content is preferred over soluble lead content

• Most regulatory standards for new paint are based on the total lead content, and this is the recommended

measurement described in the Model law and guidance for regulating lead paint (1)

See also Module J.i.

Total lead

• Measured by extracting all the lead present in the paint

• Used in almost all national regulatory standards

• Promotes harmonization for exports to countries with total lead standards for products

• Provides a more predictable test for manufacturers who have test results from ingredients

• Low-cost, routine laboratory methods are available and many

laboratories can do the measurements

New Paint: Total Lead Content

6


New Paint: Soluble Lead Content• Soluble lead (migratable lead) – measuring total lead content is preferred over soluble lead content

• Content is assumed to simulate the uptake of lead from the gut when lead paint chips or coated

objects are swallowed (1).

BUT:

➢ No scientific basis to support this assumption

➢ Does not take account of exposure to lead in dust from deteriorating paint and does

not provide the best measure of potential health risks

• More expensive, more complicated laboratory method is needed

• Technical modifications to paint can hide dangerous lead content, e.g. paint

shown to have >17 000 ppm total lead content not detected by soluble lead

test (2)

7


• New paint: Lead paint formulations and regulatory standards are usually

expressed as a percentage by weight (% wt) or as parts per million (ppm),

though some regulatory standards use milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg)

➢ Laboratory analysis: lead content can be reported in ppm, % or mg/kg

➢ High-definition X-ray fluorescence: lead content can be reported in ppm

➢ 90 ppm = 0.009% = 90 µg/g = 90 mg/kg

Note: When analyzing lead paint to meet a 90-ppm legal limit, the method of analysis must be able

to report out in ppm

Reporting Units for Measuring Lead in New Paint

8


• Existing painted surface: Analysis of lead content may also be reported as the

amount of lead per unit area: mg/cm2. There is no mathematical equivalence

between ppm and mg/cm2

➢ Laboratory analysis: lead content can be reported in ppm, %, mg/kg or amount

per unit area (mg/cm2)

➢ Portable X-ray fluorescence analysis (on-site): lead content is reported as mg/cm2

Reporting Units for Measuring Lead in Existing Paint Surfaces

9


New Paint: Options for Laboratory

Analysis of Total Lead Content

10


• Most common method is to apply paint to a homogeneous

metal-free surface such as glass or wood (3)

• Paint is allowed to dry then a sample is scraped off for analysis

in a laboratory

• Lead content may also be measured directly from surface using

portable high-definition x-ray fluorescence and reported in ppm

• Measure lead in sample of wet paint using special sampling cup

and high-definition x-ray fluorescence

Sampling Methods to Test Paint

11


• Laboratory-based instrumentation (various methods)

➢ Samples are collected and sent to a laboratory, results available some time later

➢ Destructive methods, e.g. atomic absorption spectrometry, require sample preparation stage

➢ Non-destructive testing by high-definition X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (HDXRF)

• Portable methods

➢ Hand-held X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF)

➢ Portable HDXRF devices can be used outside a laboratory e.g. at customs

➢ Results are available immediately

Laboratory-Based and Portable Methods Available

12


Commonly Used Laboratory-Based Methods

• Three commonly used laboratory-based methods for measuring lead in paint are:

➢ Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS)

➢ Electrothermal or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS/GFAAS)

➢ Inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES)

• Some considerations:

➢ Methods differ in complexity, limit of detection and cost

➢ International standards exist for each

13


• Relatively easy to use and moderate cost

• Can be fitted with auto-sampler so multiple samples can be processed

• Uses flammable gases so cannot be left to run unattended

• Limit of detection depends on sample preparation and method used –

100 ppm is typical

Note: Although some laboratories have developed methods that can measure concentrations as low

as 40 ppm, FAAS is not the best method for confirming compliance with a 90-ppm limit (Howard

Varner, personal communication, January 2020).

Method 1: Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS)

14


• Also known as graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry

• Can analyse very small samples

• Can be fitted with auto-sampler so large number of samples can be run

• Requires more staff training than FAAS

• Higher cost than FAAS

• Very low limit of detection

Method 2: Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS)

15


Method 3: Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES)

• Can analyse very small samples

• High purchase and maintenance costs but can be economical if used for large sample runs

• Requires highly-skilled laboratory technician

• Very low limit of detection

• Can determine isotope ratio,

which may help to identify

the source of the lead

16


• Trained personnel and good quality assurance procedures are essential

to ensure accuracy and reliability of results

• Laboratory should have certification to show it works to an international

standard e.g., ISO/ IEC 17025

• Laboratory should comply with national or international standards for sample

preparation and analysis for lead in paint (these standards are on the following slides)

• Laboratory should be accredited to conduct analyses by a national or international

accreditation program

Laboratory Should Demonstrate Compliance with Quality Standards

17


• ASTM E1729-16. Standard practice for field collection of dried paint samples for

subsequent lead determination

• ISO 15528:2013. Paints, varnishes and raw materials for paints and varnishes –

sampling (available in English, French and Russian)

International Standards for Sample Collection

18


International Standards for Sample Preparation

• ISO 1513:2010, Paints and varnishes - examination and preparation of test samples

• ASTM E1645-16, Standard practice for preparation of dried paint samples by

hotplate or microwave digestion for subsequent lead analysis

• ASTM E1979-17, Standard practice for ultrasonic extraction of paint,

dust, soil, and air samples for subsequent determination of lead

19


• ISO 6503:1984, Paints and varnishes - Determination of total lead - flame atomic absorption spectrometric

method (for measurement of lead concentration of 0.01% to 2.0%) (available in English and French)

• ASTM D3335-85a (2014), Standard test method for low concentrations of lead, cadmium, and cobalt in

paint by atomic absorption spectroscopy (for measurement of lead concentration of 0.01% to 5.0%)

• ASTM E1613-12, Standard Test Method for Determination of Lead by Inductively

Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES), Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS), or Graphite

Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS) Techniques (measurement of lead concentration differs according to

analytical technique)

• ASTM F2853-10 (2015), Standard test method for determination of lead in paint layers and similar coatings or in

substrates and homogenous materials by energy-dispersive

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry using multiple monochromatic excitation beams

International Standards for Test Methods

20

Note: ASTM has withdrawn E1613 but that it can be replaced by E3193 (as WK76000 - Main Addition to E3193-20 Analysis for Lead in Dust by Wipe, Paint, and Soil by FAAS - 11 Apr 2021) and E3203 (as WK76001 - Main Addition to E3203-19a Analysis for Lead in Dried Paint, Soil, and Wipes by ICP-OES - 11 Apr 2021), which are in the process of balloted modification for inclusion of standardized methods. (CPSC, personal communication, May 2021)


• Laboratory's experience in lead paint analysis

• If possible, accreditation through a recognized proficiency testing scheme

• Analytical methods used (e.g. FAAS, GFAAS/ETAAS, ICP-AES)

➢ Limit of detection – is it adequate to confirm compliance?

• Sample requirements specified by laboratory

• Capacity to handle number of samples required

• Costs per sample, including any shipping costs

• Turn-around time

Considerations When Choosing a Laboratory

21


• Operated by American Industrial Health Association

• ELPAT program assesses proficiency of laboratory in lead analysis of environmental samples, including for paint

• Laboratories shown to be proficient conduct lead paint testing to international standards

• Mostly in the US; non-US laboratories currently in Australia (2), Canada (6), France (1), Germany (1), Japan (2), Korea (1)

• Laboratories may work with clients in any country

Environmental Lead Proficiency Analytical Testing (ELPAT) Program

22

Link: ttps://www.aihapat.org/programs/environmental-

lead-proficiency-analytical-testing-elpat-program

https://www.aihapat.org/programs/environmental-lead-proficiency-analytical-testing-elpat-program


X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry (Portable Methods)

• Hand-held and portable conventional and high-definition XRF devices can be used

in the field

• Bench-top high-definition X-ray fluorescence (HDXRF) systems are available

for use in the laboratory

• Lead measurement results are available in minutes

• XRF devices use ionizing radiation so specific health-and-safety

and training needs

23


• Relatively new technology using optics to enable measurement of

very low concentrations of lead

• Comparable results to conventional laboratory methods and suitable for

compliance testing of new paints

• Approved as alternative to laboratory methods in the USA – ASTM F2853-10

• Sample painted on metal-free homogeneous surface and placed in front of device – lead

concentration shown on screen within minutes

• Can accurately measure the lead content in liquid paint as well as in a dried paint film and

can report results in ppm

• Expensive to buy but cheaper to operate than conventional laboratory methods

High-Definition XRF (HDXRF) (Portable Methods)

24


Existing Painted Surfaces: Options for Off-Site and

On-Site Analysis of Lead Content

25


1. Laboratory analysis (off-site)

2. Handheld conventional X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis

3. Handheld high-definition X-ray fluorescence (HDXRF) spectrometry

4. Chemical test kits (on-site)

Painted Surfaces: Options for Measuring Lead Content

26


• Samples should be taken by trained personnel to ensure adequate quality

• When taking a paint chip sample from a painted surface:

➢ paint must be removed from the underlying material, i.e. it is necessary to damage the painted

surface

➢ important to remove a precisely-measured area of paint

• Laboratory analysis involves multiple steps and takes additional time compared to

on-site analysis

Note: See previous slides on new paint for information on laboratory test methods,

standards, and considerations for choosing a laboratory

Option 1: Laboratory Analysis for Existing Painted Surfaces

27


Option 2: Handheld Conventional X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry

• Can be used at the site of the paint to be analysed

• Paint surface does not need to be damaged

• Good accuracy

• Immediate results

• Can measure many surfaces over a short period of time

• Relatively high purchase cost, but cheaper to use than laboratory methods

when many surfaces need to be tested

• Requires training to ensure accurate results and observance of health

and safety requirements: operator may need to be licensed and/or

certified to use and transport the device.28


Same as for conventional XRF, in addition:

• Can report results as ppm

• Low detection limit (below 90 ppm)

Option 3: Handheld High-Definition X-Ray Fluorescence (HDXRF) Spectrometry

29


• Qualitative test for lead paint on walls or other surfaces

• Immediate results

• Low purchase and running costs and relatively simple to use

• Many limitations:

➢ Cannot provide an accurate measurement

➢ False positive and false negative results possible

➢ Can test mainly top (surface) layers and may need to damage the paint

surface to access lead paint

➢ Special procedure may be needed for certain surfaces, e.g. plaster

Option 4: Chemical Test Kits

30


Issues Around National Laboratory Capacity for Measuring Lead in Paint

31


UNEP Model Law and Guidance for Regulating Lead Paint suggests:

“Current lack of in-country laboratory capacity need not be an

impediment to a lead paint law going into effect, as industry can still

comply with the law by sending paint samples to laboratories in other

countries that are qualified to perform the required testing. Additionally,

for imported paints, manufacturers and importers can rely on test results

from qualified laboratories in the country of origin under the model law

under certain circumstances.”

Is In-Country Laboratory Capacity Essential for Compliance?

32


• Regulations specifying a low limit on lead content of paint create a demand for

laboratories to carry out compliance testing

• A laboratory can provide a service to manufacturers and regulatory authorities in multiple

countries

• Establishing a laboratory service requires significant resources, therefore business case

must be made

• May be possible to expand an existing laboratory service

Increasing Demand for Laboratory Testing Creates a Market

33


Considerations for Building Laboratory Capacity

• Can lead paint analysis be added to an existing service:

➢ Is the necessary equipment already available (e.g. ETAAS)?

➢ What additional equipment (e.g. lamps), reagents and training are needed?

➢ Is there a sufficient demand for the service to be sustainable (e.g. offering third-party testing to manufacturers, compliance testing for regulators)

• Is the service already available in a laboratory at home or abroad at a good price

• Large paint manufacturers have laboratory capacity and trained personnel that can be utilized to supplement testing by accredited labs

34


Using Lead Paint Analyses to Investigate the Paint Market

35


• Provides information about the extent of the problem and the need for regulatory or

enforcement measures.

• Important to ensure that tested products are

representative of all brands and include a range

of colours:

➢ Brightly coloured paints, e.g. yellow, red, orange,

green, typically contain the highest levels of lead

➢ Include low-lead colours such as white in the range

Conducting a Survey of Lead Content in New Paint for Sale

36


Linking Analytical Data to Paint Market Information

• Useful to link data about lead content of paints to information about the

manufacturers selling paint on the national market

• Relevant information includes:

➢ Available brands on the market, both locally-produced and imported products

➢ Size of manufacturer and relative sales volume

➢ Information on paint-can labels about ingredients, hazard warnings about lead, or

statements indicating low lead content

37


• This information can be used:

➢ as evidence when enacting and enforcing regulations on production, export / import,

sales and use of paint with added lead

➢ to show the need to include a labeling requirement in the regulation

➢ in outreach to industry stakeholders for dialogue about regulatory controls on lead paint

• For additional information:

➢ Description of how to conduct a market survey is in a 2013 UNEP/IPEN report (4)

➢ Module F of the toolkit provides paint study results in different countries

Linking Analytical Data to Paint Market Information

38


• Lead paint testing is a necessary part of enforcement and compliance activities of regulations to drive

elimination of lead paint.

• Choice of analytical method to measure lead in paint depends on many factors, such as the reason for analysis,

number of samples, cost limitations, need for precise measurement, etc

• For new paint, three good laboratory methods are available that vary in cost and limit of detection

• For existing painted surfaces, reliable measurement methods are off-site laboratory analysis or on-site,

portable XRF (costs and limit of detection vary)

• International standards exist for laboratory competency, sampling and testing

• Market surveys of new paints for sale are used to determine the presence

of lead paint and can provide evidence to justify regulation and

to monitor compliance

Summary

39


References1. Model law and guidance for regulating lead paint. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2018

(https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/model-law-and-guidance-regulating-lead-paint, accessed 8 April 2021).

2. Brief guide to analytical methods for measuring lead in paint, 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization: 2020 (https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332932, accessed 8 April 2021)

3. Test method: CPSC-CH-E1003-09.1: Standard operating procedure for determining lead (Pb) in paint and other similar surface coatings. Gaithersburg (MD): United States Consumer Product Safety Commission; 2011

4. Lead in enamel decorative paint: national paint testing results: a nine-country study (survey method described in pages 36-38). Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2013 (https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22872/Lead_enamel_paint.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y, accessed 8 April 2021)

40



https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22872/Lead_enamel_paint.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y


Available WHO Resources: Brief Guide to Analytical Methods for Measuring Lead in Paint

41




Disclaimer

42




























Conducting Awareness-Raising

Campaigns on Lead

International Lead Poisoning

Prevention Week


lead paint

Second Edition


Outline

• Background

• Aims of the ILPPW

• Communication materials available for use in local campaigns

• Guidance on organizing a campaign

• Planning and registering your campaign

• Examples of campaign activities around the world

2


• One of the tasks of the Global Alliance to Eliminate

Lead Paint (Lead Paint Alliance) is to raise awareness

of the toxicity of lead to human health and the

environment

• The Business Plan of the Lead Paint Alliance identifies

an awareness campaign as a priority action

• International Lead Poisoning Prevention Week was

established in 2013 – it takes place in the last full

week in October

Background


3



Aims of International Lead Poisoning Prevention Week (ILPPW)

LEARN the Risks

Lead is a cumulative toxicant that affects multiple body systems and is particularly harmful to young children. There is no level of exposure to lead that is known to be without harmful effects.

JOIN the Action

Join the global movement by taking action to prevent lead poisoning, particularly in children. Materials are provided to organize an activity or event to highlight the harm that lead causes and the action that can be taken to prevent exposure, with a focus on the development of lead paint laws.

ELIMINATE Lead Paint

Work with governments and stakeholders to establish laws eliminating lead paint and ensuring effective enforcement of lead paint regulations. paint regulation.

4


Campaign Guidance and Materials Provided by Lead Paint Alliance Partners

• Range of communication materials in 6 languages

• Guidance on organizing campaigns

• Dedicated campaign webpages

Note: See slides 6-8

5


• Infographics, posters, flyers, icons, web banners, fact sheets,

Questions and Answers

➢ Available in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Spanish and Russian

➢ Can be incorporated into or customized for local campaigns

• 4 things you should know about lead - short video in

English, French, Russian and Spanish

Range of Communication Materials Available for Use in Local Campaigns

6

https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead-

poisoning-prevention-week/2020

https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead-poisoning-prevention-week/2020/campaign-materials

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTcZEAyxhDo

https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead-poisoning-prevention-week/2020


Additional Materials Available from Dedicated WHO Web PageThe campaign-designated webpage is available in six WHO official languages. Event organizers can easily

scroll down to access the repository of materials, registration form, list of registered events etc.

7

https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-

lead-poisoning-prevention-week/2020

https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead-poisoning-prevention-week/2020


Guidance on How to Organize a Campaign

• This document is based on the experience of the

Lead Paint Alliance in promoting and facilitating

successful awareness-raising campaigns, including

International Lead Poisoning Prevention Week.

• The Guidance describes the principles of organizing

effective advocacy or awareness-raising activities,

describes methods that can be used for different

audiences and provides examples of campaign

activities.

8




• Develop a single overarching communication objective - ask yourself:

➢ What is the issue you wish to cover?

➢ Why do you want to focus on the issue and why now?

➢ Who needs to change their behaviour (who is the audience)?

➢ What is the change you want to see as a result of your communication?

• Ensure your main message is clear, concise and relevant to your audience

➢ The audience should understand "what's in it for me"

Steps in Planning a Campaign: Decide the Objective

9


Steps in Planning a Campaign: Six Principles of Effective Communication

❑ Accessible

❑ Actionable

❑ Credible and trusted

❑ Relevant

❑ Timely

❑ Understandable

10

6 Principles of Effective Communication


Steps in Planning a Campaign: The Message (7 Cs)

• Catch the attention - frame and present your campaign so that it catches the

attention of your audience

• Clarify your message - keep your message(s) unambiguous and clear

• Communicate benefit - what will they gain?

• Be Consistent - make sure that all materials convey the same messages

• Cater to both the heart and the head - develop materials that arouse emotions as well as giving facts

• Create trust - make sure information is authoritative and reliable

• Call to action - ask the audience to act e.g.:

➢ Encourage governments to introduce legally-binding controls on lead in paint

➢ Encourage manufacturers to phase-out lead from paints

11


Decide which communication channel(s) is/are most appropriate for your message and

audience, e.g.:

Events

Setting up an information stand in a public location with materials describing the health

hazards of lead paint, and with personnel in attendance to answer questions

Presentation at a paint industry trade association congress

Workshops, webinars and round-table discussions with stakeholders: to present technical

information and explanation of the rationale and supporting evidence for the elimination of

lead paint

Additional examples of events are available on the awareness-raising guide on page 21

Steps in Planning a Campaign: The Channels

12



Steps in Planning a Campaign The Channels (Continued)

Print

A policy brief that provides key information in a short document as a good way to introduce lead paint elimination

to senior government officials who may be unfamiliar with the issue

Development of a series of case studies describing how other countries have regulated lead paint and/or how

manufacturers have phased lead out of their products

Media

Newspaper or magazine articles, radio or television broadcasts can reach a wide audience: used

to explain the need to eliminate lead paint

Social media posts can be used to convey key messages about lead paint and can

provide links to more detailed information

13

Additional examples of events are available on the

awareness-raising guide on page 21



Identify Partners for Your Campaign on Lead Paint

• Allied governmental bodies

• Scientists

• General public (parents,

students, teachers)

• Civil society

• Paint industry, workers

14

• WHO

• UNEP

• International NGOs (IPEN)

• International industry associations

• Leading scientific centres

• Professional societies

National International


• In the following slides brief descriptions are given of ILPPW activities in the

selected countries:

➢ Africa: Benin, Kenya

➢ Americas: Honduras, Jamaica

➢ Eastern Mediterranean: Lebanon, Morocco

➢ Europe: Belarus, Tajikistan

➢ South-East Asia: Nepal

Note: There are many more examples than are presented on this slide,

including the social media campaigns at the end of this module.

Examples of Campaign Activities Around the World

15


ILPPW Activities in Benin, 2020

• Organized by the Ministry of Health and the Ministry Living

Environment and Sustainable Development

• Its main purpose was to inform and raise public

awareness of the health and environmental impact of

lead-containing paints.

• It brought the parties together in order to continue

discussions for the drafting of a lead paint

regulation in Benin.

• The commemoration took place in two

main activities: awareness raising and the

drafting of a regulatory text.16


ILPPW Activities in Kenya, 2020

• A series of activities were organized around the theme “Intensified

campaigns to eliminate the import, export, manufacture, sale and use of

lead paint across the East African Region (EAC).”

• The EAC virtual conference was sponsored by Basco Paint company with co-

ordination of the Chemistry Department of the University of Nairobi.

• Kenya’s ILPPW activities were covered in a newspaper report in Nation Africa.

• In addition, a master’s student and three undergraduate students from the

Chemistry Department disseminated findings on evaluation of lead levels in

automotive paints in Kenyan markets and carried out a study of lead levels in the

effluent treatment plants of paint companies in Kenya.

17


• The Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources, through its Pollutants Research

and Control Center, organized two webinars and a competition on infographics for raising

awareness about lead exposure.

• A national stakeholders’ dialogue on the

development of a lead paint law took place with

31 participants from various ministries, paint

manufacturing companies and academia.

• A webinar on lead-free children for a safe future

had 91 participants from governments, civil society

and the private sector.

ILPPW Activities in Honduras, 2020

18


ILPPW Activities in Jamaica, 2020

• The Caribbean Poison Information Network (CARPIN) organized

two webinars:

➢ Milestones on regulatory actions to eliminate lead in paints.

The event had participants from governments, civil society

and academia, including the CARICOM Secretariat.

➢ Lead Poisoning: Your Child's health and learning. Awareness-

raising event targeted at parents and students about the

impacts of lead in human health and specially, in children.

19


ILPPW Activities in Morocco, 2020

• The WHO Centre for Environmental Health Action in collaboration

with the WHO Morocco Office and the Ministry of Health organized

the ILPPW campaign to facilitate the implementation of the new

lead paint standard in Morocco, to increase industry support to

phase out the addition of lead to paint and to raise awareness

about the importance to stop using lead-based ingredients in paints.

• A videoconference was organized to raise the importance of the new update of the

national standard 03.3.338 covering the maximum content of lead in paints for

household use. The videoconference was attended by 40 participants from main

stakeholders involved in this area of work, especially private companies operating in the

production of paints in Morocco, and Ministries of Interior, Industry and Environment.

20


• The Ministry of National Health Services Regulations and Coordination, Government (MoNHSRC)

facilitated a round-table conference to discuss the status of lead poisoning in Pakistan, and to synthesize

the government response regarding which preventive measures should be taken to control lead

exposure in children and adults.

• Participants were representatives from Ministry of Health, Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of

Energy and Petroleum Division, Capital Development Authority, Pakistan Standard and Quality Control

Authority, and Academia.

• It was agreed that collective efforts were required to reduce the use and

releases of lead, and to reduce environmental and occupational exposures,

particularly for children and women of childbearing age.

ILPPW Activities in Pakistan, 2020

21


ILPPW Activities in Belarus, 2020

• Under the “umbrella” title of “Facilitating the global phase-out of lead paint” a range of

awareness-raising events was organized about the toxicity of lead in paints and the

availability of high-quality technical and safer alternatives. The campaign was coordinated

by the Republican Unitary Enterprise "Scientific and Practical Center for Hygiene“.

• Events included: round table discussions, webinar online

presentations, journal publications, and events at a kindergarten.

• The target audiences were: government agencies, manufacturers of

paints and varnishes, trade unions, medical workers and the

education system

22


ILPPW Activities in Tajikistan, 2020

• Tajikistan is working on the development of national

legislation on the prohibition of lead in paints and

establishing a limit of 90 ppm for lead content.

• The activities started in October 2020 and continued through ILPPW 2020 and

beyond.

• Tajikstandard organized a series of meetings on the development of the Technical

Regulation “Safety of paint and varnish products”.

• WHO participated in the meeting virtually and presented information on the health

arguments for phasing out the use of lead.

23


• Center for Public Health and Environmental Development organized series of

programs on advocacy and awareness raising with the technical and financial

support from WHO Country Office, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and

Population, National Health Education Information and Communication Center

• The activities were oriented to capacity building, prevention

of lead exposure through effective implementation of lead

paint standards in Nepal

• Along with customization of Lead Paint Alliance materials,

production and broadcasting massively reached out over

two millions people of Nepal.

ILPPW Activities in Nepal, 2020

24


Some Other Examples of Social Media Campaigns

• Twitter campaigns e.g. #BanLeadPaint – forwarded by multiple organizations

and individuals

• Campaign Facebook page

• Live event on social media on lead poisoning

25


Register Your Campaign

• Register your event on the WHO webpage https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead

-poisoning-prevention-week/2020/registration

• See who else is organising events in your

area and consider joining forces

• Consider customizing Lead Paint Alliance

materials

➢ Multiple events using same icons and messages increases the global impact of the campaign

26

https://www.who.int/campaigns/international-lead-poisoning-prevention-week/2020/registration


• Dedicated ILPPW website, available in six languages at:


• Guidance on organizing an advocacy or awareness-raising campaign on lead

paint, available in six languages at:


• Report of the 2020 International Lead Poisoning Prevention week

Resources of This Module

27




Disclaimer

28




























the need for regulating lead paint second edition

Documents