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Eggenschwyler & Loosli | Bacon-Modell

MARTE MEO Magazine 2011|Art. 05E

Interdisciplinary experiential education October 2011

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[Term paper]

Examination of learning theoretical mechanisms based on the comparison of Bacon’s learning model in experiential education and the Marte Meo concept

The Marte Meo Method

& The Metaphorical Model by Bacon LUKAS EGGENSCHWYLER | Student at the »Faculty of Sport Science«, Bern, Switzerland (»Institut für Sportwissenschaft«) [Foto right]

& DANIELA LOOSLI | Student at the » Faculty of Sport Science«, Bern, Switzerland (»Institut für Sportwissenschaft«) [Foto left]

Term paper in the faculty of sport science of the University of Bern, Switzerland Supervisor: DR. STEFAN VALKANOVER

KEYWORDS: • Interdisciplinary experiential education • Bandura, Social-cognitive learning theory -‐ • Developmental support • Interventional practice of psychology • Marte Meo Method • Modell-‐Bacon, Metaphorical model -‐ • Educational science




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The Marte Meo Method &

The Metaphorical Model by Bacon

Examination of learning theoretical mechanisms based on the comparison of Bacon’s learning model in experiential education and the

Marte Meo concept

Term paper

in the Faculty of Sport Science (Institut für Sportwissenschaft)

of the University of Bern, Switzerland

Supervisor: DR. STEFAN VALKANOVER

submitted by LUKAS EGGENSCHWYLER

Matriculation number: 07-212-012

DANIELA LOOSLI Matriculation number: 06-108-716

Bern, March 2011




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••• Table Of Contents Foreword and Acknowledgement – 4 1. Introduction and problem – 5 2. The questions – 6 3. Marte Meo: the method – 6 3.1. Defining the method – 8 3.2. Theoretical background – 8 3.3. The counselling interview – 10 4. Metaphorical model by Bacon– 11 4.1. The metaphor – 11 4.2. Practices and objectives of the method – 12 4.3. Mechanisms of the method – 13 4.4. Learning theoretical background according to Bandura – 14 5. Comparison of both methods – 15 5.1. Similarities and differences – 15 5.2. Shared application – 16 6. Discussion and prospects – 17 Bibliography – 18 Notes – 19 List of images – 19 Further information & Copyright – 19




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••• Foreword And Acknowledgements In the context of the tutorial physical education, we had to deal intensively with the various realms of interdisciplinary experiential education. This prompted us to get involved with this subject in greater detail. Out of interest, we decided to take part in an introduction course of the Marte Meo method. In this context, we discovered interesting connections between this method stemming from interventional therapy and the interdisciplinary experiential education. This motivated us to make comparisons between these different approaches and to see whether the interdisciplinary experiential model could possibly be enriched by the Marte Meo method. Special thanks are due to Therese Niklaus Loosli whose Marte Meo introduction course we attended. She provided us with all materials about Marte Meo and gave helpful advice concerning the elaboration of the question.

LUKAS EGGENSCHWYLER and DANIELA LOOSLI Bern, 22nd of February, 2011




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••• 1. Introduction And Problem The interdisciplinary experiential education is a fraction of education that generates much interest nowadays. This interest in alternative teaching and intervention methods is most of all a consequence of motion in the daily world of children and teenagers being more and more restricted. The interdisciplinary experiential education focuses on the promotion of social competences and personality. Bacon has developed three different models that are widely applied in the interdisciplinary experiential education. In this paper, we will only refer to the metaphorical model, which is about the power of metaphors. The objective of the model is to enable a transfer to daily life by means of metaphor in the experiential educational setting. This is supposed to children being supported in their social behaviour and conflict situations. The Marte Meo method postulates the same objectives. It is a communication and development supportive method that aims to promote and support children and adults in the development of their communication ability and also in their social behaviour (Bünder, Sirringhaus-Bünder & Helfer, 2009). This method attaches importance on its solution-orientated approach, focussing on possible solutions instead of the problems present. Furthermore, according to the authors Von Schlippe and Hawellek (2005) a central element of the method is the fact that theory and practice as well as action and idea are directly connected to each other. This facilitates the transfer into practice and makes the method interesting for all psychosocial fields of activity. The founder of the method, Maria Aarts (2009), furthermore emphasises that the method is ideal for inter- and intra-disciplinary cooperation since it is characterised by a high flexibility and adaptability. Although both concepts have a similar purpose, they are based on different approaches. The one method is from the interventional practice of psychology and the other from education. Now, it is the question whether the two approaches could be combined in order to make the methods even more effective. Moreover, it will be demonstrated that both models and methods are based on similar theoretical thoughts. Central to both approaches is the social-cognitive learning theory by Bandura. This shared basis will present the foundation of the comparison and also help to connect both methods in theoretical thoughts. The paper at hand is a theoretical elaboration of the different topic areas presented with the help of the under point two shown questions. Since a connection of the chosen methods has not been attempted before, personal thoughts and interpretations will be integrated into the text. In a first part concerning the theory, the Marte Meo method will be explained in more detail. In the same paragraph the method’s theoretical foundation on the social-cognitive learning theory of Bandura will be demonstrated. The second theoretical part will then deal with the metaphorical model by Bacon. Here, the connection to the social-cognitive learning theory will also be shown. The third part consists of a comparison of both methods. In the discussion, the findings will be shown in abbreviated form focussing on the question. Concluding, it




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will be discussed whether the combination and extension of both methods would be possible looking at the theoretical data and if yes in what kind of scale. Moreover, ideas concerning the continuing work in the context of this topic with practical relevance will be made. ••• 2. The Questions The questions that will be examined in this paper are the following: - What are the similarities and differences of the learning theoretical mechanism of

Bacon’s metaphorical model in the interdisciplinary experiential education and in the development supportive method of Marte Meo?

- Would it be possible to combine the two approaches and make them even more efficient?

The second question will take the interdisciplinary experiential education as point of origin and demonstrate which elements from the Marte Meo method could be use in order to make Bacon’s metaphorical model even more effective. ••• 3. Marte Meo: The Method The Dutchwoman Maria Aarts (2009) has developed the Marte Meo method as a specific development supportive programme. Analogously translated from Latin, Marte Meo means as much as »one one’s own strength« (Isager, 2009, p. 1). The name of the method has been consciously chosen by the founder in order to emphasise the central point of the method: namely, to identify, to promote and to support the momentary stage of development of parents as well as children (Bünder et al., 2009, p. 13). The founder Maria Aarts (2009) writes:

»I have taken the basic knowledge for the Marte Meo programme from ordinarily life. One could say I have copied it from nature. In my opinion, changes take place in actions and not in the head.« (p. 67)

Until today, the Marte Meo method is known and successfully applied in 35 countries (Isager, 2009).(*) Bünder et al. (2009, p. 11-12) describe that the Marte Meo model has developed out of practical experience. Central, according to the authors, is that the model lead not from theory to action as normally, but the other way around. Together with the people concerned, one looks bit by bit for a way to come nearer to a solution. The authors mentioned emphasise that the process the people concerned go through in the picture based Marte Meo coaching, resembles rather the example of an educational concept than a real therapy. The decisive point is that the parents or custodians is shown a possibility how to promote their children in their development. According to the authors Von Schlippe und Hawellek (2005), the coaching, contrary to therapy, can be described »as the target-orientated, temporary support of people coping with special challenges or tasks« (p. 20). The Marte Meo method works with video recordings. This instrument serves to repeat daily situations (Bünder et al., 2009). The objective of the subsequent analysis




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of the recorded pictures is to filter possible points of development out. For the diagnosis of stages of development, several checklists are available, as for example the Marte Meo checklists for schools made by Josje Aarts (2007). The advantage of such an analysis is, as Bünder et al. (2009, p. 13) write, that a daily situation is in the centre of attention. This situation represents the reality and makes a communication analysis possible, looking at the daily communication and interaction behaviour of the person seeking help. These video recordings account for the strength of the method, since the paramount aim is the promotion of development. Through working with daily situations and doing this together with the person concerned, this can be ideally achieved. Maria Aarts and Hildegard Rausch (2009) characterise the advantages of Marte Meo as follows:

»The particular quality of the Marte Meo concept consists of the power of pictures which stimulates development in very different areas in the people.« (p. 52).

Bünder et al. (2009) explain further that the Marte Meo method is aimed at complementary relationships. The method is supposed to support and strengthen people in such circumstances. Such a circumstance is given, according to the authors, when a relationship exists in which one person is responsible for the other. The person holding the responsibility then has an educating function. The second person requires the other’s protection and care in order to achieve an optimal development. This requirement from Marte Meo also makes clear what kind of people the method is aimed at. On one hand, people who are in a caring relationship are the focus. This includes, as the authors list, among others babies, infants, but also teenagers, disabled people and adults requiring help more generally. But the method does not limit itself to this single focus and also includes the custodians, since these people provide the corresponding promotion and support. They not only comprise parents and nursery nurses, but also teachers, custodians and all nursing staff. Central for the success of the Marte Meo method is, so Bünder et al. (2009) argue, that the people seeking help act on a voluntary basis. Only when all people concerned want to change, the method can be efficiently applied. Maria Aarts (2009) writes that the method alone does not always lead to the desired effect. According to her the method is ideally suited for the application in combination with other methods and models, since it is very flexible, and also relies on such inter- and intra-disciplinary cooperation. Children and youth psychiatrist Therese Niklaus Loosli describes the outstanding aims that can be achieved through the Marte Meo coaching and the use of Marte Meo Elements (MMEs)(1) in daily life with children but also adults as follows:

»All these MMEs thus help a child with special needs and increased requirement of support step by step to develop self-perception, self-regulation, self assurance, self-efficacy, communication abilities and social abilities on its own strength, as well as to “internalise” structures or models of courses of action that remain essential in the life of a person.« (p. 6)

The method and the MMEs already mentioned will now be described and explained in more detail.




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••• 3.1 Defining The Method The authors Bünder et al. (2009) emphasise that one of the most remarkable characteristics of the Marte Meo method is its flexibility. This flexibility is especially evident in the way the method can adapt to new situations and can be applied in those new situations. Therefore the most important elements with which the method works will be briefly mentioned here. They do not play a central role for the paper at hand, but are helpful for the comprehension of the practical use of Marte Meo. Maria Aarts has developed five communication elements in her work with families, which lead to successful communication when they are intuitively used. These five elements will now be explained following Bünder et. al (2009, pp. 64-83). • Aarts terms the first element perceiving, which is primarily about perceiving the

initiative of the person looked after. • The second element, affirming, is about to subsequently affirm this initiative. • The third element is the so called naming; here the mentoring people try to

name their protégés’ initiatives. As a result, the people looked after get words for their actions and can then place their actions socially. The children are also taught one of the most important communication tools of our time, that is to say language. Naming gives the protégés a feeling of orientation and confidence for their actions. Repeating courses of action ultimately enables the development and strengthening of patterns. Another decisive step for successful communication is a structured conversation. The corresponding element is called taking turns. Two or more people are needed for a communicative process, who take turns in a dialogue. Here, it is important that all contributions are given an equal amount of attention. Especially children have to learn this ability at first, since a child ranks its own experience first. Children who do not learn the ability of participating in a dialogue at their parental home will experience more difficulties in kindergarten and school.

• The two last elements that people should attend to in leading a communication are guiding and leading. Guiding thereby refers to the process of guiding conversations into a certain direction and thus influencing them positively. Leading, on the other hand, means that guardians are responsible for setting clear rules and limits for living together. Such rules and limits are the basic requirement for a child’s good development.

Another influence not to be neglected, as Bünder et al. (2009) emphasise, is the way in which the conversation is conducted and the choice of an adequate tone. Thus, the video analysis can also help the caring person to adopt the appropriate tone that contributes to a beneficial communication and interaction. Especially children react strongly to their parents’ tone. ••• 3.2. Theoretical Background Maria Aarts devised her descriptions without giving more detailed information concerning the theoretical foundation of the method. This can be attributed, as the authors Bünder et al. (2009) argue, that she does not regarded them a being essential. Therefore, the authors named, nevertheless try to show on which thoughts and




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conditions the method is based. By doing so, the authors mention the following concepts, »developmental psychology …, social-cognitive learning theory, neurosciences, communication theory, theory of symbolically mediated interaction and systemic theory« (p. 24). In the following paragraph, only the authors’ explanations concerning the social-cognitive learning theory by Bandura are given, because only this of importance for the paper at hand. Bandura (1979, pp. 9-23) writes in his book that the social-cognitive learning theory puts its emphasis on the representative, symbolic and self-regulating mechanisms and course of action. He postulates that peoples’ behaviour and thoughts are decisively regulated, influenced and controlled through the observation of others. Therefore, the social-cognitive learning theory pays great regard to the self-regulating processes in the human body. Furthermore, he assumes that people neither move forward in their development through innate dispositions nor through environmental stress. He explains changes in psychological functions by pointing at the reciprocity between person and environment. Thus, as above already described, symbolic, representative and self-regulating processes are paid special attention to. The advantage that people achieve through learning by observing is, as Bandura states, that they can adopt already integrated behavioural patterns without having to practise them for a long time. Learning by observing is particularly important in areas where the behaviour of a person can have drastic consequences. Model learning is also used in schools and families in order to teach children cultural values by means of models. The example of learning language is according to Bandura (1979) suitable to illustrate the importance of model learning. If children had to learn a language without corresponding examples and listening to models, they would hardly be able to learn a complex language. The social-cognitive learning theory by Bandura (1979) is moreover based on the assumption that human beings are born with insufficient behavioural dispositions. They are only equipped with simple reflexes. This inevitably leads to the fact that not innate behavioural patterns have to be acquired and learned through observation or experience. Bandura (1979, pp. 31-33) thereby puts emphasis on the observation. By observation he means a very complex process that transcends simple modelling and imitating. He differentiates in this process between four sub-processes that regulate the model learning through observation. In order to start a learning process through observation, the attention needs to be concentrated on the behaviour that is to be modelled so that it can be perceived in as great detail as possible. The intensity of attention is thereby also determined by the attractiveness of a model. The modelling on screen thus for example exhibits a high intrinsic reward for young and old. This makes it possible that the attention can be kept over a long time. Especially television has lead to the observation of a multitude of models on the screen and at the same time the unconscious learning of the behaviour they delineate. An important comment that Bandura (1979) has made in regard to this subject area is that the basic processes remain the same in model learning, whether they are started by listening, seeing or acting. But the way of the modelling can be variably effective. Visual sources can for example convey much more information than pure language can. Moreover, it is often easier to catch someone’s attention by means of visual media instead of auditory sources. The Marte Meo method also uses this characteristic in their video based approach. It connects visual and auditory information and directs them to the best result possible.




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As second central point in the modelling behaviour, Bandura (1979, pp. 34-35) emphasises the memorising processes. An observation can only lead to model learning if the behaviour that has to be modelled is memorised. Learning through observation is thereby decisively influenced through images and language. Those two are considered as the two essential representational systems in learning through observation. What Marte Meo has made use of is the fact that it is proven that especially in early years of development behaviour can be much better coded and memorised through clear names and interesting verbal descriptions of the visual observation. Furthermore, this effect is, according to Bandura (1979), even more enhanced through repetition. The next step in learning by observing is marked by the physical imitation of the symbolic representation (Bandura, 1979, pp.36-38). According to the author, motivational processes also play an important role. They decide whether and to what extent learning by observing can be successful. The possibility for encoding and memorising an observed behaviour is decisively increased when positive motivational effects are connected with the result of the behaviour. This factor is particularly important when working with children. In their cases, it is often the positive or negative reaction of their models to the behaviour shown by them that determines whether a behaviour will continue to be displayed or not. If models show analogous interest in the imitating behaviour of the child, it will continue this with great motivation. The social-cognitive learning theory sees affirmative actions as encouraging but not necessary factors (Bandura, 1979, pp. 45-46). Nevertheless, these circumstances in particular are also considered in the process of learning and applying the Marte Meo method in order to support and promote the protégés as well as possible. Applied to the Marte Meo method, this means, according to Bünder et al. (2009, pp. 39-40) that the people to be looked after identify and perceive themselves as model in the context of a video analysis. Bandura ties the learning experiences to concrete cognitive processes, in order to fulfil this, while the Marte Meo method conveys all information by means of concrete pictures. This procedure ensures that the information is always made comprehensible for the people seeking advice. The video recordings and further counselling interviews also serve in order to determine if a learning process has really taken place and if the caring persons were able to realise the things learned. ••• 3.3. The Counselling Interview The authors Bünder et al. (2009) write the following about the counselling interview: in the Marte Meo method is called also review in German. When the method was in its initial stage, such reviews were only conducted with adult people. But this changed when Aarts and Rausch (2009) noticed that they could also be successful with children and teenagers. During the conversation with the counsellor, one takes a look at the daily situation that was recorded on video. The advantages of video recordings are, as Bünder et al. (2009, pp. 125-131) state, that the daily situations are reviewed and thus can be visualised. Thereby, the focus is put on the beneficial moments of communication. In this process, so the authors say, one has to be careful to choose video sequences that both sides can observe positive moments. In the counselling interview, the separate points have to be observed and discussed step by step. Each explanation is illustrated by a picture taken from the video. The authors




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go on by saying that it is crucial in counselling that the video image stands still as soon as a person begins speaking. This serves to concentrate the whole attention on the conversation and not keeping it on the video. Moreover, one working point is to be discussed at a time. The amount of pictures that are discussed in the review depends, according to Aarts and Rausch (2009), on the coached person’s capacity. Bünder et al. (2009) write further that an essential precondition for a successful review is a clear structure and a beneficial atmosphere. According to Aarts and Rausch (2009) the review partner is specifically trained in his perception in the interaction analysis. The close look at the pictures and himself as a model will enable the review partner to come up with understanding and proposals for solution on his own strength. A central point that will be mentioned here, Bünder et al. (2009, pp. 134-135) describe as transfer to daily life. This is the interface between coaching and daily life. If the people seeking help succeed in conferring the working points discussed into daily life with the help of the model seen, an improved communication can take place. Since communication occurs often rather unconsciously and intuitively, the consulter get specific elements in the review and can regard themselves as models. This is supposed to facilitate and clarify the transfer into daily life. Each film sequence discussed, as the authors describe it, enables the spectators to see themselves as model and to perceive and to improve the accordant points that are discussed. Through the repetition of the decisive elements, these can be more easily memorised and be established as routine. Thus, a successful transfer into daily life is promoted. Here, the method specifically uses knowledge from the social-cognitive learning theory by Bandura. In the conclusion, Bünder er al. (2009, pp. 195-196) demonstrate again that video recordings can find broad application as a diagnostic tool. They cannot only be used in the daily life of families, but also in institutions where problems between nursing staff and patients occur. Picture recordings support the understanding of both sides from an objective perspective, since they show daily situations recorded live and not the subjective descriptions of the people concerned. ••• 4. Metaphorical Model By Bacon In this part of the paper the metaphorical model by Bacon will be presented in more detail. It will be shown at first where the term of the metaphor comes from and what exactly is referred to with the term metaphor. ••• 4.1. The Metaphor Schödlbauer (1999) makes ten cases concerning the power of the metaphor. One of them reads: »In the beginning of the interdisciplinary experiential education there was the study of pictures« (p. 58). Heckmair and Michel (2008, p. 122) pick up the term of study of pictures that is usual in art and comes from progressive education. In this context, they speak of one section of the roots of the interdisciplinary experiential education. It is not the objective study of pictures that is important, but the subjective feelings while studying them. According to the authors, it is not about making interpretative statements about a piece of art, but about being inspired and finding new dimensions of experience.




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Modern interpretations of the interdisciplinary experimental education also place their focus on the visual language. In more specific terms, this is the metaphor. Schödlbauer (2000, p. 18-19) researches in an interdisciplinary way on the term of metaphor and its definition. It only becomes a keyword after significant successes in psychology. In the interdisciplinary experiential education, the terms »metaphor« and »metaphorical model« are shaped by the author Stephen Bacon. His book »Conscious Use of Metaphor in Outward Bound« is described by Schödlbauer (2000) as »core text for the metaphorical learning in experiential educational settings« (p. 247). On the theoretical level, Bacon (2003, p. 30-32) presents the metaphor as a figure of speech that connects two things in such a way that a different light is cast on a certain object. Metaphorical learning stands for the process in which a representative experience substitutes an actual experience in daily life. According to Bacon (2003), metaphorical experiences can come about through an anecdote, a story or a real experience. Exactly these actual lived experiences, the method of the metaphorical model uses in an experiential educational setting. ••• 4.2. Practices And Objectives Of The Method Heckmair and Michel (2008, p. 116) locate the objectives of the experiential educational method in an enhanced feeling of self-worth, a promotion of the sense of community and the practise of self-responsibility. A new perspective of self-perception and perception of others develops because firm attitudes and judgements falter. In order to live up to these objectives, Bacon works with nature-orientated experiences. »The Outward Bound course is to offer a learning situation orientated on experience that prompts the participants to engage in discovering new or unusual aspects of their lives.« (Bacon, 2003, p.142) He adds that the participants are exposed to a situation that allows them to learn from their experiences. Additionally to the obviously acquired abilities as for example the rope techniques for a climbing tour, educational objectives are also pursued. Bacon (2003) describes the improvement of personality development, the interpersonal competence and values as central and at the same time risky objectives of his metaphorical model. In doing so, the author focuses on the metaphorical learning in his actions. The experiential educator has to employ, as Krug (1999, p. 208) argues, metaphors systematically, that is to say visual experiences that stand for the live situation and problems of the participants. Difficult personal living conditions, problems and harmful concepts of the self have to be recognised and translated into physical activities. These tasks have to be organised in a challenging and exciting way. It is necessary that the experience of an experiential educational intervention depicts a positive outcome, that is to say a different solution. In this process, according to Bacon (2003), the participants are shown a new strategy in dealing with problematic situations in daily life. The most important aspect in an experiential educational intervention is to ensure the transfer into daily life (Schödlbauer, 2000). Here, the term isomorphism has a central meaning. »Isomorphism means equality in structure« (Schödlbauer, 1999, p. 40). Bacon (2003, p. 32) writes that the extent of isomorphism between the metaphorical and actual live situation is decisive for the success of a transfer. This is not to say that the corresponding elements have to be actually identical. The main features have to be the same on a symbolical level. If this is the case, the




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metaphorical experience replaces the actual and can thus cause a change in behaviour. Krug (1999) refers to the resource of language for the support of the isomorphism and a better understanding of the metaphor. Linguistic metaphors can emphasise the equality of structure of the corresponding experiences and thus facilitate the transfer into daily life. In this context, Heckmair and Michel (2008) describe the introduction of an activity. This introduction is to present the experience to come as isomorphic, that is to say »analogous to the participants’ real lives« (p. 120). In this way the opportunity to already achieve a change of behaviour during the action is given. Schödlbauer (2000, p. 110) refers to reflection in the context of linguistic resources. In comparison to other experiential educational methods, the reflection is not in the focus of the method but can be regarded as a reasonable form of intervention. In this context, the author refers to a concluding reflection in order to strengthen and correct the metaphorical experience. Needless to say, there are also difficulties in the process of metaphorical learning. Schödlbauer (2000, p. 112-115) has identified four central obstacles. On the one hand, these are the often diffuse objectives of individual experiential educational interventions, on the other hand the participating groups lack in homogeneity. Thus, it is difficult to shape the objectives and corresponding metaphors in an individual way. Furthermore, the author mentions the course leader’s missing knowledge about the patients and the potential wanting opportunities to get to know them. These three point result in, so the author argues, in the fourth obstacle: »The course leaders’ dominance in the interpretative work and the construction of metaphors« (p. 301). ••• 4.3. Mechanisms Of The Method The convincing characteristic of the metaphorical model is that the transfer ideally already takes place during the experience of learning (Schödlbauer, 2000). Heckmair and Michel (2008) group all this learning effects under the term of learning by experience, which are not necessarily intended in education. Dealing with the environment in an active and self-determined way enables the participants of an experiential educational action to get to know new aspects of life and learning. Schödlbauer (2000, p. 113) amends this perspective by introducing the term of unconscious learning. Learning new strategies and abolishing old behavioural patterns are thus not achieved through cognitive understanding. In the metaphorical action, a transfer takes place immediately in case of high isomorphism, so Heckmair and Michel (2008) argue. To make the diffuse objectives of the metaphorical model, as for example the manipulation of values, become in meaningful through experience though is hardly possible (Bacon, 2003). Therefore, Priest and Gass (1999) mention elements of reflection, transfer and support from the outside are necessary in addition to action, in order to achieve a real learning effect from experience. The authors describe this as follows:

»The cognitive, emotional, spiritual and physical areas of learning of the human being are rather activated by action than by passive treatment. The extent to which a person learns and changes is increased and improved by verbal or non-verbal reflection on this active experience.« (p. 218)




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Bacon (2003, p. 32) summarises the interplay between verbal inputs and action in the following way: a metaphor was verbally introduced by an action but in the end unconsciously transferred. An isomorphism that is high enough creates an unconscious readiness to realise the solutions that have been symbolically learned. ••• 4.4. Learning Theoretical Backgrounds

According To Bandura Albert Bandura shaped the notion of model learning in his social learning theory. Bandura’s approach focuses on the social situation when learning behavioural patterns according to Bodenmann, Perrez, Schär and Trepp (2004). Future behaviour thereby depends on the respective breadth of a person’s behavioural patterns as well as his/her motivation. In this process, Bandura (1979) distinguishes three different opportunities of learning behaviour by means of exemplary experiences. The first opportunity concerns the direct experience as a result of conditioning processes. The second opportunity is the representative experience as a result from learning by observing. The last type is the one in which model experiences are generated by means of symbolic experiences using verbal or visual instruction. The latter thereby plays a major role in Bacon’s metaphoric model since this possibility is based on the transfer of symbolic actions. Learning using a model proves to be particularly fast and efficient in the adoption of complex behavioural patterns in the area of social and linguistic behaviour. This advantage is further increased, so Bodenmann et al. (2004, p. 239) states, when the representative model presents a positive consequence. The more the model resembles the effective daily situation the more likely it is imitated. These given facts are very reminiscent of the principles of metaphorical learning. Therefore, we will here equate the notion of the model coming from Bandura’s learning theory with the metaphorical experience from Bacon’s experiential educational approach. Bodenmann et al. (2004) describe an important component of the learning effect caused by metaphorical experiences according to Bacon: »Model learning can strengthen or weaken behavioural patterns that already exist, depending on whether the models observed contain positive or negative consequences on the behaviour.« (p. 236) Thus, it is very important that the actions in an experiential educational setting have to contain an optimistic solution. A fundamental idea in Bandura’s theory is the so-called image of behaviour (Bodenmann et al., 2004, p. 232). This notion describes the internal cognitive images of an action that are necessary to show a particular behaviour. These images are generated by representative experiences that are often not completely identical with the particular living situation. This equates to the principle of Bacon’s (2003) metaphor. According to Bodenmann et al. (2004) the motivation to show a particular behaviour depends on what kind of expectation one has concerning the reward to a certain behaviour. Expectations are learned through experiences. Concerning this the authors mentioned write the following: »Learning expectations is thus an internal process that cannot be directly observed. An individual memorises which behavioural patterns can be successful and when these are to be shown.« (p. 233) The metaphorical learning uses this unconscious learning by experience (Schödlbauer, 2000).




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An expectation of success is learned together with the image of behaviour (Bodenmann et al., 2004). This results in the strengthening of exactly this behavioural pattern already during an action that has positive consequences. This mechanism is similar to the unconscious transfer according to Bacon (2003). However, Bodenmann et al. (2004) emphasise the importance of the awareness for what a person will be punished or rewarded in this process. ••• 5. Comparison Of Both Methods A comparison of both methods will now be made using the theoretical backgrounds that have been demonstrated so far. In this process, similarities, differences and possible shared areas of application of the two educational methods described above will be presented. The explanations will thereby focus solely on the visual language, which is important to both approaches. Thus, learning through pictures and visual models will be at the centre of the comparison. We will look at the shared underlying learning theory of the social-cognitive approach from psychology. The role of the leading person is for example disregarded. ••• 5.1. Similarities And Differences Both the model of the metaphorical learning through experience following Stephan Bacon and the development supportive method of Marte Meo pursue complex objectives in education. These correspond partially. Thus, both practices define personality development and an improved personal competence as objective targets. In the field of personal interactions, both sides refer to an increase of social competence for example in problem solving strategies. Another shared objective is the ability to communicate. In order to be able to realise these objectives, both the Marte Meo method and the metaphorical experience learning try to change and correct daily behavioural patterns by means of models. Thereby, new, positive behavioural patterns are shown with the help of visual or metaphorical descriptions and actions. Ideally, these exemplary presentations and experiences will lead to a transfer into daily life, that is to say an adoption of the positive behaviour into the behavioural pattern of a person. But the nature of the models differs. Marte Meo generates a model by means of a direct situation from daily life. Short video sequences have already demonstrated positive aspects of behaviour and have thus strengthened them. The interdisciplinary experiential education works with situations that are representative for a situation in daily life. In doing so, experiences similar in structure are shown as a model for a general action. The fact that connects both methods is that the own person represents the model. In Marte Meo, the participants see themselves on a screen and can thus examine the positive actions of the model they represent themselves. In the learning method based on experience following Bacon, the own metaphorical action is very important. The person generates and experiences the symbolic model in his/her own action. Only the approach to the behavioural model differs. In Bacon’s approach, the metaphor is taken from the personal living conditions of the participants and introduced before the action begins. The learning effect and adoption of the model occurs during the action and is primarily unconsciously made. In the Marte Meo




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method, on the other hand, the exemplary pictures are taken from an action that has happened before. Afterwards, the video recordings are analysed in retrospective. Thus, the model is evidently presented and consciously adapted. ••• 5.2. Shared Application As shown above, the education methods concerned reveal several similarities and thus provide an opportunity to form a self-supportive combination. The authors of this paper see the greatest potential in the use of Marte Meo practices in an interdisciplinary experiential setting in the possibility of reflection. In this process, one circumstance described as difference should be considered. In the case of metaphorical learning, the metaphor, that is to say the model, is introduced at the beginning of an action, whereas Marte Meo uses this at the end of an action. The combination of these different forms of presentation of visual language can be strengthening. This means that an interdisciplinary experiential action can enhance the metaphor after the introduction in the beginning, while concise Marte Meo videos do this in the end. When the end of a challenge that is experienced as being positive can be seen on a screen, this can strengthen the consciousness and readiness for the transfer of the metaphor. This effectively contradicts Bacon’s idea of the unconscious transfer of the metaphorical experience in daily life. But Bodenmann et al. (2004) point out the importance of the expectation of success when learning with a model. This expectation is intensified by the conscious experience of a reward, which in turn increases the motivation to imitate an exemplary behaviour. The positive picture in Marte Meo can thus be regarded as extrinsic reward. As long as the isomorphism of the metaphor is high enough and the transfer is likely to take place, the use of videos is rather redundant. In the case of insecure daily life, transfer or scarce isomorphism on the other hand, the video bases support can help to strengthen the metaphor. Such an application is also possible and maybe even desirable in the work with heterogeneous groups of participants, where an experience of the same structure and equally personalised, can hardly be generated. Marte Meo analysis using video material could help to emphasise the relevance of a metaphor for daily life and to design this metaphor more individually through appropriate picture details. The intensification of creating metaphors and their transfer through the social-cognitive learning theory by Bandura can be explained on the cognitive level. Bodenmann et al. (2004) mention model learning as purposeful didactic tool for supporting the acquirement of new behavioural patterns: »Models in vivo on video are similarly used as symbolic models in form of figures from stories or comics.« (p. 244) Positive behavioural patterns are thus created if the model promises a positive consequence. Marte Meo videos are using exactly these positive experiences in order to increase the expectation of success and competence. On the perceptive level, the models by Bandura can be listed as example. This means the merging and utilisation of the three perceptual channels seeing, hearing and acting, Bandura described (1979). In the interdisciplinary experiential practice, especially the action as hearing is in the focus. By means of appropriate picture material, that is to say seeing, a deepened processing of the model and thus a better process of memory can be achieved. In practice, this leads to a visual support of a




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reflected action. This makes it possible for diffuse educational objectives, as for example the manipulation of values, to become manifest. In conclusion, a concrete example on how one can make use of Marte Meo in the modern school of interdisciplinary experiential education will be given. According to Schödlbauer (1999, p. 114) the time for interdisciplinary experiential intervention shortens more and more, especially in management training. This leads to an increase in the theoretical treatment of the topic. The tendency to less action originates also from an increasing pressure of legitimation since the notion that there cannot be methods without theory has become widely accepted. Pedagogical reasons for an experience orientated learning situation are the major focus, not pure learning by doing. Hence, the authors of this paper see here the possibility to enhance the metaphorical learning by using Marte Meo videos. By means of concise film sequences and the appropriately positive and motivating additions, experiences can be efficiently supported. The most important corner points of a metaphorical experience can thus be emphasised. Moreover, one can file the videos. Thus, a theory-based repetition of the symbolic experience can be carried out with little expenditure of time. In practicing Marte Meo, the repeated viewing of the video is exercised as lasting strengthening effect of the learning effect. Bandura (1979) in his theory of model learning also speaks about that a model is more likely imitated if it comes to a repeated observation. ••• 6. Discussion And Prospects The discussion will answer the question posed in the beginning in a summary. Furthermore, possible fields of application and further considerations will be presented. The first question that focused on showing similarities and differences of both methods using learning theoretical thoughts was already treated at length in the previous chapter. Summing up, one can say that the social-cognitive learning theory by Bandura is a shared theoretical basis of both methods introduced. Both methods are based on further explanatory approaches. Thus, for the Marte Meo method, the neurobiological approach is for example of great importance. Contrary to this, pedagogical explanatory approaches play a major role in the metaphorical model. The second question, whether a combination of the approaches would be possible and effective, can be answered in the affirmative in the authors’ opinion. As a matter of principle, one can reason that there is a lot of potential in the combination of the Marte Meo method and Bacon’s metaphorical model from the interdisciplinary experiential education. Looking at the visual language of both methods, many similarities can be seen from a learning theoretical perspective. Especially in cases of misguided or wrongly introduced metaphors Marte Meo with its video technique can be used as support. This paper rather studied the positive effects of the methods’ combination so that the advantages prevail. In the practical application, this suitability has yet to be proved. Thus, one would have to consider for example the disadvantages of material costs. Filming in natural scenarios could prove problematical. Furthermore, the already high demands on a person leading an interdisciplinary experiential intervention




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would increase even more. Such and similar questions should be addressed in practice. Further potential uses as for example the application of single Marte Meo elements in the interaction of leader and participants during the learning experience could open new exciting future research areas. In conclusion, it has to be emphasised that the paper at hand is supposed to serve as incitement for further research. One can generally record that the combination of different approaches offers great development potential; even the more, because the two approaches come from different research areas and thus a greater spectrum of aspects can be considered in the methods. Bibliography Aarts, J. (2007). »Marte-Meo-Methode für Schulen.« Entwicklungsfördernde

Kommunikationsstile von Lehrern. Förderung der Schulfähigkeit von Kindern. Eindhoven: Aarts Production (Book + DVD). (Ed.’s note: English edition: »Marte Meo Method for School – Supportive Communication Skills for Teachers; School Readiness Skills for Children.« Eindhoven: Aarts Productions, 2006. ISBN 978-90-75455-11-3, Book + DVD; further information: www.martemeo.com.)

Aarts, M. (2009). »Marte Meo. Ein Handbuch« (2., überarbeitete Aufl.). Eindhoven: Aarts Productions. (Ed.’s note: The 2nd German edition is sold out. The 3rd German edition of »Marte Meo – Ein Handbuch« was published in November 2011. In English the book is published as: »Marte Marte – Basic Manual«, 2nd edition, ISBN 978-90-75455-16-8; further information: www.martemeo.com.)

Aarts, M. & Rausch, H. (2009). »Mit fällt nix ein – Marte Meo Kommunikationstraining.« Eindhoven: Aarts Production (Book + DVD). (Ed.’s note: An English edition will be published in 2011: »Nothing comes to mind – Marte Meo Communication Training«. Eindhoven: Aarts Productions; Book + DVD. Further information: www.martemeo.com.)

Bacon, S. (2003). »Die Macht der Metaphern. The Conscious Use of Metapher in Outward Bound« (2. überarbeitete Aufl., übersetzt und eingeleitet von C. Schödlbauer). Augsburg: ZIEL.

Bandura, A. (1979). Sozial-kognitive Lerntheorie. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. Bodenmann, G.; Perrez, M.; Schär, M.; Trepp, A. (2004). Klassische Lerntheorien. Grundlagen

und Anwendungen in Erziehung und Psychotherapie. Bern: Hans Huber. Bünder, P.; Sirringhaus-Bünder, A.; Helfer, A. (2009). Lehrbuch der Marte-Meo-Methode.

Entwicklungsförderung mit Videounterstützung. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Heckmair, B.; Michel, W. (2008). Erleben und Lernen. Einführung in die Erlebnispädagogik (6.,

überarbeitete und erweiterte Aufl.). München: Ernst Reinhardt. Isager, M. (2009). Marte Meo Konkret. Entwicklungs- und Sprachförderung in Beispielen.

Münster: MV-Verlag. Krug, W. (1999). Mächtige Metaphern in der Arbeit mit schwierigen Jugendlichen. In C.

Schödlbauer, F. H. Paffrath & W. Michl (Hrsg.), Metaphern – Schnellstrassen, Saumpfade und Sackgassen des Lernens (S. 208-214). Augsburg: ZIEL.




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Niklaus Loosli, T. (2009). Interaktives Coaching nach Marte Meo: Ein systemisches sowie lösungs- und ressourcenorientiertes Konzept zur Entwicklungsunterstützung [Elektronische Version]. Zugriff am 9. Februar 2011 unter http://www.therese-niklaus.ch/Marte%20Meo%20Artikel%202009.pdf.

Priest, S. & Gass, M. (1999). Techniken der unterstützenden Prozessbegleitung. In C. Schödlbauer, F. H. Paffrath & W. Michl (Hrsg.), Metaphern – Schnellstrassen, Saumpfade und Sackgassen des Lernens (S. 218-231). Augsburg: ZIEL.

Schlippe, A. & Hawellek, C. (2005). Entwicklung unterstützen und Unterstützung entwickeln. Systemisches Coaching nach dem Marte-Meo-Modell. In C. Hawellek & A. Schlippe (Hrsg.), Entwicklung unterstützen – Unterstützung entwickeln. Systematisches Coaching nach dem Marte-Meo-Modell (S. 17-34). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Schödlbauer, C. (1999). Von Schnellstrassen, Saumpfaden und Sackgassen. Metaphern als zielstrebige Umwege des Lernens. In C. Schödlbauer, F. H. Paffrath & W. Michl (Hrsg.), Metaphern – Schnellstrassen, Saumpfade und Sackgassen des Lernens (S. 40-58). Augsburg: ZIEL.

Schödlbauer, C. (2000). Metaphorisches Lernen in erlebnispädagogischen Szenarien. Eine Untersuchung über handlungsorientierte Lehr-Lern-Prozesse. Hamburg: Kovac.

Notes: (*) The Marte Meo is known and used in almost 40 countries und used in over 30 fields. See further: »Marte Meo –

Ein Handbuch«, 3. Auflage (2011), chapters 2 and 3. (Ed.’s note) (2) The Marte Meo Elements (MMes) are explained in the next paragraph. List of images Cover picture Erlebnispädagogik/Outdoortraining: accessed 20th November 2010, online: http://www.weiterbildungsstudiengang-erlebnispaedagogik.de/ Further Information:

LUKAS EGGENSCHWYLER & DANIELA LOOSLI Student/In »Institut für Sportwissenschaft«, Universität Bern E-mail: [email protected]

© 2011, Lukas Eggenschwyler & Daniela Loosli; Aarts Productions | Eindhoven This »MARTE MEO Magazine« article is copyrighted. The moral right of the authors has been asserted.

For information concerning publishing, mail to the publisher: [email protected] This article has originally been published as a Term pager at the »Institut für Sportwissenschaft« der

Universität Bern, Schweiz, März, 2011 Translation: Lucy Harries, Cambridge

Cite this article as: Eggenschwyler & Loosli, » The Marte Meo Method & The Metaphorical Model by Bacon (Term paper)«, Marte Meo Magazine 2011, Art. 05E, p. …

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