“The Making of Modern India: Indian Nationalism and

Independence”

Theme: How Indians adopt and adapt nationalist ideas that ultimately fostered the end of imperialism and make for a pattern of politics and society following independence

Roots of Indian Nationalism

• Nationalism takes shape in India earlier than anywhere else in non-Western world• Emerges over long period of 19th

century

Roots of Indian Nationalism

• Indian nationalism by-product of British-Indian culture contact (imperialism)• Indian nationalism emerges in

positive emulation and in negative reaction to imperialism

• Positive engagement of British and western ideas by segment of Indian society• Collaborative class that accepts reality of

British power, and attempts to engage western ideas and find opportunity from imperialism• By mid-nineteenth century, a new

educated class among Indians takes shape

• Indian nationalism also emerges in reaction to imperialism • Indian fight against racial

discrimination • Educated Indians also

critique the economic and political control of the empire in India• Adapt western ideas of

nationalism to their situation under imperialism

Dadabhai Naoroji – ‘The Grand Old Man of India’

The Indian Nationalist Congress (INC)

• 1st Phase of Nationalist Politics, 1885-1915• December 28, 1885 -

100 delegates meet in Bombay• Allan Octavian Hume• Elite, Conservative,

Loyal, Lawabiding

• Objectives of the Congress - to define ‘nationalist’ goals of educated class and build organization• Congress Demands on British –

eradicate barriers to educated under imperialism• Demands represented as

‘national’, i.e. of concern to the educated

Nationalist Ideology and TacticsA. Secular or composite

nationalism - national identity without reference to ethnic, communal, religious or linguistic differences between Indians

B. Constitutional or Lawful Agitation Pherozeshah Mehta

1845-1915

• By 1915, Indian nationalism:• Has Leadership (Western-educated

class)• Organization (INC)• Philosophy (Secular or Composite

Nationalism)• Remains an elite movement • ‘Nationalist’ – defines limited and

class-based goals shared by educated across India

M.K. Gandhi and Indian NationalismPhase 2: 1915-35

• Gandhi as Product of Indian History and Indian Nationalist Struggle• Challenges basis of

imperialism in India• Awakens all Indians to

nationhood

Background• Mohandas

Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948)• Cosmopolitan

influences shape outlook• Perfect product of

Indian under imperialism The Young Gandhi

Gandhi in Britain, 1888-1891

• Studies Law• Meets Pacifists,

Radical Thinkers, Vegetarians• Writes Hind Swaraj

(Indian Home-rule) 1909: critique of modern civilization and India’s place in it

Gandhi and the Vegetarian Society

Gandhi in South Africa, 1893-1915• Development of Ideas and

Tactics in South Africa• Adopts idea of Non-violent

resistance• Ahimsa – non-violence• Satyagraha – ‘truth force’

(power of truth in the world)• An appeal to decency and

reason of opponent• Ideas as “old as the hills”

• Peaceful non-violent resistance• Calls Refusal to Obey Unjust Laws

– “Moral Equivalent of War”• ‘Passive Resistance’ misnomer• ‘Active non-violent resistance’• Calls for Personal Courage and

Discipline• Moral Force

• Organizes Indians• Moves Public

Opinion• Accepts Partial

VictoriesCrowds Protest in South Africa

Gandhian Symbolism• Returns to India, 1915• Lifestyle as expression of

identity• Wears Indian-made Clothing

- Khadi (homespun)• Symbolism to Appeal to

Masses – Makes Nationalism Meaningful to Masses• Nationalist symbols adopted Gandhi wearing Khadi

(Homespun)

Third-Class All the Way: Gandhi on the ‘Gandhiji

Express’

Gandhi addresses the Masses

Gandhian Nationalism1. Nationalism as Mass Movement •Associate Masses with National Identity2. Rejects Passivity and Extremism •Involvement of Masses not Mob3. Nationalism as Inclusive •Cultural Diversity of India

Gandhi at Spinning Wheel

The Rowlatt Protest, 1919• First test of satyagraha• Strikes, Rallies, and

Jail• Jullianwalabagh

Massacre - 13 April 1919, 379 peaceful demonstrators killed in Amritsar, Punjab• Gandhi ends protest

due to violence

Police attack Crowd

Non-violent Non-Cooperation• Non-violent non-

cooperation – Congress program, 1920 to challenge British rule in India

• NVNC – nationwide program of people’s action

• Non-cooperation – represents Indians assuming self-rule

• Non-cooperation – opposite of collaboration

Crowds March in Protest

Non-cooperation includes: • Hartal – strike• Boycott of British-made

goods for Indian ones• Boycott British institutions

for Indian ones• Renunciation of Honours

and Titles• Refuse to Pay Taxes• NVNC as Practical and

Logical Program Hartal in Progress

Gandhi and the Raj: The Paradoxical Enemy

• British dilemma: how to react to Gandhi

• Gandhi’s admiration for British

• Indian Nationalism and Raj: Like moves and countermoves

• Chauri Chaura violence• Gandhi’s Arrest and

Trial – 10 March 1922• Sent to Yeravada Prison

Gandhi and Indian men in Jail Cell

The Salt March

• Civil Disobedience Campaign – 1930-35• March 1930 – ‘Salt

March’, 240 mile trek from Sabarmati to Dandi seashore in Gujarat• Make Salt from Seawater• Defiance of Gov’t Salt

Monopoly

Gandhi pinches salt from seashore

Women distil salt from seawater

From Empire to Umpire: British Policy, 1935-45

• Nationalist challenge shapes imperialism

I. 1935 and 1945: Period of ‘Divide and Rule’ - British policy to prolong imperialism in India

A. Question Unity of Indian Nationalism

B. Constitutional Concessions• Government of India Act, 1919- National parliament- Limited vote- Indians control some provincial

ministries• Government of India Act, 1935

- Federal System - Central Gov’t - Provincial Assemblies

Indian Nationalism Phase 3, 1935-47: The Clash of NationalismsI. Nehru and the Congress

• Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964), Congress Leader from 1935• Congress Outlook:

- India as Secular, Pluralistic Nation- Democracy with Majority Rule, and Minority Safeguards- Strong government- No special electorates

The Clash of NationalismsII. Jinnah and the League

• ‘Two-Nation Theory’: two nations in one country • M.A. Jinnah (1875-1948)- 1906-31, Indian

nationalist- Post-1935 leads Muslim

League- 1947 separatist

• Jinnah and League’s Strategy:- Make League equal of Congress- Unite Muslim support behind League• Use of communal politics for both

purposes- Muslims as ‘distinct’ nation in India- Muslims and ‘Islam in danger’ if not

represented by Muslims in politics

• Jinnah’s use of Muslim separatism• 1940 ‘Pakistan’ idea (provinces in

India)• 1942 Lahore Conference and Pakistan

Resolution• Problematic strategy- Jinnah uses Pakistan idea within

Indian politics, 1942-46- 1946 Jinnah accepts separatist Pakistan

British Policy, 1945 and 1947: Period of ‘Divide and Quit’

British policy to extricate Britain from India• Cabinet Mission, 1946

- Transfer of Power (Independence)- Loose Federation - United India of Grouped Provinces:Former British India, Princely States, and Muslim-majority Areas- Opt out Clause for provinces

Endgame• Louis

Mountbatten (1900-1979) - the last viceroy• Edwina

Mountbatten (1901-1960)

Endgame (cont.)• Mountbatten Plan,

June 1947• Division (Partition) of

Indian subcontinent into two separate and independent nations• Congress and League

Agree as Price for Independence

Nehru, Mountbatten and Jinnah

Independence

• 15 August 1947 – India’s Independence

Crowds celebrate Independence, Delhi

Partition

• Partition – division of Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan (West and East)• Border Commission

of Sir Cyril Radcliffe• Partitions of Punjab

and Bengal

The End of Violence

• Concerted Efforts on Part of Government, Relief Agencies, and Individuals to End Violence

Edwina Mountbatten among Refugees

The Death of Gandhi

• Gandhi Fast in Calcutta 1947 to end violence• Death of

Gandhi, 30 January 1948 at Delhi

Significance of Independence

• First major colony to achieve independence• Legal and Peaceful transition of

power• Example for world• Post-1947, project of ‘nation

building’ begins

The Republic of India• Constituent Assembly , 1946-50• 26 January 1950 – Republic Day• The Constitution of 1950• Liberal, Democratic Republic• Universal Suffrage• Federal System- Lok Sabha (People’s Assembly)- Rajya Sabha (Council of States)• Independent Judiciary

• Liberal Rights:- ‘Fundamental Rights’- ‘Directive Principles’• Separate Law Codes - for Hindus

and Muslims (personal laws)• Minority Safeguards• End of Untouchability