The Nahua The Nahua callicalli of ancient Mexico: of ancient Mexico:

household, family, and genderhousehold, family, and gender

““It is simply untrue as far as we can yet tell that there was ever It is simply untrue as far as we can yet tell that there was ever a time or place where the complex family was the universal a time or place where the complex family was the universal

background to the ordinary lives of ordinary people.”background to the ordinary lives of ordinary people.”—Peter Laslett, —Peter Laslett, Family & Household in Past TimeFamily & Household in Past Time, 1972, 1972

A neolithic, complex household from A neolithic, complex household from Ancient Mexico (1540): 13 people, Ancient Mexico (1540): 13 people,

4 generations, 5 marital units4 generations, 5 marital units

Marriedhead of

householdMarried

Married one

year agoMarried

Married Married

Married Married MarriedMarriedone

year ago

Male10 years

of age, not married

Simplyan old widow

Female, 20 years old,

not yet married

Competing theories of family history Competing theories of family history (regarding co-residence)(regarding co-residence)

Evolutionary, 4 stages: Evolutionary, 4 stages: Foragers: co-residence not limited to family or kin Foragers: co-residence not limited to family or kin Neolithic, agriculturalists: compound multi-familyNeolithic, agriculturalists: compound multi-family Ancient to early modern: complex, extended familyAncient to early modern: complex, extended family Modern: nuclear familyModern: nuclear family

High mortality simplified family structures in the past High mortality simplified family structures in the past (Peter Laslett, 1972): (Peter Laslett, 1972): ““It is simply untrue as far as we can yet tell that there was ever a It is simply untrue as far as we can yet tell that there was ever a time or place where the complex family was the universal time or place where the complex family was the universal background to the ordinary lives of ordinary people.”background to the ordinary lives of ordinary people.”

There once was a place, where the complex There once was a place, where the complex family, “the classical family of Western family, “the classical family of Western

nostalgia,” was the rule.nostalgia,” was the rule.

Nahua agrarian villages, early 16th centuryNahua agrarian villages, early 16th centuryuniversal early marriage (<13 years female)universal early marriage (<13 years female)high mortality (ehigh mortality (e00 <20 years) <20 years)

Household system: joint, complex, or Household system: joint, complex, or compound?compound?

Gender relations: parallelism & symmetry Gender relations: parallelism & symmetry or hierarchy & subordination? or hierarchy & subordination?

Source: Source: The Book of TributesThe Book of Tributes S. L. Cline (1993) S. L. Cline (1993)

Census listings made by Aztec scribes, writing in Nahuatl, according to prehispanic conventions (translated by Cline).

Morelos: QuauchichinollanMorelos: Quauchichinollan

MorelosMexico City

$E

Museo de Antropología, Mexico City: Museo de Antropología, Mexico City: “Here is the home of one named...”“Here is the home of one named...”

...transcribed ...transcribed ……translated translated ……microdatamicrodata

Nahua population and land registerNahua population and land register

Codex Santa María de Asunción, ~1550Codex Santa María de Asunción, ~1550

Lines are used to connect kin rather than to separate households

Darkened faces = dead

CemithualtinCemithualtin (those around a (those around a patio): the importance of kin patio): the importance of kin

Nahua households (Nahua households (cemithualtincemithualtin): ): “those who live in a house” “those who live in a house” “people who live in only one house” “people who live in only one house” “those from a patio,” etc.“those from a patio,” etc.

99% live with kin: 99% live with kin: 47% as spouse or children of head; 47% as spouse or children of head; 52% as extended kin of head.52% as extended kin of head.

1% have no kin ties with the head (3 1% have no kin ties with the head (3 orphans, 20 servants and 1 [Indian] slave).orphans, 20 servants and 1 [Indian] slave).

Table 1. Explicit and inferred kin Table 1. Explicit and inferred kin relationships with 19+ occurrencesrelationships with 19+ occurrences

Huitzillan and Quauhchichinollan villages, circa 1540Huitzillan and Quauhchichinollan villages, circa 1540

RelationshipRelationship Frequency (total n = 2,486)Frequency (total n = 2,486)childchild 596596 mother-in-lawmother-in-law 4040spousespouse 316316 brother-in-law’s spouse 38brother-in-law’s spouse 38headhead 315315 sister-in-lawsister-in-law 37 37brotherbrother 158158 daughter-in-lawdaughter-in-law 36 36brother’s spouse 88brother’s spouse 88 nephewnephew 34 34son-in-lawson-in-law 77 77 brother-in-law’s childbrother-in-law’s child 33 33brother-in-lawbrother-in-law 76 76 sister’s childsister’s child 33 33sister sister 67 67 mothermother 26 26grandchildgrandchild 56 56 cousincousin 19 19brother’s childbrother’s child 51 51 nieceniece 19 19

Household and family definitionsHousehold and family definitions

Household classes with only 1 conjugal family:Household classes with only 1 conjugal family: nuclear: pa, ma, &/or childnuclear: pa, ma, &/or childextended: some non-nuclear, unmarried kinextended: some non-nuclear, unmarried kin

Household classifications for 2+ conjugal Household classifications for 2+ conjugal families:families:Joint - families connected by kin of same sex, Joint - families connected by kin of same sex, under single head under single headComplex - tangled, intricate, diverse, multipleComplex - tangled, intricate, diverse, multipleCompound - fusion, blending or amalgam of parts;Compound - fusion, blending or amalgam of parts; hierarchy hierarchy

5 conjugal families, 4 generations, 5 conjugal families, 4 generations, 3 married brothers, 2 widows, 3 married brothers, 2 widows, 1 unmarried woman and a boy1 unmarried woman and a boy

Marriedhead of

householdMarried

Married one

year agoMarried

Married Married

Married Married MarriedMarriedone

year ago

Male10 years

of age, not married

Simplyan old widow

Female, 20 years old,

not yet married

Table 2. Multiple households were Table 2. Multiple households were the norm among rural Nahuathe norm among rural Nahua

Household typeHousehold type HouseholdsHouseholds (Percent) (Percent) IndividualsIndividualsSimpleSimple 13.413.4 7.2 7.2

No childrenNo children 1.9 1.9 0.5 0.5ChildrenChildren 11.511.5 6.7 6.7

ExtendedExtended 13.413.4 10.110.1UpwardUpward 1.9 1.9 1.0 1.0DownwardDownward 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2LateralLateral 6.7 6.7 4.9 4.9CombinationsCombinations 4.5 4.5 3.9 3.9

Multiple Multiple 72.172.1 81.181.1UpwardUpward 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3DownwardDownward 15.115.1 14.614.6LateralLateral 26.326.3 26.626.6CombinationsCombinations 30.430.4 39.539.5

PolygamousPolygamous 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.6Total (n)Total (n) 312 312 2,486 2,486Illegible (n)Illegible (n) 3 3 17 17

Nahuatl sense of “joint”Nahuatl sense of “joint”differs from classic definition of family differs from classic definition of family

historians: “historians: “Joint - families connected by kin Joint - families connected by kin of same sex, under single headof same sex, under single head””

““They pay the tribute jointly.”They pay the tribute jointly.”““They all produce what they eat jointly”.They all produce what they eat jointly”.““Their wives make it jointly.”Their wives make it jointly.”““They just do their tribute together.”They just do their tribute together.”““They just share the tribute.”They just share the tribute.”““They just do it jointly.”They just do it jointly.”““He just feeds them all as a unit.”He just feeds them all as a unit.”““All of them do the tribute jointly.”All of them do the tribute jointly.”““They just produce his tribute jointly.”They just produce his tribute jointly.”

SahagSahagún, ún, CCóódice Florentino, ~1580dice Florentino, ~1580

The different The different houses houses

Icnocalli (casa humilde)Icnocalli (casa humilde)humble househumble house

Coloti calli (choça)Coloti calli (choça)hut or hovelhut or hovel

Totecujo calli (hermita)Totecujo calli (hermita)hermitagehermitage

Xacalli (casa paxija)Xacalli (casa paxija)Straw houseStraw houseÇaça ie xacalli (choça) Çaça ie xacalli (choça) another kind of hutanother kind of hut

14 meters 14 meters squaresquare

Commoner’s Commoner’s househouse(choça o (choça o cabacabañaña))

Colotic Colotic callicalli: “It means it is : “It means it is unpretentious, a lowly house.”unpretentious, a lowly house.”

SahagSahagún, ún, CCóódice Florentino, ~1580dice Florentino, ~1580

Icnocalli (casa humilde)Icnocalli (casa humilde)“the unpretentious house, or the “the unpretentious house, or the

house of the humble or…the poor.”house of the humble or…the poor.”

SahagSahagún, ún, CCóódice Florentino, ~1580dice Florentino, ~1580

Excavated residences Excavated residences “those of one patio…” “those of one patio…”

M.E. Smith, Archaeological Research (1992)M.E. Smith, Archaeological Research (1992)

““those of one patio…” those of one patio…” note grouped ground-level housesnote grouped ground-level houses

M.E. Smith, Archaeological Research (1992)M.E. Smith, Archaeological Research (1992)

Table 3a. Headship designation by Table 3a. Headship designation by frequency of occurrence.frequency of occurrence.

District identities of households and headDistrict identities of households and head

freqfreq KeyKey ExplanationExplanation165165 HH “Here is the home of ...”; “Here is ....'s home.” “Here is the home of ...”; “Here is ....'s home.” 4747 RR “Here is the householder named ...”“Here is the householder named ...” 3939 SS “Here is the home of some people...” “ The household“Here is the home of some people...” “ The household

head is named...” or “The head of the household is head is named...” or “The head of the household is named...” or “The householder is named...” named...” or “The householder is named...”

2525 TT “The tribute payer is named...”“The tribute payer is named...” 2020 .. illegibleillegible 66 mm migrant (“Here are some people who...came from afar”)migrant (“Here are some people who...came from afar”) 66 GG “one who governs” (tlatoani); “one named ... is in charge”“one who governs” (tlatoani); “one named ... is in charge” 11 bb “one who belongs to the tlatoani”“one who belongs to the tlatoani” 11 gg “Here is the one who guards things for the tlatoani”“Here is the one who guards things for the tlatoani” 11 nn “Here is a nephew...” “Here is a nephew...” 22 CC “Here is a tribute collector...”; “...tribute boss”“Here is a tribute collector...”; “...tribute boss” 11 aa “Here is a goodly maiden...”“Here is a goodly maiden...”

Table 3b. Headship designation by order of Table 3b. Headship designation by order of appearance in district:appearance in district:

““Here is an altepetl named Huitzillan” (H1-H41):Here is an altepetl named Huitzillan” (H1-H41):GbH.HHHHHH.HHH.HHH.HHHHHHHmHmH.HHHHm.HHHHGbH.HHHHHH.HHH.HHH.HHHHHHHmHmH.HHHHm.HHHHQuauhchichinollan people (Q1-Q66):Quauhchichinollan people (Q1-Q66):GgRSSSSSSSSTSSSSSHHHHHSSSSRSSSSSSSHSTTTTSSTT.TTTTTT.TGgRSSSSSSSSTSSSSSHHHHHSSSSRSSSSSSSHSTTTTSSTT.TTTTTT.TTTTTTTT.T.TTTTTTTTTT.T.TTTDistrict illegible (Q67-Q135):District illegible (Q67-Q135):GHRRRRRHHRR.RRRRRR.RRRHHRRRRRRRR.RSSSSSSSSHHHHHHHGHRRRRRHHRR.RRRRRR.RRRHHRRRRRRRR.RSSSSSSSSHHHHHHHHHHn.HHHH.mHHHHHHHHHHHHn.HHHH.mHHHHHHHHHTlacochcalco (H#1-H#18):Tlacochcalco (H#1-H#18):HHHHHHHHHHCHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHCHHHHHHHColoteopan (H#19-H #35): Coloteopan (H#19-H #35): GHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHGHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHDistrict illegible (H#36-H#62):District illegible (H#36-H#62):GHHHHHHHHHHH.HHHHHmHHHH.HHmGHHHHHHHHHHH.HHHHHmHHHH.HHmXanyacac (H#63-H#72):Xanyacac (H#63-H#72):CHHHHHHHHCHHHHHHHH...cenhuitzco (H#73-H#139):...cenhuitzco (H#73-H#139):SSSSRRRRRRRRRRRRR.RRRRRRRGHHHHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHHHHHSSSSRRRRRRRRRRRRR.RRRRRRRGHHHHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH.HHHHHHaHHHHHHHHHHH.HHHHHHa

Key: Here is...Key: Here is...H - HomeH - HomeR - HouseholderR - HouseholderS - Some people; S - Some people; household head household headT - Tribute payerT - Tribute payerm - migrantm - migrant

Gender relations: Gender relations: parallelism & symmetry or parallelism & symmetry or

hierarchy & subordination?hierarchy & subordination? Situs: Tenochitlan (Mex. City) or the countryside?Situs: Tenochitlan (Mex. City) or the countryside? Parallelism, symmetry and complementarity with less Parallelism, symmetry and complementarity with less

hierarchy?hierarchy? Or patriarchy: subordination, domination, and Or patriarchy: subordination, domination, and

submission?submission? Evidence: Evidence:

– Widows, “just a little old woman”.Widows, “just a little old woman”.– Married women in the household (Table 4).Married women in the household (Table 4).

Household H-38: 9 people, Household H-38: 9 people, 3 generations, 2 widows3 generations, 2 widows

Marriedhousehold

headMarried

Girl1 year old

Boy7 years old

Widow 10 years ago Married Married Widow

4 years ago

Single15 years old

Table 4. Position of Table 4. Position of marriedmarried individuals in individuals in rural Nahua households was strongly rural Nahua households was strongly

structured by genderstructured by genderRelationshipRelationship MaleMale FemaleFemaleHeadHead 306306 1 1SpouseSpouse 1 1 309309Son/daughterSon/daughter 36 36 75 75Other kin:Other kin: 323323 285285

Brother/sisterBrother/sister 98 98 26 26Brother/sister-in-law*Brother/sister-in-law* 63 63 106106Son/daughter in lawSon/daughter in law 75 75 36 36Brother/sister-in-law’s spouseBrother/sister-in-law’s spouse 14 14 38 38Father/motherFather/mother 3 3 3 3Father/mother-in-lawFather/mother-in-law 8 8 8 8OtherOther 62 62 68 68

Not related:Not related: 11 11 11 11Total married (includes 2Total married (includes 2ndnd wives) wives) 677677 681681

Rules of household headship Rules of household headship (inferred), the 3Ms:(inferred), the 3Ms:

1. 1. MaleMale (311 of 315 households) (311 of 315 households) 2. 2. MarriedMarried (97%) or recently (97%) or recently

widowed (3%).widowed (3%). 3. 3. Most sonsMost sons resident (or the eldest resident (or the eldest

son resident).son resident).

The Codex Mendoza: life at The Codex Mendoza: life at age 13 and 14 yearsage 13 and 14 years

GirlsBoys13:

14:

unmarriedmarried

Marriage (at 15)Marriage (at 15)

15:

Child Brides and Patriarchy Child Brides and Patriarchy in Ancient Mexicoin Ancient Mexico

Codex Mendoza, 1540Codex Mendoza, 1540

1540 vs 19901540 vs 1990Persistence of Mexico Persistence of Mexico

“profundo”?“profundo”?

Pre-hispanic survivals?Pre-hispanic survivals?– Virilocal stem families?Virilocal stem families?– Residence around the paternal home? Residence around the paternal home?

Or transformations?Or transformations?– The world Mexico has lost: extended families The world Mexico has lost: extended families

are now rareare now rare– But family and kin ties remain importantBut family and kin ties remain important

1540: 4 lateral extensions, 1540: 4 lateral extensions, Only 1 complete conjugal family Only 1 complete conjugal family 3 incomplete (2 widows+children)3 incomplete (2 widows+children)

Marriedhead of the household

Married

Male,8 years

old

Girl, 1 year old

Boyborn this

year

Widowthis year Single

Male 20 years old

MarriedMarried

three years ago

Male, single 10 years old

Male, already

dead

Widow,10 years

ago

Female,single 15 years old

1990, 450 years later: An example of a 1990, 450 years later: An example of a patrilateral household from rural patrilateral household from rural

MMorelos (5 conjugal unions)orelos (5 conjugal unions) Married

head of the household 50 years

old Married48 years

old

Son 15 years old

Daughter10 years

old

Son 22,free union

Daughter 22, free union

21, free union

Unión libre, 25

años

Daughter2 years

old

Daughter5 years

old

Son, 2 years old

Daughtermonths of age

Daughter 14, free union

29free

union

16 free union

19, free union

(not kin)(not kin)

25free

union

Table 5. Household Composition in Rural Table 5. Household Composition in Rural Morelos, 1540 and 1990,Morelos, 1540 and 1990,

and in the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1990and in the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1990

15401540 19901990 19901990Rural MorelosRural Morelos RepublicRepublic

Relation to HeadRelation to Head % % % % % %HeadHead 13 13 20 20 19 19SpouseSpouse 13 13 16 16 16 16Son or DaughterSon or Daughter 24 24 54 54 53 53Other kinOther kin 49 49 6 6 7 7Not relatedNot related 1 1 4 4 5 5Total %Total % 100100 100100 100100 N (sample size)N (sample size) 2,5032,503 1,6331,633 801,981801,981

ConclusionsConclusions 1. Nahua households were 1. Nahua households were largelarge (ave. = 8) and (ave. = 8) and

complexcomplex (75% contained two or more conjugal (75% contained two or more conjugal families)families)

2. 2. MortalityMortality, rather than braking, , rather than braking, acceleratedaccelerated the formation of the formation of complexcomplex familiesfamilies..

3. Of greater importance than mortality were 3. Of greater importance than mortality were social constraintssocial constraints: Nahua offspring formed new : Nahua offspring formed new households after the birth of a child, not simply households after the birth of a child, not simply with marriage.with marriage.

Conclusions, social flexibility:Conclusions, social flexibility: 1. Marriage norms and family forms are 1. Marriage norms and family forms are

social constructions and are highly plastic, social constructions and are highly plastic, even in ancient Mexico.even in ancient Mexico.

2. Marriage age (including informal unions) 2. Marriage age (including informal unions) has increased greatly over the centuries, has increased greatly over the centuries, from as little as 13 years in rural “Morelos” from as little as 13 years in rural “Morelos” five centuries ago to as much as 22 years by five centuries ago to as much as 22 years by 1930, and 24 by 1990.1930, and 24 by 1990.

3. Likewise, complex families have declined 3. Likewise, complex families have declined from 75% to 15% in 1930, and 6% in 1990.from 75% to 15% in 1930, and 6% in 1990.

EndEnd

Museo de Antropología, Mexico City: Museo de Antropología, Mexico City: “Here is the home of one named...”“Here is the home of one named...”

...transcribed ...transcribed ……translated translated ……microdatamicrodata

Table 1. Explicit and inferred kin Table 1. Explicit and inferred kin relationships with 19+ occurrencesrelationships with 19+ occurrences

Huitzillan and Quauhchichinollan villages, circa 1540Huitzillan and Quauhchichinollan villages, circa 1540

RelationshipRelationship Frequency (total n = 2,486)Frequency (total n = 2,486)childchild 596596 mother-in-lawmother-in-law 4040spousespouse 316316 brother-in-law’s spouse 38brother-in-law’s spouse 38headhead 315315 sister-in-lawsister-in-law 37 37brotherbrother 158158 daughter-in-lawdaughter-in-law 36 36brother’s spouse 88brother’s spouse 88 nephewnephew 34 34son-in-lawson-in-law 77 77 brother-in-law’s childbrother-in-law’s child 33 33brother-in-lawbrother-in-law 76 76 sister’s childsister’s child 33 33sister sister 67 67 mothermother 26 26grandchildgrandchild 56 56 cousincousin 19 19brother’s childbrother’s child 51 51 nieceniece 19 19

Table 2. Multiple households were Table 2. Multiple households were the norm among rural Nahuathe norm among rural Nahua

Household typeHousehold type HouseholdsHouseholds (Percent) (Percent) IndividualsIndividualsSimpleSimple 13.413.4 7.2 7.2

No childrenNo children 1.9 1.9 0.5 0.5ChildrenChildren 11.511.5 6.7 6.7

ExtendedExtended 13.413.4 10.110.1UpwardUpward 1.9 1.9 1.0 1.0DownwardDownward 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2LateralLateral 6.7 6.7 4.9 4.9CombinationsCombinations 4.5 4.5 3.9 3.9

Multiple Multiple 72.172.1 81.181.1UpwardUpward 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3DownwardDownward 15.115.1 14.614.6LateralLateral 26.326.3 26.626.6CombinationsCombinations 30.430.4 39.539.5

PolygamousPolygamous 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.6Total (n)Total (n) 312 312 2,486 2,486Illegible (n)Illegible (n) 3 3 17 17

Table 3a. Headship designation by Table 3a. Headship designation by frequency of occurrence.frequency of occurrence.

District identities of households and headDistrict identities of households and head

freqfreq KeyKey ExplanationExplanation165165 HH “Here is the home of ...”; “Here is ....'s home.” “Here is the home of ...”; “Here is ....'s home.” 4747 RR “Here is the householder named ...”“Here is the householder named ...” 3939 SS “Here is the home of some people...” “ The household“Here is the home of some people...” “ The household

head is named...” or “The head of the household is head is named...” or “The head of the household is named...” or “The householder is named...” named...” or “The householder is named...”

2525 TT “The tribute payer is named...”“The tribute payer is named...” 2020 .. illegibleillegible 66 mm migrant (“Here are some people who...came from afar”)migrant (“Here are some people who...came from afar”) 66 GG “one who governs” (tlatoani); “one named ... is in charge”“one who governs” (tlatoani); “one named ... is in charge” 11 bb “one who belongs to the tlatoani”“one who belongs to the tlatoani” 11 gg “Here is the one who guards things for the tlatoani”“Here is the one who guards things for the tlatoani” 11 nn “Here is a nephew...” “Here is a nephew...” 22 CC “Here is a tribute collector...”; “...tribute boss”“Here is a tribute collector...”; “...tribute boss” 11 aa “Here is a goodly maiden...”“Here is a goodly maiden...”

Table 4. Position of Table 4. Position of marriedmarried individuals in individuals in rural Nahua households was strongly rural Nahua households was strongly

structured by genderstructured by genderRelationshipRelationship MaleMale FemaleFemaleHeadHead 306306 1 1SpouseSpouse 1 1 309309Son/daughterSon/daughter 36 36 75 75Other kin:Other kin: 323323 285285

Brother/sisterBrother/sister 98 98 26 26Brother/sister-in-law*Brother/sister-in-law* 63 63 106106Son/daughter in lawSon/daughter in law 75 75 36 36Brother/sister-in-law’s spouseBrother/sister-in-law’s spouse 14 14 38 38Father/motherFather/mother 3 3 3 3Father/mother-in-lawFather/mother-in-law 8 8 8 8OtherOther 62 62 68 68

Not related:Not related: 11 11 11 11Total married (includes 2Total married (includes 2ndnd wives) wives) 677677 681681

Table 5. Household Composition in Rural Table 5. Household Composition in Rural Morelos, 1540 and 1990,Morelos, 1540 and 1990,

and in the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1990and in the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1990

15401540 19901990 19901990Rural MorelosRural Morelos RepublicRepublic

Relation to HeadRelation to Head % % % % % %HeadHead 13 13 20 20 19 19SpouseSpouse 13 13 16 16 16 16Son or DaughterSon or Daughter 24 24 54 54 53 53Other kinOther kin 49 49 6 6 7 7Not relatedNot related 1 1 4 4 5 5Total %Total % 100100 100100 100100 N (sample size)N (sample size) 2,5032,503 1,6331,633 801,981801,981