Earthwiseis the official

magazine of the BritishGeological

Survey.

Earthwiseispublished

twice a yearand describesthe role of the

BGS in supporting

wealthcreation andthe quality oflife, throughearth science.

Issue 17

EARTHWISE

Geology and health

NNAAVVIIGGAATTIIOONN

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I am delighted to introduce the 17th issue of Earthwise,the first in 2001. This issue focuses on how geologyimpinges on the health of the population, either directlyor through the food chain. Three major aspects of ourenvironment impact on our health, the water we drink,the land that we live on and the quality of the air thatwe breathe. The BGS’s activities include both the studyof natural phenomena and the legacy of man’s activitieson these, both of which must be understood in orderthat mitigating strategies can be implemented and sub-sequent changes measured. The issues raisedemphasise the need for geoscientists, medics, and tech-nologists to collaborate. The introductory article byAllan Rogers MP, summarises these concerns andplaces the BGS’s role in context, concluding that it isthe duty of scientists to evaluate, analyse and proposesolutions and then the duty of the politicians to act.

Water supplies worldwide are under ever-increasing pressures to meet demands for consumption, agri-culture, and industrial applications. Untreated waste enters watercourses, rivers, and the sea and, as aresult, the food chain. For instance, small-scale gold producers release significant quantities of toxicmercury used in amalgamation processing into the environment. BGS geoscientists have been workingas part of a multinational, multidisciplinary team in the Philippines to determine the extent of theproblem. The BGS has also established the Land-Ocean Contamination Study (LOCS) under the DFID,and recently completed a systematic geochemical and hydrochemical survey of Septiba Bay, Brazil.Groundwater constitutes a major source of good quality drinking-water, naturally filtered and purified bythe strata through which it passes. Nevertheless, this can also lead to a build up of natural trace elementsin the water, such as arsenic and radon, both the subject of studies reported in this issue.

In densely populated countries such as the UK, contamination of soil is limiting the development of land,especially in urban areas. The measurement of geochemical baseline data (collated by the BGS’songoing G-BASE programme) enables levels of contamination to be determined. Heavy metals, many ofwhich are toxic, are one of the major groups of contaminants present in brownfield areas, the residues ofpast industrial processes. The BGS has used various analytical techniques to assess contaminantparticles, e.g. sequential leaching experiments have been carried out to reveal how much may be leachedinto groundwater, or how ingested metal-rich particles react. Organic and microbial contamination hasalso been the subject of recent studies, as have novel methods of tracking contaminants such as the useof earthworms to map arsenic contamination in Thailand.

More recently the BGS has become involved with studies of the interaction between land use and theatmospheric environment. A recent study in collaboration with the City and County of Swansea Councilfocuses on the role of atmospheric particulates in the transport of contaminants from point sources intothe environment.

Finally, I would also draw to your attention a fascinating article on the history of the BGS Library, whichcame into existence 150 years ago. Since then it has grown into a world-class resource which continuesto be exploited in both the domestic and overseas interest, to the benefit of countless individualsworldwide.

David A Falvey, Ph.D.Executive Director.

Water

Air quality

Contaminatedland

History of the BGS

ContentsAllan Rogers

Fiona Fordyce

David Talbot

Pauline Smedley

Fiona Fordyce & Bryony Hope

Don Appleton

John Rees & Neil Breward

Simon Chenery, Neil Fortey, VickyHards & Emily Hodgkinson

Brian Young & David Lawrence

Alex Ferguson

Julian Trick & Ben Klinck

Geoff Williams & Ian Harrison

Neil Fortey, Jonathan Pearce, Antoni Milodowski & Rona McGill

Barry Smith

Julie West & Pat Coombs

Richard Shaw & Paul Hooker

Barry Smith

Graham McKenna

4 – 5

6

7

8 – 9

10 – 11

12 – 13

14

15

16 – 17

18 – 19

20

21

22 – 23

24 – 25

26

27

28 – 29

31 – 32

32 – 34

Cover: Paul Tod, BGS © NERC

Geology and life

Medical geology

Radon in drinking-water

Arsenic in groundwater

Fluoride and fluorosis

Mercury pollution from artisanal gold mines

Coastal contamination

The air that I breathe . . .

A breath of fresh air

Urban geochemistry

Grave concerns

Chiral compounds

Heavy metals

Geophagia

Using earthworms to map pollution

The Mayak Project

Depleted Uranium

From De la Beche to the digital library

Newsline

Iam a geologist — a Member ofParliament — a father and grandfa-ther. With many others, I careabout the planet and desire to leave

it a better place for future generations.That is why it is a pleasure to be able tointroduce the work of BGS scientistswho practise in countries all over theworld, helping to improve theireconomies, environments, and thequality of life of their citizens. Theground beneath our feet is fundamentalto our daily lives — in our homes, atwork and leisure. It provides the waterwe drink and the food we eat.

The British Geological Survey has 780staff. Fifty per cent of its annual £42mbudget comes, via the NERC, from thegovernment’s science fund with theremainder coming from the sale or licenceof applied geoscientific solutions. One ofthe BGS’s tasks is to find out if there is anycontamination, natural or man-made, whichcould affect people’s health, directly orthrough the food chain. It is important tounderstand the science to cope withdangerous or potentially dangerous situa-tions. We must know the state of the planetwe live on today so we can measurechanges tomorrow.

ProjectsIt was Jonathan Swift who said‘…whoever could make two ears ofcorn or two blades of grass to growupon a spot where only one grew beforewould deserve better of mankind and domore essential service to his countrythan the whole race of politicians puttogether…’. As a politician myself I feelI have the right to agree.

In many countries, crops extract farmore nutrients from the soil than arebeing replaced by fertilisers. The BGShas identified the quantity, quality andlocation of local phosphate deposits inSub-Saharan Africa, and are establish-ing ways to make agricultural limeavailable cheaply and easily to farmersin Zambia.

Contaminated LandThere are places where I would notallow my grandchildren to play. Thehistory and heritage of such land mustbe fully understood and a record keptforever. No commercial firm would dothis. But the BGS does, both at homeand in ‘technical co-operation projects’in industrialised countries such asThailand, Mexico and Jordan.

Geology and lifeThe role of BGS science

by Allan Rogers, FGS MP

4

Members of the Afram Plains Developmentorganisation undertaking a pumping testusing a whale pump system at Bong Krom,Afram Plains, Ghana. Part of a DFID-funded project to understand groundwateroccurrence and resource limitations withingeologically difficult areas.

Jeff

rey

Dav

ies,

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Liverpool

Manchester

CuPbSnSouthport

Runcorn

St. HelensCHAT MOSS

This map shows a three-component colour addition map for copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and (tin) Snin which coincident high levels appear as white areas. High levels of these three metals rarelyoccur together naturally, and are therefore good indicators of industrial contamination. Highlevels of these and several other metals at Chat Moss and Carrington Moss near Irlam, and atHalsall Moss near Southport, show that industrial waste dumping was used as a means ofreclaiming the former fenland for agriculture.

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Fifty million children are brain damagedbecause of deficiency of iodine.Millions of Bangladeshis depend onwater that is naturally tainted witharsenic. BGS scientists are finding waysto alleviate this misery.

Half a million Tanzanians depend ongold mining for their income, butmethods are crude and workers riskmercury poisoning. The element ceriumhas long been suspected to influence afatal heart condition in children. TheBGS has been comparing geologicalconditions in Uganda and India to findany causal links.

Subsurface methane causes death anddestruction; radon causes lung cancer.The BGS are making maps andarchiving information to help plannersand builders avoid disaster.

One useful example is an unexpectedfinding from a BGS survey. High levelsof heavy metal contamination have beenfound in some farming areas of drainedfenland in rural Lancashire. BGSresearch indicates that industrial andurban waste, especially coal ash andfoundry slag, was used as fill material inthese former fens. This practice had notbeen documented and might not havebeen detected without the regional geo-chemical survey.

WaterPeople die for the lack of clean water.Polluted water spreads diseases. Onethird of the world population suffersfrom water-borne illness. Nitrates, pesti-cides, and other agricultural chemicalshave an impact on groundwater quality.The BGS uses field and laboratorystudies combined with mathematicalmodelling to make sense of its complex-ities. But the balance is vital here, too.

Where sea meets shore is a unique envi-ronment of urban and commercial devel-

opment. Tourism and fishing, industryand recreation are all at risk if thedelicate ecosystem is upset. In this zone,sediments from major rivers, often cont-aminated with agricultural and industrialeffluent are mixed with marinesediments which may also have sufferedcontamination. The BGS has establisheda coastal pollution monitoringprogramme, the Land–OceanContamination Study (LOCS) and wasinvolved in the investigation of a case ofsea water intrusion in Mexico.

AirClimate change and air quality arecritical issues.

Blackdamp, or ‘stythe’, is a lethalmixture of carbondioxide andnitrogen producedin mineworkings.Therehas already beenone fatality and,unless plannersand developerstake blackdampinto account,there may bemore.

The toxic plumefrom a Londontraffic jam can betraced right acrossNorfolk.

The BGS is investigating whether it willbe possible to dispose of carbon dioxidefrom the UK’s industrial sources in therocks underlying the North Sea. Therewill be a price, but the science is there.The decision whether or not to proceedis for politicians, not scientists to make.And that brings us full circle. Back tothe balance of reality.

The above examples of projects under-taken are not to be viewed in isolation— land, air and water interact andimpinge on each other and relate toother aspects of life, especially whetherthe resources and political will exist toresolve the problems. The scientists’duty, however, is to evaluate, analyseand propose solutions. It is then the dutyof politicians to act.

Sampling sediment on the Dungeon Banks, Mersey Estuary, todetermine the input of contaminants entering the Irish Sea.

“... the scientists’ duty is toevaluate, analyse and proposesolutions. It is then the duty of

politicians to act ...”

5

CO will dissolve in reservoir formation waterIt will react with basic aluminosilicate minerals to precipitate calciteSome

will

remain

as

free

CO

in

reservoir

2

2

Fossil fuelfired power

Pipeline

Sea

Platform

Sand grains

CO fills pore spaces in sandstone, displacing

the water which was originally present

2

Reservoir (sandstone)CO2

800m+

CO extractedcompressed & piped to disposal area

2

Cap Rock (impermeable shale or mudstone)Cap Rock (impermeable shale or mudstone)

Schematic diagram to illustrate the proposed method for the deep underground disposal ofcarbon dioxide.

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Medical geology is the studyof geoenvironmentalimpacts on human, animal,and plant health and

involves medical, veterinary, agricultural,biological, and geological scientists. Dueto the increasing importance of thissubject area, the International Union ofGeological Sciences (IUGS) Co-geoenvi-ronment Programme recently initiated aMedical Geology Working Group toimprove networking amongst the variousdisciplines. The Group, which is led byDr Olle Selinus of the SwedishGeological Survey, will also produce adefinitive textbook on Medical Geology.Linked to this initiative, a newInternational Geological CorrelationProgramme (IGCP) Medical GeologyProject (project number 454) provides anopportunity for scientists from developingcountries to work together with col-leagues from other parts of the world toidentify and tackle real problems ofgeoenvironment and health.

In recognition of the BGS’s leadingexpertise in this field over the past 30years, five BGS scientists are serving onthe Working Group. The BGS’s ChiefScientist, Professor Jane Plant CBEgave a keynote lecture on Breast andprostate cancer, epidemiology, and envi-ronment at the second meeting of theGroup held in Sweden in 2000.

Geology can affect plant, animal, andhuman health in the physical sense.Examples are the problems and risks asso-ciated with volcanoes, earthquakes, subsi-dence, and lack of water or too muchwater. Perhaps less obvious are the effectsof naturally occurring substances in theenvironment. For example, elements suchas calcium are essential for healthy teethand bones, whereas elements such asarsenic and mercury are toxic at high

doses. These substances are not distributedevenly across the planet and different rocktypes and geological factors oftendetermine the chemical composition ofessential nutrients and toxic elements in thesoils and waters that form the basis of theplant–animal–human food chain. Equally,the mobility of harmful man-made sub-stances in the environment is commonlycontrolled by geological factors.

The BGS is addressing many of theissues related to water quality and geo-chemistry and health via projectssponsored by the UK Department forInternational Development (DFID), theWorld Bank, the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP), andthe European Union. Recent investiga-tions include links between cancer andhigh-arsenic groundwater inBangladesh; mercury and arsenic conta-mination associated with gold mining inAfrica and Asia; heart disease andcerium in Africa; dental and skeletaldeformities caused by high fluoridegroundwaters in Africa, Asia andCentral Europe; high uranium ground-water in Jordan; heart disease inducedby insufficient selenium in China; andgoitre resulting from iodine deficiencyin Sri Lanka and China.

In her talk, Professor Plant highlightedthe need for more information on thedistribution and mobility of natural andman-made substances in the environ-ment, an issue being addressed in partby the IUGS/ International Associationof Cosmochemistry and Geochemistry(IAGC) Project on Global GeochemicalBaselines. This project, led by the BGSand the United States GeologicalSurvey (USGS), aims to provide stan-dardised information on potentiallyharmful and essential substances at theglobal scale.

Geoscientists have an important role toplay in the understanding of medicalgeology issues, which require a holisticand multidisciplinary approach todevelop effective resolutions. The newinternational initiatives in this fieldprovide an excellent framework for sci-entists of many disciplines around theworld to work together.

Medical geologyThe impact of the geological

environment on healthby Fiona Fordyce, Edinburgh

6

More information is available from:

IUGS Co-geoenvironment WorkingGroup on Medical Geology

IGCP Project 454 Medical GeologyDr Olle Selinus, Geological Survey of Sweden, PO Box 670, SE 75128 Uppsala, Swedene-mail: olle.selinus@sgu.se

The project web site is at:http://home.swipnet.se/medicalgeology

IUGS/IAGC Global GeochemicalBaselines Project

Professor Jane Plant,British Geological Survey,Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdome-mail: japl@bgs.ac.uk

Dr Dave Smith,United States Geological Survey,Denver Federal Center Mailstop 973,Denver, Colorado, USAe-mail: dsmith@usgs.gov

The project web site is at:http://www.bgs.ac.uk/iugs/home.html

BGS Medical Geology Projects

Professor Barry Smith,British Geological Survey,Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdome-mail: bsmi@bgs.ac.uk

BGS Water and Health

Dr Dennis Peach,British Geological Survey,McLean Building,Crowmarsh Gifford,Oxfordshire OX10 8BB,United Kingdome-mail: dwpe@bgs.ac.uk

Web site at: http://www.bgs.ac.uk/dfid-kar-geoscience/summaries.html

The BGS has many years ofexperience on natural radioac-tivity research and has under-taken a number of studies on

radon in drinking-water both in the UKand overseas, for example in Jordan andCyprus. The most recent BGS work inthis field was a research project for theDepartment of the Environment,Transport and Regions (DETR) onnatural radioactivity in private watersupplies in West Devon. This foundelevated levels of radon in some privatewater supplies derived from groundwater.

The findings of this work have beenpublished by the DETR in a researchreport, number DETR/RAS/00.010,entitled Natural Radioactivity in PrivateWater Supplies in Devon,which may beobtained free of charge from the DETRwebsite:

http://www.environment.detr.gov.uk

At approximately nine per cent of thewater supplies sampled, dissolvedradon, a naturally occurring radioactivegas, was found to be present at levelsexceeding the draft European UnionCommission Recommendation actionlevel of 1000 becquerels per litre forprivate supplies.

Exposure to radon via drinking-watercan occur by either of two ways, the firstis through inhalation of degassed radon(a practice once commonly encouragedat many water spas). In terms ofexposure via household drinking-watersupplies, the main route is ingestion,although inhalation exposure duringshowering or bathing may also beimportant where extremely high levelsare involved. Although the behaviour ofingested radon is not fully understood,

current thinking is that the majority ofradon ingested enters the circulatorysystem, where it decays by emission ofan alpha particle and deposits itsradioactive progeny (isotopes ofpolonium, lead, and bismuth) amongstthe body’s tissues.

The primary adverse healtheffects of exposure to radon arecaused by cell damage due toalpha particles produced byradon and its associateddecay products (whichthemselves quicklyundergo radioactive decayreleasing further alphaparticles). Likely effectswill depend upon thelevel of exposure. Highlevels of exposure to radonand its progeny by inhala-tion are widely thought tolead to an increased risk oflung cancer. The risks arisingfrom ingestion of radon arethought to include a very smallincrease in the likelihood of developingvarious cancers associated withexposure to radioactivity. Although thisrisk is less well understood than thatarising from inhalation it is thought to

be much lower. Further information onthe health effects of radon can be foundon the National Radiological ProtectionBoard website:

http://www.nrpb.org.uk

It is unlikely that the occurrence ofradon in drinking-water is restricted toWest Devon, though levels of radon areonly likely to be elevated at properties inwhich drinking-water is derived fromprivate groundwater sources (such assprings, wells, adits, and privateboreholes). Major public supplies, evenwhen they come from groundwatersources, are unlikely to carry elevatedlevels of radon due to losses in thetreatment processes. The extent of thepotential for elevated levels of radon indrinking-water outside of the WestDevon area is presently uncertain,although previous data collected fromnatural springs suggest the problem isrestricted to areas in which radon inindoor air is also a problem.

The BGS is engaged in further analysisof the radioactivity of drinking-water fora number of organisations. It is alsoengaged in a range of other radon andnatural radioactivity research.

Water Water

Radon in drinking-water

A hazard on tap?by David Talbot, Keyworth

7

A spring being sampled for radon anduranium analysis in Derbyshire.

“... at nine per cent of the watersupplies sampled, dissolved

radon was found to be present atlevels exceeding the draft action

level ...”

BGS © NERC

Groundwater constitutes amajor source of good-qualitydrinking-water in many partsof the world. Rocks and soils

through which groundwater passesprovide a natural filter for the removal ofmany undesirable contaminants and canbe of great benefit in water purification.Indeed, the development of groundwaterfor drinking-water supplies over the pastfew decades has been instrumental indecreasing the incidence of serious water-borne diarrhoeal disease in developingcountries and has been a major benefit inimproving public health as a result.However, despite these benefits, thequality of groundwater cannot always beguaranteed as geochemical reactions inthe host aquifers can lead to the naturalbuild up of trace elements derived from

the rocks and soils. Many of these traceelements can be toxic if present in suffi-ciently high quantities. One of the mostserious natural contaminants in ground-waters is arsenic.

Arsenic is toxic and carcinogenic. Long-term use of drinking-water with high con-centrations of arsenic can lead to anumber of health problems. The mostcommonly manifested of these are skin

disorders, including pigmentationchanges, keratosis, and skin cancer, butseveral other disorders, including anumber of internal cancers, have alsobeen associated with chronic arsenicingestion. The World HealthOrganisation’s (1993) provisionalguideline value for arsenic in drinking-water is 10 micrograms per litre,although many countries continue to usethe pre-1993 guideline of 50 microgramsper litre as their national standard. Mostgroundwaters have concentrations lessthan these values, but a number ofaquifers contain groundwaters with unac-ceptably high arsenic concentrations. Inextreme cases, concentrations in themilligram-per-litre range can occur.

Arsenic-rich groundwaters generallyoccur in four types of geological envi-ronments:

● sulphide-rich mineralised zones,especially mining areas where weath-ering of sulphide minerals has beenaccelerated by the mining activity

● geothermal areas

● anaerobic groundwaters from youngaquifers (a few thousand years old)

● aerobic groundwaters with high pHvalues from young aquifers, mainlyin arid and semiarid regions

Arsenic problems in mineralised andgeothermal areas occur in many parts ofthe world. While these occurrences caninvolve serious contamination with highconcentrations of arsenic and other traceelements in water sources, the extent ofcontamination tends to be local to thesource of contamination. Potentiallymuch more extensive are the occur-rences of arsenic in major aquifers.Documented cases include aquifers inArgentina, Chile, Mexico, India (WestBengal), Bangladesh, northern China,Taiwan, Vietnam, Hungary, and parts ofthe western USA. The BGS has beeninvestigating the problems of arseniccontamination both in sulphide miningareas and major aquifers, largely withDFID support. Projects on mining-related contamination have been carriedout in Ghana, Thailand, Brazil, andArgentina. Studies of major aquifershave been carried out in some of theworst affected aquifers in the world:Argentina, northern China (InnerMongolia), and Bangladesh.

Water Water

Arsenic ingroundwater

The hidden threatby Pauline Smedley, Wallingford

8

Keratosis on the hands of an arsenic patient, West Bengal.

Pau

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“... several disorders, includinginternal cancers, have been

associated with chronic arsenicingestion ...”

The worst case of groundwater contami-nation known is that of West Bengal(India) and Bangladesh. From our inves-tigations we estimate that, inBangladesh alone, some 35 millionpeople are drinking groundwater withhigher levels of arsenic than the nationalstandard for drinking-water of 50 micro-grams per litre. Furthermore, some 57million people are drinking water withmore than 10 micrograms of arsenic perlitre. Many patients with arsenic-relatedskin disorders have already been identi-fied. Affected groundwaters are fromshallow tubewells (less than 150 metresin depth) in young alluvial and deltaicaquifers of the Bengal delta region.Shallow dug wells and groundwatersfrom older geological formations,including those at depths greater than150 metres, have much lower arsenicconcentrations, in most cases less thanthe WHO guideline value. The worstcontamination occurs in the south andsouth-eastern parts of the country.However, even in the affected aquifersof Bangladesh, the distribution ofarsenic concentrations is extremely

variable. This makes prediction of con-centrations in a given well very difficultand requires that every well to be usedfor drinking-water be tested for arsenic.

The large scale of contamination ofgroundwaters in Bangladesh, togetherwith socio-economic factors, makes thetask of mitigation an extremely difficultone. An emergency programme, co-ordinated by the World Bank, ispresently under way. Potential long-termsolutions include development of dugwell waters or deep groundwaters,treatment of available surface waters,rainwater harvesting, or treatment ofarsenic-contaminated groundwaters.Several of these options are being triedlocally, but provision of adequate miti-gation measures for all the communitiesat risk is still some way off. One clearfact is that no single simple solution willbe universally applicable across thewhole of the Bengal Basin.

For more information, contact:

Dr Pauline SmedleyTel: 01491 838800E-mail: pls@bgs.ac.uk

Water Water

9

World distribution of documented cases of arsenic contamination in groundwater and the environment.

A typical Bangladesh handpump in thevillage of Mandari, Kakshmipur, south-eastern Bangladesh.

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Fluoride is one of the mostabundant natural substancesfound on Earth and is a con-stituent of the rocks, soils,

waters, and air that make up our planet.Like several other naturally occurringelements, fluorides can enter the humanbody via the air we breathe and the foodand water in our diets.

Studies carried out in the USA andEurope in the 1950s demonstrated a linkbetween improved dental health and theintroduction of fluoridated toothpasteand fluoridated drinking-water to localcommunities. Scientists are stilluncertain whether fluoride is essential tohuman health, but the mechanisms ofdental benefaction are thought to betwofold. Firstly, teeth are formed fromthe calcium mineral hydroxlyapatite;during the pre-eruptive stage (i.e. duringtooth formation in children up to 12years old) fluoride can enter the minerallattice forming fluorapatite, which isstronger than hydroxlyapatite. Secondly,fluoride acts as an anti-bacterial agent inthe mouth helping to minimise acidattack on teeth.

In contrast to the possible benefits fromlow intakes of fluoride, health problems(known as fluorosis) associated with toomuch fluoride have also been widelyreported. Fluoride is a powerfulcalcium-seeking element and caninterfere with the calcified structure ofbones and teeth in the human body.

Dental fluorosis is an irregular calcifica-tion disorder of the enamel-formingcells. Fluorosed enamel is porous, often

stained, and has brown pits. In its moresevere form, fluorosed enamel is brittleand prone to erosion and breakage.

Endemic skeletal fluorosis is a chronicmetabolic bone and joint disease causedby intake of large amounts of fluorideeither through water or, rarely, fromfoods or the air in endemic areas. Thebones of the human body are constantlyresorbed and redeposited during alifetime. Fluoride is a cumulative toxin,which can alter accretion and resorptionof bone tissue leading to immobilisation

of the joints. Although skeletal fluorosiscommonly affects older peoplefollowing long years of exposure,crippling forms of the disease are alsoseen in children in endemic areas.

Fluoride concentrations in the environ-ment are highly variable and are oftencontrolled by particular types of rocks,minerals, or water. For example,endemic dental and skeletal fluorosishas been reported in the East AfricanRift Valley associated with volcanicrock types and thermal waters. In Indiaand Sri Lanka fluorosis is linked toalkaline groundwaters and in Chinaproblems are associated with particulartypes of coal. It is estimated that 25million people suffer from fluorosis inIndia alone. No effective cures areavailable for either form of fluorosis,however, the diseases are preventable iffluoride intake is controlled.Geoscientists have an important role toplay in the identification and ameliora-tion of problems in areas at risk.

One of the major pathways for fluorideto enter the human body is via drinking-water and in response to the potentiallyharmful effects of the element, theWorld Health Organisation (WHO) hasset a drinking-water quality guideline of1.5 milligrams per litre. In general,groundwaters contain more fluoride thansurface water resources due to greatercontact times with fluoride-bearingminerals.

In Central Europe, groundwaterresources that exceed the guidelinevalue of 1.5 milligrams per litre arewidespread and health effects associatedwith high fluoride in water have beenreported. The BGS is currently involvedin a European Union Inco-CopernicusProgramme Project (IC15-CT98-0139)

Water Water

Fluoride andfluorosis in Central

EuropeToo much of a good thing?

by Fiona Fordyce & Bryony Hope, Edinburgh

10

CCoonncceennttrraattiioonn ooff fflluuoorriiddee PPoossssiibbllee hheeaalltthh eeffffeeccttss((mmiilllliiggrraammss ppeerr lliittrree))

Less than 0.5 Dental cavities may occur

0.5 – 1.5 No adverse health effects, cavities decrease

Greater than 1.5 Mottling of teeth and dental fluorosis may occur.

Greater than 3 Association with skeletal fluorosis at higher concentrations

Fluoride concentrations in drinking-water and possible health effects

(From: Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. 1996. WHO, Geneva)

“... it is estimated that 25 millionpeople suffer from fluorosis in

India alone ...”

which aims to improve water qualitythrough reduction of fluoride concentra-tions in groundwater. The projectinvolves partners from the Netherlands,Moldova, Ukraine, Hungary, andSlovakia.

In rural areas of Moldova, only a quarterof the water supplies satisfy the qualitystandard for fluoride, which can reachconcentrations of 25 milligrams perlitre. Initial investigations carried out bythe project medical experts in Moldova,suggest that up to 70 per cent of the pop-ulation in high fluoride areas aresuffering from dental fluorosis andskeletal abnormalities. In Ukraine, highconcentrations of fluoride in groundwa-ters are associated with fluorite andphosphate mining. Water containing upto 20 milligrams of fluoride per litre isused for drinking in some areas leadingto incidence of fluorosis. Problems inHungary and Slovakia are less wide-spread and are mainly associated withindustrial contamination, however,waters containing more than two mil-ligrams of fluoride per litre have beenreported.

The primary aim of the project is todevelop water treatment and fluorideremoval technologies based on locallyavailable geological materials such aszeolites. Laboratory tests of variousmaterials are under way and have beenscaled up to field trial models for testingin the high fluoride areas of Moldova.

The secondary aim of the project is todevelop a computer-based GeographicalInformation System (GIS) managementtool. This will aid the identification ofareas where high fluoride waters andfluorosis may be a problem, and hencewhere the water treatment technologyshould be targeted.

Geographical Information Systems havebecome very useful tools in recent yearsand allow spatial information, normallyrepresented as several different maplayers, to be combined and interrogateddigitally. The development of the projectGIS relies on data collected by theCentral European project partners such aswater quality parameters, main watersupply resources, industrial sources offluoride, fluorosis prevalence, and centresof population. Each of these factors willform a layer in the GIS and will be cate-gorised according to the likely impor-tance and influence of the factor on therisk of high fluoride waters and fluorosis.The layers will then be combined toproduce overall risk assessment mapsshowing target areas for water treatmentwhere high fluoride waters and fluorosisare likely to be a problem.

By working together in this way, geosci-entists, medical scientists, and technolo-gists can aid the identification, manage-ment, and amelioration of healthproblems associated with fluoride.

For further information, contact:

Fiona Fordyce,Tel: 0131 667 1000E-mail: fmf@bgs.ac.uk

Water Water

11

An example of output from the GIS shows two layers of information for part of Moldova.Centres of population are shown along with the fluoride content of groundwaters fromSilurian-age aquifers categorised by fluorosis risk according to the water quality guidelinesgiven in the table (left).

The brown pitting and staining of teeth indicative of dental fluorosis caused by high dietaryfluoride intake.

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Silurian WatersRisk of dental cavitiesLow riskRisk of fluorosis

Cities

Roads

5 0 5 10 km

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Mercury is a potent toxin thatcan have adverse effects onphysiological and neuro-logical processes, of which

the degeneration of the central nervoussystem is the most pronounced. Thehuman and ecotoxicological hazardsassociated with mercury contaminationof terrestrial and aquatic systems havebeen recognised since the 1950sfollowing the Minamata poisoningepisode in Japan, which arose from

human exposure to methylmercury infish. Whereas most mercury contamina-tion previously resulted from hydrocar-bon combustion and manufacturingprocesses in industrialised regions,small-scale gold producers now releasesignificant quantities of mercury into theenvironment as a result of its use foramalgamation. The amalgamationprocess requires the use of about twotonnes of mercury for each tonne of goldrecovered. Small-scale gold miners

produce thousands of tonnes of goldeach year so environmental contamina-tion by mercury release is a majorconcern in many countries. Thediscovery in 1983 of several alluvial andbedrock gold occurrences by artisanalminers on the island of Mindanao, in thePhilippines, resulted in a series oflargely uncontrolled gold rushes and thedevelopment of several mining commu-nities, of which the most important isDiwalwal. At its peak in the mid-1980sthe Diwalwal community numberedover 100 000 although the populationhas declined progressively to its presentlevel of approximately 40 000 inhabi-tants. Much of the mineral processingactivity during the 1980s involved amal-gamation of gold ore with mercury inball and rod mills, and it is estimatedthat about 50 tonnes of mercury weredischarged into the local river systemeach year. Whereas most of the gold isnow extracted with cyanide, amalgama-tion with mercury is still used to processup to a quarter of the gold ore.

The lack of appropriate technology andproper health and safety procedures in theinformal gold mining sector in Mindanaohas led to severe environmental degrada-tion and mercury pollution of riversystems as well as of paddy fieldsirrigated with mercury-polluted riverwater. The 50% decline in rice yieldsfrom the 1980s to the 1990s, togetherwith unexplained skin disease in the localpopulation and the death of a significantnumber of oxen have been attributed tomercury and cyanide pollution from theDiwalwal mining centre.

The United Nations IndustrialDevelopment Organisation (UNIDO)has been working to address these issuesand to reduce mercury emissions fromsmall-scale mining centres in thePhilippines. In 1999, as part of thisprogramme, it commissioned a multidis-ciplinary team to determine the extentand consequences of mercury andrelated chemical pollution of the Nabocriver system downstream of Diwalwal.The team comprised an environmentalgeochemist from the BGS, a NERC eco-toxicologist, and medical toxicologistsfrom the Institute of Forensic Medicinein Munich, working in conjunction withlocal scientists and community workers.

Environmental surveys carried out by theBGS in collaboration with the PhilippineMines and Geosciences Bureau showed

Water Water

Mercury pollutionfrom artisanal

gold minesA hazard to human health?

by Don Appleton, Keyworth

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Temporal changes in the amount of mercury dissolved in river water downstream of theDiwalwal gold mining area demonstrate the importance of continuous or frequent monitoring ofwater quality. (The red line indicates the level above which water is not suitable for drinking orfor aquatic organisms used for human consumption, such as shellfish).

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that the Naboc river is characterised byvery high levels of mercury dissolved inthe water. Mercury in solution was 40 tonearly 3000 times higher than themaximum recommended concentrationsfor drinking-water and waters fromwhich shellfish are taken for human con-sumption. Mercury is also extremely highin the sediment suspended in the waterand deposited on the river bottom, being10 to 150 times higher than the levelcurrently accepted as being hazardous toaquatic life. Whereas the local farmersand their families obtain all theirdrinking-water from wells, which do notappear to be contaminated with mercury,some people eat mercury-contaminatedfish and mussels from the Naboc Riverand this may pose a risk to their health.Marked temporal variations in theamount of dissolved mercury in the riverwater reflect changes in the amount ofmercury-contaminated, mineral process-ing waste being discharged into the riverfrom the gold processing plants (seegraph, left). This illustrates the impor-tance of continuous or frequent monitor-ing of water quality in rivers polluted bymining activities if transient pollutionevents are to be detected.

The survey also indicated seriouspollution of paddy-fields, where the silt-laden, mercury-contaminated waterfrom the River Naboc has been usedover the last decade to irrigate rice.Multiple influxes of irrigation water have

deposited silt containing up to 90 mil-ligrams of mercury per kilogram ofsediment and this is ploughed into thesoil profile twice a year. Mercury in soilsamples taken from rice paddy-fieldsaverages 24, and reaches a maximum of96, milligrams of mercury per kilogram.Whereas there appear to be no Philippinenational guideline values for mercury inagricultural soils, the maximum permissi-ble concentration of mercury in UK agri-cultural soils (one milligram per

kilogram) is clearly exceeded in many ofthe soil samples. Much lower mercuryconcentrations within the range expectedfor uncontaminated soils (less than 0.3milligrams of mercury per kilogram)characterise the non-irrigated soils onwhich corn is cultivated.

Studies by the NERC ecotoxicologist, DrJason Weeks, indicated that little mercuryis taken up into the rice grain consumedby 600 local farmers and their families.Adsorption of mercury on to secondaryiron hydroxides and organic matter in thesoil, together with the formation ofmercury sulphide in the oxygen-deficientlayers of the waterlogged soil profile,appears to render mercury relativelyunavailable to the rice plants. It isfortunate for the local farmers and theirfamilies that natural soil processes seemto prevent the adsorption of mercury bythe rice, thereby reducing the health riskfrom the contaminated soils. This isconfirmed by the fact that the concentra-tions of mercury in the blood, urine, andhair of the people eating rice from themercury-contaminated rice fields are nogreater than in people living in a ‘control’area not affected by gold mining activi-ties. The main mercury health hazard isundoubtedly to people in the mining set-tlement of Diwalwal who are directlyexposed to mercury used for gold amalga-mation. Toxicological studies indicatethat their hair and blood mercury levelsare a cause for concern.

Water Water

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Mercury contaminated, silt-laden water in an irrigation canal and adjacent rice paddy field,Naboc Irrigation Scheme, island of Mindanao, the Philippines.

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View of the Diwalwal gold mining centre on the island of Mindanao, Philippines.

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In many developing countries, rapidurban and industrial expansion isclosely linked to increasing envi-ronmental pollution. Untreated

industrial and domestic discharges enterinto watercourses, rivers, and eventuallythe sea. In many estuarine and nearshoremarine settings there is evidence thatcontaminants enter the food chain anddirectly impact on people’s health

Recognising such problems, the BGSestablished a coastal contaminant moni-toring programme, the Land-OceanContamination Study (LOCS) underfunding from the Department forInternational Development. Its objec-tives were the provision of data on thesources, transport pathways, and fates ofcontaminants along urbanised coastalmargins, and the promotion of the needfor contaminant-flux monitoring as a

component of integrated coastal zonemanagement. Particular emphasis wasplaced on the development of rigorous,yet low-cost, monitoring methods whichmeet the social and economic require-ments of the study regions.

As part of the study a systematic geo-chemical and hydrochemical survey ofSepetiba Bay, Brazil, was carried out inliaison with the Universidade FederalFluminenese, and the Rio de JaneiroState Pollution Control Agency. Heavymetals dissolved in waters, adsorbed onto suspended particulates, and hostedwithin sea bed sediments were sampledat 43 sites in Sepetiba Bay between themain point-sources and the open Atlantic.Sea bed sediment cores, up to a metre inlength, were taken at 29 sites, whilesediments at other sites were sampledusing a Van Veen grab. Measurement of

temperature, salinity, pH and concentra-tions of coliform bacteria in waters, wasundertaken at two metres depth (or mid-water depth, where shallower) at eachsite. Samples to determine the concentra-tion of alkanes in sea bed sediments weretaken at key sites.

The survey showed that land-derivedanthropogenic fluxes of most heavy metalsare low, relative to the natural backgroundsediment loading concentrations. However,in the case of zinc, an average anthro-pogenic loading of greater than 400 percent was found, which exceeds internation-ally-recognised sediment thresholds. Onthe basis of the zinc in the sediments thestorage of contaminants in sea bedsediments throughout the bay was calcu-lated. Most contaminants are stored in thedelta systems at the mouths of the maindistributaries entering the bay, or downcurrent from them. Contaminant storagerates are greatest in areas of active deltagrowth. Many contaminants entering thebay over the past 30 years are likely to bestored in sea bed sediments; little will havereached the Atlantic. This is of concern asthese may be remobilised by human activi-ties such as fishing and dredging.Concentrations of many water-borne cont-aminants appear to be controlled bydredging activities that were ongoing at thetime of the survey. Concentrations wereenhanced in deeper parts of the bay, inwhich dredgings were being dumped, andrelatively low in shallow-water areaswhere they may have been expected to behigh (through resuspension of contami-nated sea bed sediments).

Although zinc has a relatively low toxicity,high levels can suppress aquatic microbio-logical productivity which can in turnaffect fish stocks. Also, many pollutantshave a mutually synergistic effect, andhigh levels of zinc may enhance thetoxicity of other metals such as copper andlead, even when these appear to be at non-critical levels. Reduced microbiologicalactivity may allow pathogens from sewageand other organic wastes to persist forlonger periods and accumulate in the foodchain, increasing the likelihood of healthproblems in humans.

The data show that in order to minimisethe risks to health, due considerationmust be paid to limiting both the influxof contaminants entering the bay and theremobilisation of contaminants throughhuman activities in the bay.

Water Water

Coastal contamination

A nearshore heavy metal surveyby John Rees & Neil Breward, Keyworth

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Dredging in Sepetiba Bay, Brazil, ongoing at the time of the survey.

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Three of the major aspects ofour environment that impacton our health and well-beingare the land that we live on,

the water we drink, and the air that webreathe. While the BGS has been tradi-tionally associated with surveying theland and has been involved in waterquality research for many years, it hasmost recently become involved in issuesof air quality and, in particular, the inter-action of land use and the atmosphericenvironment.

In school we all learn that the air ismade up of a number of gases such asnitrogen, oxygen or carbon dioxide.During the 1970s, concern about air

pollution and acid rain issues drewattention to gases such as sulphurdioxide and nitrogen oxides. In the pastdecade the news has been full of infor-mation about the role minor gases suchas methane and CFCs may have inglobal warming. However, the air alsocontains huge numbers of microscopicsolid particles derived either naturallyfrom the land or from man’s activities.Although the quantity of particles in theair resulting from coal burning is lessthan it was in the past, the increase innumbers of vehicles, the rise of newindustries, and our reuse of old indus-trial sites in cities have contributed newsources of airborne pollutants, bringingwith them new problems and challenges.

As part of an ambitious new environmen-tal science programme, the BGS hasinitiated a project: Monitoring Elementand Particle Pathways in the UrbanEnvironment. This will develop ourinvestigative capabilities and improve ourunderstanding of how our solid environ-ment, the geosphere, interacts with ouratmospheric and aquatic environments,particularly the urban–industrial environ-ment in which most of us live.

The monitoring of industrial and vehicle-exhaust gas particulates in the urban envi-ronment, especially the respirable fractionPM10 (i.e. particles less than 10 microns indiameter), is well established. However,the role of particles on all scales (millime-tre to sub-micron) in the transport of conta-minants from point sources to the regionalenvironment may be significant whenaerial, aqueous, and re-suspensionpathways are considered. The final fate ofsuch material once settled and incorporatedinto urban soils and surfaces is poorlyunderstood. In particular, the chemical andphysical changes of the particles with timecan change mobility, availability andtoxicity of the contaminants they carry.

In association with the City and County ofSwansea Council, the BGS has set up aseries of deposition gauges acrossSwansea and the surrounding countryside.These devices collect both rainwater andthe particles which fall, or are washed, outof the air. In the laboratory these can befiltered to separate the water from theparticles. The elements or the sulphurisotopes dissolved in the rainwater canthen be used to look at the influence ofnatural sources, such as sea water spray,or anthropogenic sources, such asindustry or road traffic. In the case of theparticles we will not only investigate theirchemistry but also their mineralogy andphysical form using instrumentation suchas scanning electron microscopy. By inte-grating these techniques we are develop-ing powerful tools to distinguish naturalfrom anthropogenic sources for thesetroublesome particles.

The BGS would like to thank the Cityand County of Swansea Council fortheir continued interest and support forthis project.

For further information, contact:

Dr Simon Chenery, AnalyticalGeochemistry Laboratories, BGS,Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG E-mail: srch@bgs.ac.uk

Air quality Air quality

“The air that I breathe . . .”

A new role for the BGS in environment and air quality

by Simon Chenery, Neil Fortey, Vicky Hards & Emily Hodgkinson, Keyworth

15

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Sampling airborne particulates using deposition gauges in Swansea.

Most coals and coal-bearingrocks contain significantamounts of methane,together with smaller quan-

tities of other gases. The abundance ofmethane, commonly known to miners as‘firedamp’, released during mining, hasalways been one of the greatest safetyhazards to confront the coal miner. Along history of disastrous fatal explo-sions led, in the early nineteenthcentury, to Sir Humphry Davy’s devel-opment of a practical flame safety lamp,following a particularly seriousexplosion in 1812 at Felling Colliery onTyneside.

Other gases which occur, usually incomparatively small quantities, inworking and abandoned coal mines,include hydrogen sulphide, which mayform locally by the reaction of acidicwater with pyrite, and carbon monoxide,which can be produced by incompletecombustion in underground fires andexplosions. Both gases are highly toxic.Small quantities of radon may alsooccur in old workings. Methanecontinues to be released from coal-bearing rocks after mining has ended.

These gases may remain trapped under-ground in abandoned workings, though incertain circumstances they may locallymigrate to the surface via a variety of geo-logically-related pathways. Surfaceescapes of methane, commonly accompa-nied by combustion, are comparativelywell known in most coalfields

Of particular concern, however, is thegeneration in old workings, often inlarge volumes, of a gas known as‘blackdamp’, more familiar to miners innorth-east England as ‘stythe’. This iseffectively air from which most, or all,of the oxygen has been removed, and isthus a mixture composed mainly ofnitrogen and carbon dioxide. Blackdampis colourless, odourless and tasteless andis normally heavier than air. It is formedby the oxidation of coal, timber,ironwork, and minerals such as pyrite inbadly ventilated workings, and is espe-cially prone to accumulate in old pillarand stall workings.

Under certain circumstances blackdampcan migrate to the surface. In conditionsof good ventilation, it may dissipateharmlessly by dilution into the atmos-phere. However, where ventilation isrestricted in some way, surface accumula-

tions of blackdamp may reach dangerousconcentrations. Being heavier than air itmay accumulate in cellars and trenches,and may enter buildings through founda-tions, pipe ducts, or in some instancesdirectly through the ground surface.

Surface emissions of blackdamp appearto be particularly common in parts of theNorthumberland Coalfield, but areknown from other coalfields. A man andhis dog were asphyxiated by ‘stythe’ ina workshop at Widdrington,Northumberland in 1995. In the sameincident other members of his familywere overcome by the gas, but were suc-cessfully revived. In Barnsley, in 1998,a man died in a trench which filled withblackdamp from nearby abandoned coalworkings. Numerous other, potentiallydangerous, surface emissions ofblackdamp are documented andalthough several people have beenseriously affected, fortunately there areno other recorded fatalities.

Such is the concern amongst residents inNorthumberland that one district councilin the region issues guidelines to allhouseholds on how to recognise thesymptoms of ‘stythe’, and provides a24-hour emergency telephone helplineto report emergencies. Oxygen monitor-ing equipment has been installed inhouses thought to be at risk and aspecially convened council committeemeets regularly to monitor incidents andto consider remediation measures for‘stythe’ emissions.

Remediation measures include drillingboreholes to vent old workings, or areas

Air quality Air quality

A breath of fresh air?

The unseen dangers of mine gasby Brian Young & David Lawrence, Edinburgh

16

Mine gas vent at Sunderland AFC Stadiumof Light, built near the site of WearmouthColliery, Sunderland.

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Old, and partially collapsed, pillar and stallworkings in a long-abandoned coal mine atPlessey Woods, Northumberland. Largevolumes of ‘stythe’ may form and accumu-late in such workings.

Air quality Air quality

17

known to contain concentrationsof gas. It is normalpractice todayduring mineabandonment toinstall vents inmine shafts andadits to allow gasesto be safely venti-lated and dissipatedinto the atmosphere.Several planningauthorities inNorthumberland requirethe risks from mine gasesto be assessed when deter-mining planning applica-tions, and may require theincorporation of appropriatesafeguards such as gas-proofmembranes in new buildings.

However, no information iscurrently available on the sus-ceptibility of individual sites toblackdamp emissions, andincidents are treated on a case-by-casebasis. Clearly there is a pressing publicsafety and economic need to delineatethose areas likely to be at greatest riskfrom blackdamp.

It is known that, as with most mine gases,surface emissions of blackdamp are mostfrequent during periods of low atmos-pheric pressure, and thus tend to becommonest during the winter months.However, the migration pathways andmechanisms driving surface emissions ofthis gas are complex and are dependentupon a great variety of conditions, bothnatural and man-made. Blackdamp isknown to form and to accumulate withinabandoned, unventilated workings.Whereas many such workings arerecorded on plans, there are extensiveareas of long-abandoned workings incoalfields such as Northumberland, forwhich no plans exist. Porous bodies ofrock, such as many Coal Measures sand-stones can serve as effective reservoirs forthe gas. Although old mine openings,such as shafts and adits, are obviousroutes for gas migration to the surface,migration pathways may be far fromobvious and are not necessarily simplyrestricted to such openings. Sandstonebodies, together with faults and joints, aswell as fissures in rocks disturbed bymining, may all provide extremelyeffective conduits for gas and emissionsmay occur at considerable distances from

the original source of the gas. Imperviousrocks, such as mudstones, may formeffective barriers preventing or restrictingthe migration of gas. Similarly, superficialdeposits such as till, or boulder clay, mayprovide efficient seals preventing gasescaping to the surface, though excava-tion of trenches or foundations may breakthese seals. The migration of ground-waters and, in particular, rising levels ofmine water in abandoned workings oncepumping has ended, are crucial factorsin controlling the movement of gasesand can drive gas to the surface.Drainage of flooded workings duringexcavations or opencast mining mayopen pathways for gas migration.

A clear understanding of the geologicalsuccession, structure, hydrogeology andgeotechnical characteristics for both the

‘solid’ and ‘drift’ geology is essential indelineating areas likely to be susceptibleto surface gas emissions.

Through its programme of continuousrevision the BGS today has a verydetailed, and constantly improving,picture of the geology of Britain’s coal-fields and is uniquely placed to investi-gate problems of mine gas. As part ofthe BGS Urban Geosciences Programmethis information is being employed toprepare a prototype computerisedsystem which will identify those areas inNorthumberland which are most suscep-tible to gas emissions. This will serve asan invaluable tool in environmental andpublic health planning and will enablethe most efficient targeting of resourcesto the safe long-term remediation of themost ‘at risk’ areas.

Top left*: Leaflet from Castle Morpeth Borough Council, warning about the dangers of gasfrom old mine workings (stythe). Above**: Newspaper headline ‘Death Gases’.

* Courtesy of Environmental and Planning Services Department, Castle Morpeth Borough Council.** Courtesy of the Journal, Newcastle upon Tyne.

*

**

The importance of soil as aresource has not always beenrecognised. Recently,however, organisations such

as the European Environment Agencyare becoming increasingly aware of thefragility of this finite resource. In theindustrialised areas of the world, espe-cially in the densely populated countriessuch as the UK, contamination of soil islimiting the development of land, partic-ularly in urban areas.

Contamination of soil can pose risks toboth plant and animal health. Humanand animal health is potentially at risk,both through direct contact with soil andthrough consumption of food plantsgrown on contaminated soils. Heavymetals, such as copper, lead and zinc,are one of the major groups of contami-nants present in soil in industrialisedareas. These have been used in a widerange of industries, for example in themanufacture of metal products and inthe metal-plating industry, as well asbeing components of other materialssuch as paints and plastics. This range ofuses has led to their widespread distribu-tion throughout the environment.

Recent changes to the legislation of theUK with regard to contaminated landhave placed the responsibility forassessing the extent of contaminatedland on local authorities. One of thetools for carrying out this assessment isthe use of geochemical baseline data.The BGS has been collecting bothregional and urban geochemical data

under the Geochemical Baseline Surveyof the Environment (G-BASE)programme. These data can fulfilseveral roles in assessing the extent ofsoil contamination.

The concentrations of trace elementsvary widely over different rock types.Baseline geochemical data enable thesenatural concentrations to be determined,providing a benchmark with which tocompare the levels of contaminants inindustrialised and urban areas. The BGSholds urban geochemical baseline data,

at a density of four soil samples persquare kilometre, for over twenty urbancentres, including Stoke-on-Trent,Swansea, Cardiff, Nottingham, andSheffield.

Urban geochemical data can be used fortwo major roles in determining the sig-nificance of soil contamination. Anurban baseline provides a more specificand detailed baseline than that of theregional data. In addition, this type ofdata can be used to identify broad areasof contamination, particularly thoseassociated with made ground. In manyindustrial districts, bulk waste such ascoal spoil and foundry or kiln waste hasbeen used to level or build up land overwide areas. The results of systematicgeochemical sampling can be presentedin such a way as to highlight theseanomalous concentrations. The propor-tional symbol plot of zinc (above right)in the surface soils of Swansea identifiesthe docks area of the city as havingbroad areas of elevated levels of thiselement.

Zinc is a phytotoxic element, this meansthat it can be toxic to plants and caninhibit their growth. In many urbanareas vegetables are grown in privateand allotment gardens. In some casesthese gardens may be situated in areaswith elevated concentrations of heavymetals such as zinc. The use of geo-

Contaminated land Contaminated land

Baseline urbangeochemistryA tool for assessing the

potential risks of contaminatedsoils to health

by Alex Ferguson, Keyworth

18

Geochemical baseline data are useful in assessing sites in urban or industrialised areas such asgardens and allotments where fruit and vegetables may be grown for human consumption.

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chemical baseline data is of particularimportance when considering areaswhich may be suitable for siting newgarden areas.

It is not only the elements that may beharmful to plants which need to be con-sidered. Some heavy metals are toxic tohumans and animals when consumed athigh concentrations. However, whilemany heavy metals can cause harm andexcess, some are essential for humanhealth in low concentrations. Theessential nature of these elements meansthat there are natural mechanisms foruptake into the human or animal body.In most cases this is through plants, theplant takes up the metals and then thehuman or animal consumes the plants.The existence of this mechanism meansthat, where metals are present at highlevels, they can be taken up in excess byhumans and animals.

In some cases there is also concern dueto the practice of geophagy, the deliber-ate consumption of soil (see pages 24and 25). In the UK this is a habitpractised by many children, often foronly a short period in their childhood.Soil is, however, consumed in smallamounts by people with certain habitsinvolving hand-to-mouth contact, partic-ularly those who bite their nails. Grazinganimals also consume soil in the actionof cropping plants close to the ground.

These circumstances provide a moredirect route for the elements in soil toaffect the health of humans and animals.

The presence of heavy metals in soilalso provides another potential routefor ingestion by humans. Undercertain circumstances metalscan be carried in a solubleform into groundwaterreserves. In manyplaces groundwateris an importantsource ofdrinking-water.Contaminationof groundwatercan lead topotential healthrisks for thoseconsuming thewater. A morefrequentconcern in thedeveloped worldis that this conta-mination mayplace additionaldemands on watertreatment works.

The various potential routesfor heavy metals to affect thehealth of plants, animals andhumans have made the study of heavymetal behaviour in soil an important

branch of scientific research. Manystudies have been undertaken toconsider the mobility of metals throughthe soil profile and into organisms. Thestudy of bioavailability — the uptake ofmetals by plants, animals and humans,and the likely effects of this uptake — iswide ranging. Geochemical baselinedata, in conjunction with other data suchas the underlying geology, the depth togroundwater, the population density,and many other data-sets, provide auseful tool for focusing these studies.The elemental concentrations of heavymetals are used in the context of otherimportant data, such as the soil pH(acidity) and estimates of soil organiccontent, to provide a background forfurther study. The availability of thesedata enables the most appropriate sitesto be identified and allows researchersto focus their work to areas suited totheir specific requirements.

For further details contact:

Dr C C JohnsonTel: 0115 936 3372E-mail: ccj@bgs.ac.uk

Contaminated land Contaminated land

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Proportional symbol plot of zinc in the surface soils of Swansea. Elevated levels of this elementare indicated in the docks area, amongst others.

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Former chemical processing site requiringsite investigation and land reclamation

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Many cemeteries in theUnited Kingdom arebecoming full and addi-tional land is required to

accommodate the estimated 160 000burials that take place each year. Theimpact of cemeteries on groundwater isa little researched subject, despite histor-ical accounts of microbial pollution ofgroundwater in adjacent wells.Moreover, a review carried out by theBGS on behalf of the EnvironmentAgency in 1998, noted that there is apaucity of knowledge of microbiologicalcontaminants in groundwater, even formajor sources such as septic tanks,treatment plants, and sewage irrigationschemes, while the impact of cemeteriesis virtually unknown.

Researchers at the BGS and the RobensInstitute (University of Surrey) in col-laboration with the EnvironmentAgency are investigating a cemetery in

the West Midlands in order to assess theimpact on groundwater of current burialpractices and provide guidelines for thesiting of new cemeteries.

The cemetery is located on an area ofthin glacial till on the BromsgroveSandstone Formation, the second mostimportant drinking-water aquifer inEngland. The graves are dug to twometres depth to the sandstone–tillinterface. Groundwater levels aregenerally five metres beneath surface

and the site investigation has involveddrilling ten boreholes which have beenused to measure the hydraulic conduc-tivity of the sandstone and providegroundwater samples for analysis. Thesaturated vertical conductivity of theoverlying drift deposits was determinedfrom a number of infiltration tests. Thegroundwater has been analysed formajor, minor, and trace element compo-sition, and GC-MS techniques havebeen used to identify any organiccompounds present. The RobensInstitute was responsible for detectingand identifying bacteria and viruses.

The results show that groundwater downhydraulic gradient from the cemeteryhas slightly elevated concentrations ofchloride and sulphate, consistent withcompounds released from a decayingbody. Microbiological tests show thatthe water contains thermo-tolerantcoliforms and faecal streptococci at con-centrations that the World HealthOrganisation classes as ‘heavily contam-inated’. The ratio of thermo-tolerantcoliforms to faecal streptococciindicates a human source and, inaddition, the groundwater containsStaphylococcus aureus,which is foundon human skin and mucous membranes,but is otherwise a very rare groundwatercontaminant. This bacterium is responsi-ble for most hospital-acquired infec-tions. Roto- and enteroviruses, whichare found in the intestine and are stablein the environment, were not detected.

There is now good evidence that bacteriawhich decompose corpses can reach thewater table. Modelling bacteriamovement through the unsaturated zonebelow the graves suggests that they wouldbreak through a three-metre thick unsatu-rated zone and enter the groundwaterwithin five years of burial. However,these times are well in excess of the lifeexpectancy of these bacteria. The conclu-sion to be drawn, which is supported byhydraulic test results, is that groundwaterflow through fractures is allowing rapidtransit to the water table. Further work isunder way to evaluate how the microbio-logical population changes over time andto understand transport pathways and thesurvival of bacteria through various geo-logical settings.

For more information contact:

Julian TrickTel: 0115 936 3538E-mail: jkt@bgs.ac.uk

Contaminated land Contaminated land

Grave concernsHealth risks from human burials

by Julian Trick & Ben Klinck, Keyworth

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Vicarage rendered unhealthy by infiltration from churchyard. Based on plate LX in: PridginTeale, T. 1881, Dangers to Health: A Pictorial Guide to Domestic and Sanitary Defects.

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“... tests show that the watercontains coliforms and faecalstreptococci at concentrationsthe WHO classes as ‘heavily

contaminated’ ...”

The release of man-madeorganic compounds into theenvironment is a potentialthreat to ecosystems and to

human health. Agricultural pesticidesare used in large quantities to improvecrop yields, yet are extremely toxic andtheir long-term fate in groundwaterneeds to be understood. Pesticides areubiquitous in groundwater in manycountries, albeit at low concentrations,but the EC recommended limit of 0.1micrograms per litre in drinking-water isalso very low.

In the past, agrochemicals were relativelysimple molecules having gross effects onthe target organism but, with a subtlerunderstanding of biochemical processes ata cellular level, chemists now designbiocide molecules to block specificmetabolic steps. Many are modified formsof natural biocides such as pyrethrinswhich are chiral, that is they exist as ‘left-handed’ and ‘right-handed’ mirror imageforms. However, usually only one form(called an enantiomer) is biologicallyactive. Consequently many of the newbiocide molecules which are successfulmetabolic blocking agents are also chiral.

Chiral molecules are identical chemi-cally and physically, but they maybehave differently in biological systems.Thalidomide is a well-known chiralcompound; one form is an anti-emetic,while the other is teratogenic, causingsevere malformations in the developingfoetus (although it is now proving usefulin cancer treatment).

Our interest in the chiral pesticidemecoprop stems from extensive ground-water pollution that has arisen from thedisposal of an estimated 40 tonnes ofpesticide tank washings into a landfill inthe Lincolnshire Limestone aquifer. A

public water supply borehole 2.5 kilome-tres away contains eight micrograms ofmecoprop per litre of water and has to betreated. When deposited, the mecopropcontained equal amounts of the (R)(rectus, or right-handed) and the (S)(sinister, or left-handed) enantiomers.Previous studies have shown that theenantiomers degrade at different rates butonly in aerobic conditions, so changes intheir ratio with distance from the landfillmight indicate biological changes associ-ated with mecoprop’s natural ‘clean-up’(or natural attenuation) in the aquifer.

Measurements show that the enantiomericratio does not change in the landfillwhere conditions are sulphate reducing,suggesting that no degradation hasoccurred even though disposal ceased tenyears ago. However, as the mecopropmigrates along with biodegradablecompounds also from the landfill,inversion of the (R)-mecoprop to (S)-mecoprop appears to takes place inanaerobic conditions, but without degra-dation. This may be initiated by enzymes

released by bacteria, which metabolisethe more degradable organic compoundspresent. Further east along the flow paththe groundwater becomes aerobic; the(S)-mecoprop degrades faster than (R)-mecoprop, and the (R)-enantiomer pre-dominates. Further east still, water in theLincolnshire Limestone is naturallyanaerobic and sulphate reducing, somecoprop stops degrading and the enan-tiomeric ratio stays constant (see table).

This evaluation is being confirmed bylaboratory work involving microcosmsto identify the conditions under whichinversion and degradation occur, themicrobial consortia present, and theenzymes responsible for inversion.

Preliminary results suggest that enan-tiomeric ratios provide insight intomecoprop degradation/inversion inrelation to the geochemical conditions inthe groundwater. There are many otherchiral compounds of environmentalconcern and the knowledge gained fromthis study may help in assessing their fate.

Contaminated land Contaminated land

Chiral compoundsClues for natural attenuation

in groundwaterby Geoff Williams & Ian Harrison, Keyworth

21

The two enantiomers of mecoprop.

Zone Organic Content Redox state EF* Inferred processes

Close to thelandfill

High Sulphate reducing/methanogenic

EF = 0.5 No degradationor inversion

Landfillplume

Intermediate Iron & nitratereducing

EF < 0.5 Inversion of (R)-to (S)-mecoprop

Unconfinedaquifer

Background Aerobic trend toEF > 0.5

(S)-mecopropdegrades faster

Confinedaquifer

Background Sulphatereducing

EFconstant

No degradationor inversion

*We use the Enantiomeric Fraction EF =[R]/(R) + [S]) to avoid infinite values of [R]/[S] where[R] and [S] are the concentrations of the two enantiomers.

Lead, cadmium, and other toxicheavy metals that are residuesof past industrial processes canpose a hazard at brownfield

sites in our cities, especially inproximity to housing or on landearmarked for reclamation. These metalsmay migrate into water supplies or beadsorbed directly by ingestion andinhalation of soil, so the hazard theypose is related to the way in which theyoccur, as well as their overall concentra-tions. One established way of evaluatingthis hazard involves attacking a samplewith successively more aggressivesolvents and measuring the amounts of

metals released at each step. This mayreveal, for instance, how much may beleached by groundwater, or how metal-enriched particles may react within ourlungs and intestines. It can also indicatehow the metals are bound up inminerals, because different minerals willbe dissolved at each step, but thisinvolves many assumptions, bearing inmind the variety of natural and man-made substances that might be present.To gain a better understanding of theseprocesses, mineralogical techniques arebeing used to study the particlesenriched in heavy metals found in soilsand contaminated canal mud.

Soils taken from contaminated sites inWolverhampton and Nottingham duringthe NERC URGENT Project ‘LeadSpeciation and the Remediation ofBrownfield Sites in Urban Areas’ arebeing investigated by scanning electronmicroscope (SEM) to determine themorphology and composition of lead-enriched particles. The microscopist isconfronted with a large number of densesoil particles, few of which are actuallyenriched in lead. Back-scattered electronimages and automated image analysisare used to locate the densest particles,which are then analysed by X-ray spec-trometry. This confirms that many areindeed lead-rich, although other denseparticles, e.g. barium sulphate, arecommon.

The compositions and morphologicalfeatures give clues as to the origins ofthe particles, so that they can be classi-fied as metallic slag, paint, metallic lead,lead sulphide, and so on. In this way, weare able to build up a precise record ofthe number and origins of the lead-richparticles in the soil. Moreover, thisparticle-by-particle approach allows usto use other instruments to determinemore diagnostic factors of their compo-sition. In particular, individual grainscan be ablated (vaporised) using a laser,and the vapour analysed by mass spec-trometer to determine lead isotoperatios. Results from this indicate that thegrains contain mixtures of relativelynon-radiogenic lead, possibly derivedfrom Australia, and more radiogeniclead, derived from orefields in theBritish Isles.

Although these dense particles are likelyto be difficult to dissolve in soil waters,they often preserve evidence of the

Contaminated land Contaminated land

Heavy metalsContaminants under

the microscopeby Neil Fortey, Jonathan Pearce, Antoni Milodowski

& Rona McGill, Keyworth

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Metallic slag particle from contaminated brownfield soil (SEM image, field of view approxi-mately 85 microns across).

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Weathered particle of lead solder fromcontaminated brownfield soil(Backscattered electron image, field ofview approximately 0.25mm across).

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reactions that develop more ‘mobile’forms. We need to study in greater detailhow lead is bound up in the lighter andmost fine-grained fractions, includingthe respirable PM10 particles (particlesless than 10 microns in aerodynamicdiameter). Moreover, although thesetechniques are applicable to relativelyabundant heavy metals, such as copper

and zinc, investigation of the tracemetals, such as cadmium, in soilparticles requires different techniquessuch as ultra-trace analysis by laserablation.

Another application uses the ability ofthe scanning electron microscope toobserve micro-organisms and undis-turbed structures in metal-contaminatedcanal sediment. In a study led by DrDavid Large of Nottingham University,stagnant mud was sampled from canalsin the industrial West Midlands and ruralLeicestershire. The industrial examplescontained high concentrations of phos-phorus and heavy metals derived frompast industries and sewage discharge.Analyses at the university had indicatedthe extent to which the metals could beextracted, but mineralogy was neededbetter to understand their behaviour.Samples were cooled very rapidly byliquid nitrogen so that the water in themturned to an ice-glass in which the

mineral grains and micro-organismswere entombed. Clays and otherminerals were readily observed togetherwith minerals forming in the mud,including calcite, the ferrous phosphatevivianite, and iron, copper, and zinc-richsulphides. Bacteria were observed alongwith tenuous webs of biofilm that bindthe mud together. Many such films arecoated with sulphide deposited by thebacteria. The presence of vivianitereveals that phosphate is bound up in the

sediments, restricting its release tooverlying canal water and reducing

the risk of excessive biologicalactivity such as poisonous algalblooms. At the rural site, wherethe mud is less phosphatic,iron sulphide is abundant,with spectacular instances offramboid clusters of iron-sulphide particles. Filamentsof biofilm were observedattached to the externalsurfaces and within the pore

spaces of the framboids.

These examples illustrate theexpanding role of environmental

mineralogy. Our current work isconcerned with dust and particles from

reclamation of industrial sites in SouthWales (see the article on page 15) andother potential applications are beingconsidered. We welcome your sugges-tions and enquiries.

For further information contact:

Dr Neil Fortey (Laboratory Manager), Tel: 0115 936 3408E-mail: njf@bgs.ac.uk

Jonathan Pearce (Soil Investigations)Tel: 0115 936 3222E-mail: jmpe@bgs.ac.uk

Tony Milodowski (SEM Manager)Tel: 0115 936 3548E-mail: aem@bgs.ac.uk

Dr Rona McGill (Pb-isotope analysis,NERC Isotope GeoscienceLaboratory) Tel: 0115 936 3527E-mail: rarmc@nigl.nerc.ac.uk

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23

Iron sulphide framboid and strands ofbiofilm in frozen canal mud (Backscatteredelectron image, field of view approximately25 microns across).

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Bacteria embedded in sulphide-coated biofilm in frozen canal mud (Backscattered electronimage, field of view approximately 35 microns across).

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Metal shards in fragments of brownfield soil(optical image of polished section). Field ofview approximately 0.5 millimetres across.

Children and young adults theworld over may be exposedto chemical elements in soilsthrough either accidental or

deliberate ingestion of soil, or dustsderived from soils. In Europe and NorthAmerica such exposure probably origi-nates principally from accidentalingestion during hand-to-mouth contact.However, in many ancient and ruralsocieties, and amongst a wide variety ofanimals, exposure occurs principallythrough the deliberate ingestion of soil,or soil-derived ‘medical’ preparations(often associated with immigrant com-munities). Such behaviour is medicallyknown as either pica (the eating ofunusual objects, cf. Pica pica,themagpie) or more specifically as

geophagia. Other forms of picacommonly reported since the sixteenthcentury include the eating of coal,cinders, plaster, dung, ash, snow, and ice(pagophagia).

Whilst increasingly uncommon inmodern societies, geophagia is commonamong traditional societies and has been

recognised since the time of Aristotle asa cure-all for health problems includingpoisoning and famine foods. Soil maybe eaten from the ground as a paste, butin many situations there is a culturalpreference for soil from ’specialsources’, such as termitaria, or from tra-ditional herbal–soil mixes. These prepa-rations may be taken as a ‘specialremedy’ during pregnancy and bychildren. It remains a matter of conjec-ture whether the soil itself is an activecomponent of the preparation or simplya binder. In the case of geophagyamongst animals such preferred soils areoften referred to as ‘licks’, although insuch cases it is not only the soluble saltsthat are consumed but also relativelyinsoluble clays and associated minerals.In this context it is interesting to notethat studies undertaken for theDepartment for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) by the BGS andcollaborators in Uganda and the UKhave demonstrated that the bioavailabil-ity of many trace nutrients is higher inthese preferred soils and herbal prepara-tions than more common, less ‘attrac-tive’, soils.

Geophagia is considered by manyhuman and animal nutritionists to beeither:

● a learned habitual response in whichclays and soil minerals are specifi-cally ingested to reduce the toxicityof various dietary componentscommon to the local environment(for example, in tropical rain forests,where many plants and fruits haveevolved toxins to reduce their palata-bility)

● an in-built response to nutritionaldeficiencies resulting from a poordiet often rich in fibre but deficient inmagnesium, iron, and zinc (essentialnutrients during motherhood, earlychildhood, and adolescence); suchdiets are common in tropicalcountries, particularly where the dietis dominated by starchy fibre-richfoods such as sweet potatoes andcassava

From a historical perspective, geophagyhas also been commonly associatedwith various mental disorders andafflictions with a wide variety of ratherunpleasant cures. Even today the theoryof geophagia as a subconsciousresponse to dietary toxins or stress

Contaminated land Contaminated land

24

Derelict Brunton arsenic condenser at Devon Great Consoles mine. Arsenic oxide was previouslyproduced at the works by roasting arsenopyrite. Elevated levels of arsenic were found in soilsamples taken at the site.

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“... you can neither sleep norhave appetite for food, until you

taste some soil ...”

GeophagiaThe hazards to health of

soil in the dietBarry Smith, Keyworth

must be balanced against the habitualeating of soil that has been reported todevelop into extreme, often obsessive,cravings. These cravings are oftenreported to occur immediately afterrain. For example, one woman inter-viewed during our studies said ‘Youcan neither sleep nor have appetite forfood, until you taste some soil’.Another stated that the urge for soilconsumption was particularly strongafter rain ‘The soil smells nicewherever you go, either in kitchen, thelatrine, and in the field’. Typical quan-tities of soil eaten by geophagics inKenya have been reported to be 20grams per day. This is almost 400 timesmore than typical quantities of soilthought to be ingested as a result ofinadvertent ingestion through hand-to-mouth contact (e.g. 50 milligrams perday). Whilst eating such large quanti-ties of soil increases exposure toessential trace nutrients, it also signifi-cantly increases exposure to biologicalpathogens and to potentially toxic traceelements, especially in areas associatedwith mineral extraction, or in pollutedurban environments.

Geophagia is common amongst animalsas varied as gorillas from Central Africaand macaws from South America. Therecan hardly be a clearer demonstration ofanimal geophagia than the daily ritual ofa flock of colourful macaws feasting onclay from the banks of rivers beforestarting to feed amongst the tropicalrainforest canopies.

Similarly, inadvertent ingestion ofsoils increases exposure to toxins asso-ciated with contaminated land siteswithin the UK and Europe. Analysis ofexposure scenarios indicates that thedirect ingestion of even minimal quan-tities of soil by the young can accountfor more than 50 per cent of their totalexposure to a given pollutant fromall other sources. This is due tothe much higher concentra-tion of contaminants insoils compared to foodsand drinking-watersources. Other, lessconspicuous, formsof inadvertentingestion mayalso occur. Forexample, driedsoil is oftenused as adesiccant toprotect kidneybeans andgroundnuts fromrot in Africa, andearths and clayshave been used tomake flour and buttersubstitutes in Europeduring the early part ofthe twentieth century. It isalso generally considered thatthe teeth of ancient Egyptians wereworn away prematurely because of thehigh levels of wind-blown sand inbread.

The BGS has been undertakingresearch to investigate the bioavailabil-ity of potentially toxic trace elementssuch as arsenic and lead in UK soilsassociated with a range of contaminantsources (e.g. mine wastes, mineralisa-tion, and industrial sites). The objec-tives of these projects are to increaseour understanding of the risks andbenefits associated with geophagia andto enable the bioavailability of a partic-ular contaminative source to be accu-rately taken into account during site-specific risk assessment. Whilst thelatter is unlikely to reduce significantlythe remediation requirements forgrossly contaminated sites, it is likelyto reduce the need for remediation ofmarginally contaminated soils such asthose associated with diffuse pollutionand the periphery of pollution plumes,leading to a more sustainable approachto the remediation of contaminatedland.

For further details contact:

Professor Barry SmithTel: 0115 936 3423E-mail: bsmi@bgs.ac.uk

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25

Children may be exposed to toxins or biological pathogens through accidental or deliberateingestion of soils during play.

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Drying cassava in direct contact with soilleads to increased cerium levels in the flourproduced.

Environmental exposure toarsenic has serious conse-quences for human health withcommon chronic effects

including skin disorders and internalcancers. The BGS has been undertakinga project for the Department forInternational Development (DFID) toexamine environmental arsenicexposure, resultant human health risks,and possible geochemical solutions in anumber of countries and settings.

As part of the environmental monitoringof a contaminated area, it is important tobe able to identify rapidly the existenceand extent of the contamination sourceand to assess the toxicological effectsupon the local fauna. A field technique,

using earthworm body cavity fluid as abiomarker of arsenic concentrations,was used by the BGS on a trial basis in amining-contaminated area of RonPhibun District, Nakhon Si ThammaratProvince, Thailand.

The method was developed by anotherNERC Research Centre, the Institute ofTerrestrial Ecology, and is based on theability of cells within the fluid to accu-

mulate and retain neutral red. This is aweak cationic dye that penetrates cellmembranes by non-ionic diffusion andis retained intracellularly in structurescalled lysosomes. Only lysosomes inhealthy cells take up and retain the dyecausing the cell to appear colourlessunder the microscope. Lysosomemembranes are particularly sensitive topollutants. In unhealthy cells the dye isreleased into the cell from the lysosomesturning the cell pink. Thus lysosomesare a useful indicator of the health of theinvertebrate and its environment. Inaddition, the effects of exposure to pol-lutants are apparent in the cells beforeshowing themselves in the wholeanimal. The technique requires rela-tively little equipment: the dye, hypo-dermic syringes (to extract the bodycavity fluid), a stopwatch, some otherreagents, a microscope and, of course,freshly-sampled live earthworms.

The study at Ron Phibun showed thatearthworms were effective as indicatorsof arsenic pollution. There was good cor-relation between the effects on the worms(at the subcellular level) and concentra-tions of arsenic in soils — the wormscould be used to map the contamination.The test is useful for giving an early indi-cation of toxic effects from arsenic andother toxic metals on ecosystems so thatappropriate action can be taken. Bothaquatic and terrestrial invertebrates can beused as the biomarker species. The neutralred retention time assay is also simple,low cost, and highly suitable for use indeveloping countries.

For further information contact:

Dr Julia West, Tel: 0115 936 3530E-Mail: jmw@bgs.ac.uk

Contaminated land Contaminated land

Using earthwormsto map pollution

Arsenic contaminationin Thailand

by Julia West & Pat Coombs, Keyworth

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Digging for worms in the Ron Phibun area, Thailand.

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Collaborators from the Kingdom ofThailand Department of Mineral Resourceswith the worm collection kit.

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“... there was good correlationbetween the effects on the wormsand concentrations of arsenic in

soils ...”

The BGS, jointly with a teamfrom AEA Technology andpartners from a number ofRussian organisations, have

recently completed a project funded bythe European Commission (EC) on theassessment of the situation and disposalconcepts for radioactive wastes arisingfrom reprocessing operations inChelyabinsk-65 (Mayak). The report onthis work will be published by the EC indue course.

The Mayak works are situated on theeastern edge of the South Urals near theclosed city of Ozyorsk. It was the site ofearly Russian plutonium production andlater a major spent nuclear fuel reprocess-ing plant was established there which isstill in operation. The safe managementand eventual disposal of the radioactivewastes produced at the site are key issues.

The principal aims of the project were:

● to assess quantities and activities ofexisting and expected future wastearisings

● to propose a number of appropriatedisposal strategies

● to evaluate the local area for suitabil-ity for safe shallow and deep wastedisposal according to internationallyagreed standards

Most of the area consists of Silurian toDevonian metavolcanic rocks. These aredeeply weathered in some areas,resulting in a more permeable zone inthe uppermost 100 metres or so.Metasedimentary rocks, includingmarbles, occur in the east of the area.

Deep borehole disposal of vitrified high-level waste within the metavolcanic rocksis an option that should meet Russian andInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA) safety guidelines though no sitecharacterisation work has yet been carried

out to confirm this. Existing and futureshallow disposal facilities for intermediate(ILW) and low-level waste (LLW) arelikely to need engineered barriers toenhance containment.

The EC has separately funded projectsevaluating specific radioactive pollutionfrom accidental and process-related dis-charges that make Mayak one of themost radioactively contaminateddistricts on Earth. Between 1949 andlate 1951 all liquid waste resulting fromthe production of plutonium was dis-charged into the Techa River adjacent tothe site. This caused gross radionuclidepollution downstream, detectable all theway to the Kara Sea. A number ofvillages, including Metlino, were

relocated away from the river. However,doses received by some local popula-tions, particularly those using the riveror eating fish from it, were very high.To control the movement of radionu-clides downstream a series of dams werebuilt creating a number of large reser-voirs of sufficient capacity to contain alllocal run-off balanced by natural evapo-ration (though there is some dischargefrom the reservoirs into the canals, par-ticularly through the marbles). Twodiversionary canals intercept cleandrainage to discharge into the TechaRiver below the lowest dam.

To compound the problem of the TechaRiver, two accidents occurred at theplant, the explosion of a high levelliquid waste tank in 1957 and the dryingout of Karachy Lake in 1967. The lakeis an internal drainage basin used untilrecently for the discharge of intermedi-ate level liquid waste. Subsequent sus-pension and distribution of radioactivedust by the prevailing wind in 1967 ledto the dispersal of significant quantitiesof radioactivity over a large area to thenorth-east of the site. The dispersionplumes from these two accidents aresimilar and overlie the same track ofground (tens of kilometres wide andmore than a thousand kilometres long)with the most contaminated areas beingnear the plant and reservoirs.

An area of over 200 square kilometres,including the whole of the plant area,the reservoirs, and much of the worst ofthe contamination from the accidents,form a controlled zone with limitedaccess, mainly for monitoring purposes.The more contaminated areas that areoutside the controlled zone were treatedby a number of methods including deep(one metre deep) ploughing so that theycan remain in use. The controlled zoneis not fenced but is policed and, whileaccess by the general public is notpermitted, hunting of game andgathering of hay and mushrooms occurwithin the zone, increasing the exposureof some sections of the local population.

The final solution adopted forILW/LLW disposal at Mayak will haveto accommodate not only the wastesarising from the reprocessing activities,but also the appropriate isolation ofsediments accumulated on the beds ofthe reservoirs and, possibly, of contami-nated soils resulting from the twoaccidents.

Contaminated land Contaminated land

The Mayak projectRadioactive contamination in

Russiaby Richard Shaw & Paul Hooker, Keyworth

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Metlino Mill built in the early 1900s andnow in an advanced state of decay. It wasabandoned in the 1950s when the villagewas relocated away from the Techa River.

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As a survey organisationresponsible for the identifica-tion of mineral resources, theBGS has always been

involved in studying the occurrence andnatural distribution of uranium and itsassociated minerals. In the early parts ofthe twentieth century explorationprimarily focused on the use of uraniumas a pigment in glass and ceramics man-ufacture, whilst for the past 60 years thefocus has shifted towards its use as asource of nuclear energy. The need foruranium resources and its presence inwastes associated with the nuclear fuelcycle has resulted in the BGS undertak-ing a number of scientific studies onbehalf of both the regulator and nuclearpower industries to investigate the envi-ronmental behaviour of this heavyelement. As a result of such studies, andour experience in undertaking studies inthe area of environment and health, the

BGS was commissioned by the WorldHealth Organisation (WHO) and theRoyal Society to undertake two separatereviews on the hazards associated withdepleted uranium.

Naturally occurring uranium is found invirtually all rocks, soils and waters inthe Earth’s surface and near-surfaceenvironment. It contains severalisotopes, mainly uranium-238, uranium-235 and uranium-234. For its use as anuclear fuel such uranium must beenriched in 235U to promote andmaintain a nuclear chain reaction.During the enrichment process, theunwanted isotopes of uranium (238U) areremoved, producing as a by-product aform of uranium depleted in 235U.Naturally occurring uranium is typically0.7% 235U whilst depleted uranium istypically less than 0.2% 235U. Theremoval of a large proportion of themore radioactive 235U also means thatdepleted uranium is significantly less

radioactive (by at least a factor oftwo) than either uranium ore as

removed from the ground,or chemically purified

natural uranium. Thechemical and biologi-cal behaviour ofdepleted uraniumis identical to thatof naturaluranium sostudies on thelatter can informus about thebehaviour of theformer.

As a by-product, depleted uranium hasbeen produced in large quantities andstockpiled by the nuclear fuel industrywho have sought to find useful endproducts for this material. Initially it wasfelt that depleted uranium could be usedin fast breeder reactors to produce otherfissile elements such as plutonium. Thesecould then be used to increase feedstocksfor the continued production of nuclearpower, given a potential shortage ofnatural uranium ore. Despite the success-ful demonstration of such processes, theexpected proliferation of nuclear energyhas not happened and, at the same time,larger reserves of uranium ore havebecome available. The use of depleteduranium by the nuclear industry hastherefore been restricted to its use as ashielding agent, which utilises its highdensity and relatively low radioactivity,in fuel canisters, shipping containers forradioactive sources, and as collimators inequipment used in nuclear medicine.Elsewhere, depleted uranium has beenused as a counterweight in aircraft and inboth an offensive and defensive capacityin warfare.

When alloyed with a small amount oftitanium, depleted uranium producesextremely effective armour-piercingwarheads and protective armour. Whilstsuch materials have been developedsince the 1970s, their first reportedmajor use under battlefield conditionswas in the Gulf War and later in theBalkans conflicts. It is now believed thatmore than ten countries possess depleteduranium weapons systems. In the manu-facturing processes and during deploy-ment, controls are such that the hazardsto the workforce or military personnelare minimised by stringent controls.However, when used in military conflictor testing, depleted uranium can becomemore widely dispersed resulting in anincreased potential risk to the environ-ment and human health.

Like many heavy metals the toxicity ofuranium to humans has been widelystudied. However, unlike metals such ascadmium, exposure to uranium may alsoresult in health effects due to thepresence of its inherent radioactivity. Inboth cases exposure must occur to areceptor (e.g. groundwater, human,ecosystem) before any resultant riskmay be quantified. Because of this, it isimportant to consider scenarios in whichexposure to depleted uranium may occurand their relative importance.

Contaminated land Contaminated land

Depleted uraniumIts hazards and uses

by Barry Smith, Keyworth

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Sampling wells for naturalradioactivity in Amman,Jordan.

In the case of military conflicts, the mostlikely exposure routes are to thoseactually present in the immediate vicinityof a projectile strike. Obviously suchpeople also face the immediate risksassociated with the kinetic impact of theweapon and any resulting fires or explo-sions. Apart from such extreme situationsthose likely to be exposed include rescueworkers and field staff associated withthe clean-up and decommissioning ofvehicles and sites attacked by depleteduranium weapons, and any localmembers of the population re-enteringthe war zone. In all such cases the mainpotential exposure routes are related tothe inhalation or ingestion of uranium-rich dusts produced by the projectiles’impact. On a longer time scale (e.g. tensto thousands of years) uranium from suchdusts or fragments of projectiles maybecome locally dispersed into the envi-ronment and as a result contaminatefoodstuffs and drinking-waters. Themagnitude of any such contaminationdepends largely upon the intensity of themilitary action and the amount of dustproduced from each projectile, which is afunction of the hardness of the impactedmaterial and the energy of impact.

To understand the effects of depleteduranium on human health much reliancehas to be placed upon extrapolating theresults of experiments performed usingnatural uranium on animals. This isbecause of the wide number of potentialconfounding factors, and low statisticalpower associated with epidemiologicalstudies of chronic human exposures.Similarly, studies of acute exposure maynot reflect longer-term effects. Mostnotable is the negative effect of uraniumon kidney function. This is common formany heavy metals and is not unique orparticularly enhanced in the case ofuranium, indeed it is considered in suchcircumstances to be less toxic to thekidney than, for example, mercury.Other effects have been noted but areeither far less studied than those on thekidney or have been only noted duringunrealistically high exposures. In the

case of depleted uranium, such studieshave been also undertaken on animalsand humans beings, in which fragmentshave becomes embedded in body tissues.Interestingly, in such experiments

damage to kidney function has notgenerally been observed. Despite this,both the WHO and American Agency forToxic Substances and Disease Registry(ATSDR) have placed very restrictivelimits on the amount of uranium thatshould be ingested per day.

The biological effects of a radioactivematerial depend to an extent on thenature of the radiation, its intensity, andits location amongst various bodytissues. In the case of depleted uranium,studies have clearly demonstrated thatthe only route of exposure by which sig-nificant radiological doses may beobserved is through the inhalation ofinsoluble uranium particulates into thelung. It is therefore perhaps fortuitousthat experimental evidence points to par-ticulate materials from projectile strikesbeing relatively soluble in body fluids.At exposure levels consistent with limitsbased on the chemical toxicity ofuranium, the influence of radiologicalissues has again been estimated to berelatively small.

In either case if exposure to depleteduranium has occurred there is relativelylittle that can be done as elimination ofuranium from the body is in itself rela-tively rapid, with only a small proportionof uranium being retained in the body(principally in bone). Extraction from thebody with complexing agents such asEDTA have been tried but shown to berelatively unsuccessful and may be moreharmful than the effects of uranium itself.

Currently a wide range of both environ-mental and health-related studies havebeen undertaken in the Balkans by teamsfrom UNEP; very few studies have beenundertaken in Iraq, because of thepolitical situation. Ongoing studies arebeing undertaken by the military to inves-tigate risks posed by the use and provingof depleted uranium munitions in theUSA and UK. It is likely that current andfuture studies will involve screening ofthe local population and combatants fordepleted uranium through the analysis ofurine; a more extensive epidemiologicalstudy of health outcomes of potentialexposed combatants and the local popula-tions; and the monitoring of local food,house dusts, and drinking-water supplies.

References/further reading:

WHO, 2001 Depleted Uranium Sources,Exposures and Health Effects,WHO/SDE/PHE/01.1, Geneva,Switzerland. Available for download inPDF format from:

http://www.who.int/environmental_information/radiation/depleted_uranium.htm

UNEP, 2001 Depleted Uranium inKosovo-Post-Conflict EnvironmentalAssessment, UNEP. Available fordownload in PDF format from:http://balkans.unep.ch/du/reports/report.html

RS, 2001 The health hazards of depleteduranium munitions Part 1, The RoyalSociety, Policy Document, 6/01: Asummary of this document can also befound at: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk

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An abandoned uranium mine at El Berrocal,Spain, the site of an international collabora-tive study funded by the EU, on the transportand behaviour of naturally occurringuranium in groundwater.

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“... it is now believed that morethan ten countries possessdepleted uranium weapons

systems ...”

“... when used in military conflictor testing, depleted uranium can

become widely dispersed resultingin an increased potential risk to

the environment and humanhealth...”

Soon after the setting-up of theSurvey, a house in Craig’sCourt off Whitehall wasallocated in 1837 to the new

organisation, to provide a home for theoffices and the growing specimen andother collections generated as a result ofthe Survey’s activities. At this location Dela Beche established the Survey’s Library.Although no exact date has been tracedfor the start, documentary evidence showsthat books were ordered for the Library ofthe Survey from H Bailliere to the valueof £5-13-6d on 31st of March 1842 andthat De la Beche presented his own col-lection of geological books to the Librarybetween 1841 and 1843. At this stage the

Library was small and is not recorded ashaving dedicated space. But this was tochange within a few years as a result ofDe la Beche’s vision for the Survey andhis success in getting backing for the con-struction of a new purpose-built geologi-cal museum facing on to Piccadilly andentered from Jermyn Street. The scale ofthis achievement can be gauged from thefact that, from being virtually a one-manorganisation surveying in South-WestEngland, within 15 years De la Beche hadprojected the Geological Survey into thenational scientific scene so successfullythat a major new museum building hadbeen designed by a noted architect, builtat a key site in the centre of London, andopened by the Prince Consort, PrinceAlbert, on the 12th of May 1851.

Draft plans for his building signed byDe la Beche and discussed with thearchitect James Pennethorne, show aroom in the new building marked“library” with a note in De la Beche’shand “The Director sitting in it”. De laBeche wrote to the government of theday to gain approval for the exchangeand deposit of the scientific publicationsand maps of the Survey with similarinstitutions in the United Kingdom andoverseas. Some of the exchangesinitiated at that time continue to thepresent day. The first Librarian wasTrenham Reeks, whose assistance wasacknowledged in the early works ofCharles Darwin. In its new setting, theLibrary serviced a variety of users,Survey staff, students at the GovernmentSchool of Mines, later the Royal Schoolof Mines (which was part of the Surveyuntil its transfer to South Kensington in

1872), and members of the public whocould use the Library for referencepurposes on production of a letter ofintroduction. In 1877 a printed catalogueof the Library’s holdings was publishedand widely distributed. Around this timethe collection was described by AndrewRamsay, the Survey’s third Director, as“a Library unrivalled of its kind.”

The transfer of the Royal School ofMines, together with growing pressureon space in the Jermyn Street museum,led to the transfer of a number ofvolumes to the Science Museum Libraryin South Kensington, but by 1879 theLibrary’s stock totalled some 38 000volumes. In the 1880s the BritishAssociation for the Advancement ofScience began to develop a collection ofgeological photographs covering thewhole country. This collection washoused in the Survey Library and after aperiod away from the Survey is nowback within the Library at Keyworth.Major structural problems with theMuseum building around 1920 andfurther space problems led to the nextmajor event in the Library’s history, thetransfer in 1935 to another newGeological Museum on Exhibition Roadin South Kensington. While a purpose-built reading room was included here

History of the BGS History of the BGS

From De la Beche tothe digital library

Over 150 years of library service to the geological community

by Graham McKenna, Keyworth

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Trenham Reeks, the first BGS Librarian.

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The Piccadilly frontage of the Museum ofPractical Geology.

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(this is still in use as a library by theNatural History Museum), the libraryfrom Jermyn Street was relocated usingthe original bookcases in what wasknown as the Small Library atExhibition Road. The glass-frontedbookcases were used to hold much ofthe earlier collections including thevolumes presented by De la Beche.During the Second World War most ofthe Library and Archive collectionswere evacuated to Bangor in NorthWales to ensure their safety. Records inthe Archives detail the move and thesubsequent provision of services to theSurvey staff throughout the conflict.

A significant expansion of the collec-tions came about with the merger of theOverseas Geological Surveys (OGS)and the Geological Survey into theInstitute of Geological Sciences in1965/6. The OGS had its own librarywhich was particularly rich in publica-tions relating to the former coloniesworldwide. This collection was inte-grated with the Exhibition Road stock tocreate a world-class resource for thegeological community.

While the Survey was under theDirectorship of Sir Kingsley Dunham inthe 1970s the Library made considerableprogress. A modern library was includedin Murchison House, the new SurveyOffice in Edinburgh, providing a consid-erable improvement over the crampedconditions at the Grange Terrace site.

Perhaps the most significant develop-ment during this period was theadoption of IT in compiling a list of themaps held in the library. In the mid-1970s a STATUS database wascommenced. This catalogue, which sub-sequently reached around 135 000entries, listed maps at sheet level. At thetime this was a very advanced project.Computerised cataloguing at this levelhas only been attempted by some of themajor national map libraries within thepast decade. In 1981 computerised cata-loguing was adopted for the book andserial collections initially in the form ofcomputer-generated microfiche and lateras part of the Library’s LIBERTAS on-line catalogue. In 1983 a policy decisionat government level led to the latestrelocation of the Library collections, thistime to the new Survey headquarters atKeyworth. This move represented alarge-scale exercise involving all thestock and equipment of the library —500 000 volumes, 200 000 maps and thearchives — packed in some 100 mappresses and over 5000 crates.

Having settled into the new premises,the focus turned to bringing the cata-logues fully into the online era. FirstLIBERTAS and then, from January2000, GEOLIB have been used aslibrary management systems to enableusers around the world to search theBGS holdings lists via the World WideWeb. GEOLIB will also automate some

of the Library’s routine operations andwill, more importantly, enhance thecatalogue’s capability in that it isdesigned to link digital full text andimages to the relevant entries in thedatabase. In due course researchers whohave had to visit the BGS Library atKeyworth in person will be able toaccess original archive documents andthe text of early Survey publications viathe Internet.

150 years on from 1851 there are stillelements of the original Library whichSurvey staff from Jermyn Street dayswould recognise: sections of the olderstock, including volumes presented byDe la Beche and Murchison; the bust ofDe la Beche now in Reception, whichused to stand above the fireplace in theJermyn Street Library; a few remaininghand-written catalogue cards; and latergenerations of members of the public.Alongside these vestiges they would findmuch that is new and an informationresource of which they could only havedreamed: an online catalogue on theirdesk, which not only records what theBGS collections have to offer but alsolinks to virtually every other majorlibrary collection in the world; a signifi-cantly bigger stock of publications andmaps; extensive collections of geologicalphotographs recording features acrossthe country, and some from overseas, aslocations stood both recently and insome cases a century ago; many archiverecords relating to the history of theSurvey and its geologists and to thedevelopment of the geological sciences;CD-ROM and Internet access to hugedatabases of articles dealing with aspectsof geology from every corner of theworld and the delivery of many of thesefull-text to their desk; all this backed upby a group of experienced professionalinformation managers — the librarians.In more recent times the resource hasbeen exploited not only on behalf of thelocal economy but also in support of avariety of activities overseas, such as theresettlement of the Kurdish population innorthern Iraq and the supply of drinking-water for the United Nations peace-keeping forces in the former Yugoslavia.In the light of De la Beche’s early vision,it seems likely that he would have appre-ciated the exploitation of the library heinitiated for the wider internationalcommunity and would be even morekeen to be found “sitting in it.”

History of the BGS History of the BGS

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The reading room of the Library at the BGS’s headquarters in Keyworth, with (inset) theLibrary at the Geological Museum, Exhibition Road.

BT Vision 100After a very detailed evaluation process,the BGS has been named as one ofBritain’s top 100 most visionary organi-sations. In fact the BGS was ranked inthe top 18 of the index and it’sExecutive Director, Dr David Falveywas a runner-up in the Vision 100’s‘visionary leadership’ category. TheVision 100 Index has been establishedby British Telecom, in partnership withCranfield School of Management,Sunday Business, and ManagementToday.

In the selection of the index, Britain’stop private companies and public sectororganisations have been judged by theirability to adapt within the new waveeconomy with creative and innovativeapproaches. The index provides a recordof those organisations that have shownthe most promise so far in rising to thischallenge.

Dr Falvey said, ‘This award is a much-deserved recognition of the enormoustransition that has been made by theBGS over the past year, and a ringingendorsement of the approach we havetaken. Our organisation has shown,through the Strategic Planning process,vision in recognising where we neededto be at the start of the 21st Century, thetenacity and distributed leadership tocarry that vision forward; and the selfconfidence to be different in the way inwhich we carried out the necessarychanges. We have also shown that apublic sector body can be every bit asdynamic, efficient, and innovative asany in the private sector’. Full details ofthis initiative can be found at:http://www.youcan.bt.com/vision100/home.html

Pupils return from live geographylesson on MontserratThree UK school children have aremarkable and fascinating tale to tell ofa week spent on the volcanic island ofMontserrat. The party returned toGatwick in April with video diaries andphotographs of their visit. They alsoreturned with new video footagesupplied by the Montserrat VolcanoObservatory and additional videofootage taken by David Lea who has

charted the progress of the Montserratvolcano since 1995.

Nic Colman, Michael Brown and HelenBenello shared a week-long livegeography lesson on the tiny Caribbeanisland and it proved to be a trip of alifetime. They are winners, selected bytheir respective schools, who took partin a charity prize draw organised byMAC89 to raise funds for a bookmobilefor the children of the island.Montserrat, a modern-day Pompeii,suffered the ravages of a volcano thatcame to life in 1995, destroying almosttwo thirds of the island.

An ex-Montserratian teacher, MrsAnnette Brade, and Mr Ian Redford, ateacher from Thornhill School inSunderland, accompanied the pupils.They were guests of the MontserratSecondary School and EducationDepartment and spent time in the schoolwhere they experienced Montserratianeducation and learnt about the ordeals ofliving with a live volcano. The directorof the Montserrat Volcano Observatory,Dr Gill Norton (of the BGS), and otherscientists provided them with the sameinduction course given to visiting volca-nologists.

The students went snorkelling with DrWolf Krebs of the Sea Wolf DivingSchool, learning about marine life of theisland, and Mappai, a guide from the

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The group standing just outside Plymouth, the devastated capital city, which is now closed toeveryone except scientists.

The three students in a chemistry lesson inthe newly furnished secondary school onMontserrat.

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Montserrat National Trust, took themwalking in the Centre Hills to seek outthe rare Montserrat oriole. Both taughtthe youngsters about the impact of thevolcano on the wild life. They alsoattended receptions hosted by theGovernor of Montserrat, His ExcellencyTony Abbot and the Chief Minister’soffice, as well as by the Minister ofEducation.

Islanders, keen to show Montserrat isstill an attractive tourist destination,despite the volcano, offered free hospi-tality to the visiting party. The visitorswere accommodated in the beautifulnew Tropical Mansion Suites in the safenorth of the island and meals wereprovided by every restaurant on theisland, where the children were able tosample and enjoy local cuisine. Thepupils witnessed the new infrastructureon the island that the resolute

Montserratians have created andenjoyed the friendly, relaxed atmospherethat symbolises life on Montserrat, theemerald isle of the Caribbean.

MAC89 with the assistance of the MVOhave produced a Montserrat VolcanoResource Box that they are selling toschools and other interested parties.Proceeds from the sale of the boxes arebeing used to purchase a mobile libraryfor the children of Montserrat.The boxcontains a series of eight charts pertain-ing to the volcano and a variety of fieldmaps; a risk assessment map ofMontserrat; a video on the Montserratvolcano commissioned by the RoyalSociety; geological samples; a CD andbooklet of Little Island Live Volcano —the songs; and lists of useful Internetreferences and books on volcanoes.Each box costs £53.50 including postageand packing.

BGS signs MoU with KoreanInstituteThe BGS and the Korean Institute ofGeology, Mining and Materials havesigned a Memorandum of Understandingas part of the Fifth Korea–UK Scienceand Technology Round Table Meetingheld in Seoul in November 2000. Theceremony was also attended by seniorrepresentatives of the OST and ResearchCouncils from the UK, and by Directorsand Presidents from many of Korea’sscience and research institutes.

To mark the signing, Dr Falvey presentedDr Kwak with copies of historicallyimportant geological maps of Korea orig-inally published in 1909 and 1929, theoriginals of which are in the BGS Libraryand not known to exist in Korea. Inreturn, Dr Kwak presented a recentlypublished geological map of Korea.

The MoU will enable new joint researchand development focusing principallyon environment and sustainable landuse, especially addressing Korea’sproblems of pollution and waste,including radioactive waste disposal. Anearly outcome is intended to be aWorkshop to be held in Korea inSeptember 2001 that will bring togetherBritish and Korean researchers andindustry.

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National Science Week: Fossiland Rock Show at KeyworthThe BGS’s main contribution to NationalScience Week in 2001 was the Rock andFossil Show, a three-day event held atKeyworth between 23rd and 25th March.During the event, nearly 800 schoolchild-ren and their teachers were able to examineat close quarters material from the Survey’sworld-class fossil, rock and mineral collec-tions. Many of them braved snowfalls on

the first morning to attend the programmeof hands-on activities and informal talks.Some of these activities, such as panningfor ‘gold’ were old favourites while otherswere entirely new. Proving that there ismore to the BGS than rocks, thePhotographic Unit demonstrated the princi-ples of the pinhole camera with the aid of acornflakes packet. There was a quiz sheetwith prizes for the best answers and manyof the children had brought in their ownspecimens for identification.

A group of primary school children learning about rocks and minerals at the BGS’s Rock andFossil show during National Science Week.

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Dr Falvey, Executive Director of BGS, andDr Kwak, President of KIGAM, signingcopies of the MoU with Dr Jung Uck Seo,Korean Minister f Science and Technologyand Lord Sainsbury, Science Minister,looking on.

The End of the LandThis exhibition of photographs byAndrew Nadolski is being held at theRoyal Albert Memorial Museum,Exeter, from 12th May to 3rd July 2001.The images depict the various andchanging aspects of a cove in westCornwall, over a period of several years,and with emphasis on the very dramaticnatural sculpturing of the local graniterocks through the erosive agencies oftide and wind.

The exhibition marks an unusual collab-oration between the worlds of art andscience, with a supporting essay,describing the evolution of thelandscape at Porth Nanven, by DrRichard Scrivener of the BGS ExeterOffice. The essay commences with theformation of the granite in the wake of aplate collision event some 280 millionyears ago, through the geologicallymore recent raised beach deposits of theglacial epoch, and ending with the activ-ities of the tin miners in the last century.It is hoped that this exhibition will travelto other venues, and will continue togenerate further interest in the world ofgeology through the medium of art.Andrew Nadolski can be contacted ontelephone number 01392 496200.

Thanks a million, GrahamThe BGS’s Graham Barton, fromCotgrave in Nottinghamshire, decided tostick his oar in and help out children at alocal special school by completing a onemillion metre sponsored row. He spentmore than five months stroking his waythrough the huge distance on the rowingmachines in the gym at CotgraveLeisure Centre, raising around £700 for

Ash Lea School along the way. Grahamexplained, ‘The school is approximately500 yards from my house and is the onlyone in the Borough catering for childrenwith severe and complex learning diffi-culties. When I heard they were raisingfunds to try and create a new pool toallow the children to exercise, I thoughtI’d give the proceeds to them’. Grahamrecently presented the money to thedelighted children in a special schoolassembly.

BGS Chief Scientist honouredProfessor Jane Plant, Chief Scientist atthe BGS has been awarded theTercentennial Tetelman Fellowship atYale University. Professor Plant visitedJonathan Edwards College, Yale inJanuary where she gave the TetelmanLecture on the theme ‘Chemicals in theEnvironment’. Other distinguishedTetelman Fellows include James Watson,Murray Gell-Man, Sir Roger Bannister,and His Holiness the Dali Lama.

Professor Plant has also recently beenappointed Chairperson of the AdvisoryCommittee on Hazardous Substances.Environment Minister, MichaelMeacher said, ‘The AdvisoryCommittee on Hazardous Substanceshas a key role in helping us protect theenvironment from the risks posed bychemicals. A major part of its work willbe to provide the new ChemicalsStakeholder Forum with strong butimpartial scientific support. I amdelighted that Professor Plant hasaccepted the post of chairperson. She isan outstanding scientist with a wideknowledge of the issues relating tochemicals in the environment and a

proven record of involvement withbroader environmental concerns’.

The ACHS has a statutory role under theEnvironmental Protection Act inadvising on proposals to ban or placerestrictions on chemicals in the UK or torequire information about them. TheGovernment’s Chemicals Strategy iden-tified a new role for the ACHS inproviding scientific and technicalsupport to the UK ChemicalsStakeholder Forum. This is expected toform the major part of the Committee'swork in the future. The ACHS will meetthree or four times a year. It will operatein a transparent and open manner and allof its papers will be made available onthe Internet.

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Mozambique MoU andMinisterial visit His Excellency Mr Castigo Jose CorreiaLanga (standing, right), Minister ofMinerals Resources and Energy,Mozambique, and Mr Vicente MebuniaVelosso (standing, left), President ofMozambique Electricity, look on as MrElias Xavier Daudi, Director of theMozambique Geological Survey signs aMemorandum of Understanding with theHead of BGS International, Mr DavidOvadia. The Minister and his partyvisited BGS Keyworth on 29 March 2001during a tour of Britain that also includeda visit to RJB’s open cast coal mine atArkwright and various industrialcompanies in Scotland. Mr Daudi made aseparate visit to the BGS’s office inEdinburgh to discuss seismic monitoring.

All in a good cause: million metre manGraham Barton works up a sweat once moreon the rowing machine.

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Buying BGS Publications

The BGS publishes a wide range of books, reports, maps and guides designed to give comprehensive geological information for the United Kingdom to everyone, from the

amateur geologist to the professional.

The complete list of BGS publications is a large one, but here is a quick guide:

MAPS

We publish maps of UK geology at allscales from simple sheet maps at1: 1 000 000 to detailed 1: 10 000 sheetsof specific areas. Prices vary.

Popular PublicationsHoliday GeologyGuides and FossilFocusThese series are specifi-cally written for thenon-specialist and giveclear information onareas of interestinggeology in the UK, andthe major groups offossils. £1.95 each.

GUIDESRegional geology guides There are 20 in the seriescovering the UK, describ-ing the geology of theregions through text, mapsand photographs. Prices ofRegional Guides vary.

MinginishScotland Sheet 70Solid & Drift Edition

1:50 000 Series

LochCoruisk

Loch Brittle

LochEynort

LochH

arport

Soay

Sea ofthe Hebrides

Soay Sound

Roineval

Cuillin Hills

Gle

n

Brittle

Talisker

Carbost

LochSligachan

Glen

Sligachan

M I N G I N I S H

England and Wales Sheet 215

Solid and Drift Geology

1:50 000 Provisional Series

Geological Survey 1:50 000England and Wales

Ross-on-Wye

ROSS-ON-WYE

Llangarron

Orcop Hill

King’s Thorn

Ewyas Harold

Kingstone

Putley

Mon

R.

now

R. Wye

Hereford

guR. L

g

Woolhope

Grosmont

R.Dore

Ross-on-Wye 215 (S&D)

MEMOIRSThese publications givecomprehensive geologicalinformation for the areascovered by one 1: 50 000BGS map sheet. Thenumbering of the memoirsand the 1: 50 000 mapsheets correspond. Prices ofmemoirs vary.

Buying BGS publications is easy!

Phone us for a catalogue or contact the Sales Desk for more

information on any of our publications.

You can place any orders through theSales Desk with a credit card or

cheque:

Sales Desk, British Geological Survey

Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG

Tel: +44 (0) 115 936 3241Fax: +44 (0) 115 936 3488E-mail: sales@bgs.ac.uk

RReettuurrnn ttooccoonntteennttss

Principal officesof the

British Geological Survey

Kingsley DunhamCentre, Keyworth,

Nottingham,NG12 5GG

� 0115–936 3100

Murchison House,West Mains Road,

Edinburgh EH9 3LA

� 0131–667 1000

Maclean Building,Crowmarsh Gifford,

Wallingford, OxfordshireOX10 8BB

� 01491–838800

London Information Officeat the

Natural History Museum Earth Galleries,Exhibition Road

London SW7 2DE

� 020–7589 4090

Forde House,Park Five Business Centre,

Harrier Way, SowtonExeter EX2 7HU

� 01392–445271

Geological Survey of Northern Ireland,

20 College Gardens, Belfast BT9 6BS

� 028–9066 6595

ISSN 0967-9669

The British Geological Survey is the national geological survey ofthe United Kingdom. Its primary function is to maintain and con-tinuously to revise geological information for the land and offshoreareas of the United Kingdom. Its expertise is available for projectswith government departments, industry or academia, within theUnited Kingdom and internationally.

The BGS’s staff cover a very wide range of geoscience and relateddisciplines, so its services can be tailored to the specific needs ofclients. The coordination of effort by multidisciplinary teams is aspeciality and results in fully integrated packages. Where in-houseexpertise is not available, the BGS is able quickly to identify andappoint appropriate experts through its worldwide contacts.

As a respected member of the international geoscientificcommunity, the BGS has successfully collaborated on projects withother organisations in more than 90 countries, and individual BGSscientists maintain close links with specialist co-workers around theworld. Techniques in all of its activities are thus constantly reviewedand improved. In-house training programmes enable staff to keepabreast of new thought and methods in geoscience.

If you are planning a project in geoscience, the BGS may be able tohelp. For further details please contact Mr David Ovadia, Head ofBGS InternationalTM and Corporate Development. Tel: +44(0) 115 9363465; Fax: +44(0) 115 936 3474; E-mail: dco@bgs.ac.uk

For information on the whole range of the BGS’s activities visit theBGS web site: www.bgs.ac.uk

Published by: British Geological Survey

Editor: David Bailey

Design: Adrian Minks

Print Production: James Rayner

Printed by: Clearpoint Colourprint, Daybrook,Nottingham NG5 6HD

The BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY is acomponent body of the NATURAL

ENVIRONMENT RESEARCHCOUNCIL

© NERC 2001