THE LEGACY OF THE THE LEGACY OF THE CRUSADES AND CRUSADES AND

MUSLIM’S RELATIONS MUSLIM’S RELATIONS WITH THE DHIMMIWITH THE DHIMMI

Major Issues of Contention Major Issues of Contention between Islam and the Westbetween Islam and the West

•The CrusadesThe Crusades•The InquisitionThe Inquisition: Western Muslims greatly decreased : Western Muslims greatly decreased

after the completion of the Reconquista as non-Christians were forced after the completion of the Reconquista as non-Christians were forced to convert to Catholicism or leave the Iberian Peninsula during the to convert to Catholicism or leave the Iberian Peninsula during the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition of the 15th century.persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition of the 15th century.

•European colonialismEuropean colonialism

•Rise, expansion, and decline of Rise, expansion, and decline of the Ottoman Empirethe Ottoman Empire

1111THTH-13-13THTH Century: the Century: the CrusadesCrusades• 8 military expeditions 8 military expeditions

• Christianity and Islam pitted against each Christianity and Islam pitted against each otherother

• Attempt by Roman Catholic Church and Attempt by Roman Catholic Church and Papal Authority to reconsolidate power and Papal Authority to reconsolidate power and controlcontrol

• Offensive to drive Muslims out of Spain, Italy Offensive to drive Muslims out of Spain, Italy Sicily, and the MediterraneanSicily, and the Mediterranean

• West: began to emerge out of Dark AgesWest: began to emerge out of Dark Ages

•Perceptions of CrusadesPerceptions of Crusades

The West:The West:Triumph of ChristianityTriumph of ChristianityCrusades fought to liberate JerusalemCrusades fought to liberate JerusalemPolitically rather than religiously Politically rather than religiously

motivatedmotivatedCharacteristic/reflective of Medieval Characteristic/reflective of Medieval

WarfareWarfare

Muslim Understanding:Muslim Understanding:

Clear example of militant Clear example of militant ChristianityChristianity

Empirical example of Western Empirical example of Western aggression and imperialismaggression and imperialism

Manifestation of Christian hostility Manifestation of Christian hostility and intolerance towards Islamand intolerance towards Islam

Establishment of Islamic Establishment of Islamic HegemonyHegemony

• After Muhammad’s death in 632, military, After Muhammad’s death in 632, military, cultural and religious hegemony was cultural and religious hegemony was established on Arab peninsula, Persia, established on Arab peninsula, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Turkey and North Africa.Syria, Egypt, Turkey and North Africa.

• 88thth and 9 and 9thth centuries: Spain and Sicily and centuries: Spain and Sicily and parts of Franceparts of France

• By 13By 13thth and 14 and 14thth century: India, Indonesia century: India, Indonesia and parts of China had succumbed to and parts of China had succumbed to Islamic rule.Islamic rule.

Mobilization of Mobilization of CrusadersCrusaders1.1. PilgrimagePilgrimage2.2. Holy WarHoly War

Pilgrimage was sign of Christian piety; Pilgrimage was sign of Christian piety; promise of forgiveness of sinspromise of forgiveness of sins

Christian concept of holy war bestowed Christian concept of holy war bestowed crusades with a sense of righteousness, crusades with a sense of righteousness, honor, and chivalry. To die a martyr honor, and chivalry. To die a martyr meant access to heaven despite of sins.meant access to heaven despite of sins.

Human Target of Human Target of CrusadersCrusaders

•Target were Muslims, local Target were Muslims, local Christians, and JewsChristians, and Jews

•Looting, killing, and violation of Looting, killing, and violation of women was prominentwomen was prominent

•““Better the turban of a Turk than Better the turban of a Turk than the tiara of the Pope.”the tiara of the Pope.”

Jerusalem: Holy CityJerusalem: Holy City

• 1099: Christians captured Jerusalem1099: Christians captured Jerusalem

• 1193: Muslims mounted 1193: Muslims mounted counteroffensive under Saladincounteroffensive under Saladin

reversal of ban that had reversal of ban that had prohibited prohibited

Jews from settling in JerusalemJews from settling in Jerusalem

• 1313thth century: Crusades degenerated century: Crusades degenerated into intra-Christian warsinto intra-Christian wars

Collapse of Arab dynastyCollapse of Arab dynasty

• The Moguls captured Baghdad in 1258 The Moguls captured Baghdad in 1258 and assassinated the last Abassid Caliph and assassinated the last Abassid Caliph

• Region was left without any central Region was left without any central authority until the emergence of the authority until the emergence of the Ottoman Empire to the NorthOttoman Empire to the North

• The decline of the Arab dynasty The decline of the Arab dynasty prompted 3 new Muslim dynasties: The prompted 3 new Muslim dynasties: The Ottomans, the Safavid and the Mughal Ottomans, the Safavid and the Mughal EmpiresEmpires

Significance of Holy LandSignificance of Holy Land

• Muslims: Jerusalem is third most Muslims: Jerusalem is third most important holy site after Mecca and important holy site after Mecca and MedinaMedina

Dome of the RockDome of the Rock Al-Aqsa MosqueAl-Aqsa Mosque

Jerusalem continuedJerusalem continued

• Jewish history is linked to sites in Jewish history is linked to sites in and around Jerusalemand around Jerusalem

•King Solomon’s templeKing Solomon’s temple

•Center of God’s promised land Center of God’s promised land linked to ancient Hebrews and linked to ancient Hebrews and their descendants as chronicled their descendants as chronicled in the Old Testamentin the Old Testament

Jerusalem and ChristiansJerusalem and Christians

•Holy Land centered in and Holy Land centered in and around Jerusalem witnessed life around Jerusalem witnessed life of Jesusof Jesus

•Nazareth, Bethlehem, Jerusalem Nazareth, Bethlehem, Jerusalem are sacred because of belief that are sacred because of belief that Jesus was born, died, and Jesus was born, died, and resurrected from the dead thereresurrected from the dead there

Muslim’sMuslim’s and Dhimmiand Dhimmi

•People of the BookPeople of the Book

•Muslims used to face Jerusalem Muslims used to face Jerusalem for prayerfor prayer

•Medina: first Islamic StateMedina: first Islamic State

here prophet reached out to here prophet reached out to Jewish tribes but was Jewish tribes but was

ultimately ultimately betrayedbetrayed

Central Pillars of the First Central Pillars of the First Islamic StateIslamic State

•The ummahThe ummah

•Granting of religious and cultural Granting of religious and cultural autonomy to non-Muslims; status autonomy to non-Muslims; status of protected peopleof protected people

•Medina’s constitution still heralded Medina’s constitution still heralded as evidence of Islam’s inherent as evidence of Islam’s inherent message of religious pluralismmessage of religious pluralism

Muslim-Jewish RelationsMuslim-Jewish Relations

•Alignment of Jews with Alignment of Jews with Muhammad’s enemies in Mecca Muhammad’s enemies in Mecca led to killing of Jews as traitorsled to killing of Jews as traitors

•Hamas and al-Queda’s outlook on Hamas and al-Queda’s outlook on Jews todayJews today

• Jews found refuge in many Jews found refuge in many Muslim areas under the OttomansMuslim areas under the Ottomans

Muslim-Christian RelationsMuslim-Christian Relations

Conflict and cooperation characterize Conflict and cooperation characterize thisthis

relationship.relationship.Rapid spread of Islam as religion Rapid spread of Islam as religion

challenged political power and challenged political power and hegemony of Christendomhegemony of Christendom

Many Christians persecuted by Catholic Many Christians persecuted by Catholic Christianity welcomed Muslim ruleChristianity welcomed Muslim rule

Major Issues of Contention Major Issues of Contention between Islam and the between Islam and the West todayWest today

• The CrusadesThe Crusades

• The InquisitionThe Inquisition

• European ColonialismEuropean Colonialism

• Rise, Expansion, and Decline of Rise, Expansion, and Decline of Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire

Religious and Philosophical Religious and Philosophical DebatesDebates

•SpainSpain

•Mughal Emperor AkbarMughal Emperor Akbar

The Ottoman Empire and the The Ottoman Empire and the millet systemmillet system

• Religious community officially Religious community officially recognized by the Ottoman recognized by the Ottoman EmpireEmpire

1.1.Greek OrthodoxGreek Orthodox

2.2.Armenian GregorianArmenian Gregorian

3.3.MuslimMuslim

4.4.JewishJewish

Non-Muslims in an Islamic Non-Muslims in an Islamic StateState

• Graduated CitizenshipGraduated Citizenship

1.1.conversion to Islamconversion to Islam

2.2.Retention of personal faithRetention of personal faith

a. Poll taxa. Poll tax

3.3.if refusal of protected status, if refusal of protected status, warfare is justifiablewarfare is justifiable

The contemporary Islamic The contemporary Islamic StateState

Two major groups:Two major groups:

•Strict application of gradations of Strict application of gradations of citizenshipcitizenship

•Hierarchical approach to Hierarchical approach to citizenship is incompatible with citizenship is incompatible with pluralistic realities of today and pluralistic realities of today and international human rightsinternational human rights

Islamic State: Application of Islamic State: Application of Sharia LawSharia Law

• Muslim’s vocation was to follow/obey God’s Muslim’s vocation was to follow/obey God’s willwill

• Knowing God’s will is prerequisiteKnowing God’s will is prerequisite

• Central expression in Islamic Law=Sharia LawCentral expression in Islamic Law=Sharia Law

• Law rather than theology was the dominant Law rather than theology was the dominant discipline for describing and living by faithdiscipline for describing and living by faith

• God’s revelation and Mohammad’s prophetic God’s revelation and Mohammad’s prophetic example were used as starting points for example were used as starting points for Islamic law; Islamic law;

Four Foundations of Islamic Four Foundations of Islamic LawLaw

1.1. The Koran—many times in the Koran it says The Koran—many times in the Koran it says “obey me and obey my prophet”“obey me and obey my prophet”

2.2. Tradition (sunna) of MuhammadTradition (sunna) of Muhammad

3.3. Ijma ( Consensus): today means consensus of Ijma ( Consensus): today means consensus of qualified scholars (ulema)qualified scholars (ulema)

4.4. Qiyas (analogy): assumes that legal guidance in Qiyas (analogy): assumes that legal guidance in Koran and sunna can be applied to other casesKoran and sunna can be applied to other cases

5.5. Many outsiders consider Islamic law rather Many outsiders consider Islamic law rather inflexible; yet the application of the four roots inflexible; yet the application of the four roots often makes it quite flexible in applicationoften makes it quite flexible in application

Sharia LawSharia Law

• Sharia also known as path to GodSharia also known as path to God

• Islamic state=Islamic society governed by Islamic state=Islamic society governed by Islamic law became blueprint for good, just, Islamic law became blueprint for good, just, and equal society; an Islamic idealand equal society; an Islamic ideal

• Sharia is perceived as a set of divinely Sharia is perceived as a set of divinely revealed general principles, directives and revealed general principles, directives and values from which human beings developed values from which human beings developed more concrete laws, rules, and regulations more concrete laws, rules, and regulations which were developed and applied by Islamic which were developed and applied by Islamic judges (qadis) in Sharia courtsjudges (qadis) in Sharia courts

Islamic law continuedIslamic law continued

• Within a few centuries of Muhammad’s death, Within a few centuries of Muhammad’s death, pious Muslims concerned with the unfettered pious Muslims concerned with the unfettered powers of Muslim rules and the infiltration powers of Muslim rules and the infiltration and uncritical adoptation of foreign practices, and uncritical adoptation of foreign practices, sought to preserve the true path of God and sought to preserve the true path of God and to limit the powers of the caliphto limit the powers of the caliph

• Muslims codified Islamic LawMuslims codified Islamic Law

• Work of individual jurists (members of ulema) Work of individual jurists (members of ulema) gave birth to different schools of lawgave birth to different schools of law

Different Schools of Different Schools of Jurisprudence: Sharia LawJurisprudence: Sharia Law

• Schools of law began to emerge in Schools of law began to emerge in urban centers such as Medina, Mecca, urban centers such as Medina, Mecca, Damascus, Baghdad, Kufa etc. Damascus, Baghdad, Kufa etc.

• Though united in purpose and based Though united in purpose and based upon the same sources, their upon the same sources, their conclusions embodied different conclusions embodied different geographic and cultural contexts as geographic and cultural contexts as well as intellectual orientations.well as intellectual orientations.

Closing the door of IjtihadClosing the door of Ijtihad

• Ijtihad=doors of interpretationIjtihad=doors of interpretation

• By the end of the 10By the end of the 10thth century, legal century, legal scholars felt that all major legal issues scholars felt that all major legal issues had been decided; they said that the had been decided; they said that the door of interpretation (ijtihad) was door of interpretation (ijtihad) was closed and Muslims had to consult closed and Muslims had to consult past decisions collected in the books past decisions collected in the books of the various law Schools (taqlid)of the various law Schools (taqlid)