Journal of Seismology 1: 55–72, 1997. 55c 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in Belgium.

The large earthquake of 8 August 1303 in Crete: seismic scenario andtsunami in the Mediterranean area

Emanuela Guidoboni & Alberto ComastriSGA Storia Geofisica Ambiente, via Bellombra 24/2, 40136 Bologna, Italy; e-mail: sga@pt.tizeta.it

Received 10 December 1996; accepted in revised form 2 April 1997

Key words: historical earthquakes, historical seismology, Crete, Mediterranean, tsunami

Abstract

By conducting a historical review of this large seismic event in the Mediterranean, it has been possible to identifyboth the epicentral area and the area in which its effects were principally felt. Ever since the nineteenth century, theseismological tradition has offered a variety of partial interpretations of the earthquake, depending on whether themain sources used were Arabic, Greek or Latin texts. Our systematic research has involved the analysis not only ofArab, Byzantine and Italian chronicle sources, but also, and in particular, of a large number of never previously usedofficial and public authority documents, preserved in Venice in the State Archive, in the Marciana National Libraryand in the Library of the Museo Civico Correr. As a result, it has been possible to establish not only chronologicalparameters for the earthquake (they were previously uncertain), but also its overall effects (epicentral area in Crete,Imax XI MCS). Sources containing information in 41 affected localities and areas were identified. The earthquakealso gave rise to a large tsunami, which scholars have seen as having certain interesting elements in common withthat of 21 July, 365, whose epicentre was also in Crete. As regards methodology, this research made it clear thatknowledge of large historical earthquakes in the Mediterranean is dependent upon developing specialised researchand going beyond the territorial limits of current national catalogues.

1. Introduction

The earthquake of 8 August, 1303, at dawn, is one ofthe largest seismic events in the Mediterranean area,involving in its scenario countries of the period with avariety of languages, cultures and economies. Withinthe seismological tradition, this has resulted in a con-siderable fragmentation of knowledge – which alsocaused a multiplication of the event – on the one handbecause research has tended to concentrate on partic-ular linguistic contexts (Arab, Greek or Latin), andon the other because of the exclusive use of chroni-cle type sources. Perhaps it is simply chance that thebest investigated areas are those where the languagewas Arabic, although they are a long way from Crete,which is sometimes indicated in general terms as thearea where the greatest effects were felt.

The aim of this research has been to go beyond thisfragmentary situation and analyse the entire scenarioof effects, not simply by subjecting known sources and

evidence to a critical review, but also by carrying outa quite new exploration, in the form of an analysisof effects in the epicentral area of Crete, in relation towhich there are numerous administrative sources neverpreviously used. Crete (formerly called Candia) was,in fact, an important Venetian colony, and its admin-istration was well organised both as regards officialcontacts within the island and bureaucratic and eco-nomic relations with Venice. It is this highly evolvedpolitical situation and the fact that some of the docu-ments produced in Crete in the early 14th century havebeen preserved in Venice, that has now made it possibleto throw light on the seismic scenario of the epicentralarea.

In order to make use of this information, it has beennecessary to take into account the particular habitation-al characteristics of Crete. The 12 most seriously dam-aged castles (i.e. fortresses or fortified villages) havebeen identified, the damage being assessed through anexamination of administrative documents and financial

Article: jose26 GSB: Pips nr 138268 BIO2KAP

*138268 jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.1

56

contributions made by the Venetian government. Tothis information from official sources has been addedthat obtained from reliable chronicle sources.

Seismological conclusions have thus been drawnfrom data produced in historical contexts which areculturally far removed from us: that is to say, from thefiles of old political administrations, and from what hasbeen preserved in the records and writings of individu-als whose cognitive world has long since gone. Theseseismological data inevitably have different degreesof reliability and comprehensiveness, which cannotalways be measured on the sole basis of their chrono-logical contemporaneity to the event in question. Wehave nevertheless tried to draw attention in the text andtables to this link with the basic sources of information,in order to facilitate an understanding of the scenariodescribed. For all these reasons, we have thought itappropriate to identify those characteristics and prob-lems of our research (from a qualitative point of view),which underlie the summary of seismological data.

2. The seismological tradition from 1840 to 1994

Because it was felt over so wide an area, the earthquakewhich occurred at dawn on 8 August, 1303 is listed inmost descriptive and parametric catalogues of earth-quakes in the Mediterranean basin. If we run throughthe seismological tradition, we can see at once howthe fluctuation of chronological parameters has gener-ated non existent events; in addition, it can be pointedout that the localities with damage effects have beenincluded in extremely wide areas, and in some aspectsthey are rather imprecise.

Von Hoff (1840, p. 229) used Arabic sources only,and correctly dated the earthquake to 1303 (towardsthe end of the year 702 of the Hegira), but he gaveno indication of the day or month. In his view, theearthquake was strongly felt in Egypt, especially atCairo, and he mentions the collapse of city walls atHamah (Syria) and Alexandria.

Perrey (1850, p. 19) wrongly dates the earthquaketo 1304, though he gives the correct day and month.However, he points out that in the Greek and Latinsources he consulted (Pachymeris, a Byzantine writerwho lived in the second half of the 13th and the early14th century, and chronicles published in Muratori’sRerum Italicarum Scriptores), there were chronologi-cal uncertainties between 1302 and 1303. Perrey givesa more extensive affected area than Von Hoff, but hisoverall picture is not substantially different. He men-tions ‘major damage’ in Egypt (Alexandria), in the

Peleponnese, in Syria (Acre), and in the islands ofCandia and Rhodes, with effects stretching into theAdriatic as far as Venice.

Mallet (1853, p. 37) gives the correct date, butexpresses a degree of uncertainty about it, pointing outthat some chronicles place the earthquake in 1302 or1304. The locations he mentions as affected prove to bea combination of those given by Von Hoff and Perrey,except for Cairo and Rhodes.

Sieberg (1932a) subdivides his catalogue into dif-ferent Mediterranean geographical areas, and in thesection devoted to Egypt (p. 185 and Figure 12, p.188), this earthquake is dated to 8 August 1303, theepicentral area is wrongly given as in the Faiyum, andthe event is compared to the Egyptian earthquake of 7August 1847. He also lists an earthquake at Alexan-dria in 1326, but this is really the 1303 earthquake(for further critical considerations, see Ambraseys etal., 1994, pp. 43–44 and 108–109). In the section ofthe catalogue devoted to Crete (p. 208), the earthquakeis wrongly dated to 1304, without any indication ofthe day or month. Two other earthquakes are listed ashaving occurred in 1306 and 1311, but they can, infact, be assumed to be duplications of the 1303 event.Sieberg also maintained that damage to the Syrian cityof Hamah was to be attributed to a different earthquakefrom the one which struck Egypt. In the section of thecatalogue on Syria (p. 200), the Hamah tremor is datedsimply to 1303.

In another work by Sieberg (1932b, pp. 873 and876 Figure 461), which takes the form of a worldseismicity catalogue, the section on Egypt includesthe same information in briefer form, and the sameillustration appears as in the previous work (1932a).

Plataki (1950, pp. 475–476) simply dates the earth-quake to 1303, but considers the date 8 August 1304more likely. He mentions the destruction of the wallsof Heraklion (Candia), and provides a transcriptionof the passage from Pachymeris about the earthquake.Plataki also lists tremors for 1306 and 1311.

Amiran (1950–52, p. 228) and the recent revisedversion by Amiran et al. (1994, pp. 270 and 294), datethe earthquake to 8 August, 1303 (and also give thevariant 1304, which is misprinted as 1034). Accordingto these scholars, there was a ‘tremendous shock’ inEgypt, which was also felt at Acre, Damascus andSafad. The tsunami at Acre, Gaza and Alexandria isalso mentioned.

Galanopoulos (1955, p. 36) dates the earthquakecorrectly, situating it at Heraklion, and then goes onto quote Sieberg (1932a, b), pointing out that the epi-

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.2

57

central area should be sought in Egypt. He also listsanother earthquake at Heraklion for the year 1306.

Grumel (1958, p. 481) creates a doublet by listinga tremor for 1302/1303 (the year 702 of the Hegira) inSyria and Egypt, and another, dated 7 August, 1303 atCrete, Rhodes and Cyprus. He does not describe anyeffects.

Ben-Menahem (1979) subdivides his catalogue bygeographical area. In the section on the Nile Delta(p. 283) he dates the earthquake correctly, mentioningAlexandria, Cairo, Rhodes, Crete, the Peleponnese,Syria and Israel as having been struck by it. He refersto a tsunami at Rhodes, Crete and along the easternMediterranean coast. In the section on Rhodes (p. 292)and the eastern Dodecanese, the tsunami is mentionedbut dated to December 1303 (and hence not related tothe August earthquake). It is listed as affecting Crete,Alexandria, Acre, Egypt and the south-eastern coast ofthe Peleponnese.

In Poirier and Taher (1980, pp. 2192–2193 and2199–2200, Appendix f), the earthquake is dated to13 Dhu’l-Hijja in the year 702 of the Hegira (insteadof 23 of the same month), perhaps through a printingerror. Converting this to our calendar, we get 30 July,1303 instead of 8 August. In addition to a list of theprincipal places affected, corresponding to those inArabic sources, a brief description of effects in Egypt isalso provided. Ambraseys et al. (1994, p. 108) indicatetwo other cases of earthquakes listed by Poirier andTaher, which can be identified as duplications of the 8August, 1303 earthquake. These are the Cairo tremordated to 1262, and that at Alexandria dated to May,1341.

Maamoun et al. (1984, pp. 133–134) effectivelyfollow Sieberg (1932a, b) as regards effects in Egypt(though they claim that he creates ‘a big confusion’ bysituating these effects in the Faiyum), but they locatethe epicentre in the southern Peleponnese. The tremorsof 1326 and 1341 are also listed.

Papazachos and Papazachos (1989, p. 239), likeGalanopoulos (1981) and Sieberg (1932a), create adoublet by listing one tremor in December, 1303 witheffects at Rhodes, and another in 1306 at Heraklion(Crete).

A much more accurate picture of the earthquakein question is provided in two recent catalogues,Evangelatou-Notara (1993) and Ambraseys et al.(1994). The first catalogue provides a detailed dis-cussion based on a direct analysis of Greek, Latinand some vernacular sources, while Arabic sourcesare quoted from Taher’s unpublished thesis (1979).

As regards Crete, there is some information not pre-viously found in the seismological literature, muchof which derives from Gerola (1905–32) and Thiriet(1966), who quote some early 14th century Venetiandocuments. The work of Ambraseys et al. (1994, pp.42–44, Figure 2.14, pp. 101 and 108) is based ona direct analysis of contemporary and later Arabicsources, some of which are unpublished, while Greekand Latin sources have also been used in studying theearthquake’s effects. Crete falls outside the geograph-ical area covered by this work, but some informationabout the island is drawn from 14th and 15th centurychronicles published in L.A. Muratori’s 18th centuryedition of the Rerum Italicarum Scriptores and alreadywell-known to historical seismology.

Tsunami effects deriving from this earthquakeappear in various catalogues. A brief summary isset out below: Ambraseys (1962, pp. 900–901) andAntonopoulos (1980, pp. 185–187) list a second tsuna-mi, dated to December, 1303, as well as that of 8August, 1303. We can deduce from Antonopoulos,however, that this is a duplication arising from prob-lems involved in the chronological conversion of thetext of Pachymeris, an early 14th century Byzantinesource. He dates the earthquake to 8 of the monthof Poseidon, which is an archaism for August, notDecember.

The chronological variations already found for theearthquake recur in Papadopoulos and Chalkis (1984,p. 311), where the tsunami is dated to 8 August, 1304.Papazachos et al. (1986, p. 80) date it to August, 1304,whereas Soloviev (1990, p. 186) gives the correct dateof 1303, but confines its effects to Rhodes (see Table 1where parametric catalogues are also listed).

3. Historical research

The above-mentioned studies by Evangelatou-Notara(1993) and Ambraseys et al. (1994), have substantial-ly improved our understanding of the earthquake byincreasing the number of basic sources. The remaininglack of information about the epicentral area, however,made clear the need to investigate further the area ofCrete, and bring together the results obtained in such away as to provide a complete picture of this large 1303earthquake in the Mediterranean.

What made it possible to carry out an investiga-tion in depth of the effects of the earthquake in Crete,was the particular history of the island at the periodin question. Since 1211, in fact, Crete had been oneof the Mediterranean dominions of the Republic of

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.3

58

Table 1. Fluctuations of date, multiplications of events and effects located regarding the large seismic event of 1303 in descriptiveand parametric catalogues (in chronological order). [ ] authors’ uncertainties regarding the date, 1, 2 ..., indicates how many eventshave been generated.

Catalogues Date of earthquake Summary of localities and areas I M

Hoff, (1840) 1303 – Egypt, Cairo, Syria, Hamah, Alexandria. – –

Perrey, (1850) 1304 [1302, 1303] – Egypt, Alexandria, Peleponnese, – –

8 Aug. Syria, Acre, Candia, Rhodes, Adriatic

Sea coasts, Venice.

Mallet, (1853) 1303 [1302, 1304] – Alexandria, Fayium, Acre, – –

8 Aug. Peleponnese, Candia, Adriatic Sea,

Venice, Hamah.

Sieberg, (1932a) 1303 [1302, 1304] 1 – Egypt, Rhodes, Crete, Syria, – –

8 Aug.; 1326; 1304 Peleponnese, Acre, Hamah;

8 Aug.; 1306; 1311; 2 – Egypt, Alexandria; – –

1303 3 – Crete; – –

4 – Crete, Heraklion; – –

5 – Crete; – –

6 – Syria, Hamah. – –

Sieberg, (1932b) 1303 8 Aug. – Egypt, Fayium. – –

Plataki, (1950) 1303 [1304]; 1304 1 – Candia; – –

8 Aug.; 1306; 1311 2 – Rhodes, Alexandria, Peleponnese, – –

Crete, Anatolia, Venice;

3 – Heraklion; – –

4 – Crete. – –

Amiran, (1950–52) 1303 [1304] 8 Aug. – Egypt, Acre, Damascus. – –

Galanopoulos, (1955) 1303 [1304] 8 Aug.; 1 – Heraklion [epicentre south of – –

1306 Cairo];

2 – Crete, Heraklion. – –

Grumel, (1958) 1302/3; 1303 7 Aug. 1 – Syria, Egypt; – –

2 – Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus. – –

Galanopoulos, (1961) 1304 8 Aug.; 1306 1 – Rhodes; X –

2 – Heraklion. IX –

Ambraseys, (1962) 1303 8 Aug. 8; 1303 Dec. 1 – tsunami: Egypt, Syria, Crete; – –

2 – tsunami: Crete, Peleponnese, – –

Rhodes, Egypt, Adriatic Sea.

Shebalin et al., (1974) 1304 [1303] 8 Aug.; 1 – near the Island of Rhodes; X –

1306 2 – Crete. IX –

Ben-Menahem, (1979) 1303 8 Aug.; Dec. 1303 1 – Alexandria, Cairo, Nile, Rhodes, XI 7.6

Crete, Peleponnese, Syria, Israel;

tsunami at Rhodes, Crete, Levantine

coast;

2 – tsunami at Crete, Alexandria, Acre, X 7.0

Egypt, Peleponnese.

Antonopoulos, (1980) 1303 8 Aug.; Dec. 1303 1 – tsunami: Egypt, Syria, Crete. – –

Earthquake: Egypt, Cairo, Nile, Acre,

Damascus, Safad, Crete, Adriatic Sea,

Venice;

2 – tsunami: Crete, Peleponnese, – –

Rhodes, Egypt, Adriatic Sea.

Earthquake: Constantinople, Rhodes,

Peleponnese, Crete, Alexandria.

Continued on p. 59

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.4

59

Table 1. Continued.

Catalogues Date of earthquake Summary of localities and areas I M

Poirier and Taher, (1980) 1303 30 July; 1262; 1 – Cairo, Alexandria (also tsunami), – –

May 1341 Nile, Safad, Damascus, Acre (tsunami),

Antioch, Cyprus, Cyrenaica, Gabes

(Tunisia), Sicily;

2 – Cairo, Alexandria (also tsunami); – –

3 – Alexandria. – –

Galanopoulos, (1981) Dec. 1303; 1306 1 – Rhodes; IX–XI –

2 – Crete (Heraklion). VIII–IX

–

Comninakis and 8 Aug. 1304 – Rhodes. XI 8.0

Papazachos, (1982)

Maamoun et al., (1984) 1303 8 Aug. 8; 1326; 1 – Cairo, Nile valley, Alexandria (also – 7–8

May 1341 tsunami), Syria, Acre, Hamah, Rhodes,

Peleponnese;

2 – Egypt, Alexandria; – –

3 – Alexandria. – –

Papadopoulos andChalkis,

1304 8 Aug. – tsunami: Rhodes, Crete, Peleponnese. – 8.0

(1984)

Papazachos et al., (1986) Aug. 1304 – Crete (Heraklion). – –

al-Hakeem, (1988) 1303 8 Aug. – Syria. – 8.0

Bektur and Alpay, (1988) 1304 [1303] 8 Aug. – Rhodes, Crete, Cyprus. X –

Papazachos and Dec. 1303; 1306 1 – Rhodes, Alexandria, Peleponnese, XI 8.0

Papazachos, (1989) Crete, Venice, Constantinople;

2 – Heraklion. VIII 6.5

Soloviev, (1990) 1303 – tsunami at Rhodes. – 8.0

Evangelatu-Notara,(1993)

1303 8 Aug. – Constantinople, Rhodes, Cyprus, – –

Crete, Methone, Korone, Cairo,

Alexandria, Cyrenaica, Tunisia, Gabes,

Morocco.

Amiran et al., (1994) 1303 [1304] 8 Aug. – Egypt, Acre (also tsunami), – –

Damascus, Safad, Gaza (tsunami),

Alexandria (tsunami).

Ambraseys et al., (1994) 1303 8 Aug. – Abyar, Acre, Alexandria, Alaya, VII–IX –

Antalya, Antioch, Cairo, Candia,

Cyprus, Crete, Damanhur al-Wahsh,

Damascus, Hamah, Karak, Korone,

Leukosia, Minya, north Africa,

Peleponnese, Qus, Rodhes, Safad,

Sakha, Shaubak, Sis

Venice, and the name Candia was given both to theisland as a whole and its capital, now called Herak-lion. At the period when it belonged to Venice, Candiawas an island of strategic importance, and the centralgovernment of Venice therefore paid a great deal ofattention to what went on there (Dennis, 1973; Manus-sacas, 1973). Hence the possibility of drawing on the

rich financial and administrative documentation con-cerning the island, now preserved in the State Archivein Venice (ASVe).

Documents about Crete are preserved in theArchive of the Duke of Candia, who was the supremelocal authority. In 1669 that precious archive was trans-ported to Venice by Francesco Morosini; it is the only

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.5

60

archive of a Venetian colony to be preserved after somany years. The importance of such documentation isdue to the fact that in the archives and in the monasteriesof Crete, documents are hardly preserved today. Thenumber of documents regarding Crete under Venice isvery small. They are Greek or Italian, kept in Greekor in other European libraries, as for instance in thelibraries of Mount Athos, Patmos, Paris, Oxford, Har-vard, etc. This makes Venice even more important forthe study of the history of Crete (Manussacas, 1973;Tiepolo, 1973).

The Duke of Candia received communications fromthe Cretan administration, and sent reports to the cen-tral government in Venice, about any significant eventsconcerning the economy and local government. Forthe early part of the 14th century, these documentsare partly lost and partly preserved as copies, in theLibrary of the Museo Civico Correr in Venice (BMC-CVe). In addition to documents originating in Crete,it has been possible to track down records and reso-lutions of the Venetian Senate and Commune, as wellas diplomatic documents filed amongst the decisionsof the Commemoriali (Predelli and Bosmin, 1874–1914), in relation to resolutions for post-earthquakeaction. We therefore widened our research into a num-ber of different archive collections, bringing together,as far as possible, those administrative files and offi-cial reports which revealed the devastating effects ofthe earthquake and the slow and difficult work of recon-struction.

In addition to institutional and administrativesources, we also made use of a large number of manu-script and published chronicles from Venice and otherparts of Italy. And to these records in Italian were addedother sources in Arabic and Greek. This body of evi-dence proved to be reliable as well as of considerabledocumentary and historical value, and it made a freshassessment of the earthquake possible (Graphs A andB in Figure 1).

3.1. Venetian institutional and administrative sources

In 1303, the Duke of Candia was Guido da Canal; andit was to him that the Cancelleria Maggiore of Cretereported its affairs. The Cancelleria Maggiore was thelocal ‘filter’ in relation to the Duke of Candia as repre-sentative of Venetian power, and its documents provedof the greatest interest in establishing the effects of theearthquake. The basis of our knowledge of the seis-mic effects felt in Crete is to be found in two longreports. One was written on the day of the earthquake,

8 August, 1303, and the other on 28 August in thesame year. In the first letter, the Cancelleria providesthe earliest information about damage to dwellings andthe principal public buildings in the city of Candia, andpleads both for financial assistance and for buildingworkers and joiners to be sent to carry out repair work(BMCCVe, Misc. Correr, LXXXI/2703). The second let-ter, dated 28 August, 1303, contains a more detailedsurvey of damage to the island’s castles, and providesfurther information about damage in the city of Candia.Emphasis is also laid on the serious economic conse-quences of the earthquake, and it is pointed out thatmost of the dead (no numbers are given) are womenand children (BMCCVe, Misc. Correr, LXXXI/2703).

Our research was subsequently pursued in a numberof different directions: we examined the archive collec-tions preserved in the State Archive in Venice, relatingto the Senato, the Commemoriali, the Cassiere dellabolla ducale, the decisions of the Avogaria di comunand those of the Maggior Consiglio. We tried to estab-lish as far as possible the impact of the earthquake onthe administration: how far, that is to say, it caused areaction in the decision-making bodies of the Senateand Commune. The files of the Commemoriali office,as the collection of minor diplomatic documents wascalled from 1291 onwards, provide an almost dailyrecord of current State business, and enabled us totrack down various references to the earthquake, espe-cially in connection with reconstruction work. It mustbe pointed out, however, that the attitude revealed inthese institutional sources is a special one, in that theVenetian authorities were only concerned with pub-lic buildings, ports, and defence infrastructure such asfortresses and city walls, which guaranteed the com-mercial and military viability of the island.

3.2. Chronicle sources in Latin and in the Vernacular

As far as private documents are concerned, a numberof manuscript chronicles in Venice provided a gooddeal of information. Some 16th and 18th century man-uscripts in the Library of the Museo Civico Correr inVenice, were found to contain descriptions of the 1303earthquake, and were therefore analysed. These werethe 18th century Historia Candiana by Andrea Cornaro[MS. I, 178 (olim Correr 748), fols. 139–140vo, ofwhich a number of other copies are in existence], andthe 16th or 17th century anonymous Traduzioni delleCroniche Greche sop(r)a il Regno di Candia [Misc.XXXVIII/1922], which contains an account of affairsin Candia from the earliest times to 1364, including

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.6

61

Figure 1. Scheme of the historical sources and literature for the earthquake of 8 August, 1303: (A) regards all of the references mentioned –total number: 90; (B) regards the island of Crete only – total number: 34.

an interpretation of the earthquake in highly religiousterms.

In the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana in Venice(BNMVe), we found a description of the 1303 earth-quake which is very similar to that in the Traduzionidelle Croniche Greche sop(r)a il Regno di Candia men-tioned above. It occurs in the 17th century Commentaridi Candia by Antonio Calergi [ms. It. VI, 3 (=5999)],of which there is another copy in ms. It. VI, 155(=5801) (Thiriet, 1954). Very brief descriptions of the1303 earthquake can also be found in two anonymousmanuscripts: the Cronaca Veneziana dalle origini finoall’elezione di Michele Steno [ms. It. Z, 18 (=1734),15th c.] and the Monumenta historica, quae ad Cretaminsulam se referunt, saeculis XIII–XVI. [ms. Lat. X,158 (=3749)], and in two anonymous chronicles in theBiblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (BAV): the QuaedamChronica [Barberini Latini 2741 [early 14th c., copy16th c.] and the Chronica Italicarum Rerum [ChigianoG. VI 177, 17th c.].

Amongst printed works, there is a brief reference tothe 1303 earthquake in the Chronicon of L. de Monacis,published by F. Cornelius in 1758 (see also Cornelius,1755). De Monacis (1351–1428) was a prominentpolitical figure who became Chancellor of Crete in1388 and was in a position to use original documents,now lost, for his history. That this was a famous earth-quake can also be deduced from references in otherItalian chronicles, particularly from the Adriatic area,probably because news was gathered at ports whereships from Crete and Venice called in. It is no coinci-dence that they contain direct references to the tsuna-mi, since the Adriatic was itself affected. An exami-nation of a large number of texts revealed referencesto the earthquake in the contemporary chronicles ofRicobaldo da Ferrara, the Annales Caesenates and theLiber XXIV Ecclesiasticae Historiae. The same infor-

mation was passed down into the next century (see theAnnales Forolivienses and the Bolognese chronicle ofBartolomeo della Pugliola).

There is a certain amount of information about theeffects of the 1303 earthquake in Crete, together withoccasional references to Rhodes, Acre and Alexandria,in a brief chronicle to be found in a late 14th centu-ry manuscript, known as the Zibaldone da Canal, inYale University Library. It may be that the report ofthe earthquake goes directly back to the family of Gui-do da Canal, who was Duke of Candia at the begin-ning of the 14th century. The same information aboutthe 1303 earthquake that is found in this chroniclealso appears in two different passages in Marin Sanuto(1466–1536), a highly respected historian of Venetianaffairs.

Information about effects in Cyprus and Rhodes arealso to be found in the Chronique du Templier de Tyr(early 14th century), written in French. They are in thethird part of the collection, known as the ‘Gestes desChiprois’. The author, who was close to the entourageof the Order of Templars, narrates events in the HolyLand up to the fall of Acre (1291) and in Cyprus upto 1309. It has been suggested that the author was thejurist Gerard de Monreal. His description of the 1303earthquake derives, as the text specifically points out,from the reports of merchants.

3.3. Arabic sources

A relevant number of Arabic sources (chronicles andinscriptions) describe the effects of this earthquake,often providing very detailed accounts of damage topublic buildings and the work of reconstruction. Theprincipal contemporary writers were historians andgeographers, who may have been able to obtain offi-cial information about the effects. During this research,

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.7

62

Arabic sources have been directly analyzed in the textsof the critical editions.

The most important sources are works by: Abu ’l-Fid.�a (1273–1331), a Syrian of the family of the Ayyu-bids; al-Nuwair�ı (1279–1332), a historian and seniorofficial under the Mamluks, who also compiled animportant encyclopaedia, which is valuable for the his-tory and geography of his time; and Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�i(13th–14th century), an Egyptian historian who wasalive at the time of the earthquake; Mufad.d.al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il (14th century), a Coptic historian whose necro-logical chronicle, in the form of annals of the period ofthe Bahri Mamluks from 1260 to 1340, has survived.The event was also recorded by other writers in the nextcentury; they provide detailed accounts, including par-ticulars not in contemporary sources: al-‘Ain�i (1361–1451), a Turkish historian who wrote much of his out-put in Arabic. He was an intellectual and an officialclose to the Mamluk sultans, obtaining high office intheir service on different occasions; al-Maqr�iz�ı (1364–1442), a learned antiquarian born in Cairo, who col-lected materials of great value for the topographicalhistory of Egypt. He was employed in the civil ser-vice, but later retired in order to devote himself to hishistorical and documentary research.

The large earthquake of 1303 continued to berecorded in the 15th century by other writers, suchas Ibn Taghribird�a (1409–1470), an Arab historianwho was born and died in Cairo; Ibn Bah�adur (1432–1473); and al-Suy�ut�a (1445–1505), an Arab polygraphof Persian origin who lived in Baghdad and Egypt (heis famous as a historian of the period of Mamluk influ-ence, and devoted a book to the study of earthquakes).

Research into Arab epigraphical texts has been car-ried out within the programme of study of large earth-quakes in the Mediterranean area from the 11th to 15thcentury. With regard to this earthquake, 3 inscriptionsattest to restoration works to some buildings in Cairo.Other inscriptions to attesting restoration works thatmay be dated to the first half of the 14th century, havenot been considered, since the cause of damage is notclearly explained (Ciccarello, 1996).

3.4. Byzantine sources

There is a summary account of the earthquake’s effectsin Greece and the Aegean by Georgios Pachymeris(1242-c. 1310), a Byzantine historian who was born inNicea and may have died in Constantinople. He wrotea history of the reigns of Michael VIII and AdronicusII, covering the period from 1260 to the summer of

1307. His original and personal narrative is written indifficult archaic Greek, and often presents problemsof chronology. Pachymeris’s text was introduced intothe seismological tradition by Perrey (1850), and is infact responsible for some incorrect dates regarding the1303 earthquake.

There is a Cypriot chronicle, covering the period1209–1310, which includes a brief reference to earth-quake effects in the town of Leukosia. The text is tobe found in codex Palat. Gr. 367; it was published bySchreiner (1975, no. 26, p. 203).

4. Seismic scenario

The letter to the Duke of Candia and contemporaryArabic sources are in perfect agreement as to the dateand time of the earthquake: for Arab writers it wasdawn on Thursday, the 23rd day of the month of Dhu’l-Hijja, in the year 702 of the Hegira, which correspondsto Thursday, 8 August in the Venetian source. It isinteresting to note that both sources specify the day ofthe week. The year 702 of the Hegira stretched from 26August, 1302 to 14 August, 1303, and 8 August, 1303was indeed a Thursday. Bearing in mind the latitudeand the month concerned, dawn must have been about3.30 GMT.

The new information which we discovered in thecourse of our research makes it possible to say that theworst effects of the earthquake were felt in Crete. InCandia, the principal city, collapses involved the citywalls, houses, churches, the town hall, the local cas-tle, and the towers at the harbour; and the arsenal wasvery seriously damaged. Amongst the fortified cas-tles in the island, the following 12 collapsed or weredamaged: Belvedere, Bicorna, Bonifacio, Chissamo,Malvesin, Mirabello, Millopotamo, Monforte, Reti-mo, Sitia, Temene and Vers[.]scopoli, not located (seeFigure 2).

In Egypt, serious damage occurred at Abyar,Damanhur al-Wahsh and Sakha in the Nile Delta; andat Alexandria, part of the city walls collapsed, and thefamous lighthouse was partially destroyed. A numberof minarets collapsed in Cairo, and some mosques suf-fered very serious damage, including the collapse ofperimeter walls. In southern Egypt, houses collapsedat Minya, and there was also serious damage at Qus.

In Palestine, the most seriously damaged city wasSafad. One side of the citadel and two towers collapsed;and there was also damage at Karak and Shaubak.

In Syria, part of the city walls of Hamah collapsed,and there are reports of unspecified damage at Anti-

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.8

63

Figure 2. Earthquake and tsunami of 8 August, 1303: damage in Heraklion and in the castles of Crete. Ancient and present-day names ofVenetian castles – number of sites located: 12, mentioned 13.

och, as well as slight damage to the Great Mosque inDamascus.

There are unspecific reports of damage at Antalya,on the south coast of present-day Turkey, as well as atSis.

In Greece, many places in the Peleponnese weredamaged, especially Korone and Methone. The islandof Rhodes suffered a great deal of damage. Reportsabout Cyprus, however, are contradictory. Accordingto an Arabic source many churches collapsed, whereasa Latin source says that there was no damage.

A mild tremor was felt at Constantinople; it is prob-able that the shock was slightly felt in the Maghrebarea, or that the event’s great fame generated an impre-cise tradition on local effects (see Figure 3).

4.1. Seismic effects at individual locations

Set out below are fairly literal translations of the mostimportant sources of information about local earth-quake and tsunami effects. These are contemporarysources and concern the cities of Candia (Heraklion),Cairo and Minya. Some of them refer to reconstruc-tion work, thereby giving us some idea of the typeof damage suffered. As far as the other locations areconcerned, we simply offer a strictly faithful summaryof available information. Table 2 provides a summary

of effects at each location and indicates the availablesources.

The Island of Crete. Candia: according to the twoletters written to the Duke of Candia on 8 and 28 August1303, the earthquake ‘reduced to ruins’ all the housesin the city, collapses being so extensive and seriousas to make it appear that they had collapsed ‘fromtheir foundations’. All the houses of the soldiers whogarrisoned the fortresses as well as those of other citydwellers were struck, in addition to all the churches andother holy places. The church of San Marco collapsed,as well as the roof of that of San Tito. The town hallcollapsed, as did the town castle, the town walls andthe towers in the harbour area; and the arsenal was alsoseverely damaged.

‘It happened on Thursday the eighth of this monthof August [1303], early in the morning, at dawn,[...] an earthquake struck our island, wrecking allthe houses in the city of Candia. It meant thatalmost all of them were reduced to ruins from theirfoundations by the unexpected [text missing], andnot only the town hall and castle and all the hous-es of the castle soldiers and other inhabitants ofthe city of Candia, but also all the churches andholy places were damaged, so widespread was theevent. And in the evening of that same dangerousday, we received from outside the news that allthe castles belonging to the commune and to pri-

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.9

64

Figure 3. Localities and areas of the Mediterranean basin affected by the earthquake of 8 August, 1303.

vate individuals also suffered in this tragic event,for they were reduced to ruins, and while Heavenwilled it that people, both men and women, avoid-ed the danger, a large number of them escaped theperil of collapsing houses only to encounter anoth-er danger, and no words or days are sufficient totell all the dreadful things that happened. [...] Mayit please you therefore in your authority and com-passion to open your eyes in compassion for yourcity of Candia, and to send, if you will, arms, andfinancial assistance towards the repair of the citywalls, the castles and houses in the commune andyour other camps in the island, for their walls andtowers completely collapsed, and please also sendup to two hundred building workers and joiners,and as much wood as you think appropriate. [...]’(BMCCVe, Misc. Correr LXXXI/2703, 8 August,1303).

‘The church of San Marco, the town hall, thecastle and the arsenal all collapsed in ruins, there-by causing great damage to me, the Duke, andto the nobiluomo Giorgio, counsellor of Crete, asregards our horses and equipment. For the repair

of the church, town hall, castle and arsenal, twentyhyperpera [text missing] would be enough to beginwith. And since we did not mention the walls ofthe city before, we now inform your worships thatthe damage they suffered could be repaired at acost of five hyperpera’ (BMCCVe, Misc. CorrerLXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303).

‘In the year of our Lord 1303, in the secondindiction, in the month of September, the under-signed building workers and joiners were sent toCrete to help rebuild that land, and they have toremain there for a year’. [...] (ASVe, Commemori-ali, reg. 1, fols. 37vo-38, September, 1303).

‘When the Duke and counsellors who are nowin Crete were given the task of building twofortresses in the eastern capital as quickly as pos-sible [...] and hence it was agreed that [...] theyshould have at least 3,000 hyperpera for that peri-od, both to meet their needs and make a profit fromtrade, the Duke himself and the counsellors arrivedin person and spent a great deal of money on essen-tial requirements, that is to say on the church of SanMarco in Candia, on the town hall, and on the arse-

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.10

65

Table 2. Earthquake of 8 August, 1303: localities and areasmentioned in historical sources and local effects, totalnumber: 41. nhs. = total number of historical sources usedin this research; L = low damage; D = generic damage;cont. = contemporary sources; F = felt; E = extensive ortotal collapses; T = tsunami; H = heavy damage; land. =landslides

Localities or areas Effects nhs. cont.

Crete 13 34 22

Candia E, T 31 19

Belvedere Castle E 2 2

Bicorna Castle L 2 2

Bonifacio Castle H 1 1

Chissamo Castle L 2 2

Malvesin Castle E 1 1

Mirabello Castle E 1 1

Millopotamo Castle E 1 1

Monforte Castle E 1 1

Retimo Castle L 2 2

Sitia Castle E 1 1

Temene Castle E 1 1

Vers[.]scopoli Castle L 1 1

(not located)

Egypt 7 16 8

Abyar E 2 2

Alexandria H, T 9 5

Cairo H 7 4

Damanhur al-Wahsh H 3 2

Minya H, land. 1 1

Qus H 2 1

Sakha H 2 –

Jordan 2 1 –

Karak L 1 –

Shaubak L 1 –

Israel 2 5 2

Acre T 2 1

Safad H 5 2

Syria 2 6 2

Damascus L 3 –

Hamah H 1 1

Turkey 4 2 2

Antalya D? 1 1

Antioch L 1 1

Istanbul (Constantinople) F 2 2

Sis D? 1 1

Greece 5 3 2

Peleponnese area D 1 1

Korone D 1 1

Methone D 1 1

The Island of Rhodes D 3 2

Rhodes H 1 1

Table 2. Continued

Localities or areas Effects nhs. cont.

Cyprus 2 3 2

The Island of Cyprus D 3 2

Leukosia L? 1 1

Other areas 4 5 3

Tunis F? 1 1

Marrakesh F? 1 1

Cadiz F? 1 1

Adriatic Sea T? 4 2

nal, which needed to have internal repairs carriedout if it was to be saved, and they had some galleyssent to help rebuild the walls and towers which hadcollapsed around the port in the earthquake, andfor a camp which needed to be built at Hierapetra’.[...], 13 April, 1307’ (ASVe, Maggior Consiglio,reg. 8, fol. 144ro; Avogaria di comun, reg. 20/3,fol. 73ro).

‘Furthermore, since the church of San Tito onthe island of Crete was badly damaged at the time ofthe earthquake, and since the reverend archbishopand chapter of the church wish to repair it, maythey send to Venice for wood to the value of twelvegrossi, duty free, on their assurance that they willnot use the wood for any other purpose than therepair of the church itself, 3 July, 1315’ (ASVe,Maggior Consiglio, reg. 13, fol. 16vo).

There were fewer victims than was thought atfirst, those killed being mostly women and children.Late sources put the number of dead at 4,000 inhabi-tants. (BMCCVe, Traduzioni delle Croniche Greche...;Andrea Cornaro, Historia Candiana). In addition tothese sources, other documents preserved in the StateArchive of Venice were used; they regard requestsfor help and financial aid for the reconstruction work(asve, Cassiere della bolla ducale, fol. 51ro, 1303;Commemoriali, reg.1, fol. 53, 1304; fol. 108, 1307;Maggior Consiglio, reg. 11, fols. 327vo–328, 1315;Senato Misti, Libro II, fols. 42–43, 1304, reg. 16, fols.51vo–53vo, 1333; reg. 30, fols. 157vo–158, 1362).For further information about reconstruction work, seeparagraph 5.1.

Other information, of a much briefer and moregeneral kind, is recorded in 3 manuscript chroniclespreserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana (Ms.It. Z, 18; Ms. It. VI, 3; Ms. Lat. X), and in 2 oth-er anonymous manuscripts in the Biblioteca Apos-

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.11

66

tolica Vaticana (Barberini Latini 2741; Chigiano G.VI 177). Other short information can also be foundamong published sources (Amadi; Annales Caesen-ates; Annales Forolivienses, the Chronique du Tem-plier de Tyr; Cronaca Rampona o di Bartolomeo dellaPugliola; De Monacis; Liber XXIV Ecclesiasticae His-toriae; Pachymeris; Ricobaldo da Ferrara and Zibal-done da Canal).

The location of Venetian Castles is shown in Fig-ure 2:

Belvedere Castle (P��o�����o): the castle and itsvarious towers were ‘completely destroyed’ (BMCCVe,Misc. Correr LXXXI/2703, 28 August 1303). It is alsomentioned in a document of 1363 of the Venetian Sen-ate (ASVe, Senato, Deliberazioni, Misti, reg. 31, fol.19ro)

Bicorna [Bircomier] Castle (A�o�o�u��): notentirely destroyed: part remained standing (BMCCVe,Misc. Correr LXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303). It isalso mentioned in a document which allocates threethousand hyperpera for restoration work (ASVe, Sen-ato Misti, reg. 17 (1335–1338), copy, fol. 83, Venice,15 February, 1336).

Bonifacio Castle (Mo�o������): in a documentof 1363, more than fifty years after the earthquake,the Venetian Senate decided that the castle should berepaired as cheaply as possible (ASVe, Senato, Delib-erazioni, Misti, reg. 31, fol. 19ro).

Chissamo Castle (Kı���o&): the terrace of thecastle’s only tower collapsed. Twenty hyperpera wereallocated for initial repairs (BMCCVe, Misc. CorrerLXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303). It is also mentionedin a document which allocates three thousand hyper-pera for restoration work (ASVe, Senato Misti, reg. 17(1335–1338), copy, fol. 83, Venice 15 February, 1336).

Malvesin Castle (M��"��&�): the castle and itstower were ‘completely destroyed’ (BMCCVe, Misc.Correr LXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303).

Mirabello Castle (M"�����"�o): the castle and itstower were ‘completely destroyed’ (BMCCVe, Misc.Correr LXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303).

Millopotamo Castle (M��o�o���o&): one of themost seriously damaged. It is mentioned in a documentwhich allocates three thousand hyperpera for restora-tion work (ASVe, Senato Misti, reg. 17 (1335–1338),copy, fol. 83, Venice 15 February, 1336).

Monforte Castle (A���o�����"�o, near K�� ���

���"ı�&): the castle and its tower, situated withinSitia, were completely destroyed (BMCCVe, Misc. Cor-rer LXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303).

Retimo Castle (P�"����o): one tower collapsed, aswell as another situated within the castle grounds (BMC-CVe, Misc. Correr LXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303). In1342 the Senate approved an allocation of funds forthe fortification of the castle (ASVe, Senato Misti, reg.20 (1341–1342), copy, fol. 128).

Sitia Castle (���"ı�): the castle and its towerwere completely destroyed (BMCCVe, Misc. CorrerLXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303).

Temene Castle (T�"�"�o&): The castle its towerswere completely destroyed (BMCCVe, Misc. CorrerLXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303).

Vers[.]scopoli Castle (not identified): not entire-ly destroyed: part remained standing (BMCCVe, Misc.Correr LXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303).

4.2. Effects in the Mediterranean area

Abyar [Egypt]: largely destroyed (Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı,IX, 110–113; Mufad.d. al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il, XX, 86–90).

Alexandria [Egypt]: information about localeffects, included in contemporary and slightly laterArab sources, are substantially similar. The city wallswere largely destroyed: 46 buttresses and 17 towerscollapsed, but were later rebuilt. The city’s famouslighthouse was also partially destroyed, and there wasa high death toll. The people of the city were so terri-fied by the earthquake and tsunami that they fled (Ab�u’l-Fid.�a, IV, 50; al-Nuwair�ı, XXX, 64; Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı,IX, 110–113; Mufad.d. al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a ’il, XX, 86–90;al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265; al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Sul�uk, I, 942–943; Ibn Bah�adur, II, 205; al-‘Amr�ı, XVI, 3). There isalso a brief reference to Alexandria in the work of theByzantine historian Pachymeris (II, 392–293).

Cairo [Egypt]: amongst the contemporary or slight-ly later Arab sources (al-Nuwair�ı, XXX, 63, 65–66;Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı, IX, 110–113; Anon., ed. Zettersteen,126–127; Mufad.d. al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a ’il, XX, 86–90),which make a point of recording damage to religiousbuildings and restoration work, we have selected thetext by Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı, since it is a good exampleof the detailed descriptions provided. Amongst laterwritings, there are two works by al-Maqrizi (al-Sul�uk,I, 942–944; al-Khit.at., II, 278), where most attentionis paid to the reconstruction of mosques (see also al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265). Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı’s text reads asfollows:

‘Thursday 23 of Dhu’l-Hijja, at dawn, the earthshook at Cairo [Misr] as never before; then theearthquake spread throughout the region of Syria

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.12

67

and Egypt. The tremors lasted for about a quar-ter of an astronomical hour [rub‘ s�a‘at falakiyya],with a rumble similar to thunder. The minarets ofmosques were destroyed, including the al-Hakimmosque – one of the most seriously damaged; andthe minaret of the Mansuriyya madrasa, in newCairo, between the two palaces [the two palacesare the Qas.r al-Bah. r and the Qas.r al-Dhabab, builtby the Fatimid-al-‘Aziz in 1020], was so severelydamaged that it had to be demolished and rebuilt,making it more beautiful than before. Amir Ruknal-D�ın Baibars saw to the restoration of the al-H. �akim mosque, meeting some of the cost out of hisown purse. The minaret of the Fakahiyyin mosque,which had been built by the Fatimid al-Zahir, son ofal-H. �akim, was also destroyed. The minaret and partof the perimeter walls of the Salihi mosque, outsidethe Bab Zuwayla, were also damaged. A wall wasfissured in the old Cairo mosque, that is to say the‘Amr b. al-‘As., which also suffered a great deal ofother damage. Almost all the mosques, large andsmall, were affected by the earthquake and all wererestored. The restoration of the old Cairo mosquewas entrusted to amir Sayf al-D�ın Salar, as repre-sentative of the sultan’s government’.

The people were panic stricken and fled the city,spending the night of Thursday 8 – Friday 9 Augustoutside one of the city gates between the suburb ofBulaq and the island of Rauda. Thieves took advantageof the situation to loot abandoned dwellings.

Damanhur al-Wahsh [Egypt]: largely damaged.The sources describe very severe effects, includingthe collapse of houses (Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı, IX, 110–113;Mufad.d. al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il, XX, 86–90; al-Maqr�ız�ı,al-Sul�uk, I, 944).

Minya [Egypt]: an anonymous writer who was atMinya during the earthquakes has left this touchingrecord of what happened:

‘At that time I was on the coast of Minya. At dawnwe felt thunder beneath us: it was the earth shaking.I looked towards the mountains in the East, and sawrocks falling to right and left. I looked towards theNile, and saw the waters part, revealing the riverbed, before coming together again. In the city ofMinya, the mosque collapsed, as did houses andother buildings’ (Anon., ed. Zettersteen, 126–127).

Qus [Egypt]: devastation was caused here. It isrelated that a man was thrown into the air, together withthe cow he was milking and the milk pail (Mufad.d. al

b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il, XX, 86–90; al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Sul�uk, I,944).

Sakha [Egypt]: houses in the town collapsed, andthere were piles of rubble everywhere. Two (uniden-tified) villages to the east were completely destroyed(al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265; al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Sul�uk, I, 942–943).

Karak [Jordan]: suffered damage (al-‘Ain�ı, IV,260–265).

Shaubak [Jordan]: suffered damage (al-‘Ain�ı, IV,260–265).

Safad [Israel]: one side of the citadel collapsed,as well as two towers. Repairs were carried out thefollowing year (al-Nuwair�ı, XXX, 65–66; Mufad.d. alb. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il, XX, 86–90; al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265;al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Sul�uk, I, 3, 944–945; Ibn Bah�adur, II,206).

Damascus [Syria]: the walls of the Umayyadmosque were damaged. The people’s fear lasted fora number of days, since they expected aftershocks (al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265; al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Sul�uk, I, 944; IbnBah�adur, II, 206).

Hamah [Syria]: part of the citadel walls collapsed,as did other buildings in the area (Abu ’l-Fid.�a, IV, 50).

Antalya [Turkey]: unspecified damage occurred asfar as the city (Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı, IX, 110–113).

Antioch [Turkey]: unspecified destruction occurredin both the city and its province (Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı, IX,110–113).

Istanbul (Constantinople) [Turkey]: few peoplefelt the shock, according to the Byzantine historianPachymeris (II, 392–293). The Arab historian Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı (IX, 110–113) also says that the shock wasfelt there.

Sis [Turkey]: unspecified damage occurred as faras the city (Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı, IX, 110–113).

Peleponnese [Greece]: many places were damaged(Pachymeris, II, 392–293).

Korone [Greece]: damage occurred (Pachymeris,II, 392–293).

Methone [Greece]: damage occurred (Pachymeris,II, 392–293).

The Island of Rhodes [Greece]: destructionoccurred, and there was a high death toll (Pachymeris,II, 392–293; Chron. Templ. Tyr., 315; Amadi, 239).

The city of Rhodes [Greece]: the entire city wasoverthrown (Pachymeris, II, 392–293).

The Island of Cyprus: according to news reach-ing Egypt after the earthquake and recorded by Ibnal-Daw�ad�ar�ı (IX, 110–113), few churches remainedstanding. The Chronique du Templier de Tyr (315)

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.13

68

conflicts with this report, however, in stating thatthe shock was very strong but did not cause damage.Francesco Amadi (239), a 16th century Venetian noble-man, repeats this information, adding only that manyprocessions were held and it was decided that a bellshould be rung three times at sunset.

Leukosia [Island of Cyprus]: the shock was strong-ly felt (Cypriot chronicle published in Schreiner 1975,no. 26, p. 203).

As regards the Maghreb and Cadiz,which are a verylong way from the epicentral area, Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı(IX, 110–113), a contemporary Arab source, reportsthat after the earthquake, news arrived from places,including the Marrakesh, Tunis and Cadiz, which hadbeen ‘reached’ by the earthquake, as though they wereat the extreme edge of the felt area. His expression iscertainly unclear and arouses perplexity because of thegreat distance involved. It is worth pointing out, how-ever, that Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı used the same expressionwith reference to Constantinople, and we know from adifferent source (see above) that only a few people feltthe tremor there. We have therefore given these placesthe indication ‘Felt’ with a question mark (F?).

4.3. The large tsunami and environment effects

The tsunami was of tremendous proportions: it struckCrete, the coast of Egypt and part of Palestine, and lessserious effects were observed in the Adriatic. Set outbelow is a description of local effects:

Crete. Candia (Heraklion): the sea swept into thecity with such force that it destroyed buildings andkilled inhabitants. Then it receded rapidly from theport, leaving the beach visible. The tsunami is record-ed in a number of chronicles from Italy [Ricobaldoda Ferrara (14th c.); Annales Caesenates (14th c.);Annales Forolivienses (15th c.) and Bartolomeo dellaPugliola (15th c.)].

Acre [Israel]: the sea flooded the shore as far asthe tower of Dayan, where objects were found whichhad been thrown into the sea during the Arab seige ofthe city. Some tried to pick them up, but were sweptaway and drowned by a huge wave. The sea floodedin almost as far as Tall al-Fudul (al-Nuwair�ı, XXX,65–66; according to al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Sul�uk, I, 944, thesea off Acre receded about two parasangs [12.8 km],revealing a great many objects on the sea bed.

Alexandria [Egypt]: the sea first receded and thenflooded the shore, reaching as far as the city walls; thelaundrymen’s shops were submerged and destroyed, aswere many foodstuffs near the seashore. At the port,

ships’ moorings broke and many boats were thrownonto the rocks (al-Nuwair�ı, XXX, 64; Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı,IX, 110–113; Mufad.d. al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il, XX, 86–90;al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265; al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Suluk, I, 942–943; Ibn Bah�adur, II, 205; al-‘Amr�ı, XVI, 3).

Adriatic Sea: anomalous movement of the sea wasobserved, but without any resulting damage [Ricobal-do da Ferrara (14th c.); Annales Caesenates (14thc.); Annales Forolivienses (15th c.); Bartolomeo dellaPugliola (15th c.)].

The Nile: at Minya (Egypt), the waters of the Nileparted to reveal the river bed, and then came togetheragain (Anon., ed. Zettersteen, 126–127).

Mountains near Minya; landslides: some land-slides occurred in the mountains around Minya (Egypt)(Anon., ed. Zettersteen, 126–127).

5. Social and economic effects

In order to understand the considerable impact of thisearthquake on the social and economic structure ofCrete, we must again keep in mind that institutionalsources were concerned solely with public buildings,not minor private ones. Consequently, there are onlypassing references to the nature of damage to privatehouses, contained within accounts of overall damage.Contemporary sources refer to, but provide no specif-ic figures for, the number of victims. We know thatthe death toll was high, but it is impossible to esti-mate numbers. The number of those killed in Crete isreferred to only in late sources, where the figure 4000is given. There were also victims in Alexandria andCairo, as well as on the island of Rhodes.

Economic effects were particularly pronounced inCrete, since that was the area which suffered the mostdamage. In a letter of 28 August 1303 from the Chan-cellery at Candia, substantial financial aid is sought,since tax collection had been badly reduced as a resultof the earthquake. The rural populace of Greek origin,now under Venetian rule, took advantage of the pub-lic disorder brought about by the earthquake to rebelagainst the Venetian authorities, and began looting.The revolt was later put down by a military force underAlessio Calergi.

The request that building workers and joinersshould be sent to Crete to repair the serious earthquakedamage was granted fairly rapidly by the Venetianauthorities, given the distances involved and the avail-able means of communication. There is, in fact, adocument of September 1303 preserved in the StateArchive of Venice (ASVe, Commemoriali, reg. 1, fols.

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.14

69

37vo–38), in which we find listed the names of 28building workers and joiners, often accompanied by ason, who were sent from Venice to Candia for a year,in order to carry out restoration work.

The economic crisis brought about in Crete by theearthquake lasted for a number of years. Many soldiersand custodians of the island’s castles were reduced toabject poverty. There was a considerable fall in incomefrom the sale of fish and bread, to the extent that bakerswere exempted from taxes for a year because bakerieshad been seriously damaged. In addition, the destruc-tion of merchandise warehouses brought trade to a halt,with very serious economic results [BMCCVe, Misc.Correr LXXXI/2703, 28 August, 1303; ASVe, Com-memoriali, reg. 1, fol. 108 [Candia, 1307].

There is a hint as to the economic impact of theearthquake in Cairo in a remark by al-Maqr�ız�ı (al-Sul�uk, I, 3, 944–945) to the effect that the demandfor building materials for reconstruction work causeda tremendous increase in prices.

5.1. Administrative reactions and reconstructionworks in Crete and Cairo city

As we have already pointed out, this seismic disasterhad a tremendous impact on public buildings (fortifi-cations, harbours, churches etc.), with the result thatit left substantial traces in contemporary documents,from which we can work out the time scale for thereconstruction of public buildings. The Venetian doc-uments give us an idea of the activities involved, last-ing for more than fifty years. Set out below is a briefchronological summary.

September, 1303: a list is drawn up containing thenames of 28 building workers and joiners,often accom-panied by a son, who were sent from Venice to Candiafor a year, and the amount of their wages is indicated.The document does not mention the earthquake explic-itly, but simply states that they are going to Crete tocarry out rebuilding work (pro redificatione ipsius ter-rae). (ASVe, Commemoriali, reg. 1, fols. 37vo–38).

27 November, 1303: deferred payments for the pur-chase of a galley (ASVe, Cassiere della bolla ducale,Grazie, Novus Liber, fol. 51ro).

March, 1304: decision of the Venetian Senate toallocate funds for rebuilding town walls and towers inCrete (ASVe, Senato Misti, Libro II, fols. 42–43).

13 June, 1304: a letter from the Duke of Candiamentions in passing that a lack of men on the island ispartly the result of the earthquake (ASVe, Commemo-riali, reg. 1, fol. 53).

13 April, 1307: decision by the Maggior Consiglioto authorise the use of an earlier allocation of 3,000hyperpera to repair damage to the church of San Marcoat Candia, the town hall, buildings inside the arsenal, torebuild the collapsed walls and towers around the har-bour, and to build a castle at Gerapietra [Hierapetra].(ASVe, Maggior Consiglio, Deliberazioni, Magnus etCapricornus, reg. 8, fol. 144ro. There is also a copyof this document in the Avogaria di Comun collection,Deliberazioni, Magnus, reg. 20/3, fol. 73ro). A sum-mary of the document has been published in Thiriet(1966, I, pp. 112–113, no. 130).

1 April, 1315: a fresh decision by the Maggior Con-siglio renewed a previous decision taken on 2 August,1306, and the Duke of Candia was urged to acceptresponsibility for the cost of rebuilding the church ofSan Marco and the island’s houses (ASVe, MaggiorConsiglio, Deliberazioni, reg. 11, Presbiter, copy madein 1679, fols. 327vo–328).

3 July, 1315: a further decision by the Mag-gior Consiglio gave permission for the archbishopand chapter of the church of San Tito at Candia toimport wood from Venice to be used exclusively forthe restoration of the church (ASVe,Maggior Consiglio,Deliberazioni, Clericus Civicus, reg. 13, copy (madein 1681), fol. 16vo).

Documents of later years were found in the SenatoMisti collection:

19 August, 1333: the Venetian Senate approveda proposal presented by Giovanni Gradenigo, Mar-co Giustinian, Nicolo Pesaro and Francesco Dandolofor the reconstruction of the harbour at Candia to thedesign of maestro Francesco delle Barche (ASVe, Sen-ato Misti, reg. 16, copy, fols. 51vo–53vo).

15 February, 1336: the Senate allocated 3,000hyperpera to be used exclusively for the restorationof the castles of Millopotamo, Chissamo and Bicorna[Bircomier], since they were judged to be of primaryimportance for the defence of the island (ASVe, SenatoMisti, reg. 17, (1335–1338) copy, fol. 83).

1 July, 1342: the Senate approved an allocationof funds for the fortification of Retimo Castle (ASVe,Senato Misti, reg. 20, copy, fol. 128).

5 July, 1362: the Senate made further provision forimproving the harbour at Candia (ASVe, Senato Misti,reg. 30, copy, fols. 157vo–158).

8 June, 1363: more than fifty years after the earth-quake, the Venetian Senate decided that the Bonifacioand Belvedere fortresses should be repaired as cheaplyas possible (ASVe, Senato, Deliberazioni, Misti, reg.31, fol. 19ro).

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.15

70

In Cairo, various amirs saw to the reconstruc-tion of religious buildings: the mosque and minaretof al-Azhar was restored by Sayf al-D�ın Salar andShams al-D�ın Sanqar; the mosque of ‘Amr b. al-‘Aa.was restored by Sayf al-D�ın Salar; the mosque andminarets of al-H. �akim were restored by Rukn al-D�ınal-J�ashank�ır, who added the madrasa and altered thebuilding in order to strengthen it; the Salihi mosqueand its minaret were restored by ‘Alam al-D�ın Sanjar;the minaret and mosque of the Mansuriyya madrasawere restored by Sayf al-D�ın Kahrad�ash and Shamsal-D�ın Sanqar al-A‘sar (al-Nuwair�ı, XXX, 63, 65–66;Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı, IX, 110–113; Anon., ed. Zettersteen,126–127; Mufad.d. al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il, XX, 86–90; al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265; al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Sul�uk, I, 942–943;al-Maqr�ız�ı, al-Khit.at., II, 278; inscriptions in RCEA,XII, nos. 5160, 5161, 5162; see also Ciccarello 1996).The rebuilding and restoration of the lighthouse, citywalls and other buildings at Alexandria was paid forby the Sultan (al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265). Repairs to thecitadel and towers at Safad were carried out in 1304(al-‘Ain�ı, IV, 260–265).

6. Conclusions

The earthquake which occurred on 8 August, 1303 atabout 3.30 GMT (dawn at Crete) proves to be one ofthe largest seismic events in the history of the Mediter-ranean area.

This re-examination of the earthquake enables thefollowing principal parameters to be established: time:1303 08 08 c. 3.30 (GMT); epicentral area: S-E Crete;Imax: XI; I0 (MCS): X; sites/areas: 41; total references:90; sources: 50.

These are the basic parameters, from which themagnitude can be calculated by means of several meth-ods. The epicentre has been located to the south-east ofCrete on the basis of the general framework of the seis-mic scenario. This hypothesis is based on the congru-ency of historical data. As for the historical framework,those indications have been given in a dubitative way,which is due to the fact that there is a wide extent ofsea between the epicentre area and the Mediterraneancoast.

Our research demonstrates the need to analysesources without confining oneself to the boundariesof present-day countries. On the contrary, the studyof such far-reaching events requires historical analysesrelating to a variety of cultural and linguistic contexts.

The effects of this earthquake – and especially ofthe related tsunami – are in some ways similar to those

of the 21 July, 365 earthquake, which has already beenanalysed using the same methodology (Guidoboni etal., 1994, pp. 267–274): the countries struck by thetsunami lie, in fact, within the same area (see map onp. 269). It must be kept in mind that late antique sourcesconcentrated their attention almost exclusively on thetsunami for reasons of a cultural nature, which havebeen analysed in the studies referred to above. In thecase of 1303, there are many descriptions of earthquakedamage which are not to be found in relation to theearthquake of a thousand years earlier. This is partly tobe ascribed to substantial differences in the ‘point ofview’ of the sources, as well as the different nature ofthe human occupation of Crete.

Once more, Crete proves to be a seismogeneticzone of considerable importance in the Mediterraneanarea: large and destructive seismic events are men-tioned in the seismological analysis such as the eventsof 29 May 1508 (Ambraseys et al., 1994), 12 Octo-ber 1856 (Sieberg, 1932a; Ambraseys et al., 1994),26 June, 1926 (Critikos, 1928; Castenetto et al., 1986).As regards the historical seismology, the analytical andcritical outline of data is still missing; it may be definedin further researches.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks to Alessia Giachery, who carried outresearch into the Venetian sources, and to Rober-ta Denaro, who analysed the Arabic sources. Theresearch was conducted within the framework of theIstituto Nazionale di Geofisica’s programme (1995–96) for the analysis of major earthquakes in theMediterranean area from the 11th to the 15th centu-ry. The research for this new catalogue in preparation,that includes about 360 seismic events – earthquakesand tsunami – is coordinated by E. Guidoboni, withthe collaboration of A. Comastri.

Bibliography

AbbreviationsASVe = Archivio di Stato di VeneziaBNMVe = Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana di VeneziaBMCCVe = Biblioteca del Museo Civico Correr di VeneziaBAV = Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana

Manuscript sourcesArchivio di Stato di Venezia (ASVe)

� Avogaria di comun, Deliberazioni, Magnus, reg. 20/3 (1294–1308), fol. 73ro, Venezia 13 April, 1307.

� Cassiere della bolla ducale, Grazie, Novus Liber (1299–1305),fol. 51ro, Venezia 27 November, 1303.

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.16

71

� Commemoriali, reg. 1 (1300–1317), fols. 37vo-38 [September1303].

� Commemoriali, reg. 1 (1300–1317), fol. 53, Candia 13 June,1304.

� Commemoriali, reg. 1 (1300–1317), fol. 108 [Candia, 1307].�Maggior Consiglio, Deliberazioni, Magnus et Capricornus, reg.

8 (1299–1308), fol. 144ro, Venezia 13 April, 1307.�Maggior Consiglio, Deliberazioni, Presbiter, reg. 11 (1308–

1315), copy (1679), fols. 327vo–328, Venezia 1 April, 1315.�Maggior Consiglio, Deliberazioni, Clericus Civicus, reg. 13

(1315–1318), copy (1681), fol. 16vo, 3 July, 1315.� Senato Misti, Libro II, fols. 42–43, Venezia March, 1304.� Senato Misti, reg. 16 (1333–1134) copy, fols. 51vo–53vo,

Venezia 19 August, 1333.� Senato Misti, reg. 17, (1335–1338) copy, fol. 83, Venezia 15

February, 1336.� Senato Misti, reg. 20 (1341–1342) copy, fol. 128, Venezia 1

July, 1342.� Senato Misti, reg. 30 (1361–1363) copy, fols. 157vo–158,

Venezia 5 July, 1362.� Senato Misti, Deliberazioni, reg. 31, fol. 19ro, Venezia 8 June,

1363.

Biblioteca del Museo Civico Correr di Venezia (BMCCVe)

�Misc. Correr, LXXXI/2703, Tomo I (olim Correr 1210),Candia, fols. 481–484, Ex(emplu)m ex libro Missarum Can-cell(eri)a Maioris Crete tempore cl(arissi)mi D(omini) Guidode Canali ducha Cretae 1303, Two letters to Pietro Gradenigoand to Guido de Canali, Candia 8 August, 1303 and 28 August,1303.

�Misc. Correr, XXXVIII/1916–1938 (olim Correr 1167), Varia,Opuscule Misc. XXXVIII/1922, fols. 20–24, Traduzioni delleCroniche Greche sop(r)a il Regno di Candia (16th or 17th cen-tury).

�Ms. I, 178 (olim Correr 748), Andrea Cornaro, Historia Candi-ana (18th century).

Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana di Venezia (BNMVe)

�Ms. It. Z, 18 (=1734) [15th cent.], Cronaca Veneziana dalleorigini fino all’elezione di Michele Steno.

�Ms. It. VI, 3 (=5999) Antonio Calergi, Commentari di Candia(17th cent., another copy in Ms. It. VI, 155 (=5801).

�Ms. Lat. X, 158 (=3749), Monumenta historica, quae ad Cre-tam insulam se referunt, saeculis XIII–XVI.

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (BAV)

� Barberini Latini 2741 [early 14th cent., copy 16th cent.],Quaedam Chronica (-1309).

� Chigiano G. VI 177 [17th cent.] [Chronica Italicarum Rerum].

Arabic sources

Abu ’l-Fid.�a, al-Mukhtas.ar f�ı akhb�ar al-bashar, 4 vols., Cairo, 1907(English translation, P.M. Holt, The memoirs of a Syrian prince,Wiesbaden, 1983).

al-‘Ain�ı, ‘Iqd al-jum�an f�ı t�ar�ıkh ahl al-zam�ın, ed. M.M. Amin, 4vols., Cairo 1987–1992.

al-‘Amr�ı, Mas�alik al-abs.�ar f�ı mam�alik al-ams.�ar, Cairo, D�ar al-Kutub al-Mi�ariyya, Ms. 559.

Anonimous, T�ar�ıkh, ed. K.V. Zettersteen,Beitrage zur Geschichteder Maml�ukensultane, Leiden 1919.

Ibn Bah�adur, Fut�uh. al-nas.r f�ı t�ar�ıkh mul�uk Mis.r, Cairo, D�ar al-Kutub al-Mis.riyya, Ms. 2399 T�ar�ıkh Taym�ur.

Ibn al-Daw�ad�ar�ı,Kanz al-durar wa j�ami‘ al ghurar, Cairo 1960–1972.

Ibn Taghribird�ı, al-Nuj�um al-z�ahira, ed. F.M. Shaltut et al., 16 vols.Cairo 1929–1972.

al-Maqr�ızi, Kit�ab al-Sul�uk li-ma‘rifat duwal al-mul�uk, ed. M.M.Ziada e S.A.F. ‘Ashur, 4 vols. in 8, Cairo 1934–1972.

al-Maqr�ız�ı, [al-Khiftat.] al-Maw�a‘iz wa’l-i‘tib�ar f�ı dhikr al-khit.at.wa’l-�ath�ar f�ı Mis.r wa’l-Q�ahira wa’l-N�ıl wa-m�a yata‘allaqu bih�amin al-akhb�ar al-ma‘r�uf bi-ism al-khit.at., ed. Bulaq, 2 vols., Cairo1270 H./1853–1854.

Mufad. d. al b. Abi ’l-Fad.�a’il, al-Nahj al-sad�ıd wa’l-durr al-far�ıd f�ı m�aba‘d t�ar�ıkh Ibn al-‘Am�ıd, ed. and transl. E. Blochet, Histoire dessultans mamlouks, Patrologia Orientalis, XX, Paris 1929.

al-Nuwair�ı, Nih�ayat al-arab f�ı fun�un al-adab, Cairo, D�ar al-Kutubal-Mis.riyya, Ms. 549 Ma‘�arif ‘�amma.

al-Suy�ut.�ı Kashf al-s.als.ala ‘an al-zalzala, ed. A. Sa‘dani, Fez 1971.

Arabic inscriptions

Three Arabic inscriptions, nos. 5160, 5161, 5162, in vol. XII ofRCEA = Repertoire chronologique d’epigraphie arabe, Centred’Epigraphie Arabe de l’Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, IFAOCairo, 1931–1982.

Byzantine sources

Cypriot chronicle [1209–1310], no. 26, in P. Schreiner (ed.) 1975,Die byzantinischen Kleinchroniken, Corpus fontium historiaeByzantinae 12, Wien.

Pachymeris G., De Michaele et Andronico Palaeologis [1260–1307],ed. I. Bekker, Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae, I–II,Bonn, 1835.

Latin and Vernacular sources

Amadi Francesco, Chroniques de Amadi et de Strambaldi, ed. R. DeMas Latrie, in Collection de Documents Inedits sur l’Histoire deFrance, 73, 2 vols., Paris, 1891–93.

Annales Caesenates [1162–1362], ed. L.A. Muratori, Rerum Itali-carum Scriptores, 14, cols. 1089–1186, Milano, 1729.

Annales Forolivienses ab origine urbis usque ad a. 1473, ed. G.Mazzatinti, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, new edn., 22/2, Cittadi Castello, 1903–1909.

Chronique du Templier de Tyr, in Les Gestes des Chiprois (early14th c.), ed. G. Raynaud, Publ. de la Soc. de l’Orient latin, vol.5, Geneve, 1887.

Cronaca Rampona o di Bartolomeo della Pugliola (Cronaca A), in‘Corpus Chronicorum Bononiensium’, ed. A. Sorbelli, RerumItalicarum Scriptores, new edn., 18/1, vol. 2, Citta di Castello,1939.

De Monacis L. [14th–15th century], Chronicon de rebus venetis, abU.C. ad annum 1354..., ed. F. Cornelius, Venezia, 1758.

Liber XXIV Ecclesiasticae Historiae, ed. L.A. Muratori, Rerum Itali-carum Scriptores, 11, cols. 1217–1242, Milano, 1727.

Ricobaldo da Ferrara, Compilatio Chronologica usque ad annum1312 perducta, ed. L.A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores,9, cols. 193–262, Milano, 1726.

Sanudo Marin, Vitae Ducum Venetorum [421–1493], (ed.) L.A.Muratori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, 22, cols. 405–1252,Milano, 1733.

Zibaldone da Canal [late 14th cent.], ed. A. Stussi, Venezia, 1967.

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.17

72

Literature and catalogues of earthquakes

Ambraseys, N.N., 1962, Data for the investigation of the seismic sea-waves in the Eastern Mediterranean, Bulletin of the SeismologicalSociety of America 52, 895–913.

Ambraseys, N.N., Melville, C.P., and Adams, R.D., 1994, TheSeismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: a historical review,Cambridge.

Amiran, D.H.K., 1950–52, A revised earthquake-catalogue of Pales-tine, Israel Exploration Journal 1, 223–46; 2, 48–65.

Amiran, D.H.K., Arieh, E., and Turcotte, T. 1994, Earthquakes inIsrael and adjacent areas: macroseismic observations since 100B.C.E, Israel Exploration Journal 44, 260–305.

Antonopoulos, J., 1980, Data from investigation on seismic seawaves events in the Eastern Mediterranean from 1000 to 1500A.D. Part 3, Annali di Geofisica 33, 179–198.

Bektur, Y., and Alpay, O., 1988, Historical Seismicity in Turkey, inMargottini C. and Serva L. (eds.) 1988, Workshop on historicalseismicity of central-eastern mediterranean region. Proceedings(Rome, ENEA CRE Casaccia, 27–29 October, 1987), Roma,33–44.

Ben-Menahem, A., 1979, Earthquake Catalogue for the Middle East(92 B.C. - 1980 A.D.), Bollettino di geofisica teorica ed applicata21 (84), 245–310.

Castenetto, S., Di Loreto, E., Liperi, L., and Margottini, C., 1986,Studio macrosismico del risentimento in Italia dei terremoti delMediterraneo centro-orientale del 26 giugno, 1926 e del 17 gen-naio, 1983, in CNR-GNGTS, Atti del 4� Convegno, Roma, 29–31ottobre, 1985, vol. 1, Roma, 439–156.

Ciccarello, S., 1996, A short note on some Arabic iscriptions record-ing seismic effects in the Mediterranean area 472 H./1079 A.D.– 703 H./1303–1304 A.D., Annali di Geofisica 39, 487–91.

Comninakis, P.E., and Papazachos, B.C., 1982, A Catalogue ofHistorical Earthquakes in Greece and Surrounding Area, 479B.C. – 1900 A.D., Thessaloniki.

Cornelius [Cornaro], F., 1755, Creta Sacra, 2 vols., Venezia.Critikos, N., 1928, Le tremblement de terre de la mer de Crete du

26 juin, 1926 (etude macrosismique), Annales de l’Observatoired’Athene 10, 39–46.

Dennis, G.T., 1973, Problemi storici concernenti i rapporti traVenezia, i suoi domini diretti e le Signorie feudali nelle isolegreche, in Venezia e il Levante fino al secolo XV, A. Perusi, (ed.)vol. I, pt. I, Firenze, pp. 219–35.

Evangelatou-Notara, F., 1993, Earthquakes in Byzantium from the13th to the 15th century. Historical research, Athenai (in Greek).

Galanopoulos, A.G., 1955, Seismic Geography of Greece, AnnalesGeologiques des Pays Helleniques 6, 83–121 (in Greek).

Galanopoulos, A.G., 1961, Greece. A catalogue of shocks with I0=VII for the years prior to 1800, Athens.

Galanopoulos, A.G., 1981, The Damaging Shocks and the Earth-quake Potential of Greece, Annales Geologiques des PaysHelleniques 30/2, 674–724 (in Greek).

Gerola, G., 1905–32, Monumenti veneziani dell’isola di Creta, 4vols., Venezia.

Grumel, V., 1958, Traite d’etudes byzantines. I. La chronologie,Paris.

Guidoboni, E., Comastri, A., and Traina, G., 1994, Catalogue ofancient earthquakes in the Mediterranean area up to the 10thcentury, ING-SGA, Bologna.

al-Hakeem, K., 1988, Studying of historical earthquakes activity inSyria, in Margottini C. and Serva L. (Eds.) 1988, Workshop on his-torical seismicity of central-eastern mediterranean region. Pro-ceedings (Rome, ENEA CRE Casaccia, 27–29 October, 1987),Roma, pp. 19–32.

Hoff, K.E.A, von, 1840, Chronik der Erdbeben und Vul-canausbruche, erster Theil vom Jahre 3460 vor, bis 1759unserer Zeitrechnung, in Geschichte der durch uberlieferungnachgewiesenen naturlichen Veranderungen der Erdoberflache,Theil 4, Gotha.

Maamoun, M., Megahed, A., and Allam, A., 1984, Seismicity ofEgypt, Bulletin of National Research Institute of Astronomy andGeophysics 4, Series B Geophysics, pp. 109–160.

Mallet, R., 1853, Third report on the facts of earthquake phaenome-na, British Association for the Advancement of Science, pt. 1, pp.1–176.

Manussacas, M.I., 1973, L’isola di Creta sotto il dominio veneziano– Problemi e ricerche, in Venezia e il Levante fino al secolo XV,A. Perusi (ed.) Firenze, vol. I, pt. II, pp. 473–514.

Papadopoulos, G.A., and Chalkis, B.J., 1984, Tsunamis observed inGreece and the surrounding area from antiquity up to the presenttimes, Marine Geology 56, 309–317.

Papazachos, B., and Papazachos, C., 1989, Earthquakes in Greece,Thessaloniki (in Greek).

Papazachos, B.C., Koutitas, Ch., Hatzidimitriou, P.M., andPapaioannou, Ch.A., 1986, Tsunami hazard in Greece and thesurrounding area, Annales Geophysicae 4.B, 1, 79–90.

Perrey, A., 1850, Memoire sur les tremblements de terre ressentisdans la Peninsule Turco-Hellenique et en Syrie, Memoires del’Academie de Belgique 23, Bruxelles, 1–20.

Plataki, N., 1950, Earthquakes in Crete from ancient times to presentday, Kritika Chronika 4, 463–526 (in Greek).

Poirier, J.-P., and Taher, M.A., 1980, Historical Seismicity in theNear and Middle East, North Africa, and Spain from arabicdocuments (VIIth-XVIIIth century), Bulletin of the SeismologicalSociety of America 70, 2185–2201.

Predelli, R., and Bosmin, P., (ed.), 1876–1914,I Libri Commemorialidella Repubblica di Venezia. Regesti, 8 vols., Venezia.

Shebalin, N.V., Karnik, V., and Hadzievski, D., (ed.) 1974, Cata-logue of Earthquakes. Part I, 1901–1970. Part II, prior to 1901,UNDP/UNESCO Servey of the seismicity of the Balkan region,Skopje.

Sieberg, A., 1932a, Untersuchungen uber Erdbeben und Bruch-schollenbau im ostlichen Mittelmeergebiet, Denkschriften dermedizinsch-naturwissenschftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 18, 161–273.

Sieberg, A., 1932b, Erdbebengeographie, in B.Gutenberg, Hand-buch der Geophysik, vol. IV, Berlin.

Soloviev, S.L., 1990, Tsunamigenic zones in the Mediterranean Sea,Natural Hazards 3, 183–202.

Taher, M.A., 1979, Corpus des textes arabes relatifs aux tremble-ments de terre et autres catastrophes naturelles de la conquetearabe au XII H./ XVIII J.C., These de Doctorat d’Etat (UniversiteParis 1).

Thiriet, F., 1954, Les chroniques venitiennes de la Marcienne etleur importance pour l’histoire de la Romanie greco-venitienne,Melanges d’Archeologie et d’Histoire 66, 241–292.

Thiriet, F., 1966, Deliberations des Assemblees Venitiennes concer-nant la Romanie, Tome I, 1160–1363, Paris-La Haye.

Tiepolo, M.F., 1973, Note sul riordino degli archivi del Duca e deinotai di Candia nell’Archivio di Stato di Venezia, Thesaurismata10, 88–100.

jose26.tex; 20/06/1997; 14:50; v.7; p.18