the landowner’s ghosts: realism and …...arturo fontaine’s novel oír su voz (to hear her...
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TheLandowner’sGhosts:RealismandFinancializationinContemporaryLatinAmericanFiction
ErickaBeckman
Workinprogress:Donocitewithoutpermissionofauthor
In1994,theliteraryandculturalcriticJeanFranconotedthatLatinAmericanculture
hadentereda“BlackPeriod”ofuncertaindurationafter1989,inwhichmanywriters—long
committedtocraftingradicalvisionsofthefuture—“arestillmourningtheendofutopia.”The
endofutopia,writesFranco,hailsmostdirectlyfromthefailureofrevolutionaryprojects
acrosstheregion,andtraumaofcounterrevolutionarymilitaryregimes,theresultofwhichwas
“aneweraofmodernizationundertheaegisofneoliberalism.”Thiscontexthelpsexplainsthe
turninLatinAmericanfictiontotheworkofmourningandrestitution,asinstudiesbyIdelber
AvelarandAlbertoMoreiras;aswellasthestronglydystopiancharacterofmuchrecentcultural
production,asrecentlystudiedbyFranco,MaryLouisePrattandIleanaRodríguez,among
others.
ThepresentessaystudieshowLatinAmericanfictionhasattemptedtonarratethe
blockageofrevolutionitself,and—intheaftermathofanti-communistcounter-insurgencyand
scorchedearthcampaigns—theconsolidationofaparticularlybrutaleraofcapital
accumulation.Forthepurposeofthisvolumeon“thecontemporary,”Iamparticularly
interestedinhowtwoworksofrecentfiction—ArturoFontaine’sOírsuvoz(1992)andHoracio
CastellanosMoya’sLadiablaenelespejo(2000)—attempttonarratetheneoliberalpresentby
resurrectingoldhistoricalfiguresandcastingtheminnewroles.Whiledifferinginformand
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style,whatthesetwonovelsfromChileandElSalvador,respectively,haveincommonistheir
attempttonarratecontemporarycapitalisttransitionthroughmembersofanolderoligarchic
regime,aclassthatwhiletemporarilydefeatedbyrevolutionandreform,cometopersonifya
newmodeoffinancialaccumulationinthecurrentera.
LandowningoligarchshavebeenamainstayofLatinAmericanfictionsincethe19th
century,infoundationaltextssuchasJorgeIsaacs’MaríaandMachadodeAssis’Memórias
póstumasdeBrasCubas,totwentieth-centuryclassicssuchasRómuloGallegos’DoñaBárbara
andJuanRulfo’sPedroPáramo.Infact,apowerfulargumentmightbemadethatatleastuntil
themid-twentiethcenturyLatinAmericanliteratureisaliteratureoflandownersandtheirilk;
andsoitisnotthatsurprisingthattheirstayingpower—atleastonanimaginarylevel—carries
overintothepresent.WhatIaminterestedinprimarily,however,ishowlandowners—inspite
oftheirreputationasbackwardandfeudalremnants,outofstepwithmodernlife—are
imaginedinrecentfictionasencapsulatingtheverylogicofcontemporaryneoliberalism.This
isononelevelcounterintuitive:itispreciselybecauseofthereactionarycharacterof
landownersinmid-20thcenturyLatinAmericathatnationalbourgeoisiesandtheLeftagreed
thattheyneededtobeeliminated.Andindeed,landreformprogramsbeguninthe1960s,
togetherwithacceleratingtransitionstocapitalistagriculturefromthe1970s-presentare
widelyrecognizedascontributingtothedeathofthistheclassacrossmuchofLatinAmerica.1
AndyetinthecontemporaryfictionIexaminehere,itispreciselythesedefeatedoldguard
1OnPeru,seeMayer.Chile,Bengoa,Riesco.ElSalvador,Robinson.Butthereareofcoursesignificantdivergences.Mexico—Revolutionarylandreformprogramsearlyinthe20thcenturydestroyhaciendaandrerouteaccumulationthroughthePRI.Argentina—earlycapitalistmechanizationandnolandreformever.Colombia,alsonolandreform,andmostprolongedruralguerrillaconflictinthehemisphere.
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eliteswhofunctionasharbingersofanewfinancializederainthepostrevolutionary,neoliberal
period.Asarguedbelow,thisispossiblebecauselandownershighlighttherestorativenatureof
neoliberalismasaclassprojectinLatinAmerica,butalsobecausethemainhistorical
tendenciesofthelandowningclass—predatory,rent-based,extractive—reemergeandbecome
dominantinneoliberalism.
Iamalsofundamentallyinterestedinthewaysinwhichrealistandproto-realistform
mightallowustoglimpsealargertotalityofsocialrelationsundercontemporarycapitalism.To
recallFredricJamesonwordsin“CognitiveMapping,”even“narrativesofdefeat”allow“the
wholearchitectonicofpostmodernglobalspacetoriseupinghostlyprofilebehinditself,as
someultimatedialecticalbarrierorinvisiblelimit.”(352-3).Inthissense,Iaminterestedin
whatnarrativesofdefeatedrevolutionscantellusaboutourownpresent.2
1.LandownersandChileanfinancialrealism
ArturoFontaine’snovelOírsuvoz(ToHearHerVoice,1992)isanattempttodepict,in
realistfashion,thefinancialworldresultingfromwhatwasarguablytheworld’sfirstradical
experimentwithneoliberaleconomicrestructuring.Intheaftermathofthe1973militarycoup
againstSalvadorAllende’ssocialistPopularUnitygovernment,thePinochetdictatorship,
guidedbyagroupUniversityofChicago-trainedChileaneconomists(knownasthe“Chicago
Boys”),undertookradicalmeasurestoprivatizestateindustries,attractforeigninvestment,and2InfocusingonhowLatinAmericanliteratureconjuresthe‘ghostlyprofile’ofpostmodernglobalspace,thisessayowesmuchtoToscanoandKunkle’supdatingofJameson’sconceptofcognitivemappinginCartographiesoftheAbsolute.AndinitscommitmenttoLatinAmericanliteraryinvocationsoftotality,IalignmyprojectwiththatofEmilioSauriandEugenioDiStefanoin“MakingitVisible:LatinAmericanistCriticism,LiteratureandtheQuestionofExploitationToday.”
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(re)openthenationaleconomytointernationalcompetition.Theseeconomicpolicieswere
implemented,asmanyhavealreadydiscussed,intandemwithstateterror(tortureandforced
disappearances)inanefforttoextirpate,inthefavoredphraseofthemilitaryregime,the
‘Marxistcancer’destroyingthenation.
MuchChileanpost-coupliteratureattemptstoexpress,onthelevelofform,theeffects
ofstateterrorandtheforeclosureofrevolutionarypossibility;DiamelaEltit’sneo-avant-garde
novelLumpérica(1983)isawell-knownexample.And,asAlessandroFornazzarihasarguedin
hisstudyofcapitalistcounterrevolutionandcultureinChile,JoséDonoso’sCasadecampo
(1976)turnstoallegorytoexpresstheimpossibilityofrealistrepresentationinaworld
dominatedbythecommodityform.InFontaine’snovel(whichisalsostudiedbyFornazzari,
andwhoseanalysisIdrawfrombelow),somethingverydifferentisafoot:stateterrorremains
decidedlyatthemarginsofthistext,aswhenaminorcharacter,thePresidentofChile’sCentral
Bank,muses,atonepointthathistorywilljudgetheregimeharshlyforitshumanrightsabuses.
CITE.Likewise,neartheendofthenovel,wehearthestrainsofthefirstmajorstreetprotests
againstthePinochetregime;thispresenceonlyservesasbackgroundnoise,however,tothe
novel’smainfocus:thederegulated,privatizedandfinancializedbusinessmilieuofearly1980s
Chile.
Thefour-hundred-plus-pagenovelissaturatedinrealistdetailaboutthismilieu:
charactersengageinconversationsaboutirrigationtechniquesforkiwiproduction,attemptsto
foundaprivatetelevisionstation,accountingpracticestohidemoney,andbattleswiththe
CentralBankoverexchangerates.Suchdetails,inturn,areanchoredbytwointersecting
storylines:first,theriseandfallofAliroToro’sbusinessgroup,runoutofabankthatwas
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nationalizedunderthesocialistPopularUnityGovernmentandprivatizedunderthePinochet
dictatorship;andsecond,theclandestineaffairbetweenFernándezPelayo,ajournalistfora
glossymagazine,andAdelaida,anadvertisingcopywriter.Eachofthesestoriesgrindtoahalt
withtheChileanbankingcrisisof1981:Toro,togetherwithhiseconomicadviser,the“Chicago
Boy”MempoTaburinini,isjailedforfinancialfraud;andPelayolosesAdelaidawhenshe
returnstoherhusbandandchildren.
ThefocusofOírsuvozishencesimultaneouslylimitedtoaspecificclassmilieuand,in
contrastwithmuchpost-coupfiction,resolutelydeterminedtocreateavisionofsocialtotality
viarealistrepresentation.Fontaine’sversionofrealismcanbedirectlylinkedtotheriseof
neoliberalism,andespeciallyfinance-drivenaccumulation,inmid-1970sChile.First,itisa
visionoftotalitythatlimitsitselftothevictorsofthecapitalistcounter-revolution,excluding
thesocialsectorsagainstwhichthecoupwaswaged--radicalizedworkers,peasants,and
students.Onadeeperlevel,Fontaine’srealistprojectmightbeembeddedintheideological
attempttocreatenewbasesforapproaching‘reality’itselfinthepost-coup,neoliberal
landscape.AsFornazzarihasalreadynoted,Oírsuvozmightbeapproachedasaliteraryrealist
versionofthefoundingdocumentofChileanneoliberalism,knownasElladrillo(TheBrick).
Namedforitsunwieldysize,thetextscomposingElladrillowerepennedbyChicago-trained
economistsonthevergeofthe1973coup,andbecameblueprintforthemilitaryregime’sfirst
experimentwithneoliberalreformsinthemid-1970s.Strikingly,thisdocumentdeclaresitself
committedakindofeconomicrealism.Evenasthetextassumesthatupper-andmiddle-class
oppositiontosocialismunderthePopularUnitygovernmentwas“natural,”itself-consciously
retreatsfromideologytopresentneoliberalmarketreformsas“theonlyrealisticwaytotackle
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thehumanandsocialimprovementweallwantforourcountry”(19-20,emphasisadded).3
“Realistic”economicpolicy,whichinElladrillomeanstheprivatizationpublicservices,the
openingofnationalmarketstoforeigncompetition,andthecreationofadynamicmarketin
land,mightthusbeviewedasanantecedenttothevariantofliteraryrealismFontaineemploys
torepresentthesocialworldcreatedinthewakeofsuchpolicies.
Fontaine,itshouldbenoted,isequallyknowninChileasanovelistandasapublic
intellectual,whoservedfornearly30yearsasthedirectorofthecenter-rightthinktankCentro
deEstudiosPúblicos.Butitisnotinhispolicypapers—inwhichhecriticizesdictatorshipin
favorofliberaldemocracy,butlargelyembracesthefree-marketpoliciesinstatedbythe
dictatorship—thathecomesclosesttorepresentingcapitalisttransitioninChile.4Therealist
novel,thatis,stilloffersFontainespecialpurchaseonrepresentingeconomiclife.
Morespecifically,therealismFontaine’snovelcorrespondswiththeriseoffinanceasa
dominantmodeofaccumulationinneoliberalChile.AsLeighClaireLaBergehasshownforthe
UnitedStates,anewformofrealismemergedinthe1980sasakeymodeofrepresentingthe
riseoffinance.WorkssuchasThomasWolfe’snovelBonfireoftheVanitiesandOliverStone’s
WallStreet,LaBergeargues,“cement(ed)anewaestheticmodethatcapturedthewayanew
financialclasswasbeginningtoidentifyitselfanditseconomicobject,”intheprocess3“laúnicaformarealistadeafrontarelmejoramientosocialyhumanoquetodosansiamosparanuestropaís.”(19).Ofcourse,thissupposedlyscientificandnon-ideologicalturnineconomicdiscourseisitselfhighlyideological.4Asanexampleofthisdefenseoffreemarketsandcritiqueofdictatoship,Fontainemusesin1994(inthecontextofChile’sreturntoliberaldemocracy):“Paraquienesapoyamosfirmementelasreformasencaminadasallibremercado,peronoacostadeunquiebredemocrático,elproblemaconsisteencómogenerarlascondicionespolíticas,económicasyculturalesquefavorezcanelliderazgodemocrático”(417).Thisevenasheopenlyrecognizesthatitwouldhavebeenimpossibletointroducefree-marketreformsinChilewithoutthe1973coup.
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reimagining“theeconomy”tomeanfinanceitself,andlendingasoliditytothefinancialworld
throughrealisttechnique.ArturoFontainehashimselfbeencalleda“ChileanThomasWolfe”
andhisnoveldisplayssomestartlingsimilaritieswithwhatLaBergehasidentifiedaskey
characteristicsof“capitalistrealism”:theconfluenceofpersonalscandalandaggregatecrisis
(theillicitaffairandthefinancialfraudinthecontextthecrisisof1981-2);thesalienceof
‘financialmasculinity”(thefinancierAliroToro,whosenameafterall,means“bull”);andthe
centralityofinformationtotheplot(theknowledgeofwhetherexchangerateswillberaised).5
LaBerge’sdiscussionof“capitalistrealism”intheU.S.alsogeneratesmeaningful
particularitieswhentransposedontoChile,asemi-peripheralcountrywhoseneoliberal
transitionisrootedinthe1973US-supportedmilitarycoupagainstSalvadorAllende.6Along
theselines,thesalienceoflandowningelitesinFontaine’sstoryofcapitalisttransitioninChile
deservesspecialattention.Thenovel’stwomaincharacters–AliroToroandPelayo
Fernández—aroundwhichthemajornarrativestrandsareconstructed,arebothmembersof
theformerlypowerfullandedoligarchy.AccordingtoJoséBengoa,thehacienda(orfundoasit
isoftenreferredtoinChile)anditssocialrelationsfunctionedasthecountry’s“basicunitof5OnFontaineasaChileanThomasWolfe,seeRojo.6Thesecontextualdifferencesbetweencenterandsemi-peripheryneedtoinscribedinaglobalhistoryofcapitalcrisisandreorganizationsincethe1970s,meaningthatthe“ghostlyprofile”ofworldcapitalistrelationscanbeglimpsedinworksfrombothChileandtheU.S.InOírsuvoz,itisinconstantdebatesonwhethertheChileanpesoshouldbepeggedtothedollar(themilitaryregimes’searlyresponse)orfloat,intheubiquityoftheUniversityofChicago,intheimportedprestigegoodsthatflitthroughthenovel.Asmightbeexpected,(semi)peripheralcountrieslikeChilearelesspresentinworkssuchasBonfireoftheVanitiesandWallStreet.ItisperhapsinterestingtorecallthatinthefilmWallStreet,rightbeforeGordonGekko’sfamous“greedisgood”speech,aboardmemberaccusesthecorporateraideroftreatingtheircompanyasifitwere“somepiss-poorSouthAmericancountry.”Thisthrowawaycommentgesturestoalongerhistorynotrepresentedinthefilm:thefundamentalroleplayedbyThirdWorlddebtcrisesofthe1970sand1980s(andensuingstructuraladjustmentandausterityprograms)asmajorsourcesofwindfallprofitsforWallStreetbankinginstitutions.Onthislastpoint,seeHarvey.
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sociability”(Bengoa,page)untilthe1960s.ThisoligarchyhadbeencreatedbySpanish
colonialism,butrosetonewprominenceattheendofthe19thcenturywiththeexpansionof
agro-exportmarkets,especiallywheat.Inthe20th-centuryeraofnationaldevelopmentand
industry,however,thisclasscametobereviledbytheleftandthenationalbourgeoisiealike
foritspoliticalintransigienceandeconomicbackwardness.FortheNewChiletoemerge,both
ofthesesectorsagreed,thefundoanditssocialrelations(patriarchialism,unfreelabor)hadto
bedestroyed;thiswasindeedcarriedoutbylandreformprogramsbetween1965-1970,firstby
ChristianDemocratandthenbySocialistgovernments.
Historiansagreethatlandreformsoundedthedeathknellofthelandedoligarchyin
Chile.ItisthusevenmoresignificantthatinOírsuvoz,itisonlythroughrecoursetothisold
guardanditshistorythatFontainecanplotthecountry’sneoliberaltransitionunderPinochet.
Thestoryoffinancializationintheneoliberalera,thatis,isthestoryofareconfiguredlanded
elite,andvice-versa.MorethanfocusontheCentralBankbureaucratBarraza,orthescionof
thenational-industrialistfamilyEskenazi,Fontaineisinterestedinthedivergingpathsoftwo
formerlandowners:PelayoFernández,whopersonifiesalostattachmenttolandedwealth;
andAliroToro,whopersonifiesfictitiouscapitalitself.Thesedivergingpaths,Iargue,are
themselvescontemporaryexpressionsoftheJanus-facedcharacteroftheoldguard,andhence
itssymbolicandmaterialimportanceinthenew:atturnsstaticanddynamic;‘feudal’and
boundtotheglobalmarket;firmlyrootedinapastmodeofproductionanduniquelysuitedto
financial(andnot,forexample,industrial)modesofaccumulation.Moreover,thisaclassthat
isunwaveringlycounterrevolutionary,whichisultimatelywhyIthinkitremainsimportantin
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Fontaine’snarrativizationofcapitalisttransitionunderaneoliberalandatthesametime
neofacistregime.
FirstwecanexaminePelayo,amemberoflandowningfamilywhoseestateinthesouth
ofChileexpropriatedunderlandreformduringthePopularUnitygovernmentbegunin1970.A
decadelater,inthenovel’spresent,early1980s,hehasbecomeajournalist,writinginthe
glossymagazineMira(Look),preciselyaboutthe“NewChile.”Butthelossofthelandedestate
iswhatdefinesPelayo,evenasheretainsthesocialprestigeofthepreviousera(cheekily
drivingaVWBeetlewithaRollsRoycegrill).Inaflashbackscenesetimmediatelyafterthe
1973coup,PelayobringsAdelaidatohisfamily’sestateinsouthernChile.7
TheestatehadbeenexpropriatedbythePopularUnitygovernmentin1970,andhis
grandmotherhadrefusedtoacceptthereserveaccordedtothefamily.Asaresult,the
seigniorialhousehasfalleninastateofdecayanddisrepair.Pelayoblamesthedeclineon
“thosepeople”[esagente]—peasants—whoabsentanaffectiverelationshipwiththelandand
anyknowledgeofhowtoworkit,ruintheestate’svineyards.Insidethedecayinghouse,Pelayo
buildsafireandattemptstoconsummatehisrelationshipwithAdelaida.Butshe,sensing
perhapstherotbeyondthedampsmellofraulí(atypeofwoodfromSouthernChile)inthe
cozyroom,withdraws,andleavesPelayotomarryherestrangedboyfriend.Withthisrejection,
Pelayo’smelancholyoverthelossofthefamilyestateassumesadistinctshape,andis
transferredontothefigureofAdelaida,theunattainablewomanhewillpursuefortherestof
thenovel.
7Therearedefiniteautobiographicalstrainstothisstory:FontainehailsfromalandowningfamilyinsouthernChile.
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Notably,withPelayo,thenovelexpressesalandownerperspectiveofhistory:the
traumaticmomentisnot,aswehavecometoexpectofpost-coupfiction,the1973coup,but
ratherlandreform.Asidefrompredictableassociationsbetweenwomanandlandassitesof
malepossession,Pelayo’spursuitofAdelaidagesturestowardthewiderprocessof
dematerializationandabstractionrepresentedintherestofthenovelascharacteristicofthe
worldofbanking.AndwhilePelayodoesn’tparticipatedirectlyintheworldoffinancial
speculation,hisinabilitytoattainAdelaidaconjuresboththelossoflandandtheprocessof
dematerializationcharacteristicoffinancialization.Inthisregard,wecannotethatthetitleof
thenovel,Oírsuvoz,comesfromthephoneconversationthattakesplaceinthenovel’s
‘present’(1981),yearsafterbothPelayoandAdelaidahavemarriedotherpeople.Inthis
conversation,hecanonlyhearhervoice;hecannottouchher.Pelayoisfiguredhereand
throughoutthenovelasmalesubjectwhoexperiencesasunderingbetweensoundand
substance,inwhichpossessioncanbeexperiencedonlyastrace(memory,voices),but
separatedfromthethingitself(womanandland).
Chile’s‘greattransformation’underneoliberalismdoesnotonlysignifylossforold
regime,though.8AndPelayo’saristocraticmelancholyiscontrasted,inturn,withthemobility
anddynamismofanothersonofalandowningfamily,AliroToro,whointhePinocheterahas
cometodominateoneofthecountry’smostpowerfulfinancialgroups.Aliro,likePelayo,hails
fromlandowningclass,butwithatwist:hisfatherhadbeenanurbanspeculator,whoafter
losingeverythinginafraudulentteaspeculation,relocatedtohiswife’sfamily’sruralestate.
Fromthisplotdetail,Fontaineshowsawarenessofthepeculiarhistoryofthelandowningclass8JavierMartínezandAlvaroDíazusethistermtodescribeChile’scapitalistcounterrevolutionafter1973.
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inmodernChile,whichatdifferentmomentswaslimitedbytheestatesystemand,historically,
definedbyworldmarketand,especially,thecreditsystem.9Indeed,preciselybecauseof19th
centurylandowners’risetoprominenceasexportproducers(especiallywheat),theybecome
identifiedwithrent-basedwealth,speculation,andluxuryconsumption.10Thisconnectionwas
suspendedintheperiodofnational‘development’—whenlandowningsectordidinfact
stagnatewithrespecttonationalindustry—buttheconnectionisresurrectedintheneoliberal
era.
InOírsuvoz,itisparadoxically,orperversely,throughlandreformandsocialist
revolutionthatthehistoricalconnectionbetweenlandowningelitesandfictitiouscapitalcanbe
rebornandflourishinunexpectedways.When,intherevolutionaryatmosphereoftheUnidad
Popular,politicizedpeasantsbegintoexpropriateestates,AliroTorodoesnotdespair:instead,
inthespiritofhisspeculatorfather,he“ideósuprimernegocio”(loc647)(conceived/devised
hisfirstbusinessventure).Heagreestohelplandownersthreatenedwithexpropriation
negotiatetheretentionofareserveofland,andaspayment,keepsapercentageofthatland.
9ZeitlinandRadcliffemaintain,forexample,that19thcenturylandownerswereneverfeudal:instead,theywereengagedin“seigniorialcommodityproductioninagriculturethatemergedwhena‘world-embracingcommerceandaworld-embracingmarket’alreadyexistedandwhenindustrialcapitalwasalreadyascendantinEngland,whichstoodastrideworldcommerce.(153).Inthismanner,eventhebackwardelementsofthismodel(forcedlabor,non-mechanization),were“nottherelic(s)ofafeudalpastbuttheproductofcapitalistdevelopment.”(154,emphasisinoriginal).10ThomasC.Wrightshowsthatin19thcentury,wheatexportmarketsintegratedChile’slandedclassintocreditmarketstosuchanextentthatitbecomesynonymouswithnon-productivegainsofthefinancialworld:a1900attackontheoligarchyhecites,forexample,railsagainst“thesquanderingofthemoneyreceivedtocultivatetheland…onsterileluxuries,ongambling,onstupidfinancialcombinations”(32).
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Contradictorily,then,itpreciselythebreakupoftheoldestatesunderlandreform—apeasant
demandbackedbythesocialiststate—thatallowsTorotobeginto(re)accumulateland:
Alosdosaños,AliroToroeradueñodemásdecincomilhectáreasderulo,deescasovalor,enverdad,peroque,sinembargo,constituyeronsucapitalsemilla.Porqueesastierras,seguramentesobretasadas,constituyeronlahipotecaqueadquiriólacadenadesupermercados,suprimeragranvacalechera,sucashcow,comoleexplicaríandespuésaélmismoexpertosfinancieroscomoMempoTaburinini,cuandoelvolumedesusnegocioslollevóacontratartécnicoscomoél.(loc.658).(Aftertwoyears,AliroToroownedmorethan5,000hectaresofbarrenlandthatrealitywasn’tworththatmuch,butthatneverthelessformed/constitutedhisseedcapital.Becausethoselands,surelyovertaxed(orovervalued?),constitutedthemortgagethatacquiredthesupermarketchain,hisfirstcashcow,asMempoTaburininiwouldexplaintohimlater,afterthehighvolumeofhistransactionshadledhimtohirefinancialexperts.)
ThequantityoflandToroacquires,5,000hectares,isastounding,especiallyifweconsiderthat
thePopularUnityreformshadtriedtobreakupestatesover80hectares.Associalscientists
havedocumented,landreformsetsinmotionaprocessbywhichlandcouldbebrokenup
undersocialismandreconcentratedunderneoliberalismtoreachlevelsexceedingeventhatof
thepreviousestatesystem,whichhadlongbeenvilifiedforitsinequity.11Sowhilesome
landowners—likePelayo’sfamily—losewealthandpower,others—asexemplifiedbyToro—are
ablereconstitutelandholdings,andusethemas‘seedcapital’onceconditionsareripe,under
thePinochetdictatorship,fornewinvestments.Intheprocessofhistoricaltransformation,the
estatesystemceasestoexist(tobecomeafullycapitalistagriculture);withthis,thesocial
structurerootedinresidentlandownerandsemi-boundpeon(inquilino)isfinallysundered.
11Riesco,forexample,writes:“Enestesentido,laReformaAgraraicomountodo,incluyendosuculminacionfascista,sisecomparaconlasituacionexistenteenelcampoen1965,puedeconsiderarseunaverdaderarevolucioncapitalista,y,comotal,progresivaenrelacionalantiguoregimendeinquilinajeyhaciendas.”(70)
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WhereasPelayoexperiencesthistransformationasloss,AliroToro(ashisultra-masculine
surnamenotsosubtlysuggests)seesthisasopportunity.Thepreviouslylimitedagricultural
worldallowsaleapinto“seedcapital”and“cashcows”,languagethatreflectsthelandowner’s
fullleapintoatypeofcapitalaccumulationdrivenbyfinance.12Thisofcoursemeansthatheis
nolongeralandownerintheprevioussense.Inadditiontobuyingland,banks,supermarkets
andbottlingplants,heacquiresheavilycapitalizedexport-agricultureinstallations,which,
importantly,henevervisits:
Toronuncavisitabalosparronalesnitampocolasgranjasmarinasdondesedesarrollabansuscultivosdesalmonesytollosdeexporación.Preferíamantenerseadistanciaynodejarseembrollarporlacorporeidaddeesosprocesosproductivosque,enlamentedelfinancista,sonúnicamenteotrotipodepagarés.Legustabaqueelobjetodesupasióntomaraformasabstractas.”535
(Henevervisitedhisgrapearborsorthemarinefarmswherehecultivatedsalmonanddogfishforexport.Hepreferredtomaintainadistance,andnotlethimselfbecomeembroiledinthecorporealityofthoseproductiveprocesses,which,inthemindofthefinancier,areonlyanothertypeofIOU.Helikedtheobjectofhispassiontoassumeabstractforms.)
Toseethelandwouldbetobecomeembroiledintheproductiveprocess;instead,heprefersto
remainintherealmoftheidealandintangible.AsAlessandroFornazzariwrites:
Thenotionofabstractionthatbeginstoemergeherereferstoanemptyingofstablesubstancesandtheirunifyingidentifications…;animmaterialityofthecommodity…;andthequalityofendlesstransferability.Fromthecycleofrevolutions—theagrarianreformbeingoneofthemostimportant—thatledtothecollapseoftheoldoligarchicorderemergesanewcapitalistregimethatrecodifies,underthebannerofabstraction,olderformsofcommoditiesandcommodityrelations(50).
FornazzariinsightfullypointstothewayinwhichAliroToroemergesfromtheashesoftheold
ordertoembracefictitiouscapitalintheneoliberalera.WhatIwanttoemphasizehereisthe12AliroToro’sownlastnamemightpointtothistransitionfromagriculturetoWall-Street-drivenfinance(asintheEnglishexpression‘bullmarket’)
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factthatinordertotellthestoryofcapitalisttransition,Fontainefocusessoresolutelyonthe
divergentpathsofmembersofthisoldguard.ThemelancholicPelayoFernándezlosesland
(andasenseofimportance),butretainsasizeableculturalcapitalheputstoworkinan
emergingcreativeeconomy.AndAliroToro,paradoxicallyempoweredbyrevolution,isableto
awaken,atleastonasymboliclevel,thespeculatingsoulofthenineteenth-centurylandowner,
longassociatedwithnon-productiverentandfictitiouscapital,tomakealeapintothefuture.
Inthis,AliroToroisamuchmoresuitablefigurefortheriseoffinancecapitalismthan,say,the
sonofthetwentieth-centuryindustrialist,associatedwithproductionandtheprotectionof
nationalmarkets.Andeventhoughitistruethatitispreciselythesonofoneofthose
twentieth-centuryindustrialistswhoweathersthebankingcrisisattheendofthenovel,
FontainetreatsToroasthecatalystforthefinancialboom.Heisdestructive,butheisalsocast
asdaring,almostnoble.Heis,atbottomIthink,akeyfigureintherestorationofclasspower,
privateproperty,andthesettinglooseoffictitiouscapital.
If,asnotedearlier,thenoveladoptsalandownerperspectiveofhistoryinmarking
socialistlandreformasthetraumaticmomentforPelayo,withAliroToroitplots
financializationasacontinuationoflandownerhistory.InFontaine’snovel,thestoryof
financializationcannotbetoldwithoutrecoursetothisclass.Eventhoughthenovelendswith
the‘defeat’oftheformerlandowners(withAliroinjail,andPelayoasmelancholicasever),
theirprotagonismgestures,perhaps,towardthefundamentallyrestorativeclassprojectofthe
dictatorship.Inthenovel’sbackward-andforward-lookingtemporality,thenovelpointstothe
successofthecapitalistcounter-revolutionagainstsocialismasaforegoneconclusion.Class
conflict(themotorofhistoryundertheUnidadPopular)isabsentfromOírsuvoz,whoserealist
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visionislimitedtotheintra-classjockeyingforthespoilsof(re)privatizationandfinancialization
intheneoliberaldictatorship.13Fontaine’snovelgesturestowardtheparticularsuitabilityof
thelandowningclassasrepresentativesofthisshift,markingsimultaneouslyareturntonon-
productiveformsofwealth(rentsorfictitiouscapital),andtheemergenceofsomethingnew
(mechanizedagro-industry,businessgroups).Thelandowner’sghost,thatis,animates
contemporarycapitaliststructuresinOírsuvoz.Itisperhapsinthissensethatthenovel’stitle
becomesmeaningful,asthesimultaneouslymelancholicandparasiticghostoflandowner
history.
II.TheOligarchyintheMirror:Anti-CommunistCounter-InsurgencyandFinancializationinElSalvador
LikeFontaine’sOírsuvoz,theSalvadorannovelistHoracioCastellanosMoya’snovelLa
diablaenelespejo(2000)tellsthestoryofcapitalisttransitionbywayofalandowningclass
transformedbyrevolutionandcounter-revolution,andreconfiguredbyfinance-drivenmodes
ofaccumulation.AsinthecaseofFontaine,theactionofCastellanosMoya’snovelreachesits
climaxwithabankingcrisis,inthiscaseaveiledreferencetothecrisisof1996.Butunlike
Fontaine’s‘financialrealism’,whichasIarguednaturalizestheclassrestorationofthePinochet
dictatorship,providingonlyacritiqueofthelingeringmoralconservatismoftheneworder,La
diabla,denaturalizesthisnewworldthroughregistersofexcess,hyperbole,andparanoia.At
thecoreofthisshiftisachangeinnarrativeperspective:whileOírsuvozisnarrated13Alongtheselines,themostpotentsiteofnovel’scritiqueismoral–notwithrespecttofinance,though,butratherinrelationtotheCatholicprohibitionofdivorce,whichiswhatultimatelypreventsPelayofromreunitingwithAdelaida.(Theconflictattheheartofthenovelis,again,notrootedinclass,butinwhatFontaineviewsasacontradictionbetweenan‘open’economyand‘traditional’moralvalues.
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omnisciently,Ladiablaisnarratedbyamemberoftheoligarchyitself,awomannamedLaura,
amove,thatasI’llarguebelow,allowsforamuchmorepotentcritiqueofclasstransition
underneoliberalism.
TheactionofLadiablatakesplaceinthemid-1990s,shortlyafterthesigningofthe
peaceaccordsthatendedthedecadelongcivilwarbetweentheSalvadoranstateandLeftist
guerillas.ThepremiseisthatLaura’schildhoodfriend,OlgaMaria,hasrecentlybeenkilledin
herhomebyahitmaninfrontofhertwoyoungdaughters.OpeningimmediatelyafterOlga
María’smurder,thenoveltakestheformofalongmonologue,asLauraaddressesanunnamed
femaleinterlocutor,addressedonlyas“niña”or“girl”(renderedas‘dear’inEnglishtranslation)
inanattempttomakesenseofOlgaMaria’sdeath.Eachoftheninechaptersiscomposedbya
single,uninterruptedparagraphofLaura’sspeech.Breathless,disorganizedandseemingly
unhierarchized,hermusingsemployahighlyfeminizedregisterofbreathlessnessandvolubility,
shiftingdirectionseveraltimesinthespaceofafewlines.Asanexample,hereisLaura,inthe
firstchapter,chattingatthewakeasOlgaMaría’scadaverarrives:
“Eramoslasmejoresamigas,desdelaEscuelaAmericana,teimaginás,haceveintitrésaños.Ahílatraenya,alfin.Vení,acompáñame,avercómoquedó.Miráquearreglosfloralesmáspreciosos;ésteesdelacompañíadepublicidaddeMarito.Telodije,niña,eraelmejorvestido,sevetanpreciosa,lahanarregladomuybien,hastaelhoyitoenlasiencasinoselenota.”(14)Wewerebestfriends,havebeeneversincewestartedattheAmericanSchool—imaginethat,twenty-threeyearsago.Finally,they’rebringingherout.Comon,comewithme,let’sseehowshelooks.Lookatthosegorgeousflowerarrangements:Marito’sadvertisingagencysentthemover.Itoldyouthat’sherbestdress—don’tyouthinkshelooksgorgeous,theydidagoodjobonher,youcanbarelyevenseetheholeinherhead.(5)
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Inaclearparodyofoligarchicfemininity,Lauraissotakenbythemake-upartist’ssuccessin
coveringthebulletholeinherbestfriend’sheadthatsheseemstoforgetforamomentthat
sheisdead.Asifremembering,Lauradropsthevacuouschatterforamomenttonote,“Son
unoshijosdeputa,habríaquematarlosatodos,”(Thosesonsofbitches,thosecowards,they
shouldallbekilled)beforeimmediatelynoting:“Miráelpeinadoquélindolehaquedado…”
(Doesn’therhairlookgreat?)(14;5).
Themodeloffemininityparodiedhereandthroughoutthenovelissimultaneously
decorativeandopenlyfascistic,amixturethatgiveshistoricaltexturetoarepresentationthat
mightotherwiseeasilyfallintocasualsexism.14ForLauraisagenderedrepresentativeofa
particularclassformation:ElSalvador’snotorious“14families,”thenamegiventothehandful
offamiliesthatdominatedthecountry’seconomyandpoliticsformuchofthe20thcentury.
Thisoligarchyrosetoprominenceinthe19thcenturywithcoffee,andlaterotheragro-exports
(suchassugarcaneandcotton),presidingoveroneofthemostunequaldistributionsoflandin
LatinAmerica.Afterapeasant-andcommunist-ledinsurgencyin1932,thisclassranthestate
bymilitaryproxyforthenexthalfcenturytodefeatanyattemptatreform,earningthemthe
reputationasoneofthemostreactionaryoligarchiesintheregion(nosmallfeat!).15During
14CastellanosMoya’srepresentationofLauraremindsmeoftheChileanwriterPedroLemebel’sparodieswhite,upperclassandprofoundlyreactionarymodeloffemininitythatbecameanideologicalpillarofthePinochetregime,infiguresliketheChileanMissUniverseCeciliaBoloccoandtheactress-turned-politicianRaquelArgandoña;seeDeperlasycitactrices.15ThefirstmajoreventthatconstitutesthehistoricalcharacterofthisclassformationisLaMatanzaof1932,inwhichtheSalvadoranarmymassacredbetween10and40thousandpeasants,indigenouspeopleandcommuniststoquellrebellioninthecountryside.Afterthis,theoligarchyopposedallmannerofreformfor50years,whichiswidelyrecognizedastheprimarycauseofthecivilwarinthe1980s.ThisoligarchywassoreactionarythateventheSalvadoranmilitarybrokeawaytoenactlandreformin1979(alast-ditchefforttocontainthecivilwar),toireofitsformerpatrons.EventheU.S.—heavilyinvestedincontainingthe
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thecivilwarbetweensocialistsandthemilitary,ElSalvador’sinfamousultra-rightdeathsquads
emergedoutoftheirranks.HencetheoffhandmannerinwhichLaurasaysthat‘theyshouldall
bekilled,’shouldthereforenotbetakenlightly,especiallywhencouchedinseeminglyinnocent
chatteraboutherdeadbestfriend’sdressandhairdo.
TheeffectivenessofLadiabla’srepresentationofpost-warElSalvadordependsuponits
adoptionoftheperspectiveofafemalememberofthe14families,anoligarchythat,aswe’ll
seeshortly,haslargelyabandonedcoffeeproductioninthepostwarperiodtobecomeretail
magnates,advertisingexecutivesandfinanciers.Iftheomniscientrealistvoiceemployedby
FontaineinOírsuvozservedtonaturalizethebasesof“reality”inneoliberalChile,the
adoptionofLaura’sskewedfirst-personperspectivedenaturalizesanddestabilizesthatreality.
HereIaminspiredbyRobertoSchwarz’sreadingofthegreat19th-centuryBrazilianauthor
MachadodeAssis,whowasabletomovepasttheimpassesoftheperiod’srealismbyadopting
theperspectiveoftheslaveowningelite,ashiftthatallowed“acomplete,intimateexposureof
theveryviewpointitostensiblyadopted”(Schwarz47).CastellanosMoya’sadoptionofan
upper-classperspectiveworksinasimilarfashion,allowingfullandintimateaccessintothe
seeminglylimitlesssocialdepredationsofpost-warElSalvador.16
communistthreat—opposedtheoligarchsasbackward,andshiftedsupporttofactionsofthemilitaryandChristianDemocrats.SeeVelásquez.16SchwarzmaintainsthatMachadodeAssisdismantledrealismwhileremainingarealist,anobservationthatholdstrueforCastellanosMoya’sattempttocreateavisionofsocialtotalityinpost-warElSalvador.Alongtheselines,WeisnercallsCastellanosMoya’sproject—whichcomprisessomeXnovels—‘almostBalzaquian’inhisuseofrecurringcharactersandsettings.Indeed,novels,readtogether,createsocialmapofpostwarElSalvador.Differentformssimultaneouslypointtotheradicalfragmentationanddecenteringofthissociety,anditsultimateintelligibilitybywayofalongerhistoricaldurée.Inhistwelvenovelstodate,wecanpointtonovelslikeElAsco:ThomasBernhardenSanSalvador(1997),thedisaffectedfirst-personnarrativeofanexiledintellectualwhohasreturnedtoElSalvadorafterseveralyears;
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TheChileannovelistRobertoBolañooncestatedthatHoracioCastellanosMoyais“the
onlywriterofmygenerationwhoknowshowtonarratethehorror,thesecretVietnamthat
LatinAmericawasforalongtime.”17AndLaura’svoiceisindeedsteepedinthisColdWar
history,andcannotescapeit.Atfirstglance,thenovelsituatesusinthehyper-presentofa
triumphantneoliberalism,fullofreferencestotheshinynewmalls,boutiques,restaurantsand
advertisingagenciesthatcharacterizethe“New”(post-warandneoliberal)ElSalvador.Take,
forexample,Laura’sappraisalofanewmall.“Handejadobienlindoesecentrocommercial.
Loquenomegustaesesecaseróncolonialquequedóenmedio;lohuieranbotato:un
chipustehorrible,rodeadodetiendaslindasymodernas.”(63)(Theydidagoodjobonthat
mall,exceptforthatbigoldcolonialmansiontheyleftrightinthemiddle;theyshouldhave
tornitdown;suchacrummyolddumpsurroundedbyallthosepretty,modernstores(52).And
yetitispreciselyLaurawho—inthemidstofthis‘prettyandmodern’presentcan’tstoptalking
aboutthebloodyColdWarpast,anditsreverberationsinthepresent.Evenasshefrequentsa
Baileconserpientes(1996),afantastictaleaboutanunemployedsociologistwhoridesaroundthecapitalinaChevroletfulloftalkingsnakes,killingeveryoneintheirwake;andTiranamemoria,amoretraditionallyrealistnovelsetduringthefallofthedictatorHernándezMartínezin1944.17ItshouldbenotedherethatBolañohimselfturnstooligarchicperspectivetounlockthishistoryofanti-communistcounterinsurgencyandcounterrevolutioninNocturnodeChile(2000).Thenoveltakestheformofasingle-paragraph,deliriousdeathbedinternalmonologueoftheOpusDeipriestandliterarycriticSebastiánUrrutiaLacroix,acharacterinturnmodeledonJoséMiguelIbáñezLanglois,betterknownbyhispseudonymIgnacioValente.Likehishistoricalinspiration,UrrutiaLacroixhailsfromChile’slandowningoligarchy;afterthe1973coup,hebecomesatutorinMarxismtoPinochet(whowantstounderstandhowhisenemiesthink).Bolaño’snovelthusconjoinsthelandowningoligarchy,theChurch,literaryinstitutionsandthemilitarytotellthestoryofthePinochetcounterrevolution.ItisworthnotingthatNocturnodeChilebearsstrikingformalsimilaritieswithLadiabla:theoligarchicmonologuetransmitsaskewed,partialanddeliriousvisionoftransitionthatnonethelessgivesglimpseoflargerhistoricalprocesses.Inbothnovels,thislimitedperspectiveallowsthebrutalhistoryofcounterrevolutiontobeexperiencedinadelusionalmode.
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Frenchbistrobecause‘unasesientecomosinoestuvieraenSanSalvador”(81),(youdon’tfeel
likeyou’reinSanSalvador,73)forexample,shecan’tavoidmentioningthatitsownerisMirna
Leiva,fromacoffeefamily,whoduringthewarfellinwiththecommunistsandwastortured
andrapedbysecurityforces.ThisactthatmakesLaurashudderwithdisgustbeforenotingthat
“Papasaystheydon’tarrestanybodyfornoreason,Mirnamusthavebeeninvolvedin
something”(79).Throughsuchactsofforgettingandremembering,orerasureand
resurrectionoftheColdWarpast,thedisorderlyfragmentsthatconstituteLaura’smonologue
thusprovideaccesstoalargerstoryofhistoricaltransitioninElSalvador.
Theformtakenbythisstoryisafirstpersonmonologue,aformthatimmediatelycalls
tomind—ifonlytodebaseit—themostfamousliterarygenretoemergefromCentralAmerica
inthe1980s:testimonio(Kokotovic).Thisgenreiscreditedasthefirsttogivevoicetopoor,
rural,subjects,oftenindigenousandfemale,whosestorieshadlongbeenexcludedfrom
lettereddiscourseinLatinAmerica.Themostfamousoftheseisofcourse,RigobertaMenchú’s
MellamoRigobertaMenchúyasímenaciólaconciencia(1983),whichtellsthestoryofthe
Guatemalanarmy’sgenocideagainstindigenouspeople(carriedoutinthenameofcounter-
insurgency)fromtheperspectiveofoneofitssurvivors,aMaya-Kichéwoman.InElSalvador,
ManlioArgueta’stestimonialnovellikeUndíaenlavida(1980),isthefirst-personnarrativeofa
ruralwomanwhosehusbandisarrestedandkilledbythemilitaryfororganizingagainstthe
landownerheworkedfor.Inthepost-warperiod,HoracioCastellanosMoyapervertsthis
genrebytellingafirst-personstoryfromtheperspectiveofvictorsandperpetrators.InLa
Diabla,itisthevacuouslyoligarchicwomanwhogoesaboutlifeinanElSalvadorofmalls,
bistrosandSUVs.Inasubsequentnovel,Elarmaenelhombre(TheWeaponintheMan,2001),
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thefirst-personstoryofOlgaMaria’skiller,nicknamed“Robocop”,theanti-testimonyis
narratedformermemberoftheSalvadoranarmy’sspecialcounter-insurgencyforces,turned
intoaprivatehitmaninthepostwarperiod.Onaverybasiclevel,thisperversionoftestimonio
positsthedeathofthisgenreasconcomitantwiththedeathofnational-popularand
revolutionarystrugglesinCentralAmerica—ahorizonofworld-historicalrevolutionary
potentialinthe1980s—astheregionbrokereda‘peace’fullypredicateduponitsabsorption
intoglobalcapitalism.18
HoracioCastellanosMoya’s‘anti-testimonial’modethusexpresses,inagrotesque
fashion,aclassvictory,andthesuccessfulblockageoftherevolutionarypossibilityfromwhich
testiminioemerged.Thetwosectorsmostresponsibleforthisblockage—theoligarchyandthe
U.S.-supportedmilitary—areeachgiventheirownnovel.Thisvictory,inturn,opensontothe
employmentofasecondgenreemployedinLadiablaenelespejo:detectivefiction.Thisisa
genrethat,asseveralcriticshavealreadyexamined,hasflourishedinpost-ColdWar,neoliberal
societies.AsFredricJamesonwasperhapsthefirsttonote,fortheUScontext,detectivefiction
representsanideologicalandepistemologicaldecenteringincapitalism(RaymondChandler’s
LA),adecenteringthatreachesnewheightsinacontextlikepost-warSanSalvador.19Weknow
thatthehitmanRobocop(whosenameconjuresthecontributionoftheUnitedStatesmilitary
tothecivilwar)isaformersoldier;demobilizedinthepostwarpresent,however,ashehas
becomeahitmanforhire,inaninstanceofwhatJeanFrancohascalled“theprivatizationof
atrocity”incontemporaryLatinAmerica.InLadiabla,wedonotknowwhohashiredRobocop18CfRobinson,Kissingerreportof1984alreadylaysthisoutclearly.19RecentinterestindetectivefictioninLatinAmerica.SeeClose,Kokotovic,Chinchilla.(Morehere)
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tokillOlgaMaría,orwhy.Thepoliticallydecenteredandradicallyprivatizedsocialcontext
generates,onaverybasiclevel,theneedfordetection.Alongthesamelines,itissignificant
thatLadiabla,asdetectivenovelfocusesentirelyonconflictswithinthevictoriousclass(and
not,asinthepreviousera,onrevolution),bringingtomindBenjamin’sobservationthatthe
originalsettingfordetectivefictionisthenineteenth-centurybourgeoisinterior,linkingthe
genrefundamentallywithclasscriminality.20
Tothisdegree,itisimportantthatLaura’smonologuefocusesonOlgaMaría’ssecret
affairswithmembersofherclosedsocialcircletoprovidecluestothemurder.Thecharacters
consideredincludeaSpanishemigrant,nicknamed“JulioIglesias”,whoworksforOlgaMaria’s
husband’sadvertisingfirm;aphotographer,‘mediocomunistaperodebuenafamilia,’(who
returnstoElSalvadoraftertheWar,(34),Laura’sownex-husbandAlberto,theownerofan
investmentfirm(moreonthislater);andElYuca,theownerofmega-storesandrising
politician.ThroughthesestoriesweneverlearnwhokilledLaura—thoughmorecluesare
providedinCastellanosMoya’scompanionnovelElarmaenelhombre—butwedogeta
20ForBenjamin,thenineteenth-centurydetectivegenrefollowsthe‘traces’ofprivateindividualsinthebourgeoisinterior,notingthat“(t)hecriminalsofthefirstdetectivenovelsareneithergentlemennorapaches,butprivatemembersofthebourgeoisie”(156).TheelementofclasscriminalityassociatedwithdetectivefictionresurfacesinLadiablaaswellasinothernovels:forexample,asmentionedearlier,LauraRestrepo’sDelirio,themysteryconvergesaroundanoligarchicfamily’sinvolvementinthedrugtradein1980sColombia.Othernovelslocatethemurdermysteryinaphysicallyclosedupper-classmilieu(anothervariationonBenjamin’sinterior):inPatriciaLara’snovelHilodesangreazul(2009),thesuicide-murdermysteryunfoldsinaluxurycondominium;similarly,ClaudiaPiñeiro’sLasviudasdelosjueves(2005),themurdertakesplaceinagatedcommunityoutsideBuenosAiresintheaftermathofthe2001economiccrash.InLara’snovel,themysteryisresolvedthroughaPonzischeme;inPiñeiro’s,bywayofalifeinsuranceschemeconcoctedbyexecutivesruinedbythe2001economiccrisis.Ontheseupper-classmilieusasvariationsoftropeofthe‘lockedroom’incontemporaryLatinAmericandetectivefiction,seeChinchilla.
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pictureofatransition,asoutlinedbelow,fromalandedtoafinancialoligarchy;and,asa
corollary,fromanoligarchicunityofpurposeagainstrevolutioninthecoldwarperiodtointra-
classcompetition(figuredasbetrayalandmurder)inthepostwarneoliberalorder.
ThestoryofElYucaisemblematicoftheremakingoftheSalvadoranoligarchyinthe
crucibleofscorchedearthcounter-insurgencyandeconomicliberalization.AtOlgaMaría’s
wake,ElYucaarrives,andLaurareminiscesabouthowheandherfriend’shighschoolromance:
“hacíanunaparejaperfecta,losdosguapísimos…”(37)(Theywouldhavemadetheperfect
couple,bothsogood-looking,30).Today,heisapowerfulpolitician,rumoredtobenameda
candidateforthepresidencysoon.DismissingrumorsthatelYucamarriedthedaughterof
retailmagnatetoboosthispoliticalcareer,Laurasayshehadnochoicebuttogetinvolvedin
politics:
“fueporquelequitarontodaslasfincasdesufamilia,yomeacuerdo,niña,alláporelcomienzodelaGuerra.ElYucayaestabaalapardelmayorLeChevalier,dandolacaracontraloscomunistas,nadalehanregalado,alcontrario,elhombresehafajadoparallegaradondeestá,poresodonFedericolehaechadoelhombro”(38)itwasbecausetheytookallhisfamily’sfincas,Irememberitwell,mydear,rightatthebeginningofthewar,YucawasuptherewithMajorLeChevalier,takingastandagainstthecommunists.Hehasn’thadanythinghandedtohimonasilverplatter,onthecontrary,thatmanhasworkedlikeadogtogetwhereheis,that’swhyDonFedericolenthimahand(31).
Onceagain,asinOírsuvoz,itisparadoxicallyagrarianreform—inElSalvadorcarried
outbythemilitaryregimeasalast-ditchhedgeagainstsocialistrebellion,totheireof
landowners—thatallowsthelandedoligarchytoremakeitselfunderanewmodelof
accumulation.AsinChile,ElSalvador’sshort-livedlandreformiscreditedwithcrushingwhat
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remainedofagrarianelites.21Butonceagain,fictionrepresentshowlandreform,ratherthan
destroyingtheoligarchy,allowsittoberebornunderneoliberalreform.First,duringthewar,
ElYucajoinsLeChevalier(athinlyveiledallusiontoRobertoD’Aubisson,theultra-rightfounder
ofdeathsquadsandthepoliticalpartyARENA)tofightagainstcommunism,thencrossesover
inpeacetimetobecomeapoliticianandretailer.
AsinOírsuvoz,inonemomentlandreformcripplestheoldoligarchicsystem,whilein
thenext,aperiodcounter-revolutionfollowedbyneoliberalrestructuringallowstheformer
landownertoreconstitutehimselfasafull-fledgedcapitalist.IntheSalvadorannovel,the
expropriatedlandownerbecomesadeathsquadleadertodohispartintheblockingof
revolution;oncethepeacearrives,hecloakshimselfinthelegitimacyofelectoraldemocracy,
andtakesfulladvantageofopportunitiestoaccumulateinaprivatizedandderegulatedmarket.
Thisperformanceisneverquitefullylegitimate,however:therearehumanrightsgroupsafter
him(Laura’sstrenuousdisavowalofhiscrimesleavesnodoubtastotheirtruth);andaswe
learnfromLaura’sreportonhisaffairwithOlgaMaria,heisacocaineaddict,andtotallyerratic
inhisbehavior.
ThroughYucawecanseethattheformeroligarchyisforcedoutofitshistoricalrolein
agro-exportproduction(coffee,cotton,sugar)bylandreform;outofviolentcounterinsurgency,
intheformofdeathsquadsandthelike,followedbyneoliberalreform,arisenew
opportunities.Thistime,however,theseopportunitiesarenotintheproductionof
commodities,butinnon-productiveventureslikeretail,advertising,insurance,realestate,and,
mostimportantly,finance.
21SeeRobinson.
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TheoligarchyinLaDiablahasallbutabandonedcoffee,thecommoditythathadcome
todefinethisclasshistorically.Significantly,Laura’sfatheristheonlycharacterinthenovel
thatremainscommittedtocoffee,amoveLauraherselfexplainsassheerstubbornness.
Becauseanyoneanysenseknowsthattheeraofcoffeeisover:“Owningcoffeeplantations
isn’twhatitusedtobe,there’sonesetbackafteranotherthesedays,firstthecommunists
takingthemoverandnotallowingtheharvest,andnowthedropinprices.That’swhyDoña
Olgawasrighttogetridofthem,itwasforthebest.Myfathershoulddothesame,andI’ve
toldhimso,buthe’spigheaded,veryattachedtohisland.Hey,lookwhojustarrived…”(23)
Betweeninternalobstacles(communistpeasants)andexternalones(thefallofexport
cropssincethe1970s),plantingcoffeejustisn’tworthitanymore.Inthenovel,whenDoña
Olgaandotherformerlandownersselltheircoffeefarms,theyinvesttheprofitsinthefinancial
sector:namely,aninvestmentfirmmanagedbyLaura’sex-husbandAlberto(withwhom,Laura
discovers,OlgaMaríaalsohadanaffair).Thisinvestmentfirm,namedFinapro,servesasa
referentforamajorshifttowardfinanceintheSalvadoraneconomyafterthewar:massive
U.S.militaryspendinginthe1980s,coupledwiththeprivatizationofpreviouslystate-owned
banks,providedampleopportunitiesfortheoligarchytoabandonagricultureforgood.Asa
result,thesociologistVelásquezCarrasconotes,thepreviousagro-exportoligarchybecame“a
rigidoligopycontolledbyahandfuloffinancialenterprises”(page).Or,asnewspaperarticles
haveannounced,the14familieshavebeenreconfiguredinto8businessgroupsownedbythe
descendantsofthisclass,andbearingtheirnames:Solá,Hill,Llach,etc.22
22Onthe14Familiesas8businessgroups:http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/56827.html.Also,FINAPROinthenovelismostlikelybasedinthecaseofthecollapseoftheinvestmentfirmFinapre.
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Ladiablaenelespejoincorporatesthishistoricalshiftintoitsplot,butalsointoits
formalorganization,intwoways:first,throughavisionofthenewoligarchyasaPonzischeme;
andsecond,throughLaura’sownvoice,whichexperiencesasbreakdownpreciselyatthe
momentoffinancialcollapse.Finaprodramatizesamassiveshiftinaccumulationpatternsin
postwarElSalvador,fromproductiontocirculation,andfromanexport-orientedcapitalismto
onethatisdrivenbytransnationalfinance,asPadillaandothershavealreadypointedout.The
socialsettingofLadiablaishencedefinednotonlybyideologicaldecentering,butalsobya
particularlyfinancialformofinstability.TheclimaxofthenovelcomesasLauralearnsofthe
collapseoftheinvestmentfirm.Shecallsex-husbandAlbertototellhimsheknowsabouthis
affairwithherdeadbestfriend;hetellsherthathehasbiggerthingstoworryabout--allof
Finapro’smoneyisgone.Laura,stunned,tellsherfriend:‘itjustcanbethatallthatmoney’s
beenlost,moneyjustdoesn’tdisappearfromonedaytothenext”(138).Tothemurder
mysterythenoveladdsanother,thatofmoneyitself.Laura’sfather,thelastcoffeeplanterin
thenovel’smilieu,notesthat‘he’dbeenexpectingthis,itwasimpossibleforthemtobepaying
twenty-twopercentannuallywhenthebankswerepayingten,therehadtobesomething
shadygoingon”(140).Here,thereconfigurationoftheoligarchyasfinancialclasstakesa
specificformundercontemporarycapitalism:thePonzischeme.WhileLauramarvelsthat
”everyone”hadmoneyinFINAPRO—fromOlgaMaría’smother,tomilitaryofficials‘whomade
millionsduringthewar’,totheArchbishop—thesearepreciselytheclosed,incestuous
relationshipsthatpermittedtheinvestmentfirmtocreatefictitiouscapitalinthefirstplace.
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Hugegainsarepossible,infact22%aslongaseveryonebelieves,butthesegainsevaporate
whenbeliefcannolongerbemaintained(asinevitablyoccursinthecontextofalargercrisis).23
Theoligarchy,unmooredfromland,isbestfiguredinLadiablaasagroupofinvestorsin
aPonzischeme.Thisatteststotheincestuouscharacteroftheeliteastheymakeanewleap
intotransnationalfinance.Italsoatteststothefactthatthisclass,insellingoffcoffeefarms,
haslargelyabandonedproductionitself.Astartlingstatisticillustratesthisshift:accordingto
VelasquezCarrillo,in1978,81%offoreignearningscamefromtheagro-exportsector.Butin
2004,thishadbeenreducedtoamere5%offoreignearnings,whileworkerremittanceshad
cometooccupy70%,thusbecomingthenewpillaroftheSalvadoraneconomy(10).
Hereinliesanothersecretoftheoligarchicturntowardfinanceinthe1990s.Inthepost
warperiod,windfallprofitsfromtheprivatizationofbanksgreasedthewheelsofanemerging
financialcomplex,while—asadirectresultofscorchedearthcounter-insurgencyand
austerity—massesofworkers,manyofthemformerpeasants,wereexpelledintolabormarkets
intheUnitedStates(theverycountrythatfinancedthewar).Andwhilethesourceofthe
23OlgaMaría’smurderandthefinancialfraud,inturn,openontoalargercriminalconspiracyinLadiabla.ForitisrumoredthatToñitoRathis,theownerofFinapro,isindebttotheCalicocainecartel.Theoligarchy’sconnectionstonarco-traffickingarefurtherexploredinHoracioCastellanosMoya’ssubsequentnovel,Elarmaenelhombre,narratedfromtheperspectiveofOlgaMaria’skiller,Robocop,inwhichToñitoandElYucareemergeastheleadersoftworivaldruggangs.Inthesetwonovels,narco-traffickingemergesnotonly,asCarlosMonsiváisonceremarked,as“thehighestrepresentationofcriminalityinneoliberalism,”butmorespecifically,thehighestrepresentationofclasscriminality.ThepenultimatesectionofElarmatakeplaceinpoppyfieldsownedbyElYuca,aka“ElTíoPepe,”revealingtheremakingofthelandedoligarchybywayofnarco-trafficking.(Also,ifthereisanyproductivebaseintheguttedSalvadoraneconomy,itisnotinmaquilas,asneoliberalreformershadhopedfor,butinpoppyproduction!)
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moneyisnotdirectlyrepresentedinthenovel,migrantworkerremittancesarepresentin
ghostlyformintheirconversionintofictitiouscapital.
AndsotheroleofthereconstitutedoligarchyrepresentedinLadiablabecomeseven
moreperverse,ifthiswerepossible,whereindirectcontroloverworkers(thepatriarchal
agriculturaleconomy)morphsintoatransnationalarrangementwhereintheoligarchyskim
profitsfromthelaborthatscorchedearthandausterityexpelledfromthecountry.Thisdeep
andperversehistoryisitselfpresentinLaura’sownvoice,whichasnotedservesasatemporal
bridgebetweentheColdWarandthecommodity‘now’.TheColdWarstrainsofLaura’svoice
giveway,inturn,toavoicethatbridgesatransitionfromaneconomyrootedinproductionto
onerootedincirculation.24
Thistransitionisrifewithopportunitiesbutalsodangers,aspresentinthecollapseof
theinvestmentfirm.Laura(whomightnotbeasvacuousasweareledtobelieve)comesto
thinkthatherfriend’smurderandthefinancialfraudarerelated.“WhatifOlgaMariaand
AlbertowerestillseeingeachotherandshefoundoutwhatwashappeningwithFinapro?…It
waslikeIsawablindinglight.Ifeltthisterribledread,asifmydiscovery,thatI’dsolvedthe
case,couldcostmemylife”(141).Asiftoconfirmherpossibleinsights,herfather,towhom
sherelateshertheory,simplytellshertokeephermouthshut.Afterthechapterinwhichshe
convincesherselfthatshehasdiscoveredthetruecauseofherfriend’sdeath,Laurabecomes
increasinglyparanoidandunhinged.Inachapterentitled“TheStampede,”Laura’slong-
windedandmeanderingmusingsgivewaytoshort,staccatosentencesenclosedbymultiple
24Othercritics,suchasPadilla,havealreadypointedtothetransitionfromagriculturetocirculationinLadiabla’splot;IwanttoemphasizethatthetransitionextendsintoLaura’svoice,andhencethenovel’sveryform.
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exclamationpoints,inwhichshebecomesconvincedthatOlgaMaria’skiller,Robocop,is
outsideherdoor.Inthefollowingandfinalchapter,“TheClinic,”wefindoutthatLaurahas
beeninternedforaparanoid-schizoidepisode,aswelearnthatthefriendshehasbeen
addressingthroughoutthenoveldoesn’texist.
Thisresolutionfrustratestheaimofthedetectivegenre:wedon’tfindoutwhokilled
OlgaMaria—thisseemsimpossibletoknow,giventheopacityofsocialrelationsinthecurrent
era,anopacitythatislinkedatoncetothepreviouseraofbrutality(deathsquadsandcounter-
insurgency)ElSalvadorandtothemysteriousnessoftransnationalfinanceinthecontemporary
era.Laura’svoicebridgesthesetwomoments,aworkofsuturingthatcanonlybeexpressedas
madnessandparanoia.Notaccidentally,thisrepresentationisrootedinalonghistory(inboth
EuropeandtheAmericas)thatcastsfinancialinstabilityasparticularlyfeminineincharacter;
whatsavestherepresentationfromcasualsexismisthefactthatthisoligarchicmodelof
femininitydoesprovideuniqueinsightsintothehistoryofthisclass,andintoitschief
contradictions.ThedecorativenessandvacuityofLaura’sfemininityishistorical,withpractical
andideologicalfunctions:tocementsocialrelations(theyarethe“14families”after);tojustify
classprivilege(oftenthroughadiscourseofrace);andtoprovideaveneerofbeautyand
respectabilityinthemidstofunrelentingrepressionandinequality.ButincontemporaryEl
Salvador—intheaftermathofColdWarmassacresandinthemidstoffinancialcriseswithout
end—thisperformanceofdecorativefemininityitselfcomesunderpressureandbeginsto
crack.Unmooredfrom‘family,’fromland,andfromproductionitself,theoligarchylooksat
itselfinashatteredmirror,reflectingtheimageofLaura.Thisimage,inturn,isonethat
emergesfromon-goingprocessesofsocialdisintegration,withnoendinsight.Byrestricting
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thenoveltothenarrowfocusofaself-cannibalizingoligarchy,CastellanosMoyaallowsusto
seehowtheunendingdepredationsvisiteduponElSalvadortoday—highmurderrates,
rampantpoverty,massiveforcedmigration—arethemselvesperpetratedbyaspecificclass
structurewithabrutalhistory.