The Journal of the

TEXTILEINSTITUTE

Official Journal for Communications (Transactions) released for Publication by the British Cotton Industry Research Association (including its Rayon and Silk Sections), the Wool Industries Research Association, the Linen Industry Research Association and the Technological Laboratory of the Indian Central

Cotton Committee

C O N TE N T ^P R O C E E D IN G S S E C T IO N

Irish Section— T he Preparation and Finishing' 01 *u|i|<*B»neceGoods— Atkinson ... ... ... ... ... ... P171-P176

L ondon Section— T h e C onversion of B ritish Currency, M easures,and W eights to a D ecim al System— Gilsoti ... ... ... P177-P181

Yorkshire Section— Standard T esting of Y am s and Fabrics—Bayes .............................. ............................... .................P182-P186Reviews. D D T . M eetings o f L ondon Section and Lancashire

Section (Bolton B ranch)... ... ... ... . . ... P187-P197 Institu te D iplom as. Institu te M em bership. Em ploym ent Register P197-P200 Institu te M eetings. Section H on. Secretaries ... ... ...P 2 0 1 -P 2 0 2

T R A N S A C T IO N S S E C T IO N23— M easures to Check D eterioration in Egyptian Cotton Varieties — Hancock

Part I—T h e Giza Seed M aintenance System ... ...T 267-T 277 P art I I — D evelopm ent of N ew Varieties ... ... .. .T278-T292 Part I I I —Extent, N ature and Causes of D eterioration ...T 293-T 310

A B S T R A C T S S E C T IO N ........................................................................A453-A500

T H E T E X T IL E IN STITU TEST. M A R Y 'S PA R SO N A G E , M AN CH ESTER

T EL E PH O N E B L A C K F R IA R S 2016

VACANCIES

C O U R T A U L D S L IM IT E D — (i) A S taff V a can cy exists for a technician, under 40 years of age, to w ork in a T extile Research L aboratory. A pp licants should have several years experience in T extile M achine-Printing and a sound knowledge of Chem istry. E xperience in Screen-Printing would be an asset.

(2) A Staff V a ca n cy exists for a Junior P h ysicist for ‘T extile Research L ab o ra to ry . A pplicants m ust have a good H onours degree in Physics, and experience in T extiles. A questionnaire w ill be sent to applicants w ho w rite to the D irector of Personnel, Courtaulds L im ited, 16, St. M artins-le-Grand, London E .C .i .

JO H N C. H A M E R L IM IT E D of R adcliffe (w eaving, dyein g and finishing) require an A ssistan t M anager w ith outstanding a b ility and a know ­ledge of all sections of C otton M anufacturing. T he position carries excellent prospects of advancem ent.

A pplicants m ust in the first instance furnish (by letter only) full particulars of experience and qualifications, and salary required, to the M anaging D irector, H ope Mill, Radcliffe.

M IL L M A N A G E R , young, energetic, fu lly .experienced, w anted for cotton warp cloths, M orley district. S tate experience, salary required. B o x No. 82.

S P E C IA L IS E D T E X T I L E M A C H IN IS T S have a good opening for a com petent m an havin g a practical and theoretical know ledge of a ll stages of cotton spinning. A pp lication s to B o x N o. 83.

W A N T E D , Y O U N G M A N to assist w ith the design and control of experim ents in cotton spinning and w ith the w riting of reports. A technical qualification such as B .S c . (Tech.) w ill be an advantage b u t not a necessity, and applications will be considered from candidates w ith a general scientific qualification, an aptitude for the w ork, and an interest in technical m atters. Com m encing salary, £300-^400 accord­ing to age and experience. A pplications to be addressed to The B ritish Cotton In dustry Research A ssociation, Shirley In stitute, D idsbury, M anchester.

D C D D I f t l T C O rders should be sent to THE T EX TILE IN STITU TE,I t C r N I l i I 9 16 St. M a r y ’s P a r s o n a g e , M ANCH ESTER, 3.A FE W COPIES O F THE FO L L O W IN G REPRINTS A R E A V A IL A B L E :—

C u r r e n t C h a n g e s in the T e c h n o lo g y o f C otton S p in n in g— W . L . B alls* T e n ta tive T e x t ile S tan d a rd N o . 10, 1944. S tan d a rd T e s tin g M eth o d s fo r N a rro w F a b rics .T h e C h e m istry o f W o o l a n d R e la te d F ib r e s — J . B . Speakm anR ecen t Industrial T e n d e n c ie s . T h e S ubstitution o f K n o w le d g e an d C o -o p e ra tio n fo r Instinct

an d C o m p etitio n — H . G . H ughes.Shuttle T a p p in g : A S o u rc e o f F a b r ic D e fe cts — F . K endall.C o m p a ris o n o f the C loth Q u a litie s o f C o n tin en ta l a n d N o b le C o m b e d M ate ria ls— E . M idg ley. E d u ca tio n a l R eco n stru ctio n , w ith s o m e s p e c ia l r e fe r e n c e to the T e x tile In d u stries— G . D . H . Cole T e x tile R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e lo p m e n t— S ir R obert T . P ickard . In dustria l L e a d e r s h ip — A . P . Young. L ib e ra l E d u ca tion an d M o d e rn B u sin ess— S ir M . E . Sadler.P attern fo r In d u stry— C . J . T . CronshawP rice 1/- ea ch P ost F ree . "Price 2/- ea ch P ost F ree .

N O V E M B E R 1945 p i 71

T H E J O U R N A L OF T H ETEXTILE INSTITUTEVol. X X X V I N O V E M B E R 1945 No. ix

Irish SectionTHE PREPARATION AND FINISHING OF

RAYON PIECE GOODSB y C . P . A t k i n s o n

(,Substance of a lecture delivered in B elfast on 21 st M arch, 1945)

D esizing and S couringI t is proposed to deal first w ith fabrics m ade from continuous filam ent

rayon, th en w ith crepe fabrics and finally w ith fabrics m ade from " F ib ro ” and " R a y o la n jia .” “ F ib r o ” is th e registered trade nam e o f C o u rtau ld s’ viscose rayon staple fibre. “ R a y o la n d a ” is th e registered trad e nam e o f C ourtau ld s’ basified viscose staple fibre. I t is n o t a lw ays realised th a t there are no natural im purities in rayon as received b y the d y e r and finisher. Therefore, a ll th a t i t is necessary t o rem ove from faibrics before d yein g are the size applied to ensure satisfactory w ea vin g of th e w arps and a n y traces of d irt or oil accum ulated during processing and w eavin g. G en erally speaking the m ethods of de-sizing, scouring an d b leachin g norm ally required fo r cotton piece goods can be m odified considerably, p articu larly as regards strength of deter­gents, tim e of processing an d tem perature of operation. G elatine (1-5 per cent, to 4-5 per cent.) w ith sm all percentages o f em ulsifiable oils is usually used for sizing continuous filam ent w arps and can b est be rem oved b y treatin g th e pieces on the jigger. Jiggers w ith tension control are ad vo cated , and it is advisable to run w ith tension as low as possible consistent w ith m aintaining a level b a tch w ith o u t a n y ten dency to bu ild up o ver th e selvedges. F rom the poin t of view of u ltim ate handle, a tten tio n to th is fa cto r is o f param ount im portance.

G elatine size is re a d ily rem oved if th e pieces are th o ro u gh ly w etted o u t on th e jigger and allow ed to stan d fo r a period before w ashin g off an d scouring.

The im portance of a good soft w ater sup ply, preferably supplem ented b y w arm w ater fo r w ashin g off is n o t a lw a ys realised. M any of th e fau lts w hich occur in dyein g a n d /o r prin tin g o f rayo n s are due to fa u lty de-sizing and scouring, and one o f th e m o st effective insurances a gain st these fau lts is to have a suitable w ater and a good neutral soap in a ll p reparatory processes. I f th e w ater availab le has m ore th a n i° to 2° o f hardness, th e use o f suitable assistants (such as sodium h e x a m etaphosphate), should be considered. T h e slight e xtra co st of the b etter ty p e s o f soap such as th e o live o il soaps is usually a good investm ent. T h e y h a v e superior em ulsifying, w ettin g , dispersing and lubricating properties. T h e y are an add ition al safeguard against fau lts tra ce­able to inefficient desizing and residual lim e soap. T h e insoluble soaps appear

P I 7 2 Proceedings

in ev ita b ly w hen u n satisfacto ry w ater is used. Sulphonated fa tty alcohols m ay be used w ith advan tage in com bination w ith soap. Since avoidance of trouble is b etter th a n its cure, th e use w herever possible o f a so ft w ater, and a high grade n eu tral soap is a d v o ca ted .

B leach in gI t is n ot necessary in general to b leach rayon to a n y appreciable extent,

so th a t the process can b e m odified according to th e construction of the fab ric . F o r exam ple, lin in g fabrics m ade from rayon w arps and cotton w efts a fte r singeing, de-sizing and scouring, require o n ly m ild bleachin g treatm ent, p articu larly as th e rayo n w arp is on th e face o f the fabric. I t w ill be appreci­a ted th a t sheeting fab rics m ade from 100 p er cent, fibro or fibro w arp and cotton w eft w ill n ot require a fu ll linen o r co tton bleaching process, and th a t m odifications can be m ade w ith advan tage. W h en necessary, b leachin g should be carried o u t w ith hyp ochlorite fo llow ed b y ch lorite , w hich results in a b etter w hite w ith reduced dam age to th e rayon in th e fabric. (See D yer and Calico Printer, 2/2 /4 5, V o l. X C I I I N o. 3, and T extile M anufacturer, A ugu st, 1944, V o l. 70 fo r a ltern ative suggestions using m ixtu res o f chlorite and hypochlorite).

A cetate F abricsW ith regard to “ S era ceta ,” w hich is th e registered trade nam e of C ourtaulds’

cellulose acetate , I can do 110 b etter than refer you to a lecture given to the S o ciety of D yers and Colourists in Jan uary, 1931. I w ould em phasise, how ­ever, th a t it is essential in the handling o f a ceta te fabrics to avoid extrem e changes of tem perature. F ab rics should be w ashed off a fte r a ll h o t treatm ents in w arm w ater, not in cold w ater, because large and rapid tem perature changes h a ve a bad influence on the p h ysical properties o f th e cloth .

Crepe F abricsT h e preparation o f crepe fabrics is discussed in a lecture given to the

S o cie ty of D yers and Colourists, O ctober 1941— a report being published in M ay, 1942. G ood so ft w ater is im perative, if uneven delustring w ith con­sequen t blotchiness and effects associated w ith insoluble soaps are to be avoided . In this connection naphthenic acid soaps are a t present the subject of investigation in th e U .S .A . I t is claim ed th a t th e ir w ettin g pow er is high and their detergent pow er as good as stan dard soaps. T h e y are good em ulsify­ing agents fo r m ineral o il, an d therefore useful fo r de-sizing and scouring operations. In cid en tally, th e presence of electro lytes and salts in the dye- b ath does n o t readily decom pose them , an d again, th e y h a v e antiseptic and an ti-oxidan t properties, w ith a low er a lk a lin ity th an m a n y ordin ary soaps.

C reping and D egu m m in gF abrics from grey stock and those w hich h ave been em bossed are generally

processed b y the sam e m ethods, alth ou gh in th e la tter case th e evenness of the crepe has been predeterm ined and continuous creping treatm ents can be used w ith successful results. In cid en tally, considerable care and experience art- required fo r satisfacto ry results to b e obtained in th e em bossing process. F o r details see C . P . A tk inson , Journal of Society D yers and Colourists 58, N o. 5, M ay, 1942, T ab le 1. In general, how ever, “ S e r a c e ta ” w arp viscose rayon crepe w eft piece goods are best handled b y stringing the pieces from the selvedge in book form or fram ing them an d han ging them in scouring bath s sufficien tly deep to allow fu ll im m ersion of th e pieces. T he strings m ust be inserted in such a w a y as to a vo id cu ttin g th e w eft in th e selvedges, as such defects w ould cause distortion. In th e book form m ethod, strings a t the bo tto m selvedge are used to p reven t th e pieces from ballooning in th e creping b ath . T h e creping vessel is filled w ith so ft w ater to w h ich is added 0-1-0-25 per cen t, o live oil soap fo r " Seraceta ” w arp viscose crepe w eft piece goods. T h e pieces are w etted o u t cold and th e tem perature is grad ually raised b y m eans of a closed stainless steel coil under th e false bottom of th e vessel, during 1-2 hours. T h is m ethod usually results in a V ery satisfactory crepe, b u t is is necessary to raise th e tem p eratu re to a poin t slightly above th a t used in a n y

Irish Section P 1 7 3

subsequent process, otherw ise crack in g m ay occur during scouring or dyein g. In general, a tem perature of 8o° C . is used fo r brigh t, an d ioo° C . fo r dull finishes. A fu ller crepe and more pebble are obtained w ith a gelatine-sized crepe w eft a t the higher tem prature, b u t w ith low q u a lity crepes m ore attention as regards care in handling is required if creasing and crackin g are to b e avoided.

I t is n ot advisable to allow th e c lo th to rem ain to o long in the degum- ming bath , p articu larly a t 90°-i00° C ., as saponification of th e “ Seraceta ” is liable to tak e place after 4 hours. In order to obtain a fu ll m a tt finish, it is essential to m aintain e x a ctly the prescribed conditions. I t is p articu larly im portant to keep th e tem perature as near to io o ° C . as possible, b y using high pressure steam in th e heatin g coil. In th e soap and phenol m ethod, a better result is obtain ed b y running the pieces a t 100° C . fo r | h our rath er than a t 98° C . fo r 2 hours. W orks practice h as show n th a t fo r some dull finishes when soap only is used, pH 10-11 gives th e dullest results, b u t in presence o f phenol, pH 8-5-9 gives th e m axim um dullness. Since th e pH o f industrial w ater varies considerably, th is m ust be tak en into account, as, if a definite pH is not secured, there m a y be a difference in dullness un der appar­en tly identical conditions. O w ing to th e cooling a ctio n w hich occurs w hen pieces are treated on th e w inch m achine, it is n ot possible to obtain effects as dull as those obtained w hen pieces are treated in bo o k form . In som e cases, how ever, fa ir ly satisfactory results can be obtain ed b y creping, de-sizing, scouring and dulling in on e operation on th e w inch. In th is connection refer­ence should be m ade to a p aper b y th e present lecturer. (C. P . A tk inson , / . Soc. Dyers and Colourists 1931, 47, 5). In th is p aper stress w as la id on the con­centration o f the phenol and th e b ath tem perature as w ell as on o ther im portan t factors.

T h e process described u su ally results in a fa ir ly satisfacto ry de-sizing o f th e “ Seraceta ” w arps. In order to ensure th e com p lete rem o val o f th e size, it is advisable to scour piece goods con tain in g stan dard crepe w eft in a b a th con­taining 0-15-0-25 per cent, soap and o - i per cen t, am m onia, togeth er w ith a small percentage o f a reliable solvent suitable for use on fabrics w ith “ Seraceta ” warps.

I f oil-sized crepe w efts have been used it is ad visab le to scour th e fabrics on the w inch w ith 0-15-0-25 per cent, soap flakes (88 per cent.) and o - i per cent, sodium perborate a t 60°-70° C . fo r 20 m in . T h e perborate is added grad ually to the b ath during th is period. A furth er o - i per cent, of perborate is added during th e n ex t 10 m inutes, th e tem perature o f th e bath being raised from 75 °-ioo° C . accordin g to th e final finish required. In no case, how ever, should the tem perature exceed 75°-8o° C . w hen a brigh t finish is specified. B efore proceeding w ith th e d yein g operation, it is advisable to ch eck th e rem oval o f size b y steeping a sam ple o f th e fabric in a turpentin e solution o f Sudan R ed 7B for 5 m inutes and w ashing thoroughly in cold w ater for 10-15 m inutes. T h e depth o f stain , if a n y , in dicates the am ount o f o il size still present in th e fabric. This test can be confirm ed (by an u ltra-violet ligh t test, a lth ough som e previous experience in th is case is necessary to in terp ret th e results correctly.

(W hite and d yed fabrics were exh ib ited to show the superiority of the scour in w hich th e perborate w as used, over th a t em ployin g soap and am m onia. T h e results indicated th a t the m ore co stly m ethod w as justified).

Crepe yarns used fo r w eft are u su ally tin ted b y m eans o f acid dyes such as A zo Geranine 2GS, Lissam ine R ed 6B S, L issam ine F a s t Y e llo w 2GS, L issa- mine V io let 6 B N S, Lissam ine Green V S , D isulphine B lu e V S and Coom assie V iolet 2RS, w hich are rem oved w ith o u t d ifficu lty in th e preparatory w et treatm ents.

A n altern ative m ethod o f de-sizing and du llin g in one operation is to pass th e fabrics through a continuous creping m achine co n tain in g potassium o r sodium oleate and a little Sextol a t p H betw een 9 an d 10.

p i 74 Proceedings

T h e la te st A m erican practice consists o f con tin uous tensionless processing on a fu ll w id th co n ve yo r ty p e m achine. T h e goods are w etted o u t evenly in fu ll w id th and co m p lete ly im m ersed w hile bein g carried on th e surface o f a driven cylin d er, fin a lly resting on a travelling co n veyo r located im m ediately below th e cylinder. T h e co n ve yo r is equipped w ith a variab le speed drive to allow accum u lation o f th e goods as desired and th e c lo th is therefore free to shrink n atu ra lly , bein g free from tension in bo th directions. T h e fabrics then proceed to the boil-off b a th , w here th e d u a l endless co n ve yo r m ethod allows th e goods to accum u late as required and a t th e sam e tim e carries them b u o y­a n tly , alth ough co m p lete ly subm erged throu gh th e bath . T h e y are turned over a t least s ix tim es d u rin g one single passage through th e m achin e, thereby elim inating im perfect scouring an d giv in g fu ll scope for th e sw elling an d further de-sizing so essential fo r rayo n fabrics. T h e continuous circulation o f th e liquid is m aintained b y m eans of a cen trifugal pum p w orking in con junction w ith a closed circu it h eater to o b tain a co n stan t tem perature in th e bath , w ith ou t d ilution due to condensation. Provision is also m ade for therm ostatic control an d an ingenious m echanical con trol is incorporated in th e m ain driving m echanism to com pensate fo r th e various w eights o r qualities of goods carried betw een the d u a l conveyors. T h is m achine has been fo u n d to be v e ry good fo r a ll fabrics requiring carefu l processing and fu ll n atural shrinkage.

A fte r w ashin g, th e pieces are d y ed on th e w inch, care b ein g tak en to avoid kn o ttin g. (F or pale an d m ediuiti shades, 0-1-0-25 per cen t, olive oil soap, accordin g to th e softness o f th e w ater, is added to th e bath , w h ilst 0-1-0-25 p er cen t. M onopole soap is used fo r h e a v y shades). In m a n y cases, how ever, especially w hen dyein g h e a v y shades, plain soft w ater is satisfacto ry. The tem perature is raised from 40° t o 8o° C . fo r b rig h t finishes an d to 100° C . for d u ll finishes during i£ to 2^ hours. In th is case, d irect co tton d yes are added to th e b ath in ad d ition to th e d y es fo r “ Seraceta ” and th e y are u su ally suffi­c ie n t to g iv e th e required shade bo th in solid or con trastin g colours. In order to o btain a suitable han dle in final finishing, pale an d m edium shades are u su ally a llow ed to run from th e d y eb a th w ith ou t fu rth er w ashing, leavin g a sm all percentage of soap in th e fabric as a soft finish. W ith h e a v y shades it is gen era lly advisable, a fter w ashin g th e goods, to pass th em through a finish­in g b ath con tain in g a softening agen t, e .g . M onopole soap or olive oil emulsion, o r one o f th e m a n y suitable p ro p rietary products.

F ibro ” F abrics (R ayon S tap le F ibre)U nless a fu ll han dle is required th e first process to be considered is th a t of

singeing. F o r prints w here a sheer fa ce is an ad va n ta ge , th e fab ric is singed face and b a ck or fa ce on ly as required, using th e gas singeing process. I t is advisable, how ever, to a d ju st the p lan t to run w ith m inim um tension consistent w ith g iv n g an e ve n ly singed surface.

W arp s fo r “ F ib r o ” fabrics should b e sized w ith a sago ta llo w size. A n exce llen t p ap er on th e sizing o f ra y o n staple fibre w arps w as published in the Shirley In stitu te B u lle tin fo r J u ly , 1936, and m ethods o f de-sizing are also given . A fu rth er sum m ary on th e sam e subject is to be found in the Bulletin fo r N ovem ber, 1936, V olum e I X , N um ber 7, pages 299 to 305. M alt extract is required fo r de-sizing, n orm ally a 0-3 per cen t, solution, a t pFL 6 to 7-5 a t 46°-5oc C . U n n ecessary tension m ust be studiously avoided an d treatm ent on tensionless jiggers is gen erally preferable. (Photographs contrasting B ritish and A m erican p ractice w ere exh ib ited).

“ R ayoland a ” F abricsIn th e preparation of these fabrics a high degree of a lkalin ity is inadvisable,

esp ecially a t h igh tem peratures. I t m a y ten d to reduce th e a ffin ity o f " R a y o ­la n d a ” fo r a cid dye-stuffs, a lth ou gh it w ould not affect its a ffin ity fo r ordinary d irect co tton dye-stuffs.

Irish Section PI75

I f bleaching is necessary, peroxide is recom m ended since w ith the ordinary bleaching processes, some sligh t reduction o f th e affin ity o f " R a yo la n d a ” for acid colours m ay occur. These fabrics require close atten tion to tensions during processing. (Plain and printed " R a y o la n d a ” fabrics w ere exhib ited).

In the latest A m erican practice th e system o f co-ordinated control know n as the “ D ye M a ste r” is of interest. A fte r th e ch em ist or forem an d y er has decided the m ethod o f p reparation required fo r a g iven shade, he traces the cycle of operations on the face of a b lan k disc, producing a cam for th e control system to follow . T h e ca m is th en p laced in th e “ D y e M aster,” and w hen the operator presses th e s ta r t button , the entire process is carried o u t a u to ­m atically . W h en th e cy c le is com pleted th e cam fo r th e p articu lar shade involved is properly labelled and filed, and can b e used in th e future fo r re­producing the sam e set o f conditions. A ccurate con trol o f a ll variab les, excep t a ctu al w eighing o f th e d ye-stuff is claim ed, and it is stated th a t th e o b ject is to bring under rigid control a ll th e factors in th e d yein g operation.

H ydro -E xtractionT h e m ethod of h ydro-extraction used is to some e x te n t re lated to the

cloth construction. W ith ordinary w oven fabrics (japs and satins) the m erits of suction extractio n in com parison w ith m angling, using a m achine w ith com p aratively soft rubber bow ls, should b e considered. F o r “ F ib r o ” or “ R a yo la n d a ” fabrics i t is essential to a vo id excessive w arp tension during this operation. Crepe fabrics can b e p laited o u t, ca re fu lly “ bagged ” and extracted in th e ordinary cen tifu gal h yd ro ex tra cto r, w hich should be run a t abou t 600 r.p .m . fo r 1 t o 2 m inutes, brakes being applied w ith discretion to avo id m ovem ent o f the pieces. T h is avoids excessive creasing. T h e y m a y also be passed in open w id th o ve r a special suction extra cto r.

D ryingCrepe fabrics are b e st dried in a current of w arm a ir a t a co m p aratively

low tem perature, a m arocain stove o r festoon d ry e r u su ally g iv in g th e best results. M inimum tension, freedom to shrink and d ryin g a t a tem perature below 85° C. com bine to g iv e satisfacto ry results. T h e pieces a fte r d ry in g are stentered to w idth on an open m achine, p referab ly steam ing w ell from an open live steam b o x as th e y reach m axim um w idth . W ith som e crepes, how ever, it is necessary to repeat th is process, a n d bring th e pieces to th e required finish b y running them dow n the sten ter ta k in g o u t to w id th slo w ly. T h e usual procedure is to com bine th e operations and d ry th e pieces on a h o t a ir stenter of th e " O verfeed ” ty p e w ith th e m inim um am o u n t o f w e ft and w arp tension required to elim inate creases. M inim um tem peratures should be used to give the softest handle.

D ryin g can also be effected b y b lan ket finishing m achines o f th e Palm er ty p e or b y B outhion or W eisbach drum ty p e m achines. C u rren t p ractice in the U .S .A . is to use the horizontal ty p e o f cloth d ry e r instead o f th e vertica l M ultipass A ir L a y D ryer h ith erto advocated .

F o r ordinary w oven piece goods, can d ryin g or cylin d er d ryin g is generally to be avoided, as it results in a harsh handle, w hich ca n be o n ly p artia lly com ­pensated b y the use of softening agents in previous processes.

The contribution t o fab ric d ryin g processes o f the principle o f d ielectric heat generation w as referred to , and references w ere m ade t o a recent report of the T extile R esearch In stitu te Incorporated , N ew Y o r k , on th e dryin g of textiles, w hich confirm s in p articu lar t h a t: —

1. T h e rem oval o f a ll b u t a few ten ths per cent, o f w ater from a fibrous m aterial is lik e ly to result in m ore o r less perm anent changes in its m olecular structure, and, therefore, changes in p h ysical properties.

2. T oo thorough or uneven d ryin g m a y im p air th e va lu ab le properties o f flexibility, softness and strength , a n d therefore, in tex tile dryin g, con­sideration should be given to th e theories re latin g to th e form in w hich moisture is distributed w ith in th e fibre structure.

Proceedings

A n exten sive range o f fab rics illustratin g th e results o f th e various m ethods o f processing discussed w as show n. P articu lar a tten tio n w as draw n to results o f fu ll scale trials on 100 p er cen t “ F ib ro ” fabrics— Q u ality N um ber 1005— w hich were w oven on tw o w arps— one o f w hich h ad been subjected to 8 per ce n t, stretch in sizing, an d th e o th er 4-6 per cent, stretch . T h e results demon­strated th a t if th e co rrect process to g iv e adequate shrinkage were applied, stab ility of shrinkage to subsequent w ashing treatm ents w as ensured, b u t if th e fabrics w ere processed under tension, appreciable shrinkage in w ashing w as in evitab le. A lso, there w as in th e la tte r case a s ligh tly greater shrinkage on w ashing w ith th e fabrics w oven on the w arp stretch ed 8 per ce n t., w hen com ­pared w ith th e results on th e w arp stretch ed 4-6 per cent. T o give an ad eq u a tely shrunk finish, gen era lly speaking, a ll processes should enable m axim um w arp and w eft shrinkage to be attained, th e final finish as regards shrinkage in both w arp and w eft bein g 2 p er cent, to 3 per cen t, less th an the m axim um , e.g. Q u ality N um ber 1005 w ith a 13 per cen t, to 14 per cent, w arp shrinkage in processing should be fin a lly finished w ith 10 per cent, to 11 per cen t, w arp shrinkage. T h e conditions necessary fo r adequate w arp shrinkage fa c ilita te processing in w orks p ractice, and result in a fu ll agreeable handle and sm art, saleable appearance o f th e cloth . F urth er, th e y w ill m inim ise any ten d en cy to b lister in th e stretch ed portions o f garm ents during w ear.

W ith 100 per cent. “ F ib r o ” fabrics, to o btain th e m ost satisfacto ry results w ith regard to dim ensional stab ility (one of the m ain requirem ents before a fabric m a y bear th e “ F a s t t o W ashin g ” label), i t is essentia l: —

1. T o use the m ethods o f preparation recom m ended and to keep length tensions dow n to th e m inim um .

2. T o a d o p t the sam e procedure as regards handling in th e dyein g processes w herever possible. I f it is necessary to use a p ad dyein g process in order to obtain p erfectly lev e l results the un avoidable increase in te n s io n . should be com pensated b y releasing the sam e in a soaping off process in th e w inch a fte r dyein g.

3. T o d ry under controlled conditions, and allow m axim um shrinkage inbo th directions to occur.

4. T o give an ad eq u a tely shrunk final finish.

T h e lectu rer expressed his th an k s to Messrs. Courtaulds L im ited , fo r per­m ission to d eliver th e lecture.

London Section p i 7 7

London SectionTHE CONVERSION OF BRITISH CURRENCY, MEASURES,

AND WEIGHTS TO A DECIMAL SYSTEMB y W . H . G i b s o n , O .B .E ., D .S c ., F .R .I .C .

(Paper read at the m eeting of the Section , 15 th M ay, 1945)

In th is paper only a v e ry m odest proposal is to be m ade. I t is n o t suggested th a t a departure from present standards or discontinuance of m easures th a t have becom e second n ature to the users should tak e place, b u t th a t a conversion to a decim al system fo r the purposes of calculation, com parison, conversion into foreign system s, and for statistical record is possible and desirable. The handicap to the grow th of in dustry and trade, im peding prosperity and con­ten tm en t throughout th e world, o w in g to th e use o f a m ultitude of differing system s of currency, measures, and w eights based on d ifferent national stan­dards, has been increasing for more than a cen tu ry. A sim ple plan has occurred to the lecturer.

T raditional measures and w eights have grown up n atu rally everyw h ere, and as civilisation advanced people h ave grouped them a t pleasure into num erous system s, w hich h a ve becom e more and m ore com plex and diverse. O riginally, men counted on their fingers, so th e decim al scale o f notation appears to be m ost readily understood and used for counting. T h e proportions o f the hum an b o d y form ed the basis for m easures of len gth . T h e sm allest un it seems to have been the breadth of th e fore-finger, the digit, rou ghly three-quarters of an inch. A pp arently, this still exists as the Indian ungul. T h e w id th across the four digits is abou t three inches. I t could then b e observed w ith ou t d ifficulty th a t the length o f the fo ot w as four tim es larger than four d igits, so the fo o t becam e a larger un it o f m easurem ent sim ply related to th e d igit. A lso , the well- m arked distance betw een th e first and second joints of the fore-finger is con­venient a t a un it of m easurem ent, and i t can b e seen to be abou t one-tw elfth of the length of the foot.

I t m ay be assum ed th a t it w as found con venient to m easure longer distances b y the pace or double-pace, an d w e kn ow th a t th e R om an m ile of 1,000 double paces spread through the R om an w orld. T h e tim e taken to m arch from one p lace to another w as im portant, so distances were often expressed in term s of tim e. T h e old A ustrian m easure, th e Stunde, one h o u r’s tra ve l, w as about 3 i miles. T h is suggests the idea o f com pounding m easures o f different kinds, such as ve lo c ity in miles per hour, or length per un it w eigh t so im p ortan t in textiles, or price per un it length or w eigh t. In B rita in the sim ple relationship th a t 2 paces w ere equal to 5 feet or 60 inches, becam e gen erally accepted. The English m ile w as p robably 2,000 paces originally, b u t this simple decim al relation w as lost w hen the statute mile w as tak en as a sim ple m ultiple o f the furlong, 8 furlongs or 5,280 feet or 2 ,112 paces of 30 inches.

T h e m easurem ent of land w as probably determ ined b y the area found w ork­able and large enough to m aintain existence. A v e ry old E nglish measure of area w as th e hide, a cu ltiv ated area found to be large enough to support a fam ily or household. T h e grouping of such areas led to the form ation of the hundred, an old adm inistrative division of an E n glish co u n ty, an area originally supporting 100 fam ilies, m ade up of 100 hides. T h e m easurem ent of land has p layed a great p art in form ing the E n glish social, political and econom ic life, and the term " hundred ” still lingers in th e “ C h iltem hundreds.”

Proceedings

In dustria l developm ent and the grow th o f tow ns broke up a system w hich related the population to the land required to support th em in a d irect and p ractical fashion, and possibly m an y of our present d a y problem s o f location of population and in dustry, and to w n and co u n try planning, have arisen throu gh our forefathers’ failures to cope w ith this situation .

T h e original p artition of land am ong fam ilies seems to h ave been usually on a decim al basis. T h e tith in g w as a c iv il division of ten householders bound as sureties fo r each o th er’s behaviour. T h e hide w as divided up decim ally again into io o acres. T h e acre w as com m only an oblong strip o f land, the length being the length of the furrow . In th is w a y the furlong or furrow -long becam e 660 feet. T h e chain o f 66 feet, one-tenth of the furlong, w as tak en as the w idth of the strip of land. I t follow s th a t the acre is an area of a n y shape containing 43,560 sq. f t . T h e floor space of factories and other buildings on land is still reckoned in square feet.

Since w h eat is th e staple food crop in tem perate climes, the q u a n tity of w h eat produced an n ually on th e hide of land w as a m atter of v ita l im portance to the fam ily . P ro b ab ly m easurem ent b y cap acity cam e first, and large and sm all boxes form ed m easures. Sim ilar measures of ca p a city cam e in to use for liquids. These m easures m a y have been cubes in some cases, for instance, our present bushel of 2219-3 cu bic inches is v e ry near to 2,197 or a cube of 13 inches side. T h e difference in w eigh t of different substances of the same ca p a city m easure p robably led to m easurem ent b y w eigh t as preferable, and perhaps some custom ary m easure of w h eat w as tak en to give a un it of w eight. I f th e fa c t th a t there are 7,000 grains in the pound has a n y significance, it m ay be th a t w eights were standardised against counted grains of w heat. In a n y p articu lar lo ca lity the custom ary w eigh ts and m easures were quite n aturally em ployed fo r a ll sorts of purposes, so people chose m ultiples or sub-m ultiples to suit their purposes. Craftsm en and m erchants bro u gh t m an y such in to use. A s it is simple to d ivide a n yth in g into tw o equal parts, and to continue this process, sub-divisions of 2, 4, 8 and 16 are com m on. F o r some purposes it was found con venient to have units d ivisible b y three, and in the textile industry th e yard of 3 fee t becam e the basic un it of length.

W ith the com ing of th e industrial revolution and th e expansion of foreign trade such a m u ltip licity of system s becam e confusing, and in B rita in since 1826 un iform ity of w eights and m easures has been com pulsory.

T h e tables of w eights and measures, tau gh t in schools, began to tak e a fixed shape, t h u s : —

I t can be seen th a t sailors and surveyors chose a large unit, un lortun ately n ot th e sam e one, and divided it in to thousandths. T he sm aller un its, inches, fee t and yards, w ere n o t related 011 a decim al system . T h e sm allest n aval unit, the fathom , w as a round num ber in feet, b u t the sub-division of the furlong results in th e aw kw ard relationship of I lin k = 7 ’ 92 inches. T h e relation betw een the y ard and th e rod is also aw kw ard, p articu larly in square measure. I t appears th a t to o m any custom ary m easures w ere retained unaltered to m ake the tab le really con venient for trade.

T h e W eights and M easures A c t of 1878 superseded all previous law s and enacted the legal m easures fo r G reat B rita in , basing them on th e standard yard and th e standard pound, held b y the Standards D ep artm en t of th e Board of T rade. T h e yard and th e pound are independent of each other, b u t the

London Section p i 7 9

capacity standard, w et or dry, is not, fo r i t is based upon the pound. T h e gallon is defined as the volum e of ten standard pounds of distilled w ater w eighed in a ir against brass w eights, bo th w ater and a ir a t the tem perature of 62° F ahrenheit, w ith the barom eter a t 30 inches. None of th e tables is d iv id ed decim ally and together w ith our non-decim al currency, the need fo r confusing, com plicated and tim e-w asting conversions still exists in in dustry and trade. Sim ilarly in other countries m any unrelated system s o f w eigh ts and m easures cam e into existence, b u t in m any cases th e y originated from the n atu ral m easures of the foot and pace, w hich are them selves related decim ally. I t is w orth rem arking th a t the old R ussian F uss is the sam e as the B ritish fo o t and the Russian Arschin is 28 inches, n ot fa r rem oved from the B ritish pace of 30 inches. T h e Indian G uz and the Spanish or Spanish-A m erican V a ra are 33 inches. E g y p t and T u rk ey h ave the D ira B a lad i and A rschin of 29-8 inches, and some half- dozen other countries h ave a custom ary m easure around 30 inches. T h is leads to th e conclusion th a t if w e had chosen 30 inches instead of 36 inches for our standard len gth and decim alised our length table, i t w ould not h ave been difficult for other countries to adopt the sam e system .

In 1801 the F rench governm ent broke com pletely w ith tradition , and intro­duced th e m etric system , allied w ith a decim al currency. B y choosing a new standard h avin g no simple num erical relation to existing standards, other countries were faced w ith com plex calculations, or if n ot h e a v ily com m itted th e y could adopt the m etric system , and use th is entirely consistent decim al system . Its only m erit w as th a t it w as con sisten tly decim al. G reat B rita in and A m erica were a lread y great m anu facturing and tradin g nations and th e y were not able to m ake this change, alth ough A m erica did h a ve a decim al cur­rency. In the course of tim e other countries follow ed th e exam ple of F ran ce and adopted the m etric system , and the tradin g nations of th e w orld tended to form them selves into tw o large groups. T h e E nglish-speaking countries and others closely associated w ith th em b y p o litica l or econom ic ties used the B ritish or Am erican measures, another group used the m etric system .

T he B ritish G overnm ent m ade th e m etric system perm issive in 1897, b u t it has only come into lim ited use in certain industries. A dual system of measures and w eights in in dustry and trade has some of th e d isad vantages of tw o languages, m uch duplication is necessary of sizes and prices, if bo th are really used, and the tim e-saving advan tages of a decim al system are n o t gained.

I t is doubtful if an y people tak e readily to a foreign system n ot clearly related to their n ative one. T h u s in E g y p t the E n glish and th e m etric m easures are legal, b u t the people use th e D ira B alad i of 29-8 inches and th e K a n ta r, divided into 100 R otls, for w eight.

There now seems 110 p ossibility th a t B rita in or A m erica w ould abandon their present standards and instal the m etric system . A n im m ense volum e o f pro­duction during the w ar has been m easured in th is w a y , and a larger labour force than ever before is accustom ed to it . In engineering, decim als o f th e inch are used and these m ust be retained unless gauges are a ltered. N o encourage­m ent has been given to the p lea fo r a decim al currn cy either. O n 24th O ctober, 1944, the C hancellor of the E xchequer, in rep ly to Sir F ra n k Sanderson, said th a t a decim al currency w as n ot bein g considered, he doubted w hether i t w ould be of m aterial assistance in the exp ort field and th o u g h t th a t there were w eigh ty objections to it.

I t is evident th a t no sweeping changes w ould be entertained, b u t the pro­posal now m ade, w hile i t secures the ad van tages of a decim al system for all purposes of calculation and conversion in to other system s, such as the m etric, and into other currencies, w hich are decim al, retains the present legal standards of currency (the pound sterling), len gth (the yard), w eigh t (the pound), and cap acity (the gallon). T he un it used for purposes of calculation has been taken in a simple proportional relationship to th e legal standard, w here this is

p i 8 o Proceedings

necessary to obtain a decim al table. A ll th e present coins are retained in use a t their present values in relation to the pound sterling, b u t one new coin, a paper note of 25 / - in va lu e is needed as a coin of accoun t. I t is necessary th a t a n y such change as th is should appeal n ot only to leaders in politics and industry, b u t should be w elcom ed b y the m an in the street as retain ing his old established custom and tradition , and a t the sam e tim e relieving him of the drudgery of calcu lation in inconsistent, illogical, and non-decim al system s. W ith the general use of th e slide rule, m uch calculation could be saved , and it w ould be possible, fo r exam ple, fo r M em bers o f P arliam ent to check the figures in the C hancellor of the E x ch eq u er’s B u d g et speech on their slide rules, as th e y were spoken in the H ouse. In short, the endeavour is to give the ordin ary m an the best of b o th worlds.

T h e currency proposal is shown in T ab le II. T he new coin of account va lu e 300 pence has been called the Centrid and is made up of 100 T rid . T h is is usual in decim al currencies, e .g . the dollar of 100 cents. T h e value of th e T rid is 3d., and the nam e has been coined b y translating threepence into L a tin and con tractin g denarius in to d . T h e nam e Centrid follow s as 100 T rid . T h e T rid exists as the present threepenny piece, and it is hoped th a t the name T rid w ould be w elcom ed b y 'bu s conductors, as un m istakable m sound when ta k in g fares. T h e new currency of accoun t w ould be easily understood b y A m ericans, and if the norm al rate o f exchange w ere tak en as 4 dollars to the £1, conversion is sim ple using a facto r for the a ctu al rate.

T h e tab le of m easures of length is v e ry sim ilar to th e m oney table. Three inches is taken as th e basic u n it o f len gth , and has been nam ed the T rin from 3 inches. 10 T rin s or 30 inches is the pace and is also a custom ary measure in other countries. In C en tral an d South A m erica an old Spanish m easure, the B razo , is still used. T h e w ord m eans arm , and th e len gth is abou t 27 inches. T h e len gth of the arm is a b o u t equal to the pace, so it is suggested th a t 10 Trins m igh t be called 1 A rm . T h e A rm could be leg a lly defined, if necessary, as five-sixths of th e standard yard . T h e conversion of our present measures of len gth in to th is decim al system is sim ple. T h u s, 1 in ch is 0-33 trin, 1 fo o t= 4 trin , 1 yard is 12 trin or 1-2 arm , 1 rod, pole, or perch is 66 trin , 1 chain is 264 trin , 1 lin k 2-64 trin , 1 furlon g 264 arm , and 1 mile 2 ,112 arm , this figure is easier in calculation than either 1,760 yards or 5,280 feet, m ost people can m u ltip ly b y 2.

T h e m easure of len gth is of basic im portance in the tex tile trade and is used n ot o n ly b y itself, b u t in a num ber of com pound m easures. A t th e present tim e the system of y a m coun t is a burning question, and under the auspices o f the U nification of T estin g M ethods Com m ittee of the T e x tile In stitu te, a conference has been held to discuss th e p ossib ility of ad optin g a universal yarn coun t system . T h e te x tile in dustry w ould benefit m uch more from the adoption o f a universal yarn co u n t if this reform were p a rt o f a general scheme for decim alising m easures and w eights.

A ccep tin g the situation th a t th e m etric system is ruled o u t a t the present tim e, it is suggested th a t th e adoption of the A rm -T rin table of lengths would enable us to retain th e present co tton coun t as the universal system . The present un it of co tton coun t is 840 yards per pound, con verting in to arms per pound w e ge t 1,008 arm s per pound. This is sufficiently near to 1,000 arms per pound for p ractical purposes, and a closer adjustm ent could be m ade in course of tim e. T h e nam e of th e u n it m igh t be T ap p , thus replacing T y p p . (Thousand yard s per pound). T h is change w ould n ot upset a n y operative or yarn salesm an, and th e y w ould n o t h ave to stop to th in k a b ou t it . A s regards w eigh t, the standard pound has been retained. U nlike th e m etric gram me there is no relation betw een len gth and w eigh t. A ctu a lly 1 trin cube of w ater w eighs 0-975 lb-, w hich is surprisingly near 1 pound. T h e C en ta l of 100 lb. should be used, o r th e E g y p tia n n am e of K a n ta r could be taken for 100 lb.

L on don Section p i 8 i

T he short ton is a lready w id ely used, b u t i t seems a p ity th a t there is no name for half a short to n . F o r ca p a city , th e gallon o f 10 lb . is generally used and a new m easure m igh t be used of one-tenth of a gallon fo r w hich the name P o t is suggested.

T able I. B ritish M easures of L ength D ecim alised

D e c i m a l S c a l e C u s t o m a r y M e a s u r e }

Value in Arms2.430 1 Geographical Mile2,400 1 Sea Mile2,112 1 Mile (Statute)

264 1 Furlong.240 1 Cable

26-4 1 Chain6-6 1 Rod, Pole, Perch2-4 1 Fathom1-2 1 Yard1 1 1 Guz (India)

1 Arm —y 1-01 0-4 1 Foot

ł 0-264 1 Link1 Trin 0-100

0-033 1 Inch0-025 1 Ungul

Cotton Count 1,008 app. 840 yards per pound

T able II. B ritish Currency D ecim alisedCanada and U.S.A.

(Taking 4 dols. to £1) Present’ Coins Suggested Coins

5 dols. = 1 O n T r i D £1

C e n t r i d = 300d. (New Principal Coin

of Account)= 100 Trid.

= 80 Trid.

10/- = 40 Trid.I dol. = 20 Trid.

2/6 = 10 Trid.2/- = 8 Trid.1 h = 4 Trid.

10 Cents = 6d. = 2 Trid.3d. = 1 Trid.Id. = 0-33 Trid.id . = 0-17 Trid.i d . = 0-08 Trid.

For present Rulings in Account Books— £ s. d. —>- C. t. d.

P I 82 Proceedings

Yorkshire SectionSTANDARD TESTING OF YARNS AND FABRICS

B y A . W . B ayes(Paper delivered to the Yorkshire Section , 15 th March, 1945)

“ R outin e testing ” w ould be an a ltern ative title if it were n ot desired to em phasize the im portance of standard m ethods, b u t bo th should indicate th at the im m ediate concern is n ot w ith research techniques. In research w ork ideas, instrum ents, m ethods and m achines develop togeth er as the investigation progresses, b u t besides research there are other wide fields of endeavour in in dustry, n am ely, tech n ical developm ent and q u a lity control, w hich, though sim ilarly based on m easurem ent, h ave a different aim . T h e research worker aim s a t controlled experim ents, w ith the few est variables, and no guessing. In p ractical production, and th is is p articu larly true of textiles, the stuff is produced b y w orkpeople and m achines in great q u a n tity , and adequate q u ality , b u t w ith several im p ortan t factors w h o lly or p artly uncontrolled. In such circum stances it is essential to standardise the m ethods and conditions of m easurem ent, th a t is to say, th e testin g m achines and their use, the test room atm osphere, and the m ethod of expressing th e results.

C on trol of y a m coun t is the first need in the m ill, and the figure of prime im portance is the average count. U su ally atten tion is focused on th e individual w rapping; leas are w rapped and w eighed and the w eigh ts are averaged. A cco rd ­in gly various special balances h ave been designed for rapid w eighing, as for exam ple, the K n ow les and qu ad ran t balances, g iv in g readings of count d irectly , and th e “ chainom atic ” ty p e s (1). W ith such apparatus the variation betw een leas w ith in one doffing of bobbins is obvious, b u t it is n o t alw ays realised th a t this variation is as m uch a characteristic of y arn as the average coun t is. T h is fa c t m ust be faced b ra v e ly because i t is a, featu re of tex tile pro­duction and cannot be disposed of b y a n y trick s or dodges. In single cotton yam s th e stan dard deviatio n of co u n t is a b o u t 4 per c e n t., and the standard error of a m ean coun t can be calculated from this fo r a n y num ber of leas. T he d raft w heel changes com m only m ade are of the order of one tooth in fo rty , though finer changes are possible. I t can be argued, therefore, th a t th e standard error of the m ean should n ot be greater than 1] per cen t, if one is to be reasonably sure of w heel changing, b u t this is not rea lly good enough, because it is necessary to kn ow w hether the correct co u n t w ou ld be g iven more nearly b y the present w heel or b y another differing b y one to o th . F o r th is the standard error o f the m ean should be ab ou t £ per cent. This requires the averagin g of 40 leas. I t m eans either a lo t of w ork fo r som ebody and a lo t o f w aste yarn or a new m ethod of test. B etw een bobbin differences are an im p ortan t source of variatio n and there is a high correlation betw een w eigh ts of consecutive lengths of y a m , so a m uch shorter length m igh t be taken and a ll fo rty ends could be run off together. A m achine to do th is is n ot available, b u t until it is, too m uch em phasis w ill be p u t on the va r ia b ility of y am s and m uch tim e w ill be w asted in unnecessary changing of pinions. Single lea va ria b ility could then becom e a m atter for special in vestigation w ith a balance more rapid and more con venient than the quadran t or chainom atic types, b u t one w hich could be less sensitive.

Correct coun t is n o t enough w ith o u t adequate strength. T h e question of strength is a lw ays cropping up; as a ch eck on perform ance, as a test of m aterial q u a lity , or of tendering, or m erely, one is som etim es tem p ted to believe, to m ake a specification look com plete. T h e com m onest m achines em ploy the

Yorkshire Section P 1 8 3

pendulum balance and a con stan t rate of traverse m echanism on th e pulling jaw. T his is v e ry simple; in som e circum stances it is dangerously sim ple. T he rate of loading varies throughout the test and w ith th e exten sib ility o f the m aterial. C otton is broken m ore q u ick ly than w ool, so th e m arked superiority of cotton is enhanced still fu rth er! There are errors too . T h e in dicatin g pointer m ay be flicked forw ard a t th e break, or the paw ls m a y slip, and in some circum stances, spectacular in ertia errors occur. T h e w a v y line a t the beginning of a single thread test ch art is w ell know n, b u t in some cloth strength tests th e line has b arely tim e to ge t w a v y before th e specim en breaks. This is w hen errors of 20-30 per cent, arise (2). T h e im m ediate p ractical solution is drastically to reduce the rate of traverse. I t can be argued th a t i t is the con­ditions of loading ju st before the break th a t determ ine th e breaking load, so if the rate o f traverse w ere adjusted to give, in these last m om ents, the same rate of loading as is used in the con stan t rate of loading test, sim ilar strengths w ould be obtained. This, how ever, m akes the test m uch slower than the usual constant rate of load test in w hich the specim en is broken in one m inute. T h e best practical com prom ise seem s to be to reduce the rate of traverse to

inches per m inute, and to use o n ly the upper four-fifths or so of the scale. Constant rate of loading m achines have their problem s too. There is, for instance, th e choice o f m ethod of loading, b y lead shot, spring or pendulum . H ow ever, it seems lik e ly th a t w hen the testing is done sufficiently slow ly, i t is possible to ge t equ ivalen t results on m achines of various ty p e s and capacities. There rem ain the questions of size o f strip , and m anipulation of th e jaw s. T h e virtu a l standardisation of the 1,000 lb. ca p a c ity G oodbrand m achine fo r A rm y and N a v y stores testing before th e w ar led to a v a r ie ty of strip w idths in order to provide reasonable values for strength, b u t th is has reduced the useful­ness of the results and has led to the use o f in conven ien tly w ide strips. T he tests should serve tw o purposes; checking th a t th e b a tch is up to specification, and providing a background of experience fo r im provem ent in the old cloth and fo r estim ating new cloths. I f th is background of experience is to be useful the test figures m ust be sim plified. U n fo rtu n ately strength is n ot d irectly p ro­portional to the strip w idth , so it is n o t ju st a m atter of reducing th e figures to a strength in dex such as pounds per inch w id th , breaking len gth per th read ,etc . O ne specification calls fo r 6 f in. w ide strips of cotton poplin. T hese are p ar­ticu larly difficult to handle, and errors o f as m uch as 20 per cent, m ay result from inaccurate adjustm en t and packing of the jaw s. O bvio u sly th is is an unsuitable size of strip fo r th is ty p e of cloth. Strips 2 inches w ide are m uch easier to handle and more consistent breaking loads are obtained, b u t a sm aller cap acity m achine has then t o be used.

Standard conditions of tem perature and h u m id ity are essential fo r satisfac­to ry w orking. T h e w eights of all tex tiles increase in a dam p atm osphere, b u t the strengths behave variou sly; some, such as of cotton and linen, increase, others such as of viscose and w ool, decrease; so com petitors ten d to choose a h u m id ity to suit their own product.

C otton circles are satisfied w ith 70° F ., 65 per cent. R .H ., b u t theB .I .S .F .A . rules fo r rayon sp ecify 20° C . an d 60 per cent. R .H . I t seems best to standardise a t a level of h u m idity w hich is exceeded b y n atural conditions on only a few d a y s in the year, and w hich can, therefore, be p rovid ed b y adding w ater to the atm osphere a t norm al indoor tem perature. T h e coolest and driest conditions m eeting these requirem ents, in N orth E a st Cheshire a t a n y rate, seem to be a b o u t 70° F . and 65 per cent. R .H . C onditioning boxes h ave been suggested from tim e to tim e to dispense w ith the need fo r conditioned test rooms (3), b u t the rate o f change of regain of single threads and strips o f cloth is too rapid fo r such bo xes to be satisfactory. T h e test room itself m ust, there­fore, be conditioned. N ow the dew poin t corresponding to 70° F ., 65 per cent. R .H ., is 5 7 i° , so w henever th e tem perature o f th e w indow glass, or of ceiling joists, falls below 5 7 ! 0, dew w ill form , and in w inter, pools w ill co llect on the

Proceedings

w indow sills. D oublin g th e w indow s im proves th e condition a little , b u t dew w ill still form on the inner panes in fro sty w eather unless th e c a v ity is warm ed.

V arious m ethods of h u m idifyin g the air are available. T h e w eigh t of w ater to be added is quite sm all, p articu larly if the air is recirculated. A n autom atic control to a fan w ith a sup ply o f m oist a ir seems to w ork w ell enough; a lte rn ativ ely th e control can be fitted to the w ater supplyin g a sp ray. In either case it is w ell to w arm the w ater an d to provide for dirt; d ir t in the fresh air, and d irt in the drinking w ater. B o th supplies m ay b e clean enough fo r hum an beings, b u t th e y w ill not do fo r hu m idifyin g apparatus.

T h e records should be standardised too. T h e standard nom enclature of our Term s and D efinitions C om m ittee should be used, of course, and the B ritish Standard descriptions of direction of tw ist and of p ly y a m structure, and use m ade of test record sheets and cards. Provision should be m ade fo r collecting d ata on va ria b ility w hile the tests are accum ulating. T h e m ean range is the sim plest m easure of va r ia b ility to use and i t is to be recom m ended for routine use. S tric tly the standard d eviation , calculated from the root m ean square, is a more accu rate m easure and a fu rth er apparent d isadvantage of the mean range is th a t it increases as th e size of the group is increased, b u t routine testing supplies so m a n y test results th a t the loss of a ccu racy in using the m ean range is o f no consequence, and th e second objection m ay be m et b y standardising the size of group on 4, or 5 tests, or b y ap p ly in g the appropriate facto r to give an estim ate of the standard d eviation . I t is a sim ple step from th is to control charts, w hich show a t a glance how the tests are going. Con­fidence lim its, draw n on each side of th e standard value, are helpful as a perm anent indication of the v a r ia b ility o f th e p lotted averages, b u t the n ext step of using the lines as a sign for action is another m atter. In repetition engineering, it seems, w hen the control chart shows th a t the diam eter of the 100,oooth b u llet is too large the m echanic know s w h y, and kn ow s how to ad just th e tool to p u t i t right. B u t in textiles, the control ch art points seem to w ander up and dow n of their ow n volition . N o bo d y know s w h y , and there is o n ly an even chance th a t the tests w ill go rig h t again after the custom ary adjustm en t has been m ade. E ve n in these circum stances control charts are in form ative and w ell w orth m aking.

M any users of fabrics, hospital authorities, rubber m anufacturers, leather cloth m anufacturers, e tc ., h ave th e ir own specifications and standard m ethods of test. Som e follow W a r Office specifications, others the A ir M inistry, others again use the A .S .T .M . m ethods, and some even fix m ethods o f their own. N o doubt firms and authorities should be free to do w h at tests th e y like, and how th e y like, w ith in their own confines, b u t when th e y also issue specifications, the m anu facturer’ s position becom es v e ry difficult. T h e need is for a fu ll set of B ritish standard test m ethods w hich a n y one m anufacturer or purchaser can use w ith confidence. I spoke on these lines to a m eeting in this c ity seven years ago, w hen th e T e x tile In stitu te Standardisation schem e w as beginning. O ur progress since then has n o t been spectacular, b u t useful w ork has been done. In th e m ore leisurely d ays of peace i t seemed desirable to fix standards only after ob jective testing had shown w hich figures w ould be ideal for the purpose. S tartin g w ith the ap p aren tly simple m atter of cloth strength testing m achines w e w ere led to exam ine variation s in m achine design, the theory of pendulum acceleration, th e effect of rate o f loading, variatio n in m anipulation of specim ens, lubrication o f slides, m ethods of calibration, and so on. Ten papers h a ve been published so far, and no doubt more w ill fo llow , b u t still no standard has been set. M eanwhile, how ever, the In stitu te w as asked to pre­pare an em ergency set of standard m ethods of test for narrow fabrics. T h e w ork had to be done q u ick ly so a new m ethod w as tried. Sub-com m ittees took sm all sections of the w ork and agreed on standard m ethods from their own experience. O ne or tw o tests w ere n ovel and some testing w as done to confirm th e com m ittee ’ s decision on these, b u t fo r the m ost p art existing experience

Yorkshire Section

and knowledge p roved adequate for the preparation of provisional standard methods of test. T h is success encourages us to proceed b y this m ethod in future, provid ing opportunities for revision, b u t also encouraging the prepara­tion of papers of the earlier ty p e in order to confirm th a t the standards are sound or to provide data fo r their revision.

T he w ork is continuing. F o r success it needs th e interest and assistance of all members of the In stitu te w ho are engaged in testing. Y o u r com m ents, your criticism s, and yo u r service on the w orking sub-com m ittees w ill be ve ry welcom e.

D ISC U SSIO NProfessor King : Mr. Bayes has shown that standardisation in testing is an urgent

need. There are many types of machine and many ways of doing the same thing and there should be standardisation. Mr. Bayes’s plea of seven years ago for standardised methods of testing now seems to be bearing fruit. He has pointed out some of the difficulties involved. Committees have spent much time on the subject but finality is still a long way off.

When making strength tests on cloth differences in the results arise according to deflection of the pendulum. Would Mr. Bayes enlarge upon this.

Mr. Bayes: Inertia errors tend to be greatest at low loads and high speeds. The magnitude of the errors can be demonstrated on vertical type machines by a simple technique using weights suspended from the top hook or clamp in place of the test specimen. Many engineers are using cotton materials today but their testing machines were bought for testing wire or sheet metal. When they use such machines on light cotton cloth the pendulum jerks once and the specimen breaks, and they call the result the cloth strength, but their figures do not agree with mine at all. There is no doubt that a test done reasonably slowly, not using the first 20% of the capacity of the machine, will give an accuracy adequate for everyday purposes.

Dr. Martindale asked what Mr. Bayes advocated with regard to testing yarns for quality control. In the cotton industry routine testing of yarns for the counts involves the weighing of the counts individually. This practice is quite uncommon in the worsted industry. Do these individual weighings mean that all information relating to variability of counts is completely lost ? In routine testing in cotton mills the standard deviation of the weights was 4 per cent, and this is almost a standard figure in cotton spinning. I t is certainly not true in worsted spinning, in which, since it depends on top variability, the deviation is quite different. Reeling 40 short lengths and taking the average count, might serve for cotton but it would not do in worsted spinning since different types of material give different standards of variability.

Dr. Martindale sought Mr. Bayes’ opinion on the possibility of using types other than the pendulum or spring type such as the Houndsfield Tensometer. I t is a very versatile type of machine (capacity 60 lb. to 2 J- tons) and would be useful to a firm having many cloths of different strengths to test.

Mr. Bayes : In Lancashire individual leas are weighed and averaged. There are two things to measure, average and variability, and obviously for the (lay to day pro­duction of the right count the average is the important thing. A wheel may be changed to produce the right average, but it is necessary to measure the variability as well. Cotton varies in count from lea to lea, as in the case of worsted. The variation amounts to 3 to 5 per cent, in ordinary preparation spinning and up to 12 per cent, in condenser spinning. The idea of taking 40 ends is to weigh them altogether. Though all information on cop to cop variation is lost it gives very rapidly and easily an accurate average for the machine. The usual difficulty is that so few ends are averaged that it is never clear whether the draft wheel should be changed or n o t ! Mr. Bayes agreed with Dr. Martindale on the importance of weighing individual leas. The variability of one-inch lengths of card sliver in condenser spinning and the corre­sponding variability in the yarn, agreed reasonably well. It is a very useful technique.

For cloth testing, the Houndsfield Tensometer is not very convenient. It was developed for the testing of resins and metals in small samples. It m ay be further developed for general textile purposes, but at present it has various disadvantages and it is difficult to apply an autographic recording device. Anything new in methods of testing should have consideration bearing in mind the fact that textile materials have an enormous range of strength. Nearly every testing laboratory needs a very wide range of capacities and versatile machines are desirable. The Denison machine has four capacities in the one machine. The Cambridge Textile Extensometer for testing filaments and yarns has a wide variety of capacities and speeds.

M r. Briggs : Presumably the yarn going out of the mill is reeled in a conditioned atmosphere and presumably under standard conditions of relative humidity and temperature. W ith regard to tension in reeling and speed of reeling, how do these affect the counts ?

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Mr. Bayes : Production wrapping is not done in a conditioned room in Lancashire. Variations in cloth weights up to 3£ per cent, arise from changes in ordinary weather conditions. Tension and speed are not very important in cotton testing, although they m ay be in wool. Variability of the materia] is so great that the effects due to tensions and speeds are swamped.

Dr. Martindale : In an experiment in reeling l/24s worsted yarns the limits of tension were 0-3 oz. which produced a variation in counts of 3 per cent. No tester would use these extreme values, but a worsted spinner might conceivably say that was due to two different methods of holding the yarn while reeling.

Mr. E . J . Poole asked Mr. Bayes if it were necessary to pay attention to the levelness of cotton yarn. In wool levelness is a paramount factor. Could Mr. Bayes say how it should be measured. He thought the mean deviation per-cent, was sufficiently accurate for practical purposes and it eliminated the squaring necessary for calculating standard deviation.

Mr. Bayes considered that it was a very simple matter to find the standard deviation. W ith a steady flow of results where no very great accuracy is required the mean range in groups of 4 or 5 could be used. The relationship between mean range and standard deviation has been worked out and for simplicity of explanation in the mill and for general usefulness it is the most suitable method. Levelness is not easy to test. Normally black wrapping boards are used. It is quite a simple matter to keep a few bobbins in stock typical of the production for purposes of comparison. It is quite satisfactory for a quick test. As a quantitative test a small shadowgraph arrangement is used whereby the diameter of the yarns is thrown on a screen. Many measurements are necessary.

Mr. F . Kendall condemned spray methods of obtaining standard atmospheric conditions.

Mr. Bayes agreed. He advocated vigorous circulation of air.Mr. F . Kendall referred to tests on five strips made b y each of five test houses. All

the results showed that the cloth met the specification as regards warp strength, but in the case of the weft strength one test house got all five results above the specification strength and the other four lots were all below strength.

Mr. Bayes pointed out the great difficulty attending the tests for possible differ­ences between test houses. Such tests would need very careful planning and execution. Condemnation of a laboratory was a serious matter unless the test figures showed unmistakably on critical analysis that gross errors were being made.

Mr. Halliday : Mr. Bayes has proved the necessity of standard means of testing. W e have had experience of different results from different laboratories. This should not be the case. If methods are the same and the work is done honestly the results should coincide. In the mill, particularly in small firms, they cannot all be equipped with air conditioned laboratories with absolutely standard conditions and the best possible use has to be made of conditions as they exist, that is all that really can be done. In some cases tests are not carried out with anything like the care they should have.

REFER EN CES1 Bayes, J . Text. Inst., 1 9 4 0 , 31, P 8 4 .

2 Bayes, J . Text. Inst., 1 9 4 2 , 33, S 5 3 , and 1 9 4 4 , 35, S 4 1 .

3 Bayes, J . Text. Inst., 1 9 3 5 , 2 6 , T 1 2 0 .

Review s

ReviewsP lastics, Scientific and T echnological. H . R on ald F leck , M .S c., F .I .C . , Tem ple

Press L td . i s t E dition, 1943, 325 pages, 25/-.T he w ork is divided into fifteen chapters, com m encing w ith a brief h istorical

Teview follow ed b y a su rvey of the m ain raw m aterials on w hich th e in dustry depends. C h ap ter III deals w ith th e theoretical aspects of polym erization lead­ing up to C h ap ter IV w ith a su rvey of the chem istry of the m ain plastic m aterials. T his in turn leads to a review of the m anufacture of plastic m aterials and elastom ers, treated in separate chapters. T h e p h ysical properties o f therm oplastic and therm osetting m aterials are n ex t dealt w ith in tw o chapters w hich constitute the second n atural division of the w ork. C h apters I X , X and X I again form w h at m igh t be a furth er separate section dealing w ith the app li­cations of plastics in lacquers and finishes, syn th etic textiles, and adhesives including p lyw ood and im pregnated w ood. D ies and m oulds are treated in C h ap ter X I I and general p lan t in C h ap ter X I I I under th e som ew hat am biguous title of “ T h e M anufacture of P lastic A rtic le s .” T h e tw o final chapters deal respectively w ith the chem ical and p h ysical testing of plastics and the analysis of raw m aterials.

H avin g regard to the m agnitude and ram ifications of the plastics in dustry as we understand it to d ay, one m ust a t the outset express apprehension both a t the am bitious title and the la yo u t of th e w ork. E xperience has shown th a t to treat either the scientific or the technological aspects of plastics, provides more than adequate su b ject m atter for a single w ork. On th e scientific side one feels th a t the author has in a m easure atta in ed his aim , b u t as regards the technological aspect, one is as certain th a t he has, to quote from his preface, “ rendered confusion even more confounded.”

T hroughout the book m uch valuable space is lost b y unnecessary repetition, verbose and loose statem ent, and la ck of logical sequence. F o r exam ple plasticizers are treated on page 61, furth er defined on page 197 and w ith greater d eta il on page 198, and again w ith details on page 155, a ll of w hich could more advantageously h ave been collected a t one point. T h e production of cellulose a cetate described separately on pages 95 and 220, m igh t give the im pression t h a t the processes and th e m aterials were essentially different for plastics and rayon. W h ilst one can appreciate the desire of the author to bring a ll possible detail together a t crucial points, this p o licy has lead to a w aste of va lu able space. In like m anner verbose and loose statem en t has robbed the auth or of m any valuable pages; as for exam ple the paragraph on coal on page 79, and the opening sentence of chap ter I X w hich states th a t " A branch of plastics w hich has thrived considerably is th a t dealing w ith syn th etic resins,” e tc ., w hich actu ally leads up to the treatm en t of cellulose lacquers.

On the " scientific ” side the author has given a good cross-section of current literature, although in some instances the n ecessity for b re v ity has robbed the references of m uch of their potential va lu e. M any m ore references to current literature could have been given w ith ad van tage. T h e la ck o f acknow ledgm ent for m aterial used, e .g . the tables on pages 80 and 81, is surprising fo r a w ork of this calibre.

Inconsistencies are m a n y : one m igh t a ccep t " N ylon and “ n ylon ” on the same page, b u t “ nitrocellulose ” and “ nitro-cellulose ” on page 197 are sur­prising, in v iew of the statem ent on page 64, w hich refers to a " d erivative of cellulose th e n itrate; often erroneously referred to as nitro-cellu lose.” A gain we have “ superpolyam ide ” on page 93, “ super p olyam ide ” on page 221.

These are of course sm all points w hich m erely an n oy the reader. M uch more serious are the d o u btfu l or b la ta n tly inaccurate statem ents m ade throughout th e work, m ainly on th e technological side. One reads w ith surprise on page 198 th a t " it is only co m p aratively recen tly th a t cellulose acetate has becom e availab le in com m ercial quantities a t reasonable prices and w ith uniform proper­t ie s .” On the m anufacture o f cellulose acetate given on page 95 w e can en­visage the dire results w hich w ould follow if th e process is w orked as described.

p i 88 Proceedings

Sim ilarly undesirable results m igh t fo llo w attem pts to produce celluloid sheets as described, an d one hesitates to th in k w h a t m igh t happen if a n y b u t the m ost experienced a ttem p ted to chip and saw cellulose n itrate to “ give a pow der w hich m a y be m oulded into a v a r ie ty of fo rm s.” Such inaccuracies as these are in­excusable and cannot lig h tly be passed over.

W h ilst th e author cannot find space fo r some legitim ate branches of plastics tech nology (thus film production has passing reference only on page 198), syn th etic fibres are sep arate ly treated in chapter X . H ere again one is sur­prised to read, page 218, th a t C hardonn et silk “ has still a fa ir ly good m a rk et.” One is also tem pted to assum e th a t the acetate rayon w hich shows a loss in tensile strength of 60 per cent. “ on soaking in w ater ” (page 221), com pared w ith a p resum ably corresponding loss of 50 per cent, for viscose (page 220), was produced b y the m ethod described in the te x t . (Cf. L ipscom be, " Cellulose A c e ta te ,” B enn , 1933, page 214). In th is connexion also the auth or leaves us in d o u b t as to w h a t he m eans toy a “ fibrous ” m aterial (page 220) and does n ot distinguish betw een acetic acid y ield a n d th e “ a cety l ” more current in A m erica (pages 157, 158).

Sum m ing up one m ay sa y th e author has m ade a va lia n t effort to accom ­plish an alm ost im possible task . T h e theoretical su rvey is com prehensive and detailed, b u t factu al inaccuracies h ave robbed the technological side o f the w ork of m uch of its p o ten tia l v a lu e . V .E .Y .

Cotton and R ayon M achinery and Processing D evelop m ents. Forew ord b y Sir R a ym o n d Streat, C .B .E . (Published b y th e R ecru itm en t and T rain ­in g D ep artm en t of the C otton B oard , pp. 110, 60 illustrations. Price 3 /6 .)

In this little book are reprinted seven papers read a t the R efresher Con­ference for T ex tile T eachers, organised b y the R ecru itm en t and T rainin g D ep artm en t o f th e C o tto n B o ard in Septem ber, 1944. T h e papers cover, in so fa r as is possible w ith such a sm all num ber of contributions, developm ents a t a ll stages of tex tile production. T h e discussions th a t follow ed the reading o f th e papers m ust h ave been on a high lev el and sum m aries o f them w ould h ave added app reciab ly to the value o f the volum e. T h e illustrations deserve high praise, p articu larly w hen one recalls th e m an y p itifu l efforts th a t are to b e found so com m only in tex tile publications.

I t w ould be unfair to single o u t fo r special m ention a n y detail in a book w hich m aintains such a high q u a lity throu ghou t. T o th e T ex tile Institute, how ever, i t is a pleasure to n ote a call in th e p aper on “ C otton Y a rn Prepara­tio n D evelopm ents ” for the lim itation of th e num ber o f cotton y am s o f different counts.

T h e graceful and in form ative forew ord b y th e Chairm an of the C otton B o a rd stressing th e need of the in d u stry for h igh ly trained personnel and tech n ical teachin g o f th e h ighest q u a lity form s a va lu able introduction to the volum e.

T he V ita l Issue. A n E conom ic P o licy fo r B rita in and th e E m pire. Published b y the Em pire Industries A ssociation, 9, V icto ria Street, London S .W .i . (3d. per co p y o r 1 2 /6d. per hundred).

A p am p hlet issued b y the Em pire Industries A ssociation, o f w hich the R t. H on. L . S . A m ery , C .H ., is President. I t deals w ith B ritish econom ic policy in v iew of w orld changes, and more especially w ith the su b ject o f Im perial Prefer­ence w hich has been b ro u gh t to a head in th e discussions in the U n ited States of A m erica. I t points o u t th a t this v ita l m atter is no p a rty issue b u t one w hich now affects e ve ry m an, w om an and child in th e B ritish Com m onw ealth and E m pire.

In vestigation s into the C onditions A ffecting Rate of D y ein g . Technological M onograph N o. 1. b y T . V ickerstaff. Published b y the D yestuffs D ivision of Im perial Chem ical Industries L td .

T h is booklet, ap p aren tly the first of a series of Technological M onographs, is a fine exam ple of th e service w hich m odern progressive firm s render to the users of their products.

T h e record of the in vestigations is adm irably set out and th e printer can justifiab ly be proud of his w ork.

R eview s p i 8 9

Fundam entals of Personnel M anagem ent. B y H . W . L o ck e . Published b y the In stitu te of L ab o u r M anagem ent, A ld w y ch H ouse, A ld w ych , L on don W .C .2. (Price 1/-).

A n 18-page b o o klet b y the E ducation O fficer of Messrs. R ow ntree & Co. L td ., setting out briefly the bases of personnel m anagem ent stressing the need for treatm ent of m en and wom en as hum an beings, rather than as “ hands ” or the bearers of clock-card num bers.

W orking C onditions and E m ployee Services. B y B . J . Cohen and M. M. T o w y -E v an s. Published b y the In stitu te of L ab o u r M anagem ent, A ld w y ch H ouse, A ld w ych , L on don W .C .2. (2/- per copy).

A 56-page pam phlet g iv in g a general picture of m odern enlightened indus­tria l practice of great va lu e to em ployers, and such m em bers of their staff as are concerned w ith w elfare, etc. A n extensive app en dix covers b ib liograp hy, etc.

T he Growth of Personnel M anagem ent in G reat B rita in D u ring th e W ar 1939-1944. B y G . R . M oxon. Published b y the In stitu te o f L ab o u r M anagem ent, A ld w y ch H ouse, A ld w ych , L on don W .C .2. (1 / - per co p y).

A well-presented h istorical accoun t of developm ent during the w ar years, follow ed b y a v e ry readable accoun t o f “ T he P ractice o f Personnel M anage­m en t,” and its special developm ents in w ar factories during th e 1939-1944 period.

M arket Report on U .S .A ., Canada and M exico. B y L . R . A llen.In this finely printed and am usingly illustrated b o o klet, the C hairm an o f the

H osiery and K n itw ear E x p o rt G roup gives a v e ry b reezy acco u n t of his fo u r m onths’ v is it to the U n ited States, C an ada and M exico. I t is indeed unusual to find so m uch " i n a ligh ter vein ” under such a title .

Perhaps the keynote to his m essage appears in his la st tw o p aragraph s: — “ So ends m y story, there is little enough inform ation, b u t if reading it leads to a desire to do likewise its publication is justified— a satisfacto ry exp o rt trade can be b u ilt only on m utual understanding and th is doesn ’t arise from an exchange of correspondence.

T he men you m eet are he-m en, th e y figh t hard and long for a high standard of living, b u t th e y ’re v e ry hum an and m y greatest pleasure la y in m eeting them . I am m ost gratefu l to the hundreds o f b u sy execu tives w h o spared lo n g hours of their precious tim e in g iv in g m e wise disinterested advice and a w ealth of useful inform ation, n ot least for th e h o sp ita lity th e y extended in m y in­frequent hours o f relaxation ; the refinem ents o f an A m erican hom e are alone a liberal education, w hile their C lubs baffle description .”

Such a publication m ay easily do as m uch good as a great pile o f “ d ry as dust ” statistics.

T extile Fibers. A n E ngineering A pp roach to T h eir Properties and U tilizatio n . Authorised reprint from th e C op yrigh ted Proceedings o f the A m erican Society for T estin g M aterials. (A vailab le from the A .S .T .M . H eadquarters, 260, S. B road Street, P h iladelph ia 2. P a . a t 1 dollar a copy).

This is an interesting and rather unusual treatm en t of the properties o f textile fibres. T h e paper form ed the E d g ar M arburg L ectu re of 1944. A s D r. D e W itt Sm ith is a Fellow o f the T ex tile In stitu te and a L ife M em ber, i t is considered th a t members m ay be interested in his discussion o f th is subject. On his in vitatio n to be M arburg L ectu rer fo r 1944, D r. D e W itt Sm ith joined a distinguished com pany, as perusal of the lis t of lecturers on the inside b a ck of the pam phlet w ill show.

Science: The E ndless Frontier. R epo rt to the President on a Program for P ostw ar Scientific Research b y V a n n ev ar B ush, D irector o f the Office o f Scientific R esearch and D evelopm ent, W ashington. (R eceived through the Parliam entary and Scientific C om m ittee, [A n unofficial group o f Members of bo th Houses of Parliam ent, and representatives of certain scientific and technical institutions] 5th O ctober, 1945).

Dr. V ann evar B ush, D irector of the Office o f Scientific R esearch and D evelopm ent, W ashington D .C ., received w h at m a y be regarded as his term s o f reference from the late President, F ran klin D . R o o sevelt in the letter o f 17th N ovem ber, 1944. F rom this letter D r. B ush selected the follow ing sentence and

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g a v e it a prom inent place. " N ew frontiers of the m ind are before us, and u th e y are pioneered w ith the same vision , boldness and drive w ith w hich we h a ve w aged this w ar w e can create a fu ller and m ore fru itfu l em ploym ent and a fu ller an d m ore fru itfu l life .”

I t w ill surprise none th a t a forcefu l statem ent such as this cam e from a fear­less idealist, as the la te P resident w as w ell know n to be. D r. B ush m ust have w orked qu ick ly . H is report to th e P resident is d ated J u ly 1945, and i t is clear th a t w ith ou t the extensive delegation of some of the duties laid upon him , he m u st h ave required far m ore tim e. T h e questions p u t to him b y the la te P resident w ere definite, and th e answ ers provided b y th e Com m ittees he con­sulted are striking and forth righ t. I t is indeed true th a t " there is no reason w h y the lessons to be found in th is experim ent [team w ork and co-operation in co-ordinating scientific research fo r th e purpose of prosecuting the w ar] cannot b e p rofitab ly em ployed in tim es of p eace.” T h e report is excellent and stim ulatin g.

Such a brief notice as space perm its cannot b u t fa il to do justice to D r. B u s h ’s report. I t is good to observe th a t an exam ination of the present con­ditio n s in th is co u n try on som ew hat sim ilar lines is exercising the m inds of m a n y th o u gh tfu l m en. G overn m en ts m ust encourage th e pursuit of science. A s D r. B ush observes in the closing sentence of the letter accom panying the report, “ Scientific progress is one essential k e y to our secu rity as a nation, to o u r b e tte r health , to m ore jobs, to a higher standard of livin g, and to our -cultural progress.”Salaries of T echnical T eachers. T h e new Scales o f Salaries fo r Teachers in T ech n ica l Colleges and In stitu tes, A r t Colleges and Schools form ulated b y the B u rn h am C om m ittee and approved and published b y th e M in istry of E d u ca ­tio n (H .M . S tatio n ery Office, 6d. net) are a great im p rovem en t on those th e y rep lace. F o r exam ple, th e scales fo r provin cia l non-graduate assistant teachers u sed to b e : men, ^186-^12-^384, w om en, £174-^9-^306; th e y are now £3°°-£ 15~£525 and £270-^12-/420 respectively . T here are additions to the basic scales fo r each y ea r o f app roved stu d y a n d / o r train in g beyo n d the first tw o a n d for th e possession of a U n iversity degree or an academ ic or professional q ualification, b u t th e difference betw een th e scales fo r graduates and non­grad uates is n o t as grea t as i t w as. T h e lis t o f app roved degree equivalents includes th e A ssociateship, b y exam in ation (P arts I & II), of th e T extile In stitu te . I t is difficult to understand w h y n o m ention is m ade of exam ina­tions g iv in g exem ption from the exam in ation in P a r t I a lth ou gh these are specifically accep ted in the arrangem ents fo r other Professional In stitution s.

F o r A ssistan t T eachers there are to b e special posts ca rryin g e x tra allow ­ances per annum of from £50 to £100 fo r m en and from £40 to £80 fo r wom en fo r special responsibility, special qualifications or appropriate circum stances. T h ere is also to b e a " College ” establishm ent o f Senior A ssistantships, based upon th e num ber o f students preparing fo r h igher exam in ations, carryin g scales of £6oo-£25-£75<3 for m en and £48o-£20-£6oo fo r w om en.

H eads o f D ep artm en ts are classified in fo u r grades, th e low est carryin g the scales fo r Senior A ssistantships and the h ighest scales startin g a t over £1,000 fo r m en and over £800 fo r w om en.

I t is satisfacto ry to find th a t the form er grade of In structor has disappeared, th a t the avenue of prom otion is c learly in dicated and th a t there is no longer u n certain ty a b ou t th e rem uneration o f H eads of D epartm ents. D efinite steps are to be tak en to review the salaries of Principals w ith a v iew to considering scales fo r them .

T here is now some reason to hope th a t the salaries offered w ill p rove a ttra c­t iv e to the m en and w om en w ho are needed fo r the developm ent o f technical education outlined in the E d u catio n A c t of 1944. D.

P lan n in g C ounty C olleges. M any em ployers and parents h a ve been doubt­fu l, to say the least, ab ou t th e effects o f th a t section of the E d ucation A c t of 1944 w hich provides th a t a fte r an appointed day, all youn g persons n ot already

Reviews P I 9 1

in attendance a t full-tim e schools shall atten d C o u n ty Colleges fo r one d a y a week un til th e y are 18 years of age. I t is true th a t v o lu n ta ry part-tim e release o f yo u n g people for attendan ce a t d a y classes is increasing, b u t com pulsory release of a ll yo u n g em ployees is a different m atter. A lth o u gh i t is n ot lik e ly th a t the appointed d a y w ill fa ll before 1950, i t is v e ry desirable th a t doubts shall be dispelled and schemes form ulated w ell in ad van ce. T o th is end th e M inistry of E ducation has published a P am p h let entitled " Y o u th ’ s O ppor­tu n ity ” (P am phlet N o. 3, H .M . Statio n ery Office, 1/ - net), w hich a ll w h o are interested in the em ploym ent, training and w elfare o f yo u n g people are stron gly recom m ended to stu d y.

T h e pam phlet analyses the causes of the failure of th e D a y Con tinuation proposals of the F isher A c t of 1918, assesses th e im portance of public opinion in the failure an d proceeds to m ake suggestions, some definite and some ten ta ­tiv e , pointing the w a y to greater success in the renew ed effort. I t says t r u ly : “ If this developm ent, w hen taken in hand, is to b e m ade fu lly e ffective, i t w ill dem and bo th careful p lanning and im agin ative vision, n o t least to secure th e w illing co-operation of those w ho are m ost concerned— the yo u n g people them ­selves.”

T h e keyn o te is struck in the statem en t: " I t is im portan t, a t the outset, to be rem inded of th e kind o f hum an m aterial fo r w hich the schem e w ill be planned, if only because i t is a ll too easy to becom e absorbed in the details cxf an adm inistrative m achine and to fo rget those in w hose interests th e m achine is going to w o rk .” T his is follow ed b y an able sum m ary of th e characteristics of adolescence and th e needs of the yo u n g student, w hich conditions th e succeeding chapters on the organisation, th e prem ises and equipm ent, the staffing, the curriculum and th e internal problem s of th e C o u n ty Colleges, and on the special needs o f girls and of rural areas. T h e lis t o f th e a im s of educa­tion in th e Colleges is w o rth y of carefu l consideration. I t is com prehensive, w ell-balanced, liberal and appropriate to th e conditions o f part-tim e a tten d ­ance. T h e suggestions fo r achievin g these aim s are m arked b y understanding, wisdom and freshness, and w ill surely " m ake an appeal to vigorous and original m in ds.”

T h e authors insist " th a t the field of furth er education is one, and, hence, th a t com pulsory part-tim e education m ust be regarded as p art of it and n ot as som ething separate and self-con tain ed.” T h e provision o f C o u n ty Colleges is, therefore, to be planned in th e closest possible relationship w ith existin g or prospective institutions o f fu rth er education , and th e links w ith th e Central College of F urth er E ducation on the one han d, and w ith the C o m m u n ity Centre on the other are discussed. I t is suggested th a t n o t m ore th an five o u t of the eight periods of the students’ attendan ce m a y be d evo ted to courses of a v o ca ­tion al character, “ in the n orm ally accepted sense,” b y the students fo r w hom such courses are appropriate.

T h e contents of the pam phlet ju stify its concluding sentences: " T h e aim s th a t h a ve been form ulated fo r th e C o u n ty Colleges are as old as liberal educa­tion itself. T he educational trad ition s of th e co u n try , in d ivid u ality , craftsm an ­ship, scholarliness and freedom from rig id codes, w ill m eet and influence each other in a w a y th a t has n ever been possible before. T h e y w ill provide an o p portu n ity fo r the young people of th is co u n try to m ake b e tte r use of th e ir powers and to g iv e b etter service to hu m an ity; to learn, in short, the real relationship betw een rights and obligations and betw een w ork and happin ess.”

D .

H igher T echnological Education. I t is gen erally agreed th a t in the indus­trial rehabilitation of this coun try the q u a lity of our products w ill be even m ore im portant than their q u a n tity , and th a t th e atta in m en t and m aintenance o f high qu ality w ill depend upon the a b ility o f our technicians to keep ab reast o f scientific progress. T h is w ill require a fu ll provision o f thorou ghly efficient

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tech nical train in g, in th e planning and d evelop m en t o f w hich industrialists and education ists m ust co-operate closely, especially a t the higher stages.

H ith erto , U niversities and T ech n ica l Colleges h a ve participated in the provision o f tech n ica l education w ith o u t m uch collaboration, or definition of th e ir respective functions, or a n y system atic planning. " Indeed, i t was a b u n d an tly clear, even before th e w ar, th a t the w hole system requires over­haulin g if i t is to p la y its p art in assisting B ritish in d u stry to hold its own in foreign m ark ets.”

T h e above q u otation is from th e P refa to ry N ote to th e R ep o rt of a C om ­m ittee, under the Chairm anship o f L ord E u stace P ercy, w hich w as appointed in 1944 b y the M inister of E d u catio n w ith the follow ing term s of referen ce: —

“ H a vin g regard to th e requirem ents of in dustry, to consider th e needs of higher tech nological education in E n gland and W ales and the respective con­tribution s to b e m ade thereto b y U n iversities and T ech nical Colleges; and to m ake recom m endations, am ong other things, as to the means for m aintaining appropriate collaboration betw een U n iversities and T ech nical Colleges in this fie ld .” T h is report (H igher T echnological E ducation, H .M . S tatio n ery Office, 6d. net) is o f th e utm ost im portance to industrialists as w ell as to educationists.

" T h e original intention w as to subm it successive reports on the requirem ents of different industries and the educational provision w hich should be m ade to m eet th e m .” In q u iry convinced th e C om m ittee, how ever, “ of the need for a stan din g organisation bo th to su rvey in dustry and to co-ordinate education .” T h e y , therefore, turned their atten tion to recom m endations for the con stitu­tion of such an organisation, illustratin g these recom m endations from the broad field of M echanical, E lectrical and C iv il E ngineering.

T h e C om m ittee recom m end th e selection of a stric tly lim ited num ber of T ech n ica l Colleges, to be styled Colleges of T ech n o lo gy (up to six in the P rovin ces fo r Engineering) in w hich there should be developed technological courses requiring fu ll-tim e s tu d y over substan tial periods and different from U n iv ersity degree courses b u t of a com parable standard. Technological studies in U niversities, Colleges of T ech n o lo gy and other T ech n ical Colleges of eight suggested regions covering E n gland and W ales should be co-ordinated b y R egion al A d viso ry Councils w hich w ould create R egional A cadem ic Boards to advise th e Councils and G overn ing Bodies. T hese B oards should m ake their ow n arrangem ents fo r close consultation w ith in dustry.

T h e national coun terpart of the regional m achinery w ould be a N ation al C oun cil of T ech n o lo gy w hich w ould consider n ational aspects o f regional policies and advise the M inister of E d ucation and the U n iv ersity G rants Com ­m ittee upon them . T h e N ation al Council throu gh its A cadem ic B o ard w ould consider courses o f stu d y, standards of staffing and equipm ent and exam ination arrangem ents in Colleges of T ech n ology and aw ard a State qualification in app roved cases. T h e C om m ittee disagree on the title o f the S tate qualification corresponding to a U n iv ersity first degree, some suggesting “ B achelor of T ech n o lo gy ,” and others “ D ip lom a in T ech nology ” w hile the Chairm an in a sp ecial note suggests th a t th e Colleges m igh t be given th e statu s of " R o y a l Colleges of T ech n o lo gy ” and gran t A ssociateships and F ellow ships. T h e Com ­m ittee agree, how ever, th a t th e higher qualification should be D octor of T ech n ology.

T h e R ep o rt contains o ther im p ortan t recom m endations upon such subjects as recruitm en t, S tate B ursaries, consultation betw een U niversities and T ech nical Colleges and transfer of students betw een them , instruction in Industrial M anagem ent and college and industrial refresher arrangem ents for teachers. I t is to receive carefu l an d detailed consideration b y th e M inister of E ducation, and, i t is to b e hoped, b y the U niversities, L o ca l E ducation A u thorities and in dustry. T h eir co-operation in im plem enting its recom m endations w ould do m uch to p u t tech n ical education on the w a y to greater coherence, efficiency and esteem . D.

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DDTR ecen tly it w as announced th a t lim ited quantities o f D D T w ere bein g

released for c iv ilian use. D uring th e w ar th e w hole production w as earm arked for purposes d irectly concerned w ith w ar. I t w as n o t un til A u gu st, 1944, th a t the story of D D T w as officially released in this co u n try. I t to ld of th e efforts of scientists, technologists and industrialists a ll over the free w orld to m ake and ap p ly the new insecticide.

A s in m any other m odem developm ents in chem istry D D T arose from years of system atic scientific research in th e laboratories of J .R . G eigy of B asle , the w ell-know n m anufacturers of d yes, drugs and chem icals. T h e firm w as established in 1764. D uring the la st tw e n ty years th e G eigy C om p an y, in close association w ith th e te x tile in dustry, has been engaged on research in to m oth­proofing agents. T h is culm inated in th e publication in a Swiss chem ical journ al o f th e intensive w ork directed b y D rs. L au ger, M artin and M uller of the G eigy C om p any. T h e long experience of th e G eigy colour chem ists w as freely draw n upon. T hus it w as realised a t an early stage th a t th e proofing agen t in addition to being to x ic to the m oth la rva , m ust also im p art a perm anent to x ic ity to the w ool. O th er obvious requirem ents w ere good a ffin ity for the w ool fibre w ith ou t altering th e colour, good fastness to ligh t, and the usual w et fastness properties. F u rth er i t w as clearly desirable th a t i t should be h arm ­less to warm -blooded anim als, especially hum an beings, and h ave no offensive odour.

T he research led to the d iscovery of M itin, a p ro d u ct suitable fo r th e tre a t­m ent of w ool as a perm anent m othproof. F ro m th is i t w as a n atural develop­m ent to search for a general insecticide. T h e w ork w as, therefore, p u t on a w ider basis, and the effects on insects generally, for a range of substances, w ere in vestigated . M uch w as learned from th e exam in ation of n atural insecti­cides such as th e vu lpin ic acid of certain lichens (Cetrania vulpina), rotenone, pyrethrum , cum arin derivatives, e tc ., b u t th e y a ll failed to com e up to the specification in th a t th e y were unstable w hen exposed to light.

Insects w hich consum e a varied diet such as green leaves, stalks, fru it, e tc., m ust em ploy a larger range of digestive ferm ents th a n th e keratin eaters (moths). C onsequently th e y should be m ore easily affected b y poisonous sub­stances since i t is necessary to destroy certain ferm ents on ly in order to starve or otherwise k ill th e pests. I t w as in research carried o u t b y D r. P . M uller on these lines th a t the effects of diphenyl-trichloro-ethane w ere discovered. F rom th is basis another substance o f th is group aa-dichloro-diphenyl-/Jft8-trichloro- ethane w as prepared. T h is possessed insecticidal properties n ever p reviously observed. I t w as w h at is now called D D T .

D r. P a u l M uller tested D D T again st th e C olorado beetle b y sprinkling a dust preparation on a p o tato p lan t w hich w as infested. H e noticed th a t alm ost im m ediately the larva; dropped to th e ground, and he to o k up a spadeful of soil w hich he carried into the laborato ry. N e x t m orning he found th a t a ll th e larvae w ere dead. H e reasoned th a t as th e y h a d dropped from th e foliage im m ediately, th e y had n o t had tim e to e a t a n y p art o f the p lan t dusted w ith D D T , so th a t th e y m ust h a ve died b y m ere co n ta ct w ith th e pow der.

I t w as in this w a y th a t the co n tact effect o f D D T w as discovered. T h is story is o f particular interest, as th e d irect app lication o f D D T to large scale field w ork w as first m ade in Sw itzerland against th e Colorado beetle, and a t a tim e w hen pyrethrum and derris w ere un obtain able, i t saved th e Swiss potato crop from a particularly serious infestation.

In 1942 th e G eigy C om p an y com m unicated to th e B ritish L egatio n in B erne th e interesting results obtained to date w ith D D T w hich a t th a t tim e w as know n under th e G eigy trad e nam es of G uesarol and N eocid, th e form er referring to agricu ltural applications and th e la tte r to m edical preparations against parasites such as th e louse and th e m osquito. T h e G eig y C om p an y in

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M anchester also introduced th e m aterial to the chief testin g stations, bo th agricu ltu ral and m edical, of the U n ited K in gdom .

B efore an insecticide can be safe ly used on a large scale, a great deal has to be know n n ot on ly ab ou t its pow er to k ill insects, b u t also a b o u t the best m ethods of application, th e necessary concentrations in various circum stances and, even more im portan t, the possible risk to health w hich m ay atten d its use. T h e early laborato ry tests carried o u t in E n gland b y chem ists, entom ologists and other scientists con cen trated th e w ork o f several years into a s ligh tly higher num ber of w eeks. D D T w as soon shown to be unique, w ith properties superior to those of a n y in secticide y e t m ade. Its applications in connection w ith w ar were im m ediately obvious.

O f the m an y m aterials, n atu ral or syn th etic, w hich up to 1942 h ad been tested fo r their to x ic effect on m osquitoes and flies, pyrethrum flowers, belonging to th e genus C hrysan them um , h ad been proved to be b y far the m ost effective. In the period im m ediately preceding the w ar, the world production of pyreth rum flowers w as ap p ro xim ate ly 15,000 tons per annum of w hich 70 per cent, cam e from Japan. K e n y a begain com m ercial production in 1933 and b y 1938 w as producing 2,000 tons per annum o f v e ry high q u a lity flowers. A m erica w as b y fa r th e largest consum er an d p ra ctica lly the w hole of the K e n y a crop w as shipped to th a t co u n try fo r th e extractio n of their physio­lo g ica lly a c tiv e ingredients, th e p yreth rin s. W ith th e entrance o f Japan into th e w ar, th e supplies of both p yreth rum and rotenone, another im portant insecticide, were c u t off, w hile the to ta l dem and fo r th e arm ed forces o f the allied nations rap id ly increased and, even a fter th e elim ination o f a ll dom estic requirem ents, were fa r in excess o f availab le output.

In order to deal w ith the supply position, an Insecticide D evelopm en t P an el w as set up under th e Chairm anship of Professor I. M. H eilbron, F .R .S ., during the w inter o f 1942. T h is w as com posed o f entom ologists, malario- logists and chem ists, and included S u p p ly and Service specialists and representa­tive s of th e Dom inions and U .S .A . T h e P an el exam ined a ll th e synthetic insecticides availab le , an d from these i t chose D D T for its effectiveness as an insecticide, its harm lessness to hum an beings an d w arm -blooded anim als, and th e fa c t th a t i t could be m anufactured from raw m aterials availab le in the coun try. Pilot-scale production w as im m ediately com m enced and in collabora­tion w ith th e B ritish G eig y Com pany, plans fo r large scale production were prepared. Its fu ll potentialities and m ethods of application were sim ultaneously w orked o u t b y team s o f G overnm ent, U n iversity and industrial scientists, in collaboration w ith experts from the three Services. Close liaison w as established w ith A m erican and Dom inion scientists, w ho were a lready w orking on sim ilar lines, and n ow m any hundreds of w orkers are collaborating in developing all aspects o f its use and application.

A s D D T becam e know n, Service dem ands increased. T h e y are still high and ta k e p rio rity so th a t o n ly lim ited quantities o f D D T can y e t be made availab le fo r th e num erous uses w hich it w ill h ave in every-d a y life. I t m ay be of in terest here to state th a t on the occasion of his v is it to N orm andy Mr. Church ill w as so im pressed w ith the im portance of D D T th a t he gave i t a p rio rity on a lev el w ith Penicillin .

D D T w as in the first p lace used in this co u n try fo r the louse-proofing of garm ents fo r use b y th e arm ed forces, and im pregnated shirts h ave been an issue to our front-line troops since 1943. T h e y h ave p ro ved v e ry effective, since th e y w ith stand several launderings w ith o u t serious loss of a c tiv ity . I t is no exaggeration to say th a t our troops were v ir tu a lly louse-free, in striking con trast to G erm an prisoners of w ar. I t is considered b y some leading scientists th a t the use of D D T coupled w ith vaccin e w ill, in future, v e ry greatly reduce the incidence of typ h u s in every p art of th e w orld.

T h e first full-scale use o f D D T in a w a r sector w as in N aples. H ere in D ecem ber, 1943, typ h u s broke o u t in the overcrow ded civilian population w hich

Proceedings PI95

in the main w as p o v e rty stricken, d irty and louse-ridden. A s soon as the allied forces w ere in control, vigorous steps w ere tak en to suppress th e o u t­break b y mass disinfestation. T h is w as first done b y dustin g w ith ordinary lousicides, b u t as soon as D D T becam e availab le i t w as used solely and w ith signal success. D urin g January, 1944, 1,300,000 civilians w ere dusted a t tw o- de-lousing stations (72,000 on the p eak day) and w ith in three w eeks th e o u t­break in the c ity o f Naples w as com p letely under control, the w eekly n um ber of civilian cases reported fallin g sharp ly from 305 in th e p eak w eek ending Jan uary n t h to 155 the follow ing w eek. D D T has thus a lread y m ade m edical h isto ry of trem endous significance, as n ever before has a typ h u s outbreak been arrested in m id-winter.

F o r the troops, how ever, protection against m alaria and d ysen tery is even more im portant, and in the operations w hich w ere carried o u t in the F a r E ast, D D T found its m ost im portan t w ar use. In th is theatre o f w ar large areas are made p ractically untenable b y the enorm ous population of m alaria-carrying m osquitoes. A dded to oil, how ever, w hich has been used again st m osquito larvae ever since th e P an am a C an al w as b u ilt, D D T produces a larvicid e of such p otency th a t only a fraction o f the oil previously em ployed w ill henceforth be required, and this new preparation w ill rem ain to x ic to th e m osquito larvae fo r several days.

T h e m ajority o f casualties in all w ars are n o t d irectly due to enem y action . In S icily the 7th and 8th Arm ies suffered m ore casualties from m alaria than from battle . M any more people are afflicted b y disease th an are killed o r w ounded and so far as our know ledge extends, m ore people die from the epidem ics follow ing w ar than are killed b y enem y action during it.

A s the q u a n tity of D D T solution required is sm all, re latively large areas can be treated from the ground b y m eans o f hand or pow er sprayers. F o r larger areas, or where ground application is n ot possible, spraying from a ircraft has given results of th e highest significance. In this m anner large areas h a ve been successfully treated; the use of b u t J-lb. or less of D D T per acre results in alm ost com plete destruction of larvae and also a v e ry high m o rta lity am ong ad u lt m osquitoes, both b y d irect co n tact and b y the residual effect o f the insecticide. W h ilst the D D T sp ray can be applied b y m eans of th e fam iliar flit gun, power- operated sp rays or the new gas-operated sprays, the U .S . A rm y developed the Aerosol bom b w hich, ow ing to its com pactness and ease of tran sp ort renders it extrem ely valuable for use b y front-line troops in ten ts, n ative huts, foxholes, etc. I t is fittin g to quote here the statem en t w hich M r. Church ill, as Prim e M inister, made in the H ouse of Com m ons on the 28th Septem ber, 1944: “ T h e excellent D D T powder has been fu lly experim ented w ith and found to y ield astonishing results w hich w ill certain ly be used on a great scale b y th e B ritish forces in B urm a and b y A m erican and A ustralian forces in the P acific, and indeed a ll theatres.” T h e la test large-scale app lication o f D D T to o k place when th e allied armies liberated the variou s con cen tration cam ps in G erm any, such as B elsen, B uchenw ald, e tc ., and so bro u gh t relief to th e inm ates w ho were ridden w ith insects and suffered untold agonies as a result of infestation. M any as th e w ar-tim e applications of D D T w ere, those fo r tim es of peace are likely to be fa r more num erous. Such pests as the louse, th e flea, the bed bug, the cockroach, the cricket, the silver fish and th e com m on house fly , (the carrier o f so m any intestinal diseases and th e cause of great losses of foodstuffs), can all be dealt w ith b y D D T . Preparation s can also b e m ade up for the purpose of dusting or sp rayin g on furnishing fabrics and carpets to p ro tect them against m oth larvae, and th e y can be rubbed in to furs before bein g p u t a w ay for th e summer. In d a iry , p o u ltry , sheep farm ing, etc. D D T has w ide fields of application in dealing w ith lice, fleas, w arble flies, keds and tick s, and for the disinfestation of stables, shippons, henhouses, dog kennels, e tc. D D T preparations have been applied d irect to cow s, horses, pigs, hens, sheep and to

Proceedings

all classes of dogs from a rm y dogs to greyhounds. In agriculture D D T is used against soil, root and p lan t pests such as w ire w orm s, carrot, onion and cabbage ro o t flies, as w ell as caterpillars, and one o f its greatest benefits arises in orchards and soft fru it p lantations w here it is used for the control o f m any pests, n o ta b ly the apple blossom w eevil.

One of the la test developm ents is the application of D D T in distem pers and paints. T h e result obtained in fa c to ry canteens w ith D D T oil-bound w ater- p a in t is excellent, and should be of p articu lar interest in jam , b iscuit and sweet factories. O il-bound w ater p aints containing D D T can be used fo r preventing th e developm ent of pests as w ell as for disinfestation.

D D T is n o t a repellent. Insects do n o t avoid surfaces treated w ith D D T , nor do th e y show im m ediate ill-effects after h avin g com e in co n tact w ith it. B u t co n tact is fa ta l. T h e insects can n o t recover even under th e b est con­ditions. D D T has a lastin g effect, and is a ctiv e fo r weeks or m onths after application, according to the m ethod b y w hich it is applied.

I t is clear, therefore, th a t th e possible uses of D D T in connection w ith tex tiles are of great im portance. Producers and users of textiles cann ot fa il to be interested in an agen t w hich appears to have such wide fields of application.

London Section(.M eeting held on Thursday, 8th N ovem ber, 1945, in the theatre of

Messrs. G aum ont-British, F ilm H ouse, W ardour Street, London, VF.i).

A t th is m eeting in augurating the 1945-6 program m e, Mr. M eredith, C hair­m an of the Section, briefly expressed the hope th a t th e London Section would stage a vigorous re v iv a l on the return o f the coun try to the conditions o f peace. H e referred to th e dislocation, during th e w ar, of th e section activ ities ow ing to th e unwelcom e atten tion of the enem y to London, and th e consequent b la ck ­o u t. H is com m ittee w ished to enlarge the section b y a ttractin g visitors.

A n extrem ely interesting exhibition of tex tile films follow ed these intro­d u cto ry rem arks. T h e films included: —

(1) Messrs. L iste r & C o. L t d . ’ s colour film show ing com bing, spinning, preparing, w eavin g and dyein g of textiles including flat and pile fabrics.

(2) M erely th e Trim m ings. Produced and film ed b y A lan T urner, Esq. (In colour).

(3) T h is is Colour, from the C en tral F ilm L ib ra ry , Im perial In stitu te. Produced b y I .C .I . L td ., in colour and sound.

T h e film s were enthusiastically received, and there w as no d o u b t th a t th e y w ere h ig h ly appreciated.

In closing th e m eeting w ith announcem ents of future events, M r. M eredith acknow ledged th e section ’s indebtedness to the A ctin g H on orary Secretary, Mr.A . R . D ow n. T o Mr. D ow n w as due alm ost entirely the credit fo r this v e ry successful m eeting. H is present filling of the office o f H on orary S ecretary w as evidence of th e e x te n t to w hich he had the w elfare of th e section a t heart, p articu larly w hen it w as rem em bered th a t he h ad held the post previously for m a n y years un til he him self insisted th a t a change w as overdue.

Lancashire Section P 1 9 7

Lancashire Section(Bolton Branch)

(Meeting held at the B olton Technical College, on 13th N ovem ber, 1945, Councillor A . H ollas in the chair).

M r. L . A rm strong began his lecture on " A M odem F a n c y L o o m ” w ith a brief review of th e econom ic position of the co u n try in general, and o f the problem s of L ancashire in particular, stressing the need fo r great increases in B r ita in ’s exp o rt trade. H e considered th a t in L an cash ire the b e st w a y im m ediately to increase exports w as to produce th e m ore expensive kinds of co tton and rayon cloths rather than the b u lk production " bread an d b u tter ” styles.

R eferring to the adoption in the U .S .A . of au to m atic loom s an d the con­sequent increase in production per m an-hour, he expressed his con viction th a t Lancashire could do m uch to further this desirable end b y th e app lication of the autom atic loom to the production of fa n cy cloths.

H e proceeded to a detailed discussion o f th e Crom pton & K n ow les a u to ­m atic b o x loom from th e engineering poin t of v iew w ith ou t losing sigh t o f its potentialities as a producer of fine fabrics. H is rem arks were illustrated b y photographs projected b y the epidiascope, and b y num erous sam ples of fabric as well as actual parts of th e loom and its accessories.

In the discussion th a t follow ed, doubt w as expressed regarding some of Mr. A rm stron g’s claim s regarding production in th e States. I t w as clear th a t the audience w ould need incontrovertible d a ta before accep tin g the claim s. A ppreciation o f the lecture on the loom w as freely expressed.

Visit to M essrs. Turnbull & Stockdale Ltd., Rosebank Print Wórks, R am sbottom .On W ednesday, O ctober 3rd, a p a rty lim ited to 30 m em bers v isited the

R osebank W orks of Messrs. T urnbull & Stockdale L td . A fte r a w elcom e b y the M anaging D irector, M r. R . T . T urnbull, J .P ., th e p a rty d iv id ed in to sm all sections, w hich were conducted through th e w orks b y com p eten t guides. T h e y were shown the w hole sequence of operations from th e preparation o f th e grey cloth to the p ackin g of finished prints. A ll th e prin tin g processes w ere shown as w ell as the m akin g o f the b locks for hand printing.

T h e firm entertained the p arty to te a in the C anteen. A v o te of thanks to th e D irectors and staff w as proposed b y Mr. S. H eap and seconded b y M r. H .C . Barnes. Mr. W . T urnbull, Jnr. replied. W ith o u t a d o u b t th is v is it w as a m em orable occasion fo r a ll w ho participated in it.

Institute DiplomasE lections to Fellow ship A d A ssociateship h ave been com pleted as follow s

since the appearance of the previous lis t (O ctober issue of the Journal) : —

FELLOW SHIPJ A M E S A L F R E D H A N K IN S O N , A .T .I . , A ssistan t G roup W orks M anager,

Co-operative W holesale S ociety , M anchester.

A S SO C IA T E S H IPH A R O L D N IC H O L S C L IF F E , A ssistan t R esearch Chem ist, I .C .I . (Explosives)

L td ., A yrshire.H U G H A L E X A N D E R H A L D A N E M cG IL L , B .S c ., Sales and T ech nical

D irector, P la tt Bros. & C o. L td ., O ldham .S Y D N E Y M U L L O C K , H ead o f Q u ality C on trol D epartm en t, C ardin g and

Spinning D ivision , T urn er B ros., R och dale.

Proceedings

Institute MembershipT h e follow ing applicants were elected to m em bership a t the N ovem ber

m eeting of C o u n cil: —

Ordinary.A rth u r W alm sley B agsh aw , " T h o m le ig h ,” R och dale R oad E ast, H eyw ood

(Preparation M anager, M utual M ills L td ., A sp in all Street, H eyw ood).M orris Benson, M inistry o f S up p ly, 6, W h iteh all Crescent, D undee (T extile

Inspector).Jan Jacob B oum a, L ie u t., R o y a l N etherlands A rm y, E xp ed itio n ary Forces,

L on don W .2 (N. V . R am ie U nion, Enschede, H olland).A lb ert B o yes, 6, H olm ebank, A sh gate R o ad , Chesterfield (W eaving M anager,

R obinsons & Sons, W h eatbridge Mills, Chesterfield).H a rv e y B rocken shaw , 2, M anor M ead, Queens R oad, W eston-super-M are

(Research and D evelopm en t M anager, P rice Bros. & Co. L td ., W ellington, Som erset).

R egin ald R a y n e r C a tty , 229, H igh H olborn, L ondon W .C . (Secretary, S ilk and R a y o n U sers’ A ssociation, London).

T o m Chadderton, 11 , P arkgates A ven u e, Cheadle H ulm e, Cheshire (I .C .I. L td ., D yestu ffs D ivision , H exagon H ouse, B la ck ley , M anchester).

B ern ard Cooper, 868, E a st 7 th Street, B ro o k lyn 30, N ew Y o rk , U .S .A . (Y ork­shire W orsted Mills, 261, 5th A ven u e, N ew Y o rk , U .S .A .).

H a ro ld C ollier Cow gill, 434, Colne R oad, Q ueengate, B u rn ley (Liaison Officer, B ritish C otton In d u stry R esearch A ssociation, Shirley In stitu te , M anchester).

R olan d D a y , 3, Sandringham A ven u e, D enton, N r. M anchester (Secretary o f A sh ton & D istric t C o tto n E m p lo yers ’ A ssociation, 32, B o o th Street, A shton- under-Lyne.

J ack D ennison, 43, L arch D rive , O dsal, B rad fo rd (A ssistant T ex tile D esigner, B airstow W allace & Co. L td ., B o o th to w n M ills, H alifax).

R aym o n d D ow ns, 7, Cassels R oad, B run sw ick, V icto ria , A ustralia (Manager, c / o D ow ns and Son P t y . L td ., B runsw ick).

John G . D u ckw orth , N aas C otton M ills L td ., N aas, C o. K ild are , E ire (M anaging D irector).

N orm an F rederick D utfield , " C o m p to n ,” S t. Johns A ven u e, K idderm inster (C om pany D irector, Morris & Co. (Kidderm inster) L td ., H oobrook Mill, K idderm in ster).

Irv in D yson , L eem ing R eservoir H ouse, O xenhope, K e igh le y , Y o rk s (A ssistant M anager, H ield B ros. L td ., B rigella M ills, B radford).

R o b ert V ic to r W alm sley Thom as E v e ly n , 73, Cum berland R oad, U rm ston, M anchester (D yew orks Superintendent, Isaac B u ry L td ., A delphi D yein g and Finish in g W orks, Salford).

R on ald H arrison H argreaves, A .M .C .T ., 14, ^B roadw ay, L eylan d , L an cs. (A ssistant Chem ist, Chem ical Inspection D ep t. (T extile D ivision) M inistry of S up p ly, c / o B a x te r ’ s L td ., R espirator F a cto ry , L ey lan d , L an cs.).

Jam es H arkness, O aklea, L an gholm , Dum friesshire (Scotch T w eed Designer, A rth u r B e ll & C o., B uccleuch M ills, Langholm ).

E rn est H obson, 143, Springfield R o ad , K earsley , N r. B o lton (Liaison Officer, B ritish C o tto n In d u stry R esearch A ssociation, Shirley In stitu te , M anchester).

H erbert H odgson, 3, W estm inster A ven u e, C layton , B radford (W orsted Inside M anager, Courtaulds L td ., W estcro ft M ill, G reat H orton , B radford).

H ugh C raig H ouston, 40, Palm erston R oad, D ublin (M anaging D irector, Irish T hread M fg. Co. L td ., 23, Thom as Street, D ublin).

L eslie B . Jones, B righ ton H ouse, B a ltra y , N ear D rogheda (F actory M anager, G reenm ount & B o y n e L in en C o . L td ., B o y n e Mills, Drogheda).

M emoersnip P199

Herman Judd, 4, Clifiestone D rive , E a st M orton, B in gley , Y o rk s (Technical Advisor, Prince Sm ith & Stells L td ., K eighley).

A rthur L anghorn, 3, W est Clow es Street, Salford, 5 (Technical Secretary, B ritish C otton In d u stry R esearch A sscn ., Shirley In stitu te, M anchester).

D ouglas L a y co ck , R .A .F ., S .E .A .A .F . (Designer, D . B u tterw o rth & C o., A ndrew M ill, Greenfield, N r. O ldham ).

John W illiam L ew is, 31, K n o w sley Street, B u r y (O verlooker, U n ity R in g M ill L td ., Broadfield, H eyw ood, L an cs.).

F ran k H u bert Marsh, B .S c . (Hons), F .R .I .C ., 21, F ea m v ille V iew , L eeds, 8 (Technical D irector, Longclose E ngineering Co. L td ., B ow m an L an e, Leeds, 10).

T hom as M allett Pearson, M .A . (Cantab), T h e Shaw es, A nderton , N r. C h orley (Mill M anager, V an ton a T extiles L td ., M oor M ills, P arro t Street, B olton ).

Jim R am sbottom , 83, A sh w orth L an e, B o lton (Com ber O verlooker, J . & J. H ayes L td ., V icto ria Mills, Leigh).

John R obertson, 161, Morris Green L an e, B olton , L an cs. (U nder Carder, Courtaulds L td ., A rrow M ill, Rochdale).

N orm an R oe, M eltham H ouse, Sandw ich R oad, E llesm ere P a rk , E ccles (M anager of group of w orks, W in terbottom B o o k C loth Co. L td ., W easte, Salford, 5).

Jam es R ushw orth , G rout & Co. L td ., G reat Y arm o u th , N orfolk (General Manager).

L ou is J. Sheps, B .S c . (Hon), P h .D ., R ich ards Chem ical W o rks L td ., St. Johns, Q uebec, Can ada (General M anager).

D h irajla l N em chand Shroff, N ew E ra T e x tile M ills L td ., T u lsi Pipe R oad, M ahim , B o m b a y, 16, In dia (M anaging D irector).

Charles T attersall, 68, G reen L an e, G arden Suburbs, O ldham (Cone W in din g O verlooker, L ancashire C otton Corporation L td ., B runsw ick M ill, M an­chester, 10),

R ich ard W adm an, B orrow dale, H eyw ood H a ll R oad, H eyw ood, L an cs. (Spin­ning M anager, M utual Mills L td ., H eyw ood).

Charles F rederick W ard , M .Sc., A .R .I .C ., W . E . S a x b y (N ottingham ) L td ., B a r L an e, B asford, N ottin gh am (T extile Chem ist).

R o b ert W ilier, B .S c ., c / o I .C .I . L td ., o / s Sales D ep t., H exagon H ouse, M anchester, 9 (Chem ist, D yestu ffs D ivision).

A rth u r Stanley W righ t, 3, P a rk D rive, Ilkeston, D erbyshire (Hose and Circular K n it M echanic, B ritish Celanese L td ., Spondon, N r. D erby).

Frederick Jam es W rigley, 13, M aretim o V illas, B lackro ck , Co. D ublin (Assis­ta n t Secretary, A p ex M fg. Co. (1935) L td ., C arysfo rt A ven u e, B lackrock).

Junior.

M iltes A ntunes, N .S .D o Carm o, Sorocaba, S tate of S. P aulo , B razil, S. A m erica (Mill M anager’s A ssistant).

G eorge A rth u r Stephen B ell, 29, Cope Street, H yson G reen, N ottin gh am (L aboratory A ssistant, U n iversity College, T ex tile D epartm en t, Shakespeare Street, N ottingham ).

John L lew elyn Crowther, 36, South P arade, E llan d, Y o rk s (Student, L eeds U n iversity).

K en n eth W a lter L lo yd K ench ington , T ex tile Section, A rm am en t Research D ep t., W oolw ich, London S .E .18 (A ssistant E xperim en tal Officer).

Ph ilip D aw son Sm ith, 25, Broad A ven u e, Colem an R oad, L eicester (K n ittin g Research, W o lsey L td ., A b b ey P a rk Mills, L eicester).

John H ow ard W olsey, “ H azelden e,” B urras L an e, O tley, Y o rk s (Student, D epartm ent of T extile Industries, T h e U n iversity , Leeds).

P200 Proceedings

Employment RegisterN o. 204— Y o u n g m an, 31 years of age, desires position in textile trade w ith

future prospects. C ity and G uilds F u ll T echnological Certificate in C otton W eavin g . Certificates in W oollen and W orsted W eavin g and F inishing. S ix y ea rs ’ experience in w eavin g m ill and tw o years ’ in finishing m ill. School o f A cco u n tan cy D iplom a in Bookkeeping.

N o. 234— T ex tile finishers are offered th e op p o rtu n ity of availin g them selves of th e services of a tech nical m an (Chem ist, F .T .I . , 40) w ith a unique experience in the finishing of R a yo n and C otton in piece and y a m , research, m anagem ent and organisation. O nly a position w ith high responsibility and w ide scope of a c tiv ity w ill be considered.

N o. 2 51— A .T .I ., 34 years o f age, desires position as T extile T echnologist or T e x tile Chem ist. F u ll T echnological Certificate in D y e in g of W ool, C otton and Silk. H igher N ation al Certificate in C h em istry. Seven yea rs ’ experience in D yein g of P ile F abrics. Three y ea rs ’ experience in R esearch and D evelopm en t w ork and T ech nical adm inistrative w ork on T ex tiles w ith G overnm ent D epartm ent.

N o. 252— A .T .I ., 38 years of age, desires executive position w ith large firm of C otton Spinners, D oublers and Shippers. C ity and G uilds F u ll T ech ­nological C ertificate in C otton Spinning. A ssociate o f Salford R o yal T ech nical College. W ide experience in con tin en tal and w orld m arkets, all classes of unprocessed and processed y am s, p articu larly hosiery.

N o. 253— Y o u n g m an, 29 years of age, A .T .I . desires adm inistrative position in T ex tile m anufacturers either in E n gland or abroad. Several years’ experience in production, costing, designing and adm inistration.

N o. 256— A .T .I . 44 years o f age, desires position as M anager or A ssistant M anager, 20 y ea rs ’ experience C otton, L in en and R a y o n P iece Goods (specialising V a t colours) also W oollen y a m dyein g. F u ll T echno­logical C ertificate of the C ity and G uilds o f L ondon In stitu te in Cotton D yeing. W ould also consider position as tech nical sales representative.

N o. 257— Y o u n g m an requires post as A ssistan t M anager in a W orsted Spinning M ill w ith preference abroad. C ity and G uilds F u ll Technological C ertificate. H igher N ation al Certificate w ith distinction in W orsted Spinning. .

Meetings P 2 0 I

INSTITUTE MEETINGS

IR ISH SE C T IO NT hursday, 6th D ecem ber, 1945— Belfast. 7.45 p.m . L ectu re : “ R a y o n W e a v ­

in g ,” b y A . G lover, F .T .I . (Courtaulds L td .) a t the College of T ech nology.

T hursday, 13th D ecem ber, 1945— B elfast. 7.45 p .m . L ectu re : " Spinning ofF ib ro ,” b y H . A shton, F .T .I . (Courtaulds L td .) a t the College of T ech nology.

LANCASHIRE SECTIO NF riday, 7th D ecem ber, 1945— M anchester. 6.30 p .m . L ectu re : “ Carpet

M anu facture,” b y W . J. H opkins (Carpet Trades L td .) a t th e T ex tile In stitu te .

T uesday, n t h D ecem ber, 1945— B olton . 7.30 p .m . L ecture : ‘ ‘ Colourationand F inish in g of T e x tile s ,” b y F . F arrin gton ,B .S c ., F .R .I .C . (Thos. H ardcastle & Co. L td .) a t the M unicipal T ech n ical College.

F rid ay, 14th D ecem ber, 1945— M anchester. 1.0 p .m . L unch-tim e m eetinga t th e In stitu te ’s prem ises. " L am in ated P la stics,” b y J. H . Jarm an (T ufnol L td .) .

M ID LA N D S SE C T IO NT hursday, 6th Decem ber, 1945— D erby. 6.45 p .m . L ectu re : “ W oven

F ab rics ,” b y A . Pollard , M .Sc. (H ead of D ep artm en t o f T extiles, College of T ech n ology, Leicester) a t the T ech n ical College, D erb y.

YO RK SH IR E S E C T IO NM onday, 3rd Decem ber, 1945— Bradford. 6.30 p .m . L ectu re : “ Oils,

Em ulsions and L u b rican ts as used in the T ex tile T ra d e ,” b y G . E . Cow lishaw (Messrs. B e n j. R . V ickers and Sons L td ., Leeds) a t the M idland H o tel, B radford .

P202 Proceedings

Section Honorary SecretariesF o r th e benefit of m em bers, th e follow in g inform ation is given show ing the

nam es and addresses of H on orary Secretaries of Sections of the In stitu te.

Irish S e c tio n : — H . J. D orm an, E sq ., M .Sc. (Eng.), A .T .I .,

College of T ech n ology, B e lfa st, N . Ireland.

Lancashire S e ctio n :— H . C . B arn es, E sq ., B .S c ., B .C o m ., A .T .I .,

T h e T ex tile In stitu te ,

16, S t. M a ry ’ s Parsonage, M anchester, 3.

T elep h o n e: B la ck fria rs 2016.

(B olton B ranch)— L . Morris, E sq ., B .S c ., (Tech.), A .R .I .C .,

c / o V an to n a T ex tiles L td ., A insw orth M ill,

B reigh tm et, B olton .

T eleph one: B o lto n 182.

L on d on S e c tio n : — *A . R . D ow n, E sq .,

c / o A n to n y G ibbs & Sons,

22, B ishopsgate, London, E .C .2 .

M idlands S e c tio n : — J . C . H . H u rd, E sq ., F .T .I . ,

66, K irk lan d s R oad, L eicester.

S co ttish S e c tio n :— *D r. A . W . Stevenson, D .S c ., F .In s t .P ., F .T .I .,

Scottish W oollen T ech n ical College, Galashiels.

T eleph one: G alashiels 2327.

Yorkshire S e ctio n :— R . G . O versby, E sq ., F .T .I . ,

365, S ticker L an e, B radford .

T elep h o n e: D u d ley H ill 347.

♦Acting H on orary Secretaries.

N O V E M B E R 1945

T H E J O U R N A L OF T H ETEXTILE INSTITUTE

23—MEASURES TO CHECK DETERIORATION IN EGYPTIAN COTTON VARIETIES

Part I—THE GIZA SEED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMB y H . A. H an co ck

i . IntroductionThe high economic value of modern cotton crops has been developed by

human selection, operating on variable material, in the course of centuries of cultivation. That further advances are very far from exhausted, is shown by the results of intensive selection possible b y modern techniques; but in recent Egyptian crops, and probably in most of the world’s cotton crops, the difficulty has been to maintain economic advances when they are discovered. Highly evolved crops tend to fall back from their new economic level a few years after the new varieties expand in commercial production. The pressure of natural selection operates on heterogeneity which always exists although it m ay not be apparent in the field crops. How to avoid deterioration and so realise the advantages of artificial selection is a problem as important to spinners as it is to growers, since it is a major factor in deciding costs of production.

Deterioration in cotton varieties has been a subject o f complaint by spinners for the better part o f a century; and in recent years the Inter­national Federation of Master Cotton Spinners has been particularly active and useful in drawing attention to the question. The complaints have referred to Sea Island, West Indian, Egyptian, Peruvian, Brazilian, Russian, American, South, East and W est African, Indian, both the longer and the shorter stapled types, Chinese, and many lesser growths.

As they became aware of the financial losses involved, most of the cotton growing countries have paid increasing attention to deterioration during the past twenty or thirty years; but there seems little doubt that spinners were always more conscious of the problem and its importance than were the growers. This is perhaps because deterioration is mainly in spin­ning quality and not in agricultural yield, although the latter also is sometimes affected. Yet the grower suffers financial loss in either case, for of course he gets a lower return for a lower quality product; and especially is it true for high quality cottons, in which deterioration is apt to be the most marked.

Although many spinners rightly placed the chief responsibility upon the seed used, naturally they were unable to suggest a remedy. The growers’ solution was to change* over to entirely new varieties when the existing ones became hopelessly deteriorated. These new types were developed mostly by private individuals who served a very useful purpose with the limited means at their disposal; but as we now know, seed produced by the

T 268 23— Measures to C heck Deterioration

methods in vogue was bound to suffer deterioration, which in fact with some reason came to be accepted as a natural characteristic of cotton varieties.1 Thus there came about a continual procession of “ improved new varieties ” in every cotton-growing country.

While they served the needs of the moment, there was probably not much improvement in most of these “ improved ” varieties, taking the long view. In Egypt each newcomer was compared with a predecessor usually well along the road towards deterioration; but had it been possible to com­pare both varieties at the same stage of development, most of the improve­ment would have been seen to be only temporary. Y et b y slow and uncertain steps, not all of them forward perhaps, long-term advances in quality, if not in yield, do seem to have been made even with this happy-go- lucky state of affairs. Sakel almost certainly was a better economic proposition than any Egyptian variety before it.

Not everyone was deceived about the rate of progress made, however, and certainly the continual chop and change in varieties did not satisfy Egyptian growers and exporters, who realised that it made established marketing difficult. When Lancashire spinners2 pressed for action to be taken about these cotton problems, the idea therefore found a ready response in Egypt; and in 19 11 the newly founded Department of Agricul­ture (now the Ministry) was authorised to begin distribution of seed on an organised basis. Part I of the present paper deals with the seed system which subsequently developed, concerned mainly with maintenance of established varieties, and not directed mainly, in the beginning at least, to improvement by selection. The developments with new varieties, in which selection for higher economic value is the main objective, are discussed in Part II. And the bearing of these subjects on the extent and nature of deterioration, together with the general problem as the writer sees it, are discussed in Part III.

T able IOfftypes w h ich w ould be m isse d by rogu in g in the field

Cotton grown from seed picked o u t from commercial bulks of th e varieties nam ed, an d found to give low spinning values w hen com pared w ith th e norm al variety grown alongside. No differences in p la n t form were distinguished betw een off type and norm al lo ts ; an d in th e case of Sakel, th e offtypes were n o t distinguished by visible differences in th e seed either. (The offtype Sakel w as a m ix tu re of four deteriorated lots, th e lowest spinning of 47 lots. Y arn s tren g th is th e lea p roduct of 60s carded ring tw ist).

M a l A K I K a r N A K S a i -[EL

N orm al Offtype N orm al O fftype N orm al OfftypeP la n t Form Seed FuzzW eight of 100 seeds (gram s)... H airw eight per cm.S taple L ength 1/32 in. u n i t s \ . . Y arn S trength

N orm alSlightFuzz

12-4118

522,955

N orm alA lm ostN aked

9-9137

452,170

N orm alH alfFuzz

10-712851

2,710

Norm alA lm ostN aked

10113949

2,410

N orm alSlightFuzz

10-3133

502,780

Norm alSlightFuzz

9-6148432,125

ii . D evelop m ent of E arly M ethods in E gyptEgyptian seed maintenance in 1911, as in all the cotton crops of the

world at that time, depended on the visual detection of offtype plants and seeds. Either such offtypes were eliminated from small bulks in course of purification before expansion into a commercial crop; or else there was a modification of this procedure, called Mass Selection, when a number of apparently similar plants or seeds were selected, bulked together and expanded, the parent bulk being discarded. Field selection methods were followed in E gypt for all seed distributed under the Government Seed Renewal Schemes3 up to about 1925; but there are two fundamental defects

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T269

in such methods, at least so far as they were applied to the Egyptian crop, to which this account is restricted.

In the first place, single plant selection is inefficient because although certain offtype plants or seeds can be detected by eye, m any genetic variants are entirely normal in plant or seed form (Table I), and are there­fore wrongly accepted or selected as normal plants. Furthermore, as Hutchinson and his colleagues4'5 have pointed out, variants in lint quality or yield cannot be picked out among single plants, except very crudely, because genetic variance is hidden largely b y accidents of growth. Secondly, a good deal of natural crossing occurs between closely adjacent offtype and normal plants in the field; so that even if the off types could be picked out, they are liable to leave impurity in the “ purified ” population remaining, or in selections out of it.

Crops maintained by mass selection methods are therefore very liable to changes arising from the differential expansion of undetected off types; and if the offtypes are more prolific and of lower quality than the original crop, the general level of the crop will fall. The danger of contamination in open-pollinated material now seems very obvious, but for years no sus­picion was attached to these primitive methods. Mechanical mixing was generally believed to be the cause of deterioration always found after a few years when the supposedly pure seed was expanded into a large crop. Mixing at the ginneries was especially suspected, also mixing with intent to defraud; and there was a wide range of other explanations.

In 1904 W . L. Balls joined the Khedivial Agricultural Society of Egypt to begin his classical work6’7 on cotton plants. In the following eight or ten years he studied the question of impurity in cotton varieties with Mendel’s and Johannsen’s principles in mind, and then began to put forward some revolutionary ideas. He maintained that impurities must develop in the crop unless they were eliminated from the strain in the beginning; he insisted on the need for pure strains, and showed how they might be obtained by continued selection within a self-pollinated line, beginning each expansion afresh from a single plant; and he drew attention to the dangers of cross­pollination by insects, a hitherto neglected factor in Egyptian seed main­tenance. As Balls wrote in 19128: “ We have first to begin operations with pure strains, then to propagate those strains without permitting any natural crossing from without; and lastly, to handle our seed so as to avoid mix­ture.” Here for the first time was the sequence of operations placed in the order of priority recognised in the modem seed maintenance system.

Thus armed with sound basic principles, Balls became botanist to the newly-formed Department of Agriculture, where his new method was received with a marked lack of enthusiasm. As it transpired later9, the senior officers “ favoured a more practical method of cotton breeding, in the form of field selection, which has proved so satisfactory in other cotton-growing countries.” At any rate, when Balls left E gypt in 1914, under something of an agricultural cloud, the old methods strongly held the field. In the meantime, workers in other countries had adopted the pure line concept, notably H. Martin Leake10 and B. C . Burt11 in India, and S. C. Harland1* in the West Indies. The improvement effected b y Harland in competitive West Indian cotton was particularly difficult for E gypt to ignore. So when Balls returned to E gypt in 1927, he found that the new method had been adopted here after all, and had been partly in operation for nine years, with its merits just beginning to be appreciated.

This principle of continued selection within a selfed line, every genera­tion being the expansion from a single plant in the preceding generation, has been the essential feature of the Giza method since 1927. The system has proved to have quite unforeseen merits apart from the question o f purity, and has been elaborated in several directions. Although every

T 270 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

population is referred back to its single plant ancestor in the selfed line, the progeny test is now the essential basis for selection, only secondary importance being attached to measurements on the single plants. The source of new selections, originally field crop material, has been transferred almost entirely to artificial populations obtained by hybridising previous selections, a step which has led to remarkable results. The technique is also notable in the application o f spinning tests at every stage of the plant breed­ing; and especially important is the development of seed control methods for pruning aw ay commercial seed which has been too long in circulation, now recognised to be an essential feature of the seed maintenance system.

i i i . T he P resen t Seed M aintenance SystemSo long as it passes certain tests for purity, seed produced by any person

or organisation is allowed for sowing in Egypt, but in practice 99 per cent, of the commercial crop is now derived from Ministry of Agriculture seed. Private enterprise has been driven from the field by the obvious merit of Government seed, without recourse to legislation. Practically the whole seed maintenance system of E gypt is thus centred on the Giza farm, con­trolled by the assembly of departments known as the Cotton Research Board, with links radiating to other Government and private farms throughout the length of Egypt.

Renewal Nucleus.— For each variety in cultivation, a renewal nucleus o f pedigree plants is maintained on an area of ten or twenty acres, from which all the commercial crop of that variety is ultimately derived. The Tenewal nucleus in course of becoming a commercial crop is expanded at first either by the State Domains or other Government farms; or by selected private growers under contract to return the seed (First Propagation Seed) for Government distribution the following year. A similar system with modified form of contract is continued among private growers for two or three more years of expansion (Secqnd Propagation Seed), b y which time Ministry of Agriculture seed is available for about one-sixth of the country’s total cotton area. All operations are carried out on land surrounded by big areas of the variety in question, generally in zones with the newest seed towards the centre. Thus the new seed is protected from outside contamina­tion.

This seed then circulates among growers for a few years, not under Government control except that it comes up for examination each year under the provisions of the Seed Control Law, land is classed as ordinary commercial seed. Finally it fails to pass the Government standards of seed purity and is eliminated from the supply system, to go for crushing. In the meantime, fresh waves of pedigree seed have been expanded from a later renewal nucleus, a new selection improved in purity and often improved in lint quality or yield, and so the replacement system continues indefinitely. The kind of improvement referred to here, is such that the product is not changed enough to call for a new name and so cause disturbance in the marketing; development of new varieties is not the normal function of a maintenance system.

The modem conception of a variety, Ashmouni for instance, is thus a succession of crops from successive Ashmouni nucleus families, all probably slightly different though all derived from the parent Ashmouni. The idea of a single permanent nucleus, maintained b y roguing or similar methods, is entirely abandoned; before the nucleus stage, once regarded as the starting point for seed maintenance, there is now a plant breeding organisation on an extensive scale. For Ashmouni and Giza 7 (as for Sakel until it died out), this organisation hinges on the pedigree lines; for newer varieties it hinges on the hybrid lines to be decribed later, of different origin but operated by the same technique. (Table II).

in Egyptian C otton Varieties— H ancock T271

T able IIS u m m ary of the G iza Seed S y stem s

(A) F i r s t R e n e w a l N u c l e u s

(1) Single plant selection(2) Pedigree or Hybrid Lines (for several years).(3) Single plant selection expanded in Purity Chequer(4) Type-group expanded in Cage(5) Cage, second year(6) Centre of large bulk of the same variety(7) First renewal nucleus

(B) C o n t i n u e d M a i n t e n a n c e o f R e n e w a l N u c l e u s ’

Repeated Passages through Purity ChequerBulk seed taken from (4) or (5) above Purity Chequer Type-group expanded in CageCage, second year ----- ------ — —>Centre of preceding nucleus Second Renewal Nucleus

orSelection from Target Diagram

Single plant selection from (3) above Pedigree or Hybrid Lines (for several years)Single Plant Selection expanded in Purity Chequer Type-group expanded in Cage Cage, second year Centre of preceding nucleus Second Renewal Nucleus

orContinued Maintenance within the Renewal Nucleus Area

Single plant selection from (3) above Selfed without selection for a few years100 plants at centre of preceding nucleus area (10 or'20 selected)10 or 20 families in a miniature chequer (5 selected)5 selections and control in a yield chequer

(1 selected) ----------------- >- Single plant from selfed lineCentre plot of preceding nucleus, the selec- expanded into 100 plants to

tion and runner-up being re-compared begin the cycle again,in further yield chequers.

Second Renewal Nucleus.

Pedigree Lines__Practically every plant from field populations, examinedwith sufficient care, is found to throw off variants in its daughter offspring. Considering only self-pollinated plants with contamination from outside sources excluded, the offspring of the daughters in their turn are found to split up into a wider range of grand-daughters; and this process of segrega­tion continues for many generations. The variants frequently are not distinguished b y anything unusual in the appearance of the plants or seeds; also differences in the lint are often small and difficult to detect b y the ordinary tests; but the spinning-test is so sensitive in the detection of genetic differences, that continued segregation is more clearly shown in the yarn strength than in any character of the plant.

More scope for selection is given b y the wider range of characters follow­ing segregation; and the opportunities are repeated, the advantages of selection being accumulated, from parent, to daughter, to grand-daughter and so on. Such selfed lines are called Pedigree Lines, and the purpose of selection in them is to persuade the strain towards a course of evolution con­sidered satisfactory b y man.

If the original parent was very impure, genetic differences in the sister plants, or in their lint, are sometimes big enough to be detected b y eye during the first few generations. But if the parent was not very impure, and b y about the fifth generation in any case, genetic differences between sister

> Single plant selected from the target diagram for similar expansion into 3rd nucleus, and so on.

Bulk seed taken for similar expansion into the third re­newal nucleus, and so on.

T2J2 23— Measures to C heck Deterioration

plants are entirely masked by accidental variation arising from the conditions o f growth. Selection based on single plants thus becomes ineffective at an early stage, even though important genetic variation still remains; and for better discrimination it is necessary to take the seeds from each single plant separately, and to expand them into families.

A certain amount of useful selection can be based on families from single, plants at the first expansion, when there are usually from 50 to 300 plants per fam ily, occupying one to five ridges in the field. But all final decisions at Giza are based on families at the second or third expansion, when there is enough seed for them to be compared in the miniature or yield chequers, with m any replications. Random errors then diminish enough for genetic differences to be recognised in the chequers long after they can be picked out in the single plants; and segregation has been detected as far on as the thirteenth generation. Thus although it is convenient to refer to selection “ in the pedigree lines,” actually all final selection depends on the results of yield or miniature chequers running parallel.

Some account of the wealth of material to be found in the pedigree lines will be given on Part II o f this paper. For the moment it will be assumed that the chequer tests have shown one of the early selections to be better in yield and/or spinning quality than the variety out of which it was selected, and that the family is otherwise suitable to become the renewal nucleus fam ily. This nucleus can be referred to as the Primary Selection, any sub­sequent selections from it being the Secondary Selections. Seed representing the primary selection is now taken, using selfed seed reserved from the single plant in the pedigree line, and expanded for a year in the Purity Chequer (13).

The Purity Chequer.— The selected fam ily is now in course of expansion into a bulk which will be the renewal nucleus, and the purpose of the purity chequer is, or was, (a) to eliminate offtype plants still remaining in the pedigree line strain; (b) to offer a new opportunity for selection in the strain; and (c) to compare the purity of related strains in a short list of final selections, to ensure that badly impure strains are not selected for immedi­ate propagation. W ith regard to (c), the purity chequer technique still has some value as a safeguard against accidental mixtures of seed getting into the renewal nucleus. But apart from this unlikely contingency, Giza families are now mostly too uniform for the technique to be effective, for it is based on single plant selection although the observations are quantitative. The technique is now used, therefore, for renewal nucleus families at their first expansion only, and not for later expansions.

Each fam ily in the purity chequer has ten wide-spaced plants per ridge with ten replications. (As first described b y Balls, it was a chequer of single plants, not of ridges). Of the 100 plants in the total, about ten usually die off or give insufficient cotton for one reason or another, leaving some qo plants to be harvested separately and have the results plotted. Flowers ■opening at the beginning and end of the season are self-pollinated, and this seed alone is used for future propagation. Results are plotted as scatter diagrams, called Target Diagrams at Giza, the 90 or so plants on the diagram representing the 90 or so single plants in the fam ily (Fig 1).

Although other plottings are considered, the most useful diagram is that with staple (halo) length plotted against ginning out-turn, this distribution having the least proportion of environmental variance. A type-group of 50 plants nearest to the bull’ s eye on the target diagram is chosen to be the future nucleus family. Plants outside the type-group, offtype in undesirable directions such as low ginning out-turn or short staple, are discarded. Plants outside the type-group but varying in a desirable direction, were formerly the source of new material for selections, as will be described presently. The plants selected now are those in the type-group alone.

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 7 3

rig. l .—-iarget diagrams from the Purity Chequer, plotting Halo (i.e. Staple) Length against Ginning Out-turn per cent. (1) Original diagram of about 90 points, representing 90 single plants. (2) The “ type group ” of 50 plants selected for expansion into the renewal nucleus.

Propagation of the Type-Group.— The 50 plants represented by points within the type-group (Fig. 1) are bulked and have now to be expanded into a renewal nucleus occupying ten or twenty acres, at the maximum rate of expansion, and with the minimum of contamination from outside during the process.

Propagation for the first two years is carried on inside the Giza cages, stainless steel wire gauze compartments covering about half an acre each, designed to minimise natural crossing without the labour of hand selfiing on a big scale. In the third year the seed is field sown at the centre of a large bulk of the same variety; and is ginned separately, with special precautions against mixing, to become the renewal nucleus the following year.

This is the source of pedigree seed released on contract by the Ministry as already mentioned, either directly to cultivators or through the inter­mediary of the Agricultural Bank. There is usually no need for special effort to get the seed into circulation; the system has the best possible basis for support, it depends on the recognised merit of the seed supplied. The demand for propagation seed is in fact often much greater than the avail­able supply, especially with new varieties. The Ministry then has consider­able freedom of action in placing seed with different cultivators, and this makes it easier to arrange deep zones of propagation areas for the better protection of the nucleus.

iv . C o n tin u e d M a in te n a n ce o f the R e n e w a l N u c le u sMethod of Repeated Passages.— Even before the renewal nucleus is estab­

lished, steps are taken to build up its successor. Until recently this was often done by taking bulk seed from the renewed nucleus fam ily at its first or second expansion in the cages, and then passing this “ nucleolus ” seed through the purity chequer a second time, the type-group so obtained becom­ing the renewal nucleus two or three years later. Some nucleus families were renewed three or four times b y such repeated passages through the purity chequer.

This method was not satisfactory because the repeated families became too many generations removed from the original single plant parent by the time they reached commercial propagation. If heterozygous plants were present initially, the offtypes continuously increased in range, because the plants were continuously selfed until they reached the nucleus area. But the increased range was not detected except in regard to the few characters measured in the purity chequer, and without high

T274 23— Measures to Chech Deterioration

accuracy even for these. Undesirable offtypes in regard to other characters, liable to increase out o f proportion or not, could thus segregate within the strain, free from human interference since they were not recognised. That extreme offtypes did occur was proved when single plants were picked out from a bulk after its third passage, expanded into families, and had the lint tested for spinning quality. The range of variation found came as an unpleasant surprise to the writer, and still more to the plant breeders.

The method of repeated passages is no longer used at Giza, but is men­tioned here because it illustrates how impurities can develop and expand in a strain even when it is protected from outside contamination. Impurity is always present from the beginning, except perhaps in strains descended from a very highly inbred parent, and the breeder cannot afford to miss any opportunity for its elimination. Selling alone is not enough; there must be continued re-selection and expansion from a single plant afresh, and the method of repeated passages ignored this important principle.

Selection from the Target Diagrams.— Several nucleus families until recently in commercial propagation were expansions from new material picked out from the target diagrams, the plants outside the type-group already mentioned as showing variation in a desirable direction. These expansions from single plants re-entered the pedigree lines with the selfed line unbroken; and secondary selection was carried on usually for two or three generations, final decisions as usual being based on chequer tests for yield and spinning quality. The selected family, certainly purer and usually better otherwise, then passed through the purity chequer to become the next renewal nucleus, exactly as described for the first nucleus.

This method met with considerable success in finding improved families, both of established varieties and of entirely new strains. It was first operated about 1927, but did not reach full development until some ten years later, when it became possible to carry out spinning-tests on all pedigree line families. The extent of segregation was then seen to be greater than was previously suspected, and this encouraged further search for yield segregation, which also was found. Many exceptions were found to the inverse correlation between high spinning quality and high yield which is the general rule, and important possibilities in secondary selection were thus recognised. The limit to the possibilities is not actually known in practice, because every Giza fam ily continues to show at least small improve­ments every time they are sought for.

Maintenance within the Renewal Nucleus Area.— Selections out of the purity chequer and pedigree lines were apt to be slow in reaching the com­mercial crop, because propagation of selfed seed was delayed for two or three years until the full chequer results were known. So many families under trial made it impossible to expand selfed seed of each in readiness, and the chequer seed of the finally selected fam ily was of course too impure for propagation. For established varieties, continued maintenance of the renewal nucleus is now speeded up b y a new system. The first renewal nucleus is established by the technique already described, selfed seed being obtained from the purity chequer; there is, however, no further passage through the purity chequer. Table II shows the difference between the systems.

In the new maintenance system which began in 1943, initial selection is now chiefly for high yielding single plants in the selfed line (an almost random choice as regards genetic factors since the environmental variance is high), final selection as always being based on progeny tests for yield and spinning quality; but both the original single plants and the subsequent chequers are situated within the ten or twenty acres comprising the renewal nucleus for the variety in question. Ten or twenty highest yielding plants are first selected from a plot of about a hundred plants; about half of the

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 7 5

selections are eliminated on the basis o f progeny tests for yield and spin­ning quality, etc., the following year; and all but one selection of the remainder are elirpinated in further progeny tests in the next two years. B y this method the seed used for testing can also be used for propagation, it having suffered no contamination from other varieties b y natural crossing. Propagation begins as soon as the chequer results are known, and improve­ments get into circulation at the fastest possible rate.

A rigorously unbroken selfed line is maintained in the background to correspond with each stage of selection, and from this line springs a new nucleus fam ily every three or four years. Thus tried and tested seed is only three or four generations removed from the single plant parent, when it begins to expand in the commercial crop. The parent is at the end of a long line of repeated selfing and selection, b y which to develop purer and better seed; and there is the minimum opportunity for unwanted offtypes to segregate and expand as the nucleus grows up to be a main crop.

v . T he Seed Control LawProbably a single variety will never be found economically suitable for

the whole range of cotton growing conditions in Egypt, and there have been usually half a dozen or more varieties running at any time. Contamination by natural crossing is almost inevitable under such conditions, and eventually leads to deterioration in the better quality varieties, quite apart from the possibility o f accidental or fraudulent mixing of seed. Measures must therefore be ‘taken to eliminate seed which has been too long in commercial circulation.

Under the provisions of Law No. 5 of 1926 (Seed Control Law), seed intended for sowing must not be ginned without a licence, and ginning must be carried on under the supervision of a Ministry of Agriculture inspector, one being attached to every licensed ginnery. A t the commencement of ginning, a specified amount of seed must be run to clear the conveyors, etc., and not until then is seed collected for sowing. The inspector takes a sample of seed and/or seed-cotton according to a specified routine, for examination in the Ministry of Agriculture laboratories. If the seed or seed-cotton fails to pass the standards laid down from year to year, a certificate is refused and the seed cannot be used for sowing.

Until 1942-43, acceptance or refusal was based entirely on the propor­tion of offtype seeds; and long before this a gradual stiffening of the stan­dards led to an amazing improvement of seed regularity14, as well as a great improvement in the uniformity o f the plants as seen in the field. About 10,000 lots of seed annually are received for examination (with peace­time acreage), the standards being steadily raised so that about 2,000 lots always fail to pass. More than 90 per cent, of the seed in use, when the law originally came into operation, would have failed to pass the present standards.

Although the seed examination method was successful up to a point, the system was not infallible because certain deteriorated elements exist in the crop which cannot be detected in the seed (Table I). Sakel was par­ticularly unfortunate in this respect, and eventually seed was being passed when it was hopelessly deteriorated, although nobody could tell until it was sown and harvested. Since less seed was rejected and withdrawn from circulation, there was less demand for Sakel renewal seed, worsening the situation in a vicious circle.

Starting in 1942-43, for the long-stapled varieties Amoun, Malaki, Karnak and Sakha 4 only, an important advance was made in basing acceptance or refusal on the spinning quality of the ginned lint, samples being received in the form of seed-cotton. Spinnings are carried out at the Giza mill on mass production lines, and the technique is described15 in a

23— Measures to C heck Deterioration

recent issue of this Journal. Thus all the long-stapled cotton of E gypt is now grown directly from seed whose lint has passed the spinning standards, lot by lot.

v i. P o ssib le Future D evelop m ents : The D ated Seed S ystemDirect control of crop quality b y spinning tests has not previously been

attempted on any cotton crop, and is doubtless an advance on anything before it, for a big crop. Y et both this and the seed examination method have an obvious d efect: they cannot operate until measurable contamination is present. B y the spinning-test, at least, there is good evidence that defective seed will be eliminated before deterioration becomes serious, although direct proof of this cannot become available for some years. But, however successful the spinning test method m ay prove to be, it is not the best conceivable. Still better might be a Dated Seed System, by which all lots are dated according to the year of their renewal nucleus, to be refused for sowing within a time limit of five years or so; and the first steps have been taken to put this principle into operation.

The value of such a system m ay be illustrated for the case of Ashmouni, the 1944 renewal nucleus of which represents an improvement greater than we have have had for some years with this variety. Growers are quicker to appreciate improvements than might be imagined, and an increased demand for the new Ashmouni seed can be expected within two or three years. If the new seed is issued not simply as Ashmouni, but as Ashmouni/44 instead, the lots already circulating can be identified by growers; and older lots marked Ashmouni/43, Ashmouni/42, etc., will disappear from circulation more quickly, being thus recognised. The stress is shifted to the encourage­ment of new seed rather than the elimination of old, though this continues; and the system has the merit of getting more profitable new seed quickly into circulation, apart from the question of deterioration.

Difficulty in getting this scheme into operation is concerned with com­mercial interests, and is more likely to be of a psychological rather than of a technical nature, especially as regards the risk of evasions. Acceptance certificates checked from the records of the previous year m ay have to be given, although there are possible alternative methods of dealing with the problem. There is no chance of success without the willing support of the growers; but this can be expected if the extra profit from improved seed, and the losses due to deterioration, come to be appreciated. A seed pedigree system maintained right through the commercial crop, as well as inside the renewal nucleus system, will then perhaps come to be accepted as a matter of course.

These problems of seed maintenance, and particularly of seed elimination, are much greater for a big crop than for a small one. Not only is there difficulty in controlling large volumes of seed, the minimum time required for expansion of a renewal nucleus into a big crop is an important factor in deterioration. The discussion so far has referred chiefly to the mainten­ance of varieties such as Sakel and Ashmouni, which were already estab­lished when the Cotton Research Board began operations in 1920. The question of time will be mentioned again in Part II, in connection with the development of new varieties next to be discussed.

S um m aryComplaints of deterioration in spinning quality have referred to most of

the world’s cotton crops in recent times, and the control of deterioration is regarded as a major technical problem. In the seed maintenance system employed at Giza, every propagation bulk is expanded from a single plant selected out of a selfed line. The progeny of this plant pass first through a purity chequer, and are then expanded in wire gauze cages covering

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 7 7

ab ou t h a lf an acre, the a im b ein g to m in im ise n atu ra l crossin g. T h e seed is fu rth er exp an d ed to b ecom e the re n ew al n u cleu s, fro m w h ich a ll the com m ercial crop o f th a t v a r ie ty is u ltim a te ly d e riv ed . T h e n ucleu s is m aintained at the cen tre o f a la rg e b u lk o f th e sam e v a r ie ty , p ro p ag atio n bu lk s from it b e in g gro w n in su rro u n d in g zon es, u n til th ere is seed sufficient to sow a b o u t o n e-sixth o f the to ta l co m m ercia l c ro p . E v e r y three o r fo u r y ea rs a fresh ren ew al n u cleu s is e x p a n d e d fro m a n o th e r p ed igree p la n t, a n um ber o f p ro gen ies b e in g tested fo r y ie ld a n d sp in n in g q u a lity , one o n ly b e in g selected . T h e p ossib ilities in seco n d a ry selection are g rea ter th an w a s fo rm e rly rea lised , a n d im p ro v em e n t in a v a r ie ty ca n o ften b e a ch iev ed b y a n u m b er o f sm all a d va n ces.

Im p u re seed in the co m m ercia l cro p w a s fo rm e rly e lim in ated en tire ly on the b asis o f coun ts o f o fftyp e seeds, a u th o rity to refu se p erm ission fo r so w in g b e in g g ran ted un d er th e Seed C o n tro l L a w . F o r th e lo n g -stap led varie ties, re fu sal o f seed is n ow b ased on sp in n in g-tests; a ll the com m ercial cro p o f these v a rie ties is g ro w n d irectly fro m seed w h o se lin t h a s p assed the sp in n in g stan d a rd s, lo t b y lo t. A system o f e lim in atio n b a se d o n the date o f co m m ercia l seed is u n d er con sid eratio n .

R eferences

1 N. Parachimonas, J. Text. Inst., 11, 1920, p. 243.2 International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners, Official Report on Visit to

Egypt, 1912, p. 34.3 Egyptian Min. of Agric. Pamphlet. Methods of State Domains for Maintaining Sakel

Cotton, 1922.4 J. B. Hutchinson and V. G. Panse, Ind. J. Agric. Sci., 7, 1937, P- 531-5 J. B. Hutchinson and H. L. Manning, Trinidad Cotton Research Station Memoirs,

No. 20, 1943.6 W . L. Balls, Development and Properties of Raw Cotton, Black. 1915.7 W . L. Balls, The Cotton Plant in Egypt, Macmillan, 1912.8 International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners, Official Report on Visit to

Egypt, 1912, p. 197.9 B. G. C. Bolland, Agric. J . of Egypt, 7, 1917, p. 12.

10 H. Martin Leake, J. Genetics, 1911, p. 205.11 B. C. Burt, Bull. 88, Agric. Research Inst., Pusa, 1919.12 S. C. Harland, West Indian Bulletin, 17, 1919, pp. 145 and 210.13 W . L. Balls, Development and Properties of Raw Cotton, Black, 1915, p. 130.14 W . L. Balls, Egyptian M in. Agric. B ull., Nos. 85, 100, and 104, 1929-31.16 H. A. Hancock, J. Text. Inst., 36, 1945, p. t i o .

T278 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

Part II—DEVELOPMENT OF NEW VARIETIESA cotton variety has to be regarded as “ new ” if it has a different com­

bination of characters from anything else, even though each of its characters is to be found separately in other varieties. Thus several Egyptian varieties have the same plant form as Maarad (a Pima type), but they do not have the same lint and are therefore called different varieties. Similarly, varieties with lint almost identical have to be given different names if the seed or plant forms, or any other characters, are different. Inevitably the seed would be mixed if such varieties were given the same names, and the resulting hybrids would almost certainly evolve new types of plant and lint, making the mixture unstable.

It is remarkable how plants slightly offtype in one character or another, are continually thrown off in the course of maintaining an established variety. In the early days at Giza, these offtypes tended to be regarded as useless by-products which hampered the plant breeder in his business, although m any were known to be improvements in yield or spinning quality. When their value at last came to be appreciated, the offtypes showing greatest improvement were picked out of the pedigree lines and propagated as new varieties by exactly the procedure described in sections iii and iv of Part I.

There was found to be a most encouraging demand b y growers for the new kinds of seed on offer, and, of course, the new varieties could never have prospered without the spinners’ support also. Thus it gradually came about that the Giza seed supply system intended for the maintenance of old varieties, actually became best known as a producer of entirely new types. At least as much time and effort were spent on the maintenance system as were ever spent on new varieties, but work on new varieties was by far the more fruitful.

The work on new varieties has been divided from the beginning into two branches, not very different in principle or methods, but administered in part by different personnel, and conveniently discussed separately. These two branches a re :

(1) Selection of offtypes out o f established varieties.(2) Breeding and selection out of hybrids from controlled matings.All but one of the most promising varieties now known were developed

b y method (2); but for long all the best strains, now regarded as being in the second rank, were picked out by method (1).

i . S election ou t of an E stablished V ariety : A sh m ou n iAshmouni can be used to illustrate the wide ranges of types found

among the offspring of plants from a commercial crop, and more attention has been paid to this variety than to any other at Giza. Several plants out of commercial Ashmouni caught the plant breeder’s eye and entered the Giza pedigree lines in 1918 (not always selfed lines at that time), and selec­tion has continued among the descendants ever since.

These Ashmouni plants split up from the beginning into different strains, of which several were inferior to the original Ashmouni, both in yield and in spinning quality. They were therefore lower than the lowest quality variety in the Egyptian crop, being reversions to inferior plant types which have to be eliminated in any efficient maintenance system. Such inferior strains can still be found in commercial Ashmouni and in other varieties; they usually have rather small seeds, low ginning out-turn, and probably other characters which make them more prolific, and their expansion naturally leads to deterioration in the parent strain.

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 7 9

The breeders’ interest was, of course, drawn more especially to strains found to be superior to the original Ashmouni in combined yield and spin­ning quality. Several early primary selections were good enough to be distinguished by Giza numbers, and they were divided into two classes, according to whether they resembled the parent Ashmouni or not. Those such as Giza 2 and Giza 19, with lint and plant characters very close to Ashmouni, became the first and second renewal nucleus families for sub­sequent Ashmouni crops, the improved seed being supplied simply as Ashmouni without change of name. But the majority of the improved strains, and invariably the best of them, were too different in plant form or lint to be propagated as Ashmouni. They were possibly descended from natural crosses between Ashmouni and contemporary varieties, although not necessarily so since Ashmouni certainly oontained offtypes from the begin­ning; in any case, if they were to go on the market they had to be given new names.

Steady increases in yield of a few old-established types would give far more satisfaction than the development of more new varieties, but there is a reason for the irritating frequency with which the breeders’ best efforts result in something new. Obviously there is a better chance of success when selection is not restricted to a few old-established types, just as the fisherman with a free choice of everything in the net will get bigger fish than will the man allowed to select the big herrings alone. Progress became much more rapid, therefore, when the breeders’ field was not restricted to old-estab- lished types.

The first important variety selected from the offtype Ashmouni plants was Giza 7, with a better combined yield and quality than any variety then existing. It was not much improved by secondary selection, however, partly because the Giza methods were not then sufficiently developed, and partly because Giza 7 happened to be a rather pure primary selection.

A different selection out of Ashmouni which has responded continuously to secondary selection is the new variety called Giza 31. It is 10 per cent, higher in yield, and 20 per cent, higher in yarn strength than the parent Ashmouni, and is still segregating after being self-pollinated for eleven successive generations. Giza 31 was derived from Ashmouni by w ay of Giza 3, and already had been under selection for twelve generations, of which only four were selfed, before it became a continuously selfed line. The strain has thus responded to selection over a period of 23 generations; and although recent advances have been small, there is no reason to sup­pose that opportunities for further selection have entirely ceased.

Giza 31 has the unusual merit of holding on to its bolls under severe climatic conditions where other varieties (including the parent Ashmouni) are subject to extreme shedding. The selections were chosen on the basis of their performance, not at Giza, but at the extreme south of Egypt; the strain was thus continuously persuaded, by selection, towards an environ­ment unsuited to the parent strain as a whole. Its present development is held up by war-time acreage restrictions; when it is released, Giza 31 is likely to extend the cotton-growing area some 40 or 50 miles beyond the present economic limit in the south of Egypt.

These long continued studies of single plant progenies give an illuminat­ing picture of the welter of mongrel types in the commercial varieties 25 years ago. Of the different types found to segregate out of the Ashmouni offtypes, naturally many more were discarded than were selected as improve­ments; yet, in all, 19 new types out of this variety had sufficient merit in some character to justify being distinguished by Giza numbers. About a

T 280 23— Measures to Chech Deterioration

dozen improved types were also selected from other contemporary varieties, especially from Sakel. Two strains only— selections out of Sea Islands— were direct importations from abroad; all other Giza varieties were selec­tions out of material already in Egypt. A list of the Giza varieties selected out of commercial strains, together with renewal nucleus families introduced since 1925, is included in Table III.

i i . S election s ou t of N ew C rossesSister families of pedigree strains are usually so nearly uniform b y about

the ninth generation, that further selection becomes tedious, especially as regards yield. Many Giza strains have been carried beyond the ninth generation, but none has been taken actually to the limit of possible improvement, because another line o f attack proved to be more effective. This was the hybridisation method, with controlled matings.

B y using selections from the pedigree lines as parents for hybrids, variability was again introduced; and after selection for a few generations, it was found that strains were segregating out at a level o f economic improvement higher than anything previously known. Later generations from the hybrids so produced were then in their turn used as parents, and yet further advances were made and are still being made. These hybrid families from known parents are carried on in the hybrid lines at Giza or at Sakha, and are continuously selfed, expanded, and tested, by the same technique as that described (Part I, Section iii) for the pedigree lines.

Hybrid Selection Procedure.— When a new cross is made, usually from parents at F 6 or higher, about five plants at the first generation are expanded into about 100 plants at the second generation, either in the winter green­house or in the field the following year. Five or ten F 2 sister plants are then selected almost at random, and expanded into five or ten F , sister families of about 40 plants each, wide spaced. Only the crudest idea of yield is yet possible, but there is enough cotton for spinning and other tests, and effective selection for all characters except yield begins with these F ;. sister families.

Some families are discarded at once on the grounds of low ginning out­turn, unsuitable plant habit, or yield so low that the deficiency can be detected by eye. Lint from the remaining families is spun, and rejection then begins at a heavy rate. W eak yarn is the commonest cause of rejec­tion, but whatever their yarn strength, a good many strains are discarded on the grounds of short and fine staple— a combination which gives neppy card webs. Strong and regular yarn is considered the most desirable character, especially if coupled with high hairvveight, good colour, high lustre, and low comber waste. Strains so endowed which also run at high grade, indicating resistance to pests, are especially treasured.

Taken over all strains, about nine out of every ten families are discarded for one reason or another at F 3. A further nine out of ten are discarded at F 4 and again at F 5, selfed seed from each selection being expanded into about ten sister families for trial at the next generation. Natural bulks of a few hundred plants are included for testing after F , so as to give more cotton for comparison. Not much is likely to be wrong with the lint of any F 5 survivors, the best of which are expanded a further year or two for yield tests in the chequers. Many families fail to reach the steadily rising standards for yield, although they might have been counted successes a few years before, and a further seven out of ten families are discarded accordingly. Similar selection and rejection proceeds through the F 0, F 7 and F 8 generations.

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T281

T able IIIL ist o f E stablished G iza and Sakha V arieties

V arietyN am eT radeN am e Selected

O u t of :V arie tyN am e

T radeN am e Selected

O u t of :

Sakha 1 Sakel Giza 17 AssilliSakha 2 — Sakel Giza 18 — Ashm ouniSakha 3 — Sakel Giza 19 A shm ouni Ashm ouniS akha 4 Sakha 4 Sakel Giza 20 — A shm ouniS akha 5 — Sakel Giza 21 — Pim aS akha 6 .— . Sakel Giza 22 — A shm ouniSakha 7 Sakel Sakel Giza 23 — Ash. x SakelSakha 8 — Sakel Giza 24 — . Ash. x SakelSakha 9 — Sakel Giza 25 — Ash. x CasulliSakha 10 — Sea Island Giza 26 M alaki S. 10 x SakelSakha 11 — Sea Island Giza 27 — G.7 x S .3Sakha 12 — . Sakel Giza 28 — . S.3 x S .4Giza 29 K arnak S.3 x M aarad*Giza 1 — A shm ouni Giza 30 — G.7 x S . l lGiza 2 Ashm ouni A shm ouni Giza 31 .— Giza 3Giza 3 Giza 3 A shm ouni Giza 32 — G.7 x S .3Giza 4 — A shm ouni Giza 33 — A shm ouniGiza 5 — Ashm ouni Giza 34 — G.7 xG .12Giza 6 — Ashm ouni Giza 35 — . G.7 x G.17Giza 7 Giza 7 Ashm ouni Giza 36 Menoufi G.12 x S.3Giza 8 — Ashm ouni Giza 37 .— G.12 x S .3Giza 9 — Ashm ouni Giza 38 — G.12 x S .7Giza 10 — Ashm ouni Giza 39 Am oun G.26 X S.4Giza 11 — Ashm ouni Giza 40 — G.25 X S.4Giza 12 W afeer Ash. x Sakel Giza 41 — (S.3 x G.18)Giza 13 — Ashm ouni xG .12Giza 14 — Assilli Giza 42 — (S.3 x G.18)Giza 15 — A shm ouni xG .26Giza 16 — Afifi Giza 43 .— G.31 x G .12Giza 44 — G.30 x S .3Giza 45 — G.7 x G .28* M aarad was a P im a ty p e in troduced b y th e R oyal A gricultural Society.

Dates o f Issue o f Renewal Nucleus Families since 1925 :(Each was of provedly b e tte r yield, spinning quality , or seed p u rity th an any

previous fam ily a t th e tim e of change, and practically all were issued w ithou t change of name).Ashmouni 1925, 1933, 1935, 1937, 1942, 1943, and a new one w ith m arked im prove­

m ent in 1944.Sahel 1925, 1933, 1936. (The one in 1936 w as n o t fully used).Giza 7 1932, 1935, 1937, 1939, 1942.Sakha 4 1930, 1933, 1936, 1937, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942.Giza 12 1933, 1935, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940.Giza 26 1935, 1936, 1937, 1939, 1041, and 1944.Giza 29 1937, 1939, 1940, 1041, 1945._____________________________________ _______Results for any new variety are considered in relation to comparable

tests on an appropriate standard variety, so that character-differences rather than characters are measured. The product of Lint Y ie ld x Price is the criterion for success, price being inferred mainly from the spinning per­formance, with second order allowances for other characters. Those varieties not up to standard in over-all value, but with a desirable character at some new extreme value, are frequently used as parents for new hybrids before being discarded. In any year, only one or two hybrid lines survive as far as F„; and the best of these undergo trials in 20 or 30 yield chequers per year, as well as in larger plots, with an eye to propagation as new varieties. About one out of five actually becomes known to spinners, the successful varieties then being given a name such as Malaki, Karnak, Menoufi, or Amoun, instead of the rather confusing Giza numbers. A list of Giza strains derived from hybrids, together with a list of the parents, is included in Table III.

T 282 23— Measures to C heck Deterioration

ii i . R ange of V ariabilityBoth in yield and in yarn strength, which are compound characters

involving many components, the distribution of values obtained from sister families is usually continuous both at earlier and at later generations; the distribution is not usually divided into several modes, so far as can be determined by experiment. There are not just a few Egyptian types; there is a continuous gradation o f types from the bottom of the yield and quality range, all the w ay up to the top. Several thousands of recog- nisably distinct types have been examined at Giza in the past ten years (discrimination being based on any significant difference, however small); and the two main economic characters of the cotton plant are evidently controlled by many genes. No reliable estimate of the number of genes segregating has yet been possible, especially as regards the upper limit; but there are indications as to what must be the lower limit in the average F, plant, judging by the rate of approach to purity.

T able IVE xam p les of S eg reg ation in S ister F am iliesT he exam ples are usually th e h ighest and lowest lea p roducts w ith in groups of from

tw o to five sister families te s ted in chequer, and are n o t necessarily no r even usually th e families w hich were selected for fu rth er study.

Y arn streng ths are expressed as th e Lea S trength x Counts P ro d u ct of 60s carded ring tw ist, w ith o u t correction for grade of cotton. Y ields are in lb. of lin t per acre. All com parisons are based on lines w ith unbroken selfing tested in yield or m iniature chequer trials, th e num ber of chequers averaged for each p a ir being shown in brackets.

Lea L in t No. of Lea L in t No. ofP ro d u ct Yield Cheqs. P ro d u ct Yield Cheqs.F. 5 Sister Families F. 9 Sister FamiliesH 117/39 (a) 2740 505 (7) H 250/37 (/) 2855 531 (3)H 119/39 2420 553 H 248/37 2770 540H 193/39 (6) 3060 417 (4) H 251/37 (f) 2860 604 (5)H 194/39 3035 468 H 249/37 2850 619jp.6 Sister Families .F.10 Sister FamiliesH 188/40 (e) 2350 523 (3) F B 147/37 (g) 3155 428 (12)H 189/40 2245 558 F B 149/37 3050 465H 239/40 (d) 3150 427 (6) F. 11 Sister FamiliesH 238/40 3050 453 FB 236/38 (h) 3155 362 (2)F. 7 Sister Families FB 238/38 3090 370G iza 45A 2155 885 (8) F B 239/38 (i) 3045 426 (2)G iza 35B 2090 895 F B 240/38 2990 392G iza 37 2625 705 (14) ■F.12 Sister FamiliesGiza 36 2550 760 F B 146/35 (j) 2260 702 (•r>)H 283/40 (e) 2700 472 (•r>) F B 144/35 2150 740H 284/40 2595 496 -F.13 Sister Familiesj F . 8 Sister Families F B 75/42 (/) 2820 546 (4)G iza 34B 2340 830 (8) F B 79/42 2800 574G iza 34C 2270 828 F B 128/36 (j) 2300 750 (2)G iza 36B 2710 687 (17) F B 126/36 2200 674G iza 36A 2610 698 F.14 Sister FamiliesGiza 37A 2715 752 (5) F B 128/37 (j) 2245 512 (3)G iza 37B 2635 749 F B 129/37 2145 519G iza 38A 2905 560 (8)G iza 38B 2850 581 1

N o t e s . — (a ) G .27X G .31. (b) G .26X G .7. (c) G.41. (d) G.39. (e) G.40. (/) G.29. (g) G.26. (h) G.26 ex F B 147/37. (i) G.26 ex F B 149/37. (j) G.23.

in Egyptian C otton Varieties— H ancock T 2 8 3

Rate of Approach to Purity.— In experiments such as Mendel’s, on green and yellow peas with only one gene pair controlling the colour, the progeny of a cross rapidly approach purity after a few generations of self-pollination. Thus, although 100 per cent, of the F t plants are impure for colour, only 50 per cent, of the F 2’s, 25 per cent, o f the F 3’s, 12J per cent, of the F 4’s, and 6J- per cent, o f the F 5's are impure. Only one plant in 250, on the average, is still segregating for colour at F ,; and only one plant in 4,000 at F,.,. In cases where m any factors are involved, the approach to purity is slower; and this seems to be the situation found in cotton, the approach to purity being extraordinarily slow.

All cotton plants adequately studied at Giza have shown segregation for yarn strength at F ,. All or most of the selected lines carried on still showed segregation at F.,; and measurable separation into types continued even among the scanty examples available at F 12 or higher. These data (Table IV) are strongly biassed by selection, most o f the sister families closely examined having been selected because they gave indications of a significant difference in preliminary tests. But there are on record several examples of sister families at F , or higher, among which accurate testing revealed differences unsuspected initially, and offspring appreciably better than the parent were obtained. The rate of approach to purity thus seems very slow; and after making the maximum reasonable allowance for the effects of selection in the material, or bias in the data, the number of heterozygous pairs concerned with spinning quality in the average F j at Giza is taken to be at least several scores of genes. Harland’s1 suggestion of up to 200 genes affecting such characters as lint index, seed weight, and lint length in cotton, m ay also be mentioned in this connection.

Possibility of Errors and Mutations.— It is advisable to discuss the possi­bility that imperfect methods of selfing are responsible for the slow approach to purity in selfed lines.

At some stages in the pedigree lines, selfing is implicit in that plants are grown inside the wire-gauze cages, from which cross-fertilising insects are assumed to be excluded. This method is not beyond criticism, although it may be remarked that increased segregation has not so far been noticed after cage selfings, compared with normal selfings. In the hybrid lines, on the other hand, selfing is always done, at least as far as F 9, b y gumming a paper cone over the corolla before the flower opens. It would be impossible to fit the cone if the flower had partially opened, and this seems to be as positive a method as could be devised. If mistakes sometimes happen, as they must, they certainly do not happen with every strain; it is therefore impossible to believe that imperfect selfing is responsible for the general result.

A few observers have recorded deviations in cotton characters at unexpectedly high generations, notably Harland1, who mentioned effective selection for lint length as far on as F 17. Harland suggested that new muta­tions might be rather frequent; and support is given to his view by the high mutation rates indicated by Hutchinson2 and by Silow3.

In the Giza material, variance in the sister families certainly diminishes as the generations advance, a characteristic of segregation rather than of mutation; but there remains the possibility that both segregation and new mutations occur. If allowance camnot be made for this, calculations based on the rate of approach to purity give too high an estimate for the number of gene-pairs in operation, although the mutation rate would need to be very high to upset the calculation seriously, at the present stage. During the next few years much more information on Giza families ait generations higher than F , will become available, by which to am plify present data; and in the meantime the estimate given earlier in this section (“ at least several

T284 23— Measures to C h eck Deterioration

scores of gene-pairs ” ) has been made conservative. It is low compared with the estimates for some other organisms; with reference to oil content in maize, R. A. Fisher writes4: “ All commercial varieties must be segre­gating in hundreds, and quite possibly in thousands, o f factors.”

Effect of Human Selection.— A t first sight it is puzzling to find modify­ing genes in such profusion, because the lint on cotton seeds can hardly be of vital importance to the plant. The hairs cannot assist much in seed dispersal, although they m ay help to collect moisture for germination; and if Denham’s5 view of their function is accepted, cotton represents the elimination of excess polysaccharides, being in effect merely the plant’s waste-heap. Most of the wild forms of cotton get along with very little lint, m any with seeds almost lintless; certainly the spinner’s interests were not consulted when these plants originally evolved. It does not seem reasonable, therefore, that scores of genes should have the control of spinning quality as their main function in the plant.

The explanation is presumed to be that mutations affecting the lint in a favourable direction have been accumulated in cultivated crops b y human selection acting over the course of centuries. Favourable genes from the many varieties hybridising with cultivated crops would thus tend to be preserved, although m any such genes and others linked with them would not normally be favoured under the conditions o f natural selection; and it m ay be conceived that there exist many genes concerned mainly with non- lint characters, but having secondary effects on the lint. However the variability arises, ithe result is ample material for selection b y the modern plant breeder; opportunities seem to be available in every character under selection.

iv . Inheritance of E xtrem e CharactersWhen a variety characterised by strong yam is mated to one giving

weaker yam , the F 3 families usually have strength values distributed between the parental limits; but at later generations these limits frequently are found to be exceeded, and it is the same for m any other plant characters. Although they are sometimes found earlier, such extreme characters are not usually noticed before F 5, that is after selection for three generations; and i f one o f the parents was already at the top of the Egyptian range, a new high record is established for that character.

It is very remarkable how the hybrid lines constantly produce new strains with yield and/or yam strength beyond the limit formerly con­sidered to be extreme. Nor is it uncommon to find a hybrid derivative less valuable than either parent, a result which is ascribed to the unpredictable effect o f new combinations of genes. The breeder is am ply compensated, however, when he finds some other combination which results in a line with yield higher than that of either parent; and his reward is complete when— as sometimes happens— the hybrid line is found to exceed either parent in spinning quality as well as in yield. The variety Amoun (Giza 39) from the cross Giza 26 x Sakha 4 is such a case, exceeding either parent in yield b y about 25 per cent., and in yam strength by about 10 per cent.; it is thus a cotton exceeding Montserrat Sea Island in quality, and of yield approaching that of Giza 7.

Other examples o f selected offspring with characters more extreme than were found in either parent are: the large boll of Giza 12; long staple of the cross Giza 29 x Giza 26; high yarn strength of Giza 26; high yield of Giza 29; high ginning out-turn of Giza 30; large number of bolls carried by Giza 34; high hairweight of a Giza 35 selection; earliness o f the cHoss Giza 19 x Giza 38; low hairweight of Giza 39; and the whiteness of Giza 40. A new high record in one or another character under selection, and especially in the net return per acre, is established in the hybrid lines prac-

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 8 5

tically every year. There are now half a dozen new varieties with yield higher than that o f any Egyptian variety ten years ago; and the former upper limit for yarn strength is being exceeded repeatedly.

A character of interest to spinners, and to which much attention has been paid at Giza, is that known as “ high strength an o m aly” for want of a better name. The anomaly is that yam strength is higher than that to be expected on the basis of the cotton’s staple length and hairweight, and the character is found at any point upwards from about the middle of the Egyptian quality range. The character was first noticed in Sakha 3, an offtype selected out of commercial Sakel, and has since been transmitted to several crosses. It has been possible to increase high strength anomaly b y hybridisation and selection, and Giza 44 is endowed with this admirable character in high degree. The gene or group in Sakha 3 is especially valuable for stud purposes (although Sakha 3 itself was of little value for commerce), because the high strength is transmitted without the usual asso­ciation of lower yield. A corresponding character, “ low strength anom aly,” is also found; in some cases this has been partly accounted for b y low hair strength. The character is of interest because badly deteriorated varieties show marked low strength anomaly in their yarns.

Vigour of Inbred Lines.— Some of the text-books on cotton breeding refer to the belief6 that continued inbreeding in cotton is harmful to the yield. So far as Egyptian plants are concerned, art: least as far as F 9, this belief does not seem to have much foundation; nor did it apply to American varieties studied at the N. Carolina Station7, strains selfed there for nine years showing no lack of vigour. A direct answer to the general question of hybrid vigour cannot be given on the basis o f the Giza results; but they do show that if there is any loss from inbreeding, it is more than offset b y that selection for higher yield which becomes possible after segregation. Familes of Giza 31 at the ninth segregation, for instance, occasionally have given over a thousand pounds of lint per acre, a yield significantly greater than that of earlier families in the same selfed line, tested at the same time.

The fact that new extreme values can be selected in other characters, especially in yam strength, while the selfed line becomes demonstrably purer, denies hybrid vigour as an important factor in the expression of these characters. A Giza plant breeder will occasionally pick out plants from field crops in the hope that they will prove to be better in over-all value than the corresponding pedigree line; but they never do prove to be better, although they are much more heterozygous than the plants in the pedigree line. Hybrid vigour is shown b y inter-specific crosses between Egyptian and Hindi, but these plants are not of much economic value and never enter the breeding system.

v . Interpretation of R esu lts in SelectionThe steady advances in range of quantitative characters of Giza cottons,

the former extreme limits being continually surpassed, are paralleled b y the advances recorded b y m any other workers using the hybridisation method. Examples for cotton other than Egyptian are recorded b y Harland8. For other organisms, body weight in mice, fertility in guinea- pigs, bristle number in fruit flies, flower colour in day-lilies, resistance in wheat, early flowering in peas, are all examples of characters selected to be more extreme in the hybrid derivatives than were to be found in either parent, and recorded in the recent literature.

It now seems to be generally accepted that the expression of many quan­titative characters in field crops is modified by numbers of genes with both plus and minus effects. Following the argument of “ Student” 9, these plus and minus modifiers “ would roughly neutralise one another, each individual carrying a mixture of genes which would produce variations in

T 286 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

opposite directions, so that only a limited genetic variation would result; but with a change of environment this reservoir of genes would serve a very useful purpose as raw material for selection. . . . Thus the accumulation of small variations in the same direction could proceed far beyond the original range.”

The conception of polygenic systems has been extended by other workers, especially by Mather10 working on bristle number in Drosophila hybrids. Bristle numbers both higher and lower than the parental values were obtained in the plus and minus lines after a few generations of inbreeding. Response to selection was ascribed to recombination of parental chromo­somes, and also to recombination following crossing-over among plus and minus modifiers. In particular, arguments were developed to show that the balanced mechanism of polygenic systems does result from natural selec­tion. Related to this conclusion is Hutchinson’s view 11 that human and natural forces tend to establish a balanced mixture in crops, rather than a single type to the exclusion of others. These views are adopted by the pre­sent writer for the interpretation of many Giza results.

A plus modifier can be defined in more ways than one; here it is defined as a gene, the expression of which enhances a character in the direction favoured by human selection, a minus modifier being the opposite. Con­sidering any character controlled by several modifiers, if the constitution of a heterozygous plant can be designated thus:

+ + ----------+

_ _ — |— 1_ _

then the extreme types to be found among the offspring, granted unlimited crossing-over, can be designated thus:

+ 4-------- h + + --------------------------------------------------- and ----------------------- -—■.+ -I---------- h + + -------------------------------

The type on the right showing accumulation of minus modifiers has peculiar interest to the cotton spinner, as will be shown in Part III. For the moment we are concerned only with selection of the type on the left, showing accumulation of plus modifiers. The breeders at Giza drew these modifiers mainly from the reservoir of genes in the Egyptian commercial crops of 25 years ago.

The heterogeneity of Egyptian crops is conditioned b y the fact that natural crossing is extensive. A certain amount of crossing occurs between varieties in different fields, and m any genes from exotic types under trial in the past must have had opportunity to disperse in contemporary varieties. A large reservoir of genes was probably available in the wide range of G. barbadense types developed elsewhere in isolation, and brought together in Egypt; and genes from other species able to cross with barbadense possibly added to our reservoir.

The especial importance of natural crossing, however, lies in the inter­crossing that occurs in high degree between the closely adjacent field plants of any given variety. According to the best available estimates (not yet very strong estimates, it must be admitted), about one in four fertilisations is an intercross between neighbouring plants; and two out of every three plants are from seed affected by such crossing during the four preceding generations. This extensive intercrossing would not normally be regarded as crossing, nor would it matter, if the plants in the population were all of the same genetic constitution. But that is just what they are not. Initial impurity, or impurity introduced into the variety from outside b y any means, is rapidly dispersed by this intercrossing; and the question takes on a different aspect when it is realised how many genes circulate in single dose.

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 8 7

even though they are most of small individual effect. The crops frequently appear very uniform to the eye, and especially has this been true of recent Egyptian crops; but it is a spurious uniformity, as is revealed when the plants are subjected to continued self-pollination, and that is the significance of the results from pedigree lines.

Even in the absence of crossing-over, the heterozygous plants originally selected for study in the pedigree lines would have segregated into types, some with characters more extreme than those at first selected; and the range presumably became more extreme by the accumulation of modifiers following crossing-over. Opportunities for selection and elimination occurred many times in most lines before increasing purity hindered operations, by which time the material was at an appreciably higher economic level than at the start. Judging by results, there seems little doubt that selection for high values was more effective in the pedigree lines than in field populations of equal size. And in the hybrid lines there is no reasonable doubt that selection is much more effective and fruitful than was the work on field crops.

Evolution* in the Hybrid Lines.— Since practically every plant in field crops is recently derived from a natural hybrid, it might be concluded that a wide enough range of variability already exists in the field without need for further crossing by the plant breeder, ąnd as good as he could arrange for himself. That, however, seems to be quite a wrong conclusion.

Hybrid lines from selected pedigree parents are unnatural in the sense that many minus modifiers have been bred out of their ancestors. Still more is this so with hybrids at the second or third stage, having parents and grandparents themselves derived from controlled matings in the hybrid lines. Some individuals in the hybrid lines thus inherit advantages accumu­lated from scores of ancestors, selected on the basis of yield and spinning tests many times repeated. They have been deliberately evolved towards higher economic value, carrying more plus modifiers than the average plant in field populations; and great care is taken to prevent contamination of these isolated lines, so that minus modifiers have no opportunity to disperse again.

The chances are in fact millions to one against an accidental meeting in the field between two highly evolved plants such as are now commonly mated in the hybrid lines, and for all practical purposes the modern varieties could never have been found in the old commercial varieties, although these supplied the gene reservoir from which the desired recom­binations were built up. R . A . Fisher’s description of natural selection— that it is a mechanism for generating a high degree of improbability— therefore applies well to the Giza method. This conception of pedigree strains with plus modifiers accumulated b y artificial selection, has great significance in the study of deterioration.

It is not yet possible to define the parents best suited for the enhancement of any given character, except that probably one parent should have the desired character in high degree. Data are accumulating and ultimately will be analysed, but, so far, the development of extreme characters seems to arise from chance recombinations. Merely to list the range of modifiers in the gene reservoir would be a formidable task, because of their number and small individual effect. And although little is known about gene inter­

* B y “ evolution ” is usually m ean t a long-term process of developm ent in w hich th e operating factors are m ainly new m u tu ta tio n s ; w hereas developm ent in th e course of 20 or 30 generations as described here, th e operating facto rs being a ready-m ade reservoir of genes, borders on w h at is called “ ad ap ta tio n ” — m eaning forced ad ap ta tio n to th e breeders’ requirem ents. T he te rm evolution is p referred here, because i t brings o u t th e con trast w ith ano ther form of ad ap ta tio n found in cotton, and w hich is called deterioration.

T 288 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

actions, certainly it is not to be assumed that the expression of a combina- tion is the sum o f the individual expressions, sim ply additive. H ence there seems little prospect o f success in the prediction o f quantitive characters in cotton hybrids, and at present the empirical method entirely holds the Giza field— the more so since advances continue at an increasing rather than at a declining rate. The possibilities of further advances in Egyptian cotton seem to be very great in fact, b y the empirical method alone. No more than a trifling fraction of all possible recombinations has yet been studied.

v i. Introduction of N ew V arietiesB y the time a new strain proves to be good enough for introduction as

a new variety, usually it has already reached the stage of one or two hundred aares in large scale trials. From these and other sources several lots of seed are available for propagation, ranging from small lots of F 8 or F 9 selfed, to large bulks of natural seed. It is obviously impossible, at first, to establish protecting zones for a renewal nucleus, as described in Part I, section iv; sufficiently concentrated acreage of the variety does not exist. Growers must first confirm which are the best districts for the new variety, and the Ministry encourages them to do so; but with widespread distribution of small lots contamination is inevitable. For that reason there is not much point in setting off the propagation with seed of very high purity, but purer seed must follow on as soon as possible.

The Giza practice has been to start commercial propagation with natural bulks, and as soon as a big enough area is available, the first renewal nucleus is set up inside it. Karnak can be used to illustrate how the system works out as regards time, although future varieties will probably be worked up a little faster.

All K am ak cotton is descended from a single F.t plant grown in 1932; and last year’s renewal nucleus was descended from a continuously selfed F 8 single plant grown in 1936. This latter plant was expanded to become the nucleus in 1941, being then an F , bulk, five generations removed from the original single plant parent or, more concisely, an F 9/G5 bulk. By 1946, about 250,000 acres (probably about half the Karnak crop) will be descended from it, and can be described at F,,/G10; and most of the Karnak crop iln 1947 and 1948, whatever its acreage, will be at the stage F 9/G „ and F 9/G 12. Thus the single selfed F s plant expands into a family covering half a million acres or so, in 11 or 12 years.

In 1945, another renewal nucleus will replace the F , fam ily, the new one being an F I3/G4 family; and about 1949 a third, an F 16/G4 family. Thus the renewal nucleus becomes purer, the longer a variety is under cultivation— just the opposite of what always happened in the past. The ideal is to have the crop at the highest possible F number, and the lowest possible G number; i.e. to have the source as pure as possible, with the minimum of propagation generations in which segregated offtypes can expand within the populations.

There is also a sound financial reason for getting new nucleus improve­ments into circulation as quickly as possible. The plant breeder with a 2 per cent, yield improvement in K am ak, for instance, has hold of a very valuable acquisition: each year saved in getting it into propagation is worth about £250,000 to the cotton growers of Egypt.

v ii. Scale of O perationsBefore leaving this account of technical methods, it may be of interest

to outline the annual scale of operations concerned with seed supply, superintended b y the Government departments represented at the Cotton Research Board.

In a sense, six to eight thousand single-plant measurements annually are the basis o f selections; but although staple length, ginning out-turn, and often other measurements are taken on all these plants, the chief value is

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock

probably in the record of single plant yields. Since the environmental variance exceeds the genetic variance b y a factor of a hundred or more, high yielding plants are selected without much hope that their advantage will be true and inherited, but simply to guarantee a good start in sub­sequent expansion. Single plant selection is therefore almost at random, but is confined to families known to be of value from the progeny tests, trials being made in numbers sufficient to ensure the inclusion of variants in the direction of selection.

Fig. 2 .— Higher spinning value ol modern Egyptian varieties, grade Fully Good. The yarn strengths are lea products of 60s carded ring twist.

Six to eight hundred plants are expanded annually into families, at which stage effective selection begins. Rather more than a hundred families get into the miniature chequers, of which there are six to eight every year; and a dozen or so families reach the ordinary yield chequers, of which there are about twelve. (The miniature chequers total about 200 variety-positions in all, so that the average family is given tests in two localities, each with

T2gO 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

five ridges replicated eight times; the yield chequers total about 80 variety- positions in all, each with six or seven Latin square replications of i/ i2 th acre plots.)

A yield chequer lay-out including two or three familiar varieties as well as four or five new varieties near to a final decision, is repeated at 25 to 30 different localities in the Delta every year. These chequers are usually on private growers’ farms, and serve the triple purpose of bringing new results home to the growers; of finding the best districts for the new varieties; and of testing them under a wide range of agricultural technique, because each cultivator treats them as he does his own crop. There are also some 20 or 30 other yield chequers similarly located, in which varietal reactions to manuring, spacing, watering, etc., are studied.

The seed expansion system for new nucleus families, or new varieties, has been already outlined; about 120,000 ardebs (15,000 tons) of propaga­tion seed, derived from Government farms and private growers under contract, is sold annually at normal market prices.

Part Played by Spinning Tests__Spinnings are carried out on all hybridand pedigree line families giving more than 60 grams of lint, and on all miniature chequer families in first and second picks. Together with about a dozen blocks of miscellaneous experiments these amount to two or three thousand spinnings. The yield chequers are also tested, although the spin­ning quality of all strains in them is usually well known by this stage.

Under the Seed Control Law, as already mentioned, all long staple lots intended for sowing in the following season are accepted or refused on the basis o f spinning-tests. These crop control lots amount to about 3,000 samples at present, but the number is rising rapidly. All of these samples, as well as some of those earlier mentioned, have to be tested within a period of about three and a half months, rising to crescendo in December when most growers are deciding what to grow next. Although the testings probably represent a big advance in crop control, their increasing volume is viewed with mixed feelings at the Giza spinning test mill.

Finally, samples representing the cotton actually exported to spinners all over the world, are supplied by the courtesy of about twenty leading export houses at Alexandria, each variety in two grades from each export house. These thoroughly representative samples combined from many sources are spun alongside corresponding samples from the previous year’s crop saved over, and the tests are reported for general information. (A copy of this report12 will be sent annually, on request.) Thus on the basis of about 6,000 spinnings annually, the Giza technologists have a finger on the pulse of Egyptian crop quality, dating ahead of the first selection of any component in the crop, up to the time of its rejection as a commercial bulk some eight or twelve years later. The present account is written against a background of results from about 3,000 yield tests and 30,000 spinning tests carried out during the past ten years.

v iii. R eaction upon A gricultural E conom icsThe developments in seed production here recorded have had marked

repercussions on the Egyptian commercial crop; but although the varieties now on offer are in bigger quantity and of better staple than those of a few years ago (Fig. 2), the changing situation has aroused apprehension among spinners. As was recently reported13, “ In Lancashire trade quar­ters, it is sometimes wondered whether the Egyptian authorities do not tend to forget the inconvenience caused for spinners, b y continual changes in the varieties produced.” This view is very understandable until the facts are put forward, and spinners are entitled to an explanation: the trouble is the impact of applied science upon agriculture.

Taking both yield and quality into account, and assuming a constant basis for prices, the cotton crop from average Egyptian land has increased

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 9 1

in value per acre by some 60 per cent, during the past twenty years. For much of the land the increased return is more than 60 per cent., but the general average of the country is brought down b y the steady increase in marginal land from reclaimed areas formerly not under cultivation. Nearly a half of this remarkable improvement is attributed to factors with which this account is not concerned, and which caninot be assessed at all accurately; but on the most conservative estimate, at least 20 out of the 60 per cent, must be attributed to the improved seed supply.

Had the plant breeders been confined to research on established varieties only, the rate of advance could not have been so much as a quarter of that actually achieved. Progress became swift only when the breeders seized upon improvements in whatever new varieties they could be found. The Egyptian Government naturally wished to have these developments exploited to the utmost since costs of production were seen to be so much lower, but there was never any question of the new varieties being forced into cultivation. The Egyptian grower changed from old varieties to new according to his own free will, for the same reason that the English farmer changed from arable to dairy farming— he thought it would pay him better. Nor was it the growers alone who gained benefit from more efficient pro­duction; spinners’ interests also were favourably affected.

Some easing of the growers’ price probably followed, lowered costs of production, although it is not easy to say how much was passed on to the spinner. In respect o f bigger crops, however, the spinner certainly gained some advantage. In the above calculation of improvement in value of the crop, prices were assumed to be the same for the increased crop as for the original; but any buyer knows that this cannot be true in. general. Over and above the normal market fluctuation in demand, spinners can buy their cotton more cheaply when the supply increases, and it has increased by some three million kanitars annually. Thus for their increased crops, growers did not actually receive value quite proportional to the increase; the cotton became cheaper and the difference represents the spinners’ share of the profits on cotton-growing research. The inconvenience of new varieties must be balanced against greater efficiency in raw cotton production.

Changes in the varieties were formerly essential because of the growers’ inability to control deterioration. When changes are made now, progress is real and permanent, not an illusion arising mainly from deterioration in the preceding varieties. Although varieties are introduced almost as fre­quently as ever, at least they deteriorate more slowly. The situation is better than it was, and there is promise of stability in the future. No end to the advances in plant breeding is yet in sight, but progress must eventually slow down; stability in varieties m ay then be reached to an extent that could never have been possible when deterioration was uncontrolled.

In the sense that they would not be developed without artificial selec­tion on an extensive scale, varieties of the future will be more unnatural than they are already; and the higher they rise in the economic scale, the further they can fall. It yet remains to be shown what is the nature and extent of this deterioration, that it has occurred and is still occurring. These points, together with the general problem as the writer sees it, are discussed in Part III.

Su m m aryNew Egyptian varieties were formerly developed from offtypes found

in old-established commercial varieties. Nineteen types given Giza numbers (one of them was Giza 7) were picked out of commercial Ashmouni, and a dozen improved types were also selected from the pedigree lines of other contemporary varieties.

T 292 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

Much faster advances in plant breeding were made b y changing to the hybridisation method, pedigree plants being mated, and not plants from the partly deteriorated varieties from field populations. Selections from the hybrid lines were then again mated, and so on for several cycles, the populations being carried to successively higher economic levels b y a pro­cess analogous to evolution. Strains with some economic character at a value beyond the limit formerly considered extreme are frequently found; there are now half a dozen varieties with yield above that of the highest yielding variety ten years ago, and the former upper limit for yam strength is similarly exceeded frequently. Stress is laid on the possibilities inherent in secondary selection, and response to selection is ascribed to recombina­tion o f plus and minus modifiers in polygenic systems, on the lines suggested by “ Student ” and b y K . Mather.

A short account is given of the effect of botanical research on agricul­tural economics. Changes in the varieties grown were formerly frequent and essential because the growers were unable to control deterioration; but changes are now made chiefly to exploit the more efficient production possible with new varieties. Stability will be reached when progress in research slows down, but only if the new varieties can be maintained with­out deterioration; and their evolutionary background has an important bearing on this question.

R eferences1 S. C. Harland, E.C.G.C. 2nd Conf. on Cott. Grow. Prob., 1934, P- 31-2 J. B. Hutchinson, / . Genetics, 1934, 28, 437.3 R. A. Silow, J. Genetics, 1944, 46, 95.4 R. A. Fisher, Nature, 1933, 131, 400.6 H. J. Denham, Shirley Institute Memoirs, 1922, p. 87.6 H. B . Brown, Cotton : McGraw-Hill, 1938, p. 208.1 U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. Abstract E.C.G.C. Rev., 1925, 11, 73.8 S. C. Harland, The Genetics of Cotton : Jonathan Cape, 1939.9 “ Student,” Eugenics Review, 1933, 24, 293.

10 K. Mather, J. Genetics, 1941, 41, 159.11 J. B . Hutchinson, J. Genetics, 1940, 40, 271.12 Commercial Crop Spinning Test R e p o rt: Cotton Research Board, Orman, Giza,

Egypt.13 Manchester Guardian, April 10th, 1944.

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 293

Part III—EXTENT, NATURE, AND CAUSES OF DETERIORATION

i . P relim in a ry E nquiriesWhen spinning-tests were first carried out at Giza on the Egyptian com­

mercial crops of 1934 and 1935, it was noticed that lower yam strengths were given b y commercially grown varieties obtained from Alexandria, than were given b y the same varieties grown in experiments b y the Ministry of Agriculture. Ashmouni was only two or three per cent, low, but the strength deficiency reached some ten or fifteen per cent, with Sakel and Sakha 4, which were then the top quality varieties of the Egyptian range.

Alexandria merchants and classifiers, asked to give their opinion, offered several explanations for the result. Those chiefly mentioned were that (a) the commercial crop was badly ginned; (b) Ministry of Agriculture farms were on better than average land; (c) Ministry of Agriculture farms were given better cultivation, including the effects o f fertilisers and the water supply; and (d) the experimental samples were of higher grade than the commercial. A further explanation was that commercial seed was mixed, although it was thought that any mixing into Ashmouni would raise the strength rather than lower it, all other varieties being of better quality. And still one more suggestion was made, naturally not at Alexandria, to the effect that Alexandria graders mixed the lint of commercially grown cottons, with inferior motives. This last explanation for the weak yam was later proved to be very wide of the mark, but the writer proceeded to enquire first into the suggestions (a) to (d), which represented the m ajority of opinions.

Non-Genetic Factors.— Except for a trivial quantity of very low grade cotton, all the Egyptian crop is ginned on single action roller gins. Direct experiment1 showed them to be entirely free of guilt; the gins could not be made to affect the yam strength b y an y mishandling whatever. Direct experiment also showed that the fertility o f the land and its method of culti­vation2, the supply of water3 and of manures4, taken singly or altogether in their effect on the crop, could not explain as much as one-tenth of the strength deficiency in question. An allowance had to be made for Ashmouni, according to whether it was grown in the north or the south of Upper Egypt, but nothing of this kind applied to the weakness of Sakel and Sakha 4.

Enquiry into grade differences, suggestion (d), showed these to be a minor factor in the yarn strength results. The experimental samples had been mostly first pickings, often with bollworm damaged cotton sorted out; hence they were of higher grade than the fully good commercial samples used in the comparison, and a correction needed to be made for this. Although in some circumstances the grade correction can be very large, it did not amount to much for the tests now in question. The enquiry did help to clear up most of the discrepancy, however, as regards the strengths of Ashmouni (Giza 19), W afeer (Giza 12) and Giza 7. When compared at the same grade these cottons gave much the same spinning results on average, whether commercially or experimentally grown, with signs of only slight deterioration in commerce. The discrepancy that remained was in Sakel and Sakha 4, of which commercially grown samples were too weak b y 400 lea product units in 60s carded ring twist, or 13 per cent, on the average.

Contamination in the Seed .— With the elimination of (the above factors as explanation for weak yam , attention was directed again to the seed. The Giza plant breeders had given close attention to the seed question long before 1938, which was the time of the present writer’s enquiry; they declined to

T294 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

accept mixed seed as a likely explanation, and presented what appeared to be a strong case for their view.

They pointed out that the Giza maintenance system had an excellent theoretical and practical basis to support it against a charge of issuing deteriorated seed to growers, as was shown in Parts I and II o f this paper5,6. Moreover, several of the breeders were old enough to remember the crop as it had appeared 10, 20, or 30 years before; and they were quite positive that the modern crop of any variety was more uniform in the appearance of the plants, and also of the seed, than ever it had been before. They were supported in this view b y the opinion of leading cultivators, who were most flattering in their appreciation. But above all, the breeders pointed to the analysis of results achieved by the Seed Control Law (Part I, Section v), which had been in operation since 1926.

Elimination of H indi.— Certain small and black cotton seeds known as Hindi used to be very common in Egyptian seed, and the operators of the Seed Control Law used the Hindi content as the main basis for acceptance or refusal o f seed for stowing. There are possibly different kinds of Hindi, but in general these seeds develop into an American type, of plant and lint, quite a different species from Egyptian. The staple is very short by Egyptian standards; the yield of lint (but not of seed-cotton) is also low; and the plant is a hopeless economic failure, although very successful as a weed since it produces m any seeds. Qute obviously there would be deteriora­tion in crops harbouring m any of these, which expand vigorously out of proportion whenever they have the opportunity to do so, and as they actually had done up to 1926. As a result of the steady refusal for sowing of lots containing such seeds, they had practically vanished from the Egyptian crop b y 1938.

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T295The improvement thus effected in commercial seed was in fact remark­

able (Fig. 3), and was the explanation for the greater uniformity of field plants which the breeders and cultivators had noticed. The breeders had other means of knowing that they were issuing undeteriorated seed; and they insisted that improvements in seed production as well as in seed control were leading to greater uniformity of seed, rather than the opposite. Sub­sequent work has substantiated the first claim; the breeders were issuing better seed. But the greater uniformity o f commercial plants and seeds was illusory; the crops were not nearly so homogeneous as they appeared to the eye; and the fault lay in commercial seed control.

T a b le V

C om m ercia l Seed C om pared w ith R enew al N u cleus SeedCommercial Seed was a composite of some scores of random lots sent by cultivators

for examination under the Seed Control Law. Renewal Nucleus Seed was always the current renewal nucleus. For those entries marked “ x ” in the table, the commercial crop was derived in part from a former renewal nucleus having appreciably different values from the current nucleus ; some part of the difference shown for these is therefore due to a change in the nucleus, as well as contamination in commercial seed. The tests were spread over the period from 1940 to 1943.

Malaki Sakha 4 Sakel Karnak Giza 7 Wafeer Ashmouni

Lea Product, 60s CardedNucleus ... ... 3060 2950 2840 2820 2455 2270 1735Commercial ... 2945x 2580x 2525 2825 2415 2235 1695

hint Yield, lb. per acreNucleus ... ... 353 352 356 542 646 610 687Commercial ... 389x 392x 353 518x 617 602 688Number ofChequers ... (6) (4) (4) (6) (9) (2) (9)

i i . E xtent of D eteriorationComparison of Commercial and Pedigree Seed .— In 1939, comparison

was made between Ministry of Agriculture seed and commercial Sakel seed, sown in chequer plots. W ith the plants grown together, and the cottons picked and spun together, any yarn strength difference now found could only reflect a fault in the commercial seed. The latter sample was a com­posite from many lots picked out at random from those sent for examina­tion and passed under the Seed Control Law ; it was thus thoroughly representative of the seed in use by ordinary cultivators, no matter from where they obtained it. Such composites can be assumed to have been used for all tests on commercial seed mentioned in this account, unless the contrary is stated. The pedigree seed was always from Ministry of Agri­culture stocks, usually from the current renewal nucleus.

ChequeT comparisons have been repeated some 40 or 50 times since 1939, every Egyptian variety coming under test during the period. The results confirmed there to be only slight deterioration in the commercial seed of Ashmouni, Wafeer, and Giza 7; but the commercial seed of Sakel and Sakha 4 was found to be badly deteriorated, the 13 per cent, previously mentioned being fully accounted for. The results are shown in Table V; and as regards Sakel and Sakha 4, the Giza system was evidently failing badly at some point.

Point of Failure in the System .— The defect was found to be in the method of examination under the Seed Control Law. For m any years it had been believed that visible offtypes such as Hindi were not the sole cause of deterioration. Even before the Law came into operation, Sakel lots with as many as five per cent, of Hindi seeds were rare7, and the average lot contained only about one per cent. That much larger percentages were

T 2 9 6 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

necessary to explain the observed extent of deterioration, was shown by Dunkerley’s8 work on the yam strength of mixings; and b y 1938 the Hindi content was absurdly inadequate to explain the observed deterioration. There was no escape from the conclusion that invisible offtypes were respon­sible for the major effect.

These hidden offtypes always existed in the seed, along with the visible Hindi which added its quota to the sum total of deterioration. For the period when the percentage of Hindi was a good guide to seed age, the Seed Control Law must have been effective in elimination o f both the visible and invisible offtypes. The quantities o f the two types were almost certainly correlated, and only the Hindi was necessary as a guide. The trouble came when the latter was so reduced (that it was no longer an accurate guide, and by 1938 the proportion of Hindi to normal seeds had fallen below one per thousand. The situation had therefore been improved a good deal; but then in the main crop there was no longer enough Hindi b y which to distinguish accurately between new seed and old. This was the point o f failure; badly deteriorated seed carrying many invisible offtypes was being passed, and in consequence there was too small an inflow of new seed, o f which plenty would have been available had there been a demand.

T a b le V I T e s t in g s o f S in g le L o t s

Lea Products of 60s carded ring twist yam , means of four spinnings, two on each of two repetitions. Single lots of seed received for examination under the provisions of the Seed Control Law, taken at random, with control lots of pedigree seed included ; and sown separately in one big plot with two repetitions, variety by variety. The Sakel and Malaki were sown in 1942, the Ashmouni in 1944. First pick cotton in every case. (See Appendix X for analysis of these data.)

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 9 7

Comparison of Single Lots.— While the extent of deterioration in Sakel was already seen to be serious, worse was to come. Forty-seven single lots of seed, not composites this time, were taken at random from different ginneries, with one control lot o f pedigree seed included; they were sown separately in one big plot, and the 47 resulting crops were as 47 growers would find them.

All the seed lots were derived from the State Domains renewal nucleus; and as issued originally all must have given lint with the spinning quality of the control lot, which was Domains Sakel. But b y 1942, b y when they had circulated for some years as commercial seed, several of the lots had deteri­orated by much more than the 13 per cent, previously mentioned. As shown in Table V ia , the worst case of deterioration was below the control by as much as 655 lea product units, or 22 per cent, in yam strength. The unfortunate grower of this cotton would have to sell his crop at some 20 or 30 per cent, below the top price, and the fact illustrates the importance of the problem to growers, no less than to spinners. Such a result is the answer to those who hold that deterioration is overstated.

Fig. 4 .— Staple Diagrams from the Balls Sorter. Deteriorated Sakel (lowest of 47 commercial lots), and Domains Sakel from pedigree seed, the two cottons being grown and picked together.

It would be natural to question the accuracy of the tests on which Table V ia is based. Each point is the mean of four spinnings, and it happens that these were the results used to demonstrate the accuracy of spinning-tests in a previous paper9 to this Journal, where the analysis o f variance is to be found. (See also Appendix I). Practically the whole of the scatter shown in Table V ia was proved to arise from real differences between the seed lots, and not from variation in the growing or spinning conditions. The spinning evidence was only too sound.

Similar tests (Table VIb) were carried out on 51 single lots of the newer variety, Malaki; and although these showed deterioration on nothing like the grand scale found in Sakel and Sakha 4, yet it was enough to cause uneasiness. Karnak, the only long staple remaining to be discussed, and still newer, has also been tested extensively b y a different method. Quality deterioration here was less than 0-5 per cent, up to 1944, and was commer­cially undetectable, but it could be measured b y sensitive methods. Even Ashmouni (Table V ic) was not immune. If the methods of detection were sensitive enough, traces of deterioration could in fact be found in every variety, traces ready to expand into serious proportions given time and opportunity.

T 2 g 8 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

i i i . N ature of D eteriorationThere is no character in which deterioration is so marked as in the yarn

strength. This is partly because of the ease with which differences in yarn quality are detected, and is perhaps at the root of the trouble with cotton; the quality o f most other agricultural crops, even of wheat, is not so precisely measured in commercial use.

Related to the changes in yam strength, changes can be seen in several lint characters when deterioration is extreme. Shortening of the staple is pronounced (Fig. 4), and the consequence is a very familiar feature to spinners— increased comber waste. This shortening of the staple leads to wastiness in blendings, and partly explains the “ low strength an om aly” (Part II, Section iii), which is very marked in deteriorated lots. Also the staple is weak, as can be detected easily even b y hand tests. Mean hair- weight tends to rise.

Lint Colour.— Deteriorated lots show very interesting changes in the lint appearance. W eak lots could be picked out of Sakha 4 with fair success, on the off-colour alone; and the staple felt dry and brittle. These charac­teristics were still more pronounced in Sakel; the grader described the worst lots as " burnt or scorched,” and they were markedly browner than normal Sakel. No mixing of any Egyptian commercial varieties could simulate this result, or anything remotely like it; it cannot be explained by direct mixing of Sakel, with Pilion or Ashmouni for instance. Nor does a cross between Sakel and another variety normally give this result, for the brown and scorched types are never found in the hybrid lines.

The bolls of deteriorated Sakel were uniformly brown so far as could be seen; but there was formerly sporadic in this variety a plant type which had the characteristics of deteriorated Sakel in extreme degree. Two or three examples of this type, known as Enan’s Brown*, have been seen b y the writer. The seed was small and without fuzz, the ginning out-turn very low, and the lint was a deep brown, almost red; yet it was a typical Egyptian plant with no resemblance to other cotton species which have lint of a similar colour. To a spinner, the most significant feature of this cotton was wastiness coupled with extreme weakness and brittleness; as the lint came from the plant it looked and felt as though it had spent weeks in a hot oven. A t a rough guess, one part of this cotton intimately mixed with two or three parts'of good Sakel, would resemble deteriorated Sakel rather well— a result to be obtained from no other mixing known to the writer.

Sakel at no time contained sufficient Enan’s Brown to account for the brown colour of deteriorated lots, and the Sakel o f 1942 contained either none at all, or very little. The seeds were recognisable as something other than Sakel, and lots with such extreme contamination would certainly be eliminated b y the Seed Control Law operations. The presumed relation of Enan’s Brown to deterioration will be discussed in a later paragraph. These observations on scorch and colour are interesting, however, because other Egyptian varieties of long ago were similarly described as they were dying out.

Lint Y ield .— No significant change in lint yield was found in average commercial Sakel, and the grower had no compensation for his crop of inferior quality, but there was an increase of yield in deteriorated Sakha 4. Giza 7 showed a small but significant drop in yield compared with the nucleus, although scarcely otherwise deteriorated at the time the yield tests were made. Some Egyptian varieties of the past are said to have deteri­orated badly in seed-cotton yield, and also in ginning out-turn.

*F irst described b y H ussein E n an Bey, now U nder-Secretary of S ta te to th e M inistry of A griculture.

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 2 9 9

Plant and Seed Changes.— As shown by the target diagrams from com­mercial seed, plants appeared with low ginning out-turn and seeds of low weight. There was a general tendency for these characters to be coupled with short staple length, and all three characters gradually increased in range of deviation, with increasing deterioration. Both low ginning out-turn and small seeds would tend to increase the number of seed produced per plant, but not sufficiently to affect the mean of /the bulk to a marked extent. The calculated number of seeds produced per acre usually differed little as between commercial and propagation lots compared in chequers; the differ­ence in fact was rarely significant because of uncertainty in the yield figure. Commercial Sakha 4 was an exception, and showed increase in the seed number per acre. . (Seed weight changes as extreme as those shown in Table I were rarely found in bulks; such lots were easily detected and soon eliminated. This continual elimination of bad lots by human agency must also be borne in mind when considering the yarn strength distributions shown in Table V I).

Late maturing plants with a bushy habit could be seen in most com­mercial lots, but only when sown wide-spaced, one plant per hole, as in the purity chequer. Thick monopodia sprang from the lower nodes, so that frequently there seemed to be two or three plants growing from one hole. Such plants are rarely or never seen in nucleus bulks, nor in the pedigree or hybrid lines; but they were common in oommercial Sakel, Sakha 4, and Malaki, and T e a c h e d a frequency of nearly 50 per cent, in a particularly bad lot of Giza 7. It was noticed that the yarn strength of deteriorated Malaki fell most in the second pickings, which m ay have indicated the presence of late maturing elements.

T a b le V IIO fftypeg S elected out of R en ew al N u cleu s F a m ilies

(The exam ples are m ostly single chequer comparisons)Lea P ro d u ct L in t Yield60s Carded lb. p e r acreSakel Nucleus 3110 638W ilt im m une selection 2665 579

Sakel N ucleus 2850 464Two offtype selections ... 2795 5792290 791M alaki Nucleus 3185 429Four w ilt im m une selections 2865 6242830 4852835 565

2835 369Giza 28 Nucleus 2980 433W ilt im m une selection 2910 338K arnak Nucleus 2645 641

W ilt im m une selection 2335 566K arnak N ucleus 2765 548O fftype selection (75C) 2665 579Giza 37 N ucleus 2515 627

O fftype selection 2360 683The bushy plants were of about normal height, and were not detected

even by an expert eye when sown in the field, close spaced and with two plants per hole, as is usual. This applied even to the highest and lowest of the 47 Sakel lots previously mentioned (Table V ia); even when so grossly deteriorated, the offtype plants could not be eliminated by roguing in the field, as is attempted by the methods of mass selection. And as previously

T300 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

mentioned in connection with the failure of the Seed Control examination, deteriorated Sakel seeds were also indistinguishable by eye from the normal seeds, and this applied generally to all varieties.

Wilt Resistance.— Sakel as a whole was susceptible to wilt (Fusarium), although even in the nucleus’ families some five per cent, of resistant types generally could be found; and such resistant types increased about five­fold in commercial Sakel. A much smaller increase in resistant types occurred in Malaki, another susceptible type which showed traces of the impurity in the nucleus. In Sakha 4 which was a highly resistant type, wilt susceptible plants were found in the deteriorated seed, but only to a small extent.

iv The Cause of D eteriorationA t one time or another, several wilt immune types extracted from the

Sakel renewal nucleus had been studied, in approximately pure state, in the pedigree lines. Several were indistinguishable from normal Sakel as regards the plant form; and both in Sakel and in other varieties these types had a very general tendency to be of lower spinning quality than the normal types (Table V II). None of the resistant types examined actually had characters as bad as deteriorated Sakel, although some approached towards it; but obviously there was a possibility that such offtype was present at low frequency in the renewal nucleus, and that its subsequent expansion would fit in with the observed nature of deterioration in Sakel.

*The Time Factor.— An attempt was made to place this explanation on a

quantitative basis, in terms of the possible initial frequency of the offtype and its rate of expansion, so as to cover the extent of deterioration as well as its nature. This was too simple an approach, the expansion o f a single offtype not actually being the general cause of deterioration; but a numerical example worked out for a hypothetical case is given .here, because it illus­trates rather vividly how a minute trace of impurity can expand to become a multitude of plants in the time estimated to be available.

T able VIIIThe T im e Factor in D ifferential E xpansion

T he calculated increase of A shm ouni im p u rity w ith in a Sakel population, in successive years of propagation , assum ing a differential expansion ra te of 5 : 3. In calculating the yarn stren g th of th e mixings, unm ixed Sakel is taken to have a lea product of 3,000 ; and Ashmouni, 1,800. The s ta rting po in t is one Ashm ouni p lan t in a population of 999 Sakel p lants.

Y ear of P lan ts per T housand Lea ProductP ropagation Sakel Ashm ouni of M ixture

1st 999-0 1-0 29992nd 998-3 1-7 29983rd 997 3 29964th 995 5 29945th 992 8 29906th 987 13 29847th 980 20 29768th 965 35 29589th 945 55 293410th 910 90 289211th 855 145 282612 th 785 215 2742

13 th 685 315 262214th 565 435 247815 th 435 565 232216 th 315 685 2178

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 3 0 1

The hypothetical example chosen is the case of one Ashmouni plant in a population of 999 Sakel plants, expanding for some years at a differential expansion rate as 5 :3 . So as to simplify the problem, the relative ex­pansion of Ashmouni is assumed to arise solely from its higher seed yield, which actually is about in the ratio of 5 :3 compared with Sakel. It is assumed ithat no natural crossing takes place, and that no other selection factors operate. The Ashmouni then expands at compound interest with yearly rests, is harvested along with the Sakel as one crop every year, and the mixed seed is sown as one bulk each following year. The course of this expansion is shown in Table V III, the expected lea products of the mixtures being given in the right-hand column.

Out of every 1,000 plants in the bulk, i.e. Sakel and Ashmouni together, there is only 1 Ashmouni plant the first year, which expands to become 5 Ashmouni plants in the fourth year, 35 in the eighth year, 215 in the twelfth year, and 685 out of every 1,000 in the sixteenth year. (Evidence of such snowball growth has been seen in experiments). The lea product, which was 3,000 for the original Sakel, is calculated to fall to 2,742 for the mixture at the twelfth year, and to be as low as 2,178 at the sixteenth year, when a spinner would no longer recognise the mixture as Sakel. The fall is rapid after about the tenth year.

Most populations in the present commercial crop have circulated probably for 8 or 12 years from the date of the original single plant selec­tion; but special circumstances applied for Sakel at is was dying out in 1942, and most of the seed had circulated probably for 16 years— a critical extra four years according to the conditions of the hypothetical example. Treating the problem on the above simple lines, one offtype plant present at»an early stage of propagation therefore had the time required to expand and swamp the Sakel bulks.

Selective Advantage of Minor Genes.— The case of Sakel was considered to be appropriate for study on such simple lines, since Fahm y’s10 work on wilt resistance had indicated major genes to be playing an important part in the expression. Resistance to wjlt is a valuable character under Egyptian conditions; and these major genes were conceived to be increasing in com­mercial Sakel not simply because they affected the seed yield per plant, but by reason of the obvious selective advantage conferred by wilt resistance. The present writer set off in his enquiry holding that point of view; but eventually it was realised that if the selective advantage of these major genes were to be allowed as a factor in deterioration, the selective advantage of minor genes for wilt must be allowed as a factor also; for Fahm y’s work showed minor as well as major genes to be affecting the expression. And once the selective advantage of minor genes was taken into consideration, along with the Magnitude of the time factor, an immense vista was opened up. Many other characters besides wilt resistance were known to be con­trolled by minor genes; they were present by the score, possibly by the hundred, and the extent of their selective advantage became a question of prime importance.

The main point at issue was whether minus modifiers were at a selective advantage compared with plus modifiers, the latter being defined as the minor genes favoured by human selection; but a direct approach was out of the question. Even for major genes whose expression is well marked, proving a selective advantage is apt to be difficult. Expansion of resistant types in commercial Sakel, for instance, was not necessarily a result of natural selection for wilt resistance; instead, there might have been selection for some other character which happened to be linked with wilt resistance. For the minor genes, proving a selective advantage is doubly difficult; their individual effect is small, perhaps often within the limits of uncertainty in measurement; also their number is large, there m ay be many of a like kind, and their effects accumulate. Hence there did not seem to be much hope of

T302 23— Measures to CRech Deterioration

proving a case in detail for these genes; but a general argument of consider­able weight is available, by which to show that minus modifiers must be at a selective advantage in commercial crops.

As concluded by Hutchinson11 and by Mather13, selective forces tend to establish balanced mixtures of types; and polygenic systems provide the reservoir of genes which is the source of material for natural and artificial selection (Part II, Section v). In nature, the balance of plus and minus modifiers changes until the environment is best exploited. If the objectives in artificial selection are opposed to those of natural selection, the polygenic balance will be disturbed. Minus modifiers assiduously discarded by the plant breeder will be then at a selective advantage if they have the oppor­tunity to re-enter his populations; pressure of (natural selection will favour their expansion until a natural balance is restored. This argument may be applied to Egyptian cotton if it can be shown that there is a contrast between the course evolution would take in nature, and the course along which the varieties are persuaded by the breeders.

That there is such a contrast seems to be beyond doubt. High spinning quality, in particular, of itself is a character without value to the plant; general improvement of spinning quality by natural selection could arise only by coincidence— a coincidence which occurs either not at all, or else very rarely, in Egypt. In any bulk a few plants with variations in a desir­able direction are likely to be found, as is revealed by the target diagrams; but variations in the opposite direction are more frequęnt and of greater deviation; the change for the bulk as a whole is always for the worse. Thousands of commercial lots have been examined for spinning quality by the writer; and whenever a significant change in a variety is found— as it is found very frequently— it is always in the direction of lower spinning quality.

Consideration of the evolutionary background of modern varieties leads to the same conclusion. Giza 45, for example, a super-strong type reach­ing well into the Sea Island range of quality, was derived from controlled matings between lines selected out of commercial Sakel and Ashmouni. These two varieties often must have crossed into each other naturally, so that all the genes required for Giza 45 types were present in commercial Sakel populations; but although such types had time in which to expand, they did not expand under our conditions o f cultivation. If types such as Giza 45 were present at all, they diminished rather than increased in frequency; the types which did expand in Sakel were of a very different nature, as has been seen. The.developm ent of brown linted types in deteriorated Sakel was also very significant. According to Silow1'1, all the wild species of the genus Gossypium bear coloured hairs on their seeds, and most wild representatives of the cultivated species also have coloured lint. White, lirit is essentially a product of human selection.

Hence as regards both strength and colour the result achieved by natural selection is quite contrary to the breeder’s objectives, and similar arguments apply to several other characters. If artificial selection results in the accumu­lation of plus modifiers, natural selection results in the accumulation of minus modifiers.; the minus modifiers in question can be regarded as the “ wild-type ” appropriate to the environment concerned, and to the poly­genic system operating. In the writer’ s view," the expansion of these wild- type genes is the main cause of deterioration.

The propagation of pure strains, long regarded as the ultimate objective in Egypt, is an ideal with a sound basis. No truly pure strain has ever been obtained at Giza, where the term is not actually used; but the conception is useful so long as it is realised that no more than approximate purity is attained in practice. It is important to notice that although a pure strain carries both plus and minus modifiers, neither kind of modifier is at a selective advantage over the other while the strain remains pure; the restor­

m Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T3°3ing.. mechanism of polygenic systems cannot operate in homozygous and homogeneous populations. As the plant breeder puts it, the strains are ‘ ‘ fixed.” The situation is changed, however, when impurity is present— whether it was never eliminated from the beginning, or whether it is introduced by new mutations or by one pure strain crossing with another. Variability is released by heterozygosity, and the selective advantage of minus modifiers leads to their rapid dispersal, with the development of new and undesirable recombinations.

If two pure strains crossing are denoted thus:

— — + + + + + + + + — —---------------------------------------X ' ---------------------------------------------,

— — + + + + + + + + — “'

then among the ultimate offspring will be types to be denoted thus:

---- + + ------

------------- 1— I-------------- ’and of course heterozygous and other combinations of various kinds. Such types carrying an accumulation of minus modifiers, even though they are derived from pure strains, are presumed to be the typical deterioration products. Extreme accumulation is presumed to result in E nan’s Brown, which in addition possibly carries undesirable major genes, such as certain of the wilt resistance genes.

Following a study of Enan’s Brown, Harland11 attributed the occurrence of the ordinary barbadense type with white or near-white lint, to the dis­integration by human agency of an original brown-lintied complex. Human processes, unfortunately, left too many of the disintegration products lying around; for deterioration seems to be the product of their re-integration by natural selection.

Expansion from a Trace.— The raw material for this re-integration inside a variety is probably any kind of impurity, although some kinds are worse than others; but 110 more than minute traces need be present initially. Contrary to a rather popular belief, bulk mixing of seed of different varieties is not the reason for deterioration under modern Egyptian conditions. Whether the mixing is supposed to occur by accident in ginneries, by farmers taking the wrong bags, by deliberate mixing of seed-cotton with intent to defraud, or even by wholesale natural crossing between different varieties in the fields— the expected consequences are rarely found although they certainly would be found by the methods of analysis now available.

In the first place, commercial varieties give target diagrams with distribu­tions and correlations quite different from those to be expected from seed mixtures of the known varieties; and in a good many cases, gross mixtures of that kind would be detected at once by the Seed Control Law examina­tion. But especially, the detailed search for deterioration in Karnak revealed how little such contamination amounts to nowadays, all causes being taken into consideration. The high quality Karnak was expanded from a small crop on a thousand acres in 1939, up to a crop more than a hundred times greater in 1942; and this occurred during a period when there was more low quality ZUlgora grown in the Delta than ever before. Y et in the four years’ exposure to risk of crossing in the fields, or mixing in ginneries, etc., the total contamination in Kartnak was equivalent to less than one per cent, of Zagora admixture, as was proved by tests on thousands of lots. In recent varieties, at least, the cause of deterioration was not in the bulk of impurity initially introduced, but in the length of time allowed for impurities and their by-products to expand, and in the virulent nature of those by-products.

T3°4 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

Gene Interactions.— The tendency of useless structures to disintegrate or degenerate in the absence of further selection in their favour is well known in evolutionary biology; the gradual loss of eyes in cave-dwelling animals is a familiar example. Deterioration differs from ordinary degeneration in the rapid pace at which changes take place; Egyptian cotton varieties commonly changed character within ten or twenty years of their introduc­tion. In Sakha 4, offtypes began to increase rapidly, less than ten years from the date of the single plant parent of the renewal nucleus; and the lint from these offtypes was of a quality that could be viewed by spinners only with dismay. This haste to revert towards non-cultivated types is a measure of the contrast in objectives between natural and artificial selection; but the rapid change in lint quality calls for comment, if-— as seems to be likely— high quality lint of itself is an “ indifferent ” character, with neither selective advantage nor disadvantage under the conditions of cultivation. There is a strong implication that natural selection actually operates 011 non-lint characters, and that the marked changes observed in the lint are secondary consequences.

That the expression of each gene or factor in an organism is dependent on all or most of the other factors present, is an opinion held by many biologists; Rasmusson15 referred to it as the inter-action theory. Discussing W right’s studies on the subject, H uxley16 remarks: “ Most genes have multiple effects. Organs under direct selection will be modified by a system of genes; but the genes of such a polygenic system will also have secondary effects on ‘ indifferent ’ organs, and most of these secondary effects will tend to promote degeneration in size or function-. Further, when two linked polygenic systems are lodged in the same chromosome or chromo­somes, and selection is actińg to alter the main character controlled by one system, while that controlled by the other is useless, the resultant re-com­bination will ‘ break u p ' the useless character. In virtue of the tendency of random change to be towards decreased efficiency, this also will promote degeneration.” On this view, when a cotton variety begins to accumulate modifiers affecting e.g. the number of seeds produced, the vigour of the seedlings, the strength -of the root system, the potency of the pollen and so 011, disintegration o f the lint characters occurs by accident. The disastrous consequences recorded on our lea testers when a variety deteriorates are then merely the subsidiary effects of natural selection.

v . R eview of D evelopm ents

im purity as it expands sometimes raises the yield (as with Sakha 4 in Table V), but such increase is never sufficient to compensate for the fall in quality always associated with it; in every variety studied at Giza, the effect o f deterioration is to lower the net return per acre. Egyptian mixtures, whether accidental or deliberate, are not likely to meet with success in propagation; genetic variability must be avoided, for the crops are always apt to seize on it for the promotion of their own ends.

One w ay of evading the steady fall in quality which is the feature of deterioration, might be to ,let the cotton populations settle down to their natural level without interference. There is reason tio think that stability would be reached, although seed actually is always withdrawn from circula­tion before arriving at that stage. So far as the result can be forecasted, the crops would end up as dark brown cottons of weak and wasty staple, with lint yield and spinning quality both below that o f Ashmouni. At this hypothetical natural level, the mixture would be the fittest population; but such fitness does not refer to economics, by the standards of which the crops would be failures.

Even partial success in control of deterioration therefore reaps a hand­some reward; but the higher a variety is carried above this natural level, the greater are the difficulties likely to be, because the greater is the pressure

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T305

of natural selection tending tb bring the variety down. The assembly of plus modifiers continues apace in the breeding stocks from which future varieties will be derived, to aid in the fuller exploitation of the different kinds of Egyptian land. Y et if it be suggested that artificial selection is already carried too far, and that it would be wiser to rest content with varieties nearer to the natural level, the reply is that present evidence points clearly to the contrary.

Higher initial purity and better protection in the early stages of propa­gation, have led to greater uniformity in the seed now issued, as can be demonstrated by several lines o f evidence. But in particular, better methods are available, and still better are projected, for the elimination of seed lots in which the wild-type genes have begun to disperse. No seed can be kept pure in bulk for long; even a one-variety community for all Egypt would help little in the control of deterioration' unless all impurity could be eliminated from the beginning. The essential difference between present and former techniques is in the stress laid upon seed elimination* future crops will be given far less opportunity to follow their own line of development than was formerly the case.

Up to about 1912, every new variety was contaminated from the earliest stages by the other varieties grown in adjacent fields. E very crop began as a small bulk covering only a few ridges; it was subject to serious natural crossing from the beginning, since the risks were not appreciated. Types such as Enan’s Brown, once they entered the populations, were liable to persist indefinitely from old variety to new, .speeding up the deterioration process by the rapid dispersion of thei,r genes. From these degenerate populations, new varieties were selected from time to time. Natural crosses occurred in abundance, but there were strong forces operating against success in selection; the advantage of controlled matings between pedigree plants as in the present Giza system, was not to be realised for many years to come. Expansion of offtypes could be kept in check by mass selection methods only for a variety covering a ,small acreage, or for one such as Ashmouni which deteriorated fairly slowly. Complaints were made even of Ashmouni, and extreme deterioration was only a matter of time in all the other big crops.

Dating from the formation of the Cotton Research Board in 1920, in­creasing attention was paid to seed purity. By 1928, the general ruling was to propagate from single plants which had been selfed and reselected for about six generations, Giza 7 being the first Egyptian variety to be so derived. Yet although renewal nucleus families showed a gratifying improvement in seed purity at the time of testing, offtypes invariably developed before the nucleus had run its course some six years later. As we now know, homozygosity is seldom or never reached b y F„; in those populations, plus and minus modifiers were freely available, and were able to accumulate gradually in some plants by successive recombination. Such plants would possess characters at values both higher and lower than those of the original plants; and impurity getting in from outside, in spite of the precautions taken, would add to the effects.

Examples of offtypes found in renewal nucleus families, mostly selections for wilt resistance, were shown in Table V II; these were not considered to be successes and were promptly discarded by the breeders. It will be noticed, however, that all were of lower quality than the parents; and also that each would expand out of proportion in commercial crops grown on wilty land, So giving rise to deterioration. Examples of another kind of selection ajre shown in Table IX ; these are successes, and can be used to illustrate ithe possibilities in secondary.selection. But they are used here to illustrate another point; for if plus modifiers were assembled to such extent in the plants selected, so could the corresponding minus modifiers be assembled in plants which were not selected. This is presumed to be the

T3o 6 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

explanation for the plants with short staple and low ginning out-turn occasionally found in the nucleus families, and disclosed by the target diagrams.

T able IXE xam p les of Im p rovem en t by Secondary Selection

The latest improved family is shown first, the comparison usually being between parent and daughter or grand-daughter, but some near or distant cousins also occur.

Yarn strengths arc expressed as the Lea Strength x Counts Product of 60s carded ring tw is t ; yields are in lb. of lint per acre. All comparisons are based on yield or miniature chequer results, the number of chequers averaged being shown in brackets.

No. of 'Lea Product Lint Yield Cheqs.

Ashmouni/44 1813 707 (12)Ashmouni/43 1744 712Saklia 4/34 2920 562 (2)Sakha 4/32 2760 566 < «Sakha 4/27 2600 552Giza 7/42 2406 640 (U)Giza 7/3!) 2374 625Giza 23 (118-9) 2224 643 (5)Giza 23 (145) 2238 530Malaki/44 3145 365 (4)M alaki/43 - 3065 366Karnak/44 2800 574 (4)Karnak /4 1 2770 ' 535Karnak /41 2850 648 (u)Karnak /40 2845 632Giza 30C 2155 653 (3)Giza 3015 2205 ' 628Giza 30t> 2190 677 (3)Giza 30A 2240 639Giza 31C 2272 661 (7)Giza 3 It) 2147 586Giza 32)i 2765 542 (3)Giza 32G 2485 585Menoufi/?45 2595 621Menoufi/44 2505 604 (4)Menoufi/42 2480 585Amoun/44 3120 431 (4)Amoun/42 3060 447Giza 42 (200) 2940 543 ' (4)Giza 42 (196) 2920 486

Hence although the propagation seed issued was very pure by commer­cial standards, for every variety managed by the Government after 1928, it has to be admitted that the raw material for deterioration was present. Y et the fact would have been of little importance had the Seed Control Law been effective; there is every reason to believe that good seed could have moved into the commercial supply at a rate fast enough to overtake the rate of deterioration, with something to spare. Failure to eliminate bad seed was the defect that led to a slow intake of good seed, especially ais regards Sakel, in which the situation was aggravated by a special factor

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— Hancock T307

after 1936. Propagation seed for Sakel, as for any other variety, entered the commercial supply almost entirely in response to demand from the big growers; and from them it passed to the medium and smaller growers within a few years. The bigger growers also were always the leaders in changing over to new varieties, and when they changed over to Giza 7, after 1936, Sakel was left mainly with the smaller growers alone, among whom it lingered on until 1942. These smaller growers however, were not in the habit of buying propagation seed; they continued to use their old commercial seed, and since it could not be detected by the method of examination then in force, the consequences followed as recorded in this paper. History was repeated when the bigger growers changed over to Karnak, and Giza 7 in its turn was abandoned mainly to the smaller growers; the demand for Giza 7 propagation seed rapidly diminished in far greater proportion than the reduction in acreage; a strain heavier thani it was able to bear was again placed upon the seed elimination system.

In 1942-43, the Giza technique was greatly strengthened by a series of measures concerned w’ith seed purity and selection, with .the time allowed for expansion, and particularly with the method of elimination. As regards purity, it was ruled that a new variety could not leave the hybrid lines before the F„ generation, after which it is allowed to begin expansion into a renewal nucleus and into a commercial crop. And maintenance with­in the renewal nucleus area came into operation, leaiding to the faster introduction of newer and purer seed for the established varieties. (The present Karnak nucleus, the F ,, family, is believed to be the purest nucleus ever available for an Egyptian variety, and begins to circulate in the com­mercial crop at the fourth or fifth year of expansion from a single plant). Opportunities for selection remain even after many generations of in- breeding; and so far as the operation of the system is concerned, it is largely immaterial whether the source of variation is initial impurity not yet removed, or new mutations w'ithin the variety, or contamination intro­duced by accident from outside; the methods of selection are equally appropriate for all the possibilities. As regards seed elimination, the spinning-test method was adopted for all varieties of higher quality than Menoufi, all commercial seed submitted for examination under the Seed Control Law being allowed for sowing only if its lint passed the spinning standards, lot by lot. This is the direct test for deterioration, independent of the presence of hidden offtypes in plants or seeds.

As a result of all the forces operating, the commercial crop of Malaki in 1944 was restored in yarn strength (to the level o f the nucleus fam ily, below which it had fallen for some years; and Karnak in the same year, the fifth after its introduction at the stage of 1,000 acres, showed no measurable deterioration by commercial standards. The ease of Malaki was interesting rather than important, for it was only a small crop; but Karnak in 1944 covered over half a million acres. Control of deterioration, if it remains successful in a crop of this size, will represent the saving of immense sums. Unfortunately it was not possible to confirm if the commercial crops of Sakel and Sakha 4 could have been restored to the strength level of their nucleus families; both varieties died out the year after the new method of elimination was introduced.

It will be noticed that the method of seed eliminaltion based on spinning- tests is applied to the long-stapled varieties only, in which deterioration is apt to be the most marked. Application of the method to all varieties is not yet feasible because of various technical difficulties, of which perhaps the1 chief is that environmental factors increase in relative importance in the shorter staples; and elimination is therefore less efficient. These diffi­culties may be overcome in the projected Dated Seed System, which will provide a means to identify seed after it has circulated for a certain number

T3o 8 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

of years, whether it shows measurable deterioration or not. The first steps have been taken to put this system into operation, by dating the seed of all varieties issued. The virtues of such a system are very apparent; thus it is hoped that a pedigree system carried right through the commercial crop, as well as inside the plant breeding system, will soon come to be accepted as a matter of course.

Clearing Away Suspicion.— Owe final observation remains to be made; it concerns the spinning quality o f cotton grown from ordinary commercial seed, the average of hundreds of seed samples sent up for examination from ordinary commercial sources. Representative samples of Malaki, Karnak, Sakel, Sakha 4, and others, have been sown over the course of years on Ministry of Agriculture farms. The cotton thus obtained was found to give yam of the same quality, within the limits o f significance, as samples of similar grade drawn from exporters’ deliveries.

Those aspersions on the fair dealing of Alexandria merchants, mentioned earlier in this account, were thus shown to be quite unfounded. If there had been fradulen.t mixing bf lint on an y considerable scale, the fact would have been disclosed by these Ministry of Agriculture growings of commer­cial seed. And by the same test, all others in the line of transit from grower to exporter were given a clean sheet; they passed on the cotton as they received it from the grower. The whole onus of responsibility for deterioration was thus thrown upon the seed.

One of the most unfortunate aspects o f deterioration was the suspicion of bad faith it aroused throughout the industry. Such doubts were perhaps inevitable when deterioration was widespread, and its origin so mysterious. That the whole responsibility had to be thrown upon the seed, was particu­larly difficult for growers to believe, when they could see the crop improving in (apparent) uniformity before their eyes. Correspondingly, exporters doubted the good faith of growers, o f giwners, and of interior merchants; and spinners probably mistrusted all concerned. Nor did the spinners wholly escape; there was a general suspicion that they overstated their case. The unwanted genes thus have much to answer for, over and above the enormous losses they caused; and doubt and suspicion will probably remain so long as there is deterioration. Fortunately there is clear evidence that the insidious forces at work are being rapidly overcome, and w'e may not be troubled with the problem much longer in Egypt.

Even though the commercial crop 'has suffered serious deterioration in the recent past, plant breeders had already found how to maintain a renewal nucleus intact, and how to keep it ilntact indefinitely. There has been no measurable deterioration in the nucleus families, and the plant breeders are i!n a position to supply good seed so long as there is a demand for it. It was very significant that the writer could obtain Sakel seed fully up to standard at late as 1942, when the crop as a whole had utterly fallen. No such pure seed was available for Yoannovitch, Mit Afifi, or Gallini as they died out, those varieties then being entirely lost and dispersed.

Considerable advances have thus been made in knowledge, and in application of that knowledge to the devising of better technical methods. The work of the past five or ten years is only just beginning to take effect oh, the crop, and it will not be until about the year 1950 that we can know for certain if the problems have been satisfactorily solved. W hen that time arrives, spinners’ opinions on the subject o f deterioration will be awaited in E gypt with no little interest.

S u m m a ry

In extreme cases, deterioration i*n a variety led to a fall in yarn strength amounting to about 20 per cent. W ith Sakel, which was badly deteriorated at the end of its life, the yield and ginning out-turn did not change appreci­

in Egyptian Cotton Varieties— H ancock T 3 0 9

ably, but the staple became shorter, weaker and browner— a total result that could not be simulated by direct mixing of any combination of ordinary Egyptian cottons. Deterioration in general is ascribed to the dispersal, of minor genes which can be regarded as the “ wild-type ” mast suited to the environment and to the polygenic system operating. These minor genes, and certain major genes, have a strong selective advantage in varieties carried to a high economic level by -human selection, in. which the objec­tives are quite different from the objectives in natural selection. Any kind of impurity is apt to be seized upon by ithe crops for the promotion of their own ends.

Deterioration reached serious proportions in Sakel iand Sakha 4 owing to defects in ithe method of examination under the Seed Control Law . The offtypes chiefly responsible for deterioration were indistinguishable from normal plants and seeds, but only those lots containing visible offtypes were eliminated by operations, under the Law. The result demonstrated the extreme importance of methods for the detection and elimination of bad seed, because ample good seed was available although not in demand. Continuous attention has been paid at Giza to the initial purity of seed, and to its further protection; but seed cannot be kept pure in bulk, and increased attention is being paid to methods of elimination. Elimination of seed for the long staples is now based on spinning quality, and a Dated Seed System to be applied to all varieties, is projected.

References

1 H. A. Hancock. Egyptian M in. Agric. Tech. Bull., No. 189, 1938, p. 40.2 H. A. Hancock. Ibid., pp. 45 and 46.3 Egyptian Cotton Research Board, L.R.C. Report, Feb., 1939, pp. 52-59.I Ibid., pp. 43-44. and pp. 44-52, 1939.5 H. A. Hancock. J. Text. Inst., 194.5, i i , T267.6 H. A. Hancock. J. Text. Inst. 1945, 11, T278.7 W . L. Balls. Egyptian M in. Agric. Tech. Bull., 1931, No. 104.8 F. Dunkerley. J . Text. Inst., 1937, 2&. T255-9 H. A. Hancock. J. Text. Inst., 1945, 36, T12.

lu T. Fahmy. Egyptian M in. Agric. Tech. Bull., Nos. 95, 128, 130, 1934.II J . B. Hutchinson. J . Genetics, 1940, 40, 471.12 K. Mather. J . Genetics, 1941, 41, 159.13 R. A. Silow. J. Genetics, 1944, 4*>, 80.14 S. C. Harland. J. Genetics, 1935. 31, 27.15 J. Rasmusson. Hereditas, 1933, 18, 245.16 J. Huxley. “ Evolution : The Modern Synthesis ” ; Allen & Unwin, 1944, 476.

Cotton Research Board,Orman, Giza, Egypt.

Received 26/9/44

A p p en d ix I

A n a ly sis of V a ria n ce , D a ta of T a b le VI

In the calculation of variance, deviations normally are measured from the mean of all values ; and when the present data were tested for significance in an earlier paper (Uses and Accuracy of Spinning-Tests on 60-gram Samples) the standard procedure was followed. An unusual point arises in regard to the distribution of these strength values, however, when the origin of the seed is considered : all the commercial lots have deterio­rated, so that their strength values deviate from the renewal nucleus value in the minus direction only.

T 3 IO 23— Measures to Check Deterioration

A nother analysis of variance was therefore carried out, deviations being m easured from th e renew al nucleus value, and n o t from th e m ean. As in T able I I I of th e earlier paper, genetic variance is assum ed to be th e residual, a fte r spinning and sam pling variances are sub trac ted from the to ta l variance. On halv ing th e sam pling variance shown in th a t Table, and quartering the spinning variance, we ob tain the com ponents of variance for th e 4-point m eans of T able VI now under discussion, these being the m eans of tw o spinnings on each of tw o repetitions. R esults by th is m ethod of calculation, and also by the stan dard m ethod based on deviations from the mean, are shown in T able X. R esults for A shm ouni are also included, deviations for th is varie ty being m easured from th e value for propagation seed, since none of th e comm ercial lo ts was derived from a renew al nucleus w ith so high a stren g th value as th e 1944 nucleus used as control.

Significance can be determ ined only b y the stan dard m ethod ; b u t a m uch better estim ate of th e genetic facto r is given by th e second m ethod, although th e reference po in t has a greatly reduced num ber of degrees of freedom. Spinning and sam pling variances are th e sam e by either m ethod. I am indebted to Dr. W . L. Balls for draw ing m y a tten tio n to th is unusual point.

Acknowledgments.— The writer owes a considerable debt to Dr. W . L. Balls for encouragement and advice; to the Director of the Botanical Section and to the Giza plant breeders for their courtesy in supplying data; to Mr. J. B. Hutchinson both for criticism, and for the stimulus of the questions in his paper to the 3rd E .C .G .C . Conference on Cotton Growing Problems; and to Dr. James Philp for his valued criticism of the first manuscript.

N O V E M B E R , 1945 A453

T H E J O U R N A L OF T H ETEXTILE INSTITUTE

1—FIBRES AND THEIR PRODUCTIONIB )— A n i m a l

M ulberry L eaves: Chem ical Com position . S. J. D e m ia n o vsk i and N . G . Dom an. B iochim ia, 19414, 9, 360-364 (through B rit. A bstracts, 1945, A III, 412). P ro ­tein, carbohydrate, and cellulose w ere determ ined on different parts o f leaves of the m ulberry (Morus alba). T h e food value of the leaves for silkw orm s is determ ined m ainly b y the nature and am o u n t o f proteins and carbohydrates and, in less degree, b y th e n atu re an d lev el of th e 'mineral co n ten t. C.

S ilk : Production in India. M ysore Board of S ericu ltu re . Indian T ext. ] . . 1945, 55, 649. A list is g iven of proposals in vo lvin g an exp en diture of n early £100,000 for im proving sericulture in M ysore. A research in stitute is be opened a t Channapatna, a t a cost o f ab ou t £20,000. C.

M altese M ulberry S ilk Cocoons: Q uality . B u ll. Im perial In stitu te, 1945, 43, 86-87. Silk cocoon raising trials have been carried o u t b y the D ep artm en t of A griculture in M alta w ith eggs from C yp ru s. T h e sam ple subm itted to the Im perial In stitu te com prised good, prom ising cocoons. T h e absence of diseased, insect a ttacked and dead cocoons in dicated good sericultural m ethods. T h e M altese cocoons w ere on th e average larger and bolder b u t less regular in size and m uch less uniform in colour than Cyprus cocoons. T h e y w ere also less firm an d som ew hat coarser in surface textu re. C.

(C)— V e g e t a b l e

Internal B oll Rot D isease: Control in Peru through Selection . T . B.B ardu cci, G . G. R a d a and J. W ille. N ature, 1945, 156, 235-236. G reat dam age to the cotton crop in N orthern Peru is caused b y the cotton stainer (Dysdercus sp.). K n o w n m ethods, such as observation o f the timje of plan ting and picking, destruction of host plants, trap pin g o f insects or use of insecti­cides were of little success. Isolations from in tern al diseased bolls and cultures w ere m ade from four m icro-organism s and a series of in oculation tests carried out. A few plants from four strains showed resistance to infection. On com ­paring results w ith those of S tey a ert in the B elgian Congo it seems th a t P eru vian cotton varieties are gen etically m ore resistant to infection b y fungus producing internal ro t of the cotton bolls, transm itted b y th e " arrebiatado ” punctures th an A m erican varieties. C.Punjab-Am erican Cotton P lan t: M anuring and T irak D isease . R . H . D astu r and S . Singh. Indian ] . Agric. R es., 1944, 14, 325-332. A concise accoun t is gi^en of th e practical aspects of cotton m anuring, w ith special reference to the effect o f nitrogen application as sulphate o f am m onia, in com bination w ith varied levels o f other factors, in order to avoid tira k sym ptom s in the P u n jab- Am erican cotton s on ligh t san dy soils. T h e d ifferent strains of cotton were found to respond to nitrogen in the order of their y ield in g ca p a city . C.

D D T Insecticide: A p plication aga in st Cotton Insects. U . C . L oftin . U .S. D ept. Agr., B ur. E ntom ol. P lan t Quarantine, 1945, E-657, 6 pp. (through Chem . A bstr., 1945, 39. 31099). D D T w as n o t so effective as C a arsenate against the boll w eevil. I t w as in effective against the cotton leafw orm and the cotton aphid. T here were indications th a t red spiders were increased som ew hat b y D D T dustin g. D D T w as effective against p lan t bugs and stink - bugs, cotton flea hopper, cotton bollw orm , and esp ecially th e p ink bollw orm . One application of a 3 per cen t. D D T d u st gave a v e ry good k ill of a h e a v y infestation of Thrips tabaci L in d , and Frankliniella fusca H in ds on cotton . C.

M54 i — Fibres and their Production

Indian Cotton C ontract: O peration. K . R . M arfatia. Indian T ext. J ., ■945> 55 ̂ 611-616. E xperience of futures tradin g under the new Indian Cotton C o n tract o f J u ly , 1942, is review ed and m odifications necessitated b y the b u y ­in g p o licy of the G overnm ent o f In dia are discussed. T h e m ain features of the am ended co n tract now operating are set o u t under 18 headings, dealing wiith the basis, grades, staples, prem ium s and so forth . C.

C otton P lan t: Selection in N igeria . A n n . R eport Agric. D ep t., Nigeria, 1943, 34 pages. T h e follow in g references to cotton production are noted (pp. 22 and 23). T w o b u lk strains o f Ishan cotton were tested for y ield , half arising from self-pollination, the rest from open pollination. On the average, self- pollination did not appear to depress yields. In the northern provinces a ve ry successful strain 26C (a d e riv ative from D5) has been developed w hich yielded 100 per cent, m ore th an th e standard B .C .G .A . A llen from Zaria, and w as sligh tly stronger than ordin ary A llen . C.

Long Staple C otton: Production in India (S in d ). R . San karan . Indian Farm ­ing, 1945, 6, 257-259. A su rvey is given o f the attem pts made in Sind to evo lve h ealth y long-staple cotton . T he range of va ria b ility present in the m ateria l a t hand offers w ide possibilities for judicious selection w ork. C.

Q ueensland Cotton S o ils : S ignificance of Carbon-Nitrogen R atio. F . H ard y. Tropical Agriculture, 1945, 22, 119-127. R esults are presented o f th e analysis o f representative sam ples of Q ueensland soils supporting cotton plants prone to “ b o ltin g ,” i.e. the developm ent of un fruitful ran k grow ths susceptible tf- in sect a tta ck . These soils are characterised b y re la tiv e ly low C : N ratioą T h e y are the " R ed E a rth ” soils. A llu v ia l soils are satisfacto ry and “ B la ck E a rth ” soils interm ediate. B o ltin g of co tton has been shown to be a physio­logical phenom enon associated w ith high rates o f n itrate production in the soil w hich is a feature of low C / N ratio soils under certain m oisture conditions. F resh soils can bear early satisfacto ry crops, w hereas during successive crop­pings the bolting increases (“ new land ” effect). Several factors w hich decide th e su itab ility of the soil and the site for successful cotton-grow ing in Queens­land are discussed. C.

Sea Island C otton: Production in th e W est Indies. W e st Indian Sea Islan d C otton A ssociation. Reports of 8th, gth and Extraordinary General Meetings, 1943 and 1944 (1944, 14 pages). T h e follow ing particulars are n oted: (1) T he crop of Sea Island co tton in the B ritish W e st Indies am ounted to 3,365,400 lb. of lin t in 1940-41, n early 2,600,000 lb . in 1941-42, and n early 1,600,000 lb . in 1942-43. (2) T h e w ork of cotton breeders is reported. (3) T h e com petitive pow er of M ontserrat Sea Island cotton against new er E gyp tian strains is em phasised. (4) A gricu ltu ra l problem s in the various cotton islands are review ed. C.

Root-rot D isease of C otton: R elation to Root-rot in other Crops. N . Prasad. Indian J . Agric. Set., 1944, 14, 388-391. A s it has been observed th a t crops such as sesam um , guar, e tc ., suffer from root-rot, an in vestigation w as under­tak en to find o u t w hether the disease in different crops is the sam e as in cotton in Sind. Isolations were m ade and infection tests carried out. Ftisaria and R hizocton ia were isolated and it has been established th a t th e y belong to the species Fusarium cceruleum (Lib) Sace, and R hizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) B u tl., respective ly , w hich are also associated w ith root-rot o f cotton in Sirj^j.

Root-rot D iseased C otton P lan ts: Leaf T em peratures. R. S a k a i V asu d eva. Indian J . A gric. S ci., 1944, 14, 385-388. T h e leaf tem peratures w ere recorded b y a therm o-electrical m ethod during a num ber o f days on h ealth y and diseased cotton plants. D eterm inations o f the lea f surface and inner tissue tem peratures w ere m ade sim ultaneously and the d a ta are tabu lated . I t was observed th a t leaves on diseased p lants had a higher tem perature and low er rate o f transpiration. C.

P in k B ollw orm : Occurrence in N igeria . F . D . G old ing. Em pire Cotton Growing R e v ., 1945, 22, 1-2. T h e presence of pink bollworm , Platyedra, has been recorded in N igeria, and tw o adults w ere bred from resting larvae ̂ in cottonseed stored near Zaria. P in k bollw orm is a t present rare in the Nigerian A m erican co tton b e lt, b u t has recen tly been found to be w id ely distributed

i— Fibres and their Production A455hi n ative cotton areas. Som e inform ation has been obtain ed o f th e la rva l resting stage. R eference is m ade to surveys b y other authors; the pink boll­worm seems to have been found in F ren ch W e st A frica . C.

M ilkw eed: U tilisa tio n in the Paper Industry. L . V . F orm an and D. N iem eyer. Paper Trade J ., 1945, 121, T A P P I , 95-100. T h e pulping ch a ra c­teristics of th e p rincipal fibrous com ponents of the m ilkw eed stem w ere in vestigated from th e standpoint of their p o ten tia l use as a raw m ateria l in the paper and paperboard in dustry. These com ponents w ere the w hole stalk , th e bast fibre and the w oody m aterial o f the stalk . B leach ed pulp m ade from whole m ilkw eed sta lk is n ot lik e ly to be able to com pete on an econom ical basis w ith the com m on bleached pulps. T h e b a st fibre separated from m ilk­weed stalk gives a pulp sim ilar to flax pulp and m igh t b e used in the m anu­facture of cigarette paper. In view of its low yield , how ever, it w ould be necessary to find a use for the w oody fraction. T h e use o f k ra ft cuttin gs and kraft w aste w ith the m ilkw eed rejects seems feasible as the la tte r w ould add stiffness to the k ra ft board and m ight im prove its strength . W hole m ilkw eed stem s m igh t be used as a substitu te for straw and certain repulped w aste papers. C.(D)— A r t i f i c i a l

P ulp for R ayon: Production. R . E . D d r r . Svensk Papperstid., 1943, 46, 361-369 (through Chem . A bstr., 1945, 39, 3427’ ). T h e purification o f cellulosic raw m aterials b y means of prehydrolysis w ith dilute acid follow ed b y alkalin e digestion m akes it possible to produce a pulp from pine, as w ell as from annual plants, w hich is suitable for the m anufacture of high-grade staple fibre and rayon. T his im provem ent is p articu larly n oticeable w here the m anu fac­ture o f pulp is d irectly com bined w ith rayon or stap le fibre m ills. T h e utilization o f the raw m aterials is im proved, stream pollution is reduced, and m a n y operations in the conversion m ills are facilita ted . A s com pared w ith the sulphite process, th e solution of polysaccharides b y m eans of prehydro­lysis results in an increased sugar y ield a t higher concentrations, w hich reduces the cost o f alcohol or yea st production. T h e liquor obtained in the prehydro- lysis o f raw m aterials is rich in pentoses and is p articu larly adap ted for th e cu ltivatio n o f Torula utilis; th e yeast produced on this basis is d irectly su itab le for hum an consum ption. C .

C ellu lose A cetate F ibres: Im provem ent of E xten sib ility , L . V in e l. Ind. textile, 1944, 61, 9-10 (through Chem . A b str ., 1945, 39, 31637). Stretched acetate-rayon threads h ave an exten sib ility in th e d ry state of not more than 5-2 per cent. T reatm en t o f the fibres w ith a m ixture of sw elling reagents is on ly m oderately successful. More efficient is a process developed b y th e R h od iaceta firm in w hich a m ixture o f chloroform and e th y l aceta te is used a t — 250 to + 5 ° C .; 5 per cen t, o f acetone, e tc ., m a y b e added. T h is tre a t­m ent increases the exten sib ility up to 12-3 per cen t., b u t decreases sligh tly the tear resistance. T he thread thus treated can be saponified w ith b u t s ligh t loss in strength. C.

H igh-m olecular W ood C ellu loses: Isolation and Properties. N . G ralen and B . Rclnby. “ The Svedberg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 274-287. B y a mild sulphite cooking, w hich is broken off before the com plete d isintegration o f the w ood structure, it is possible to obtain w ood celluloses of v e ry high m olecular w eights. T h e authors describe studies o f the usual ty p e on th e m olecular m agnitude of such products. V isco sity m easurem ents w ere per­formed in cupramimonium and sedim entation and diffusion m easurem ents w ere m ade on th e nitration products dissolved in acetone. T he highest degrees o f polym erisation obtained are abou t 9,000; the m olecules are o f the sam e order of size as those of n ative fibre cellulose. B y polydisp ersity m easurem ents i t has been found th a t the sulphite process possib ly has a hom ogenising effect on the cellulose, when m ost o f the lignin has been rem oved from th e w ood. C.

S ulph ite P u lp : Production; C hem istry . S. Ulfsparre. “ The S v e d b e rg ” Com m em oration Vol., 1944, 379-399- A bibliographical review of the chemical reactions taking place when wood is digested with sulphite cooking acid is given under the headings: Sulphonation of lignin, Dissolution of lignin sul- phonic acid, Properties of dissolved lignin sulphonic acid, Dissolution of wood polyoses, Wood cellulose (characterisation), and Significance of the final tem ­

i — Fibres and their Production (P a ten ts)

perature and the lim e con ten t in the cooking o f pulp for rayon. There axe 72 references. C.W ood C ellu lose: A p p lication s in R ayon M anufacture. A . W aller. " The S v e d b e r g ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 400-412. In dustrial processes using p u lp as raw m aterial are review ed, and the possibilities for using w ood instead o f co tton linters as a cellulose source are discussed. A n a ly tica l figures are pre­sented for viscose cellulose from cotton linters, spruce, deciduous wood, reeds and pine, and some E uropean high-a celluloses are com pared. C.

N y lon : D evelop m ent. H . L . M axw ell. Iowa State College J . Sci., 1945, 19, 263-268. In the course o f a p aper on “ C h em istry a t W o rk ” reference is made to nylon. T h e problem of the selection of construction m aterials for nylon p lan ts is briefly discussed, and a short review is given of th e rapid develop­m en t o f n ylon production. C.

P a t e n t sLinear Fibre-form ing P olyam ides from Poly-functional A cid s: Production.E . I. D u P o n t de N em ours & Co. B .P .570,858 of 2 5/7/194 5 (Conv. 27/8/1942). T h e claim is for th e condensation of d ip rim ary diam ines (e.g. h exa- or deca-m ethylenediam ine) w ith a tricarb o xylic acid (e.g. tricarballylic aoid) or a tetraca rb o x ylic acid (e.g. pyrom ellitic aoid) to fibre-form ing p o ly ­am ides. C. P eanu t P rotein : Preparation. S arah N . M cG eoch and Im peria l Chem ical Industries L td . B .P .570,908 o f 6 / 1 2 / 19 4 3 :2 7 / 7 / 19 4 5 . A difficulty en­countered in the spinning o f filam ents from alkaline solutions of peanut g lobulin is a ten den cy to surface gelation th a t begins a t th e liq u id /a ir inter­face and spreads in to th e b o d y o f the solution. I t is now reported th a t this is aggravated b y the presence o f seed testa in the p ean u t m eal and th a t there is a m inim um a lk a lin ity of th e solution used fo r extra ctin g th e globulin above w hich gelation o f th e e x tra ct does n ot occur if the testa is absent. A cco rd ­in gly , p eanuts are crushed and the fragm ents of testa are rem oved b y means o f a ir currents, the oil is then extracted b y m eans of petrol, and the extracted mieal is ground to a fine grist, m oistened w ith w ater and extracted w ith alkali th e q u a n tity and concentration, allow ing for th e w ater, bein g 10 parts of 0-2 per cen t, a lkali to one p art o f m eal. T h e pH o f the e xtra ct, about 1 1 -o-i 1-2, is then brou ght to abou t 5 b y reaction w ith sulphur dioxide and th e precip itated globulin fraction is collected. C.

V in y lid en e Chlorofluoride P olym ers: Production and A p plication . A m erican V iscose Corporation and F . G . Pearson. B .P .570,941 of 30/7/1945 (Conv. 3 1/3/19 4 3). V in yliden e chlorofluoride is obtained from trichloroethylene or m ethylchloroform b y suitable stages [e.g. C H C 1 : CCI, + (HC1+ A 1C 13)— >■ C H 2C1-CC1, + (H F + S b C y — > C H 2C1-CC13F + (Zn + E tO H )— > C H 2 :C C 1F . ] . ' The monom er, b .p . — 10° C ., suffers polym erisation under the influence of a cata lyst and ligh t. P referab ly , 79 p arts b y w eight in 20 parts o f acetone are m ixed w ith £ p art o f b en zo yl peroxide, J p art o f lead tetrae th y l and a trace of uranium acetate, and exposed in a sealed tube to u ltra v io le t ligh t for 2 to 3 d a y s. T h e higher polym ers, m .p . above 60° C ., are useful for extrusion into filam ents, for films, and for use as ru bbery coatings or adhesives. Filam ents h a ve ru b b ery e la stic ity and recover from extensions up to about 500 per cient. C.

S pinn eret C leaning M achine. A m erican V isco se C orporation. B .P .570,959 o f 3 1/ 7 /19 4 5 (Conv. 6/6/1942). A pparatus for cleaning spinnerets and other o b jects h a vin g indentations or perforations, comprises m eans for holding the o b ject, sp rayin g i t w ith cleaning liquid and oscillating i t b a ck and forth past th e sp ray. C.C ellu lose A ceta te: Preparation. B ritish Celanese L td . B .P .571,010 of

. 1/8 /19 4 5 (Conv. 29/10 /1942). Cellulose is aoetylated in the presence o f sul­phuric acid (e.g. 170 p arts o f c o tto n +358 of A c.,0 + 2050 o f A cO H + 25 of H 2S 0 4, for 6 hours a t room tem p , to 36° C .), w ater is added (50 parts) and ripening is conducted (35° C ., 30 hours) un til the acetic acid yield of th e pro­d u c t is 56 per cen t., and th e ester is p recipitated b y an excess of w ater, dis­solved in acetic acid (1500 p a r ts + 255 parts o f w ater) and ripened further in the presence o f an aliphatifc p o ly -catb o xy lic aoid (e.g. 0-85 p a rt o f oxalic or tartaric acid a t 80° C . for 22-32 hours). C.

2— Conversion of Fibres into Fin ished Yarns A457

P igm ented Linear P o lyam id es: Production. E . I. D u P o n t de N em ours & Co. B .P .571,018 of 2 /8 /1945 (Conv. 13/5/19142). P igm ented lin ear p o ly ­am ides are form ed b y beating an aqueous dispersion containing th e reagents required to give th e linear polyam ide, a finely divided p igm ent, and a pro­tectiv e colloid. C.

Casein S olu tion : D ry Sp inn ing. R u d o lf S ig n e r (B erne). B.P.571,468 o f 27/8/1945 (Conv. 15/1/19 4 2). T h e tem perature over w hich an alkaline casein mass can be successfully spun b y the d ry m ethod can be extended b y adding oleic acid o r an oleic acid soap to th e m ass. F o r exam p le, a mass con­taining casein (245 gm .), caustic soda (103 gm . o f 3-561*), oleic acid (3 gm .), and w ater (64.9 gm .) can be spun o ver th e range 31-45° C . T h a t is, the thread w ould break if the nozzle is colder, or drip if hotter. A t 3 70 C. th e mass can be delivered * t a rate of o-'o6 gm . per m in ute, and the w ith d raw al m ay be varied from 6 tc 25 m etres per m inute, g iv in g filam ents b f 25-6 denier. F iv e other exam ples are recorded. C .

Baobab Tree W ood: Collection for P u lp in g . B. E . D. K ilb u rn (for L . F . W . K e y s , Johannesburg). B .P .571,469 o f 1/ 4 /19 4 3 :2 7 /8 / 19 4 5 . I t is reported th a t trees of the species Adansonia digitata (baobab, cream -of-tartar tree or m onkey tree) yield a fibre th a t is rich in high-grade cellulose. T h e invention js a m ethod b y w hich th e outer w ood is peeled off in strips ab ou t 1 in. th ick and 5 ft . or more long and baled for exp o rt. T h e strip pin g m ay be done on th e standing or fallen tree and the tree m ay first be pounded to loosen the fibre. C.

2— C O N V E R S IO N O F F IB R E S IN T O F IN IS H E D Y A R N S(A)— P r e p a r a t o r y P r o c e s s e s

Rayon F ibres: B lend ing . B. M cC om b. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 225-226. T he w riter enum erates th e principles to be observed in th e blending of rayon fibres, th u s: (1) Coarse fibres lim it th e yarn count; (2) fine fibres should be used if stren gth is required in th e cloth; (3) a range of lustre can be secured b y blending lustrous and m a tt fibres; (4) tw ist is im p ortan t for the control of ligh t reflection; (5) for m en’s w ear blend lustrous rayon staple w ith w ool top, b u t for w om en’s w ear use m a tt rayon staple and w ool top; (6) for a crisp finish use coarse fibre; (7) for soft, sheer fabrics for fine dress goods, use fine fibre; (8) for n o v elty effects, blend viscose and acetate fibre; (9) for hosiery, A ra lac in 7, 5 or 3 den., i j in. staple, gives useful com binations w ith viscose an d /o r acetate fibre, or w ool top. C.N asm ith Comber: M aintenance. P la tt Bros. & Co. L td . T extile W eekly, ■9 4 5 - 36. 548-552. P ractica l advice is given on th e overh aulin g and re-setting of N asm ith com bers o f the old and new models. C.Post-war W oollen Carding M achines. “ M cH in e .” T ext. M erc., 1945, 112, 667-669, 693-694. Im provem ents suggested axe th e use o f outside drives, a m ore p o sitive d rivin g action fo r w orkers and strippers, q u ick ly-d etach able grids fitted beneath each sw ift, and w ider use of the garn ett clothed breast. O ther subjects discussed a r e :— typ es of bearings; th e num ber of w orkers per sw ift; the ibest position fo r the P era lta device; m echanism s lo r transferrin g th e raw m aterial from the scribbler to the carder, th e advantages o f the parallel fibre feed being stated ; th e w idth o f th e m achine. T h e m erits o f w ood and iron fo r rollers are com pared, atten tion being draw n t o th e possible use o f a llo ys and plastics. T h e C on tinental practice o f fittin g covers over th e fa n cy is justified, as higher speeds are accom panied b y increased a ir currents w hich tend to m ove the m aterial upon th e rollers. W .

(B)— S p i n n i n g a n d D o u b l i n g

“ Cedar ” M ule W iping-dow n M otion. P h ilip so n & Co. L td . T extile W eekly, !945, 36, 492-6. P articu lars and diagram s axe givien of a m otion th a t consists o f (a) a sm all polished, leather-backed p late for w ipin g th e roller beam and (b) a carriage w iper th a t m oves from the headstock to the end o f the mule while (a) m oves in th e reverse direction, bo th (a) and (b ) m ovin g the fu ll length of the mule stretch a t each draw . A ttach ed to a m ule spinning 14s on paste cop bottom s it w ipes dow n the m achine rou ghly eve ry tw o m inutes. C.

F ine Yarn R in g Fram es. R ich ard T h re lfa ll L td . T extile M ercury 6- Argus, 1945, 113, 213-214; 237, 241. (I) A n illustrated accoun t is g iven of a ring

2— Conversion of F ibres into F in ish ed Yarns (P a ten ts)

fram e capable of spinning yarn s finer than 200s. T h e system of top rollers i s : fron t, loose boss fitted w ith roller bearings, leather covered, ||- in. d iam .; 2nd, alum inium , J in .; 3rd, \ in .; back, 2 in. (II) A brief, illustrated description is given o f an inclined m ule spindle ring fram e, and its advantages are enum erated w ith special reference to the fa c t th a t the y a m produced resem bles m ule yarn in softness. C.

S p in n in g M ule: Lubrication and Prevention of M ule Spinn ers’ Cancer. Sub- C om m ittee D , M in istry of L abour. T extile W eekly, 1945, 36, 398, 400, 450. P articu lars are given of a specification for re la tiv e ly nan-carcinogenic oils on th e basis of d en sity and refractive in dex. I t is recom m ended th a t a cop y o f a certificate from the suppliers of the oil to the effect th a t the oil conforms to the specification should be exh ib ited (in the m ule room ), together w ith a certificate of an annual test b y the Shirley In stitu te . T h e need for radical reform in the oiling o i spindles is stressed. I t is also recom m ended th a t wiping- dow n m otions shall be provided on a ll m ules. C.

C otton: Production and S p in n in g Q uality . J. H . D aw son. Indian T extile J .,>'943-4- 54- 26' 29> 7 1"73. 1 13-116» 185-186, 273-276, 369-37i,‘ 391 -392, 457-459: 1944-5, 55< 96-99. 454-7» 469. A useful review , under the title “ Cotton Sp in n in g,” o f the grow th and structu re of the cotton fibre, its chem istry, ty p es and staples, grading and stapling, instrum ents for stapling, the c h a ra c te r of Indian cottons, ginning and balin g, practises on th e raw cotton m arket, pow er problem s and m achine driving, the reception and classing of bales a t the m ill, opening, and m ixing. C.

C otton Y arn: R eduction of R ange of Counts Spun. A . W . B ayes. /. T extile In st., 1945, 36, P87-P92. C.

R ayon S tap le: S p in n in g . F . S. C u lpepp er. T extile Manufacturer, 1945, 71 , 329-330 (from T extile A ge, F eb ., M arch, 1945). P ra ctica l advice is given on th e processing o f rayon staple on cotton m achinery. I t is reported th a t the o u tp u t of rayo n staple in th e U n ited States reached 162 m illion lb . in 1943, of w hich 15 per cent, w as acetate fibre. P articu lars are given of the available deoiers and staple lengths. R a y o n staple should d efin itely be carded and not m erely passed through th e m achine as fast as possible. C.

(D)— Y a r n s a n d C o r d sP lexon Y arns: Q ualities. F re y d b e rg B ros.-Strauss Inc. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 276. I t is reported th a t the plastic-coated y am s known as “ P le x o n ," w hich are resistant to moisiture, perspiration, grease, m ild acids, e tc ., are now availab le in 120 shades and finished w ith a range of 17 plastics.

P a t e n t s

Speed-fram e Bobbin D riv in g W heel Support. F . B lo m ley and T w eedales an d Sm alley L td . B .P .571,194 o f 11 / 12 / 19 4 3 :10 / 8 / 19 4 5 . T h e claim is for a tu bu lar support for a bobbin drivin g w heel for use in slabbin g, interm ediate and ro vin g fram es in w hich the fla t surface on w hich th e base or bottom flange o f the w heel resits is form ed w ith a recess or upstanding flange th a t con stitutes the w all of an oil w ell. C.C otton Y arns and Cords: S tren gthen ing b y T reatm ent w ith A b ietic A cid D erivatives. T . A . C layto n (for U n ited S ta tes R u b b er C o.). B .P .571,358 of 14 / 10 /19 4 3 :2 1/ 8 /19 4 5 . C otton yarns and cords are treated w ith an aqueous

solution of an ab ietic acid d erivative (Na abietate, hydrogen ated N a abietate, o r abietene sodium sulphate), 'stretched (preferably a fte r rem oving excess solution) and w ashed w ith h o t w ater (preferably of zero hardness). Increases o f strength result, the am ount depending on the tem perature o f the w ashing w ater. T hus a t 1600 F . an increase o f 36-7 per cent, w as obtained and boiling w ater gave an increase of 42 per cent. C.C ondenser Card R ubbing M otion Variable-speed D riv in g M echanism . Platt B ros. & Co. L td . and I. M arsden. B .P .571,386 o f 4 /1/19 4 4 :2 2 /8 /19 4 5 . T he cla im is for the application of variab le speed gear to the d rivin g m echanism for th e ru bbing m otion o f the tap e condensers o f cards for w ool o r w aste. Im proved rovings are secured. C.

Spind le B earing. T . S . W h ittle , T . S . T u rn er and E . S. A lex an d er. B .P. 571,427 of 17 /2 /19 4 4 :2 3 /8 /19 4 5 . T h e claim is for reduced friction and absence of v ibration in the spindles of spinning, doubling and like frames by

3— Conversion o j Yarns into Fabrics A459

com bining a roller bearing for the top journ al w ith a supporting b a ll th rust bearing. A ltern a tive o r addition al support m ay be provided b y a narrow blade spring th a t bears against th e bearing sleeve. ' C.

3—CONVERSION OF YARNS INTO FABRICS(A)— P r e p a r a t o r y P r o c e s s e s

Sw iss T ex tile M achinery: D evelop m ents. T extile Recorder, 1945, 63, A ugu st, 48-49. B rie f particulars are g iven o f the specialities m arketed b y the “ F our of H o rgen ,” v iz ., Messrs. Sch w eiter L td . (w inding m achines), Staubli Bros. & Co. (dobbies and looms), Sam V ollenw eider (cloth cropping, clipping and shearing machines) and G rob & Co. (healds and accessories). A table com pares th e m axim um num ber of Grob flat steel healds and steel w ire healds per sh a ft and per centim etre. C.

W in ding and W arping M achinery. D ix o n , H a w k esw o rth L td . (M iddleton). Silk J . R ayon World, 1945, 21, A ugu st, 38, 42; T extile Recorder, 1945, 63, A u gu st, 52, 54. B rief, illustrated descriptions are given o f th e follow ing:(1) a cone and cheese w indin g m achine o f th e spindleless ty p e h a vin g self- alignin g oone centres to dispense w ith m andrels, and capable o f w inding a t 200 to 800 yards per m inute, (2) a m agazine creel in w hich th e p arts are clam ped in place and can be adjusted easily in a n y direction, and (3) a beam ­in g m achine, the drum o f w hich can be expanded from 54 to 63 ins. w ide b y turning hand-wheels, and is provided w ith m echanism for liftin g th e beam on to a truck. C.

B obbins: W in ding. H . E . W en rich . R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 230-232. P ractica l advice is given on the w inding of bobbins to w eave w ith a m inimum num ber of defects. Illustrations are given of finger and disc ten ­sioning devices, bunch-building m otions * and various system s o f re-w inding large packages of yarn in to bobbins. C.

(B)— S i z i n g

G lue: A p plication in R ayon S iz in g . A n im a l G lu e In form ation Service. Rayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 283-2814. A n outline is given of the develop­m ent of glue (gelatine) sizes for rayon. T h e need for a proper balan ce betw een the gelatine and the softener is em phasised. C.

Rayon W arp S izin g M aterials: E valuation . G. B . F ra n k en b erg , A . M. Soukne and M. H arris. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 165-8, 227-8, 285-6. T h e authors report on an exh austive stu d y of the sizing o f rayon staple w arps m ade w ith the view to finding sim ple tests for assessing the value o f sizing agents. Starches, gelatin , soluble syn th etic plastics, and several blends of these m aterials, wiere applied and th e w arps W ere w oven into cloth . R ecords were k ep t of w arp breaks and fibre shedding and the w arp and cloth were tested for strength and other properties. F ilm s o f th e sizes were cast on chrom ium -plated ferrotype plates bonded to p late glass and the films were tested for strength , hardness, and d efo rm ability . T h e results establish, in general, fa ir ly consistent relationships betw een sizing efficiency and deform ­a b ility and hardness of the films and stiffness of the cloth, b u t n ot betw een w eavin g q u a lity and w arp strength. Softeners of the ty p e o f oils and tallow appear to con tribute a lubricatin g effect th a t is not g iven b y glycerin . T h e d a ta recorded a re : (1) Particu lars of the adhesives; (2) Size com positions and tem peratures of application; (3) W eav in g efficiencies (loom stops per 1,000 picks and am ount of fibre shedding), am ounts o f size on th e y arn and cloth, and viscosities o f the sizes; (4) Y a rn and clo th breaking loads, extensions, resistances to abrasion, cloth stiffness and loom stops; (5) F ilm strengths, fo ld­ing endurances and hardnesa; (6) E longation / tim e curves of films under various loads; (7) P lo ts o f loom stops against stiffness, ratings o f the fabrics and hardnesses of th e films. C .

(C)— W e a v i n g

Saurer 100 W Loom. C ro w th er L td . Silk J . R ayon W orld, 1945, 21, A u g u st, 40-42; T extile Recorder, 1945, 63, A u gu st, 50-51. A broad description is given of the special features of th is loom , Which differs from others in th a t the fram e ends are boxes th a t house a ll the gearing to w hich access is not generally required, the boxes bein g joined b y tu b u lar ties. C.

A 460 3— Conversion of Yarns into Fabrics (P a ten ts)

P ick in g T appet: D esig n . S. S . A h lu w a lia . Indian T extile J ., 1945, 55, 717-720. T h e im portance of the p ickin g m otion for the sm ooth w orking of a loom is discussed. T h e desired m otion of the shuttle is described and the tim e- v e lo c ity curve for p ickin g is determ ined for a p articu lar case. T he design of a correct p ickin g tap p et is dem onstrated and the effect on it of picks per m inute, w eigh t of the shuttle, len gth of the shuttle, and reed space of the loom are discussed. C.

A utom atic Loom Bobbin M agazine: R ep len ish in g . H . E . W en rich . Rayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 281-283. A d vice is given on th e train in g of learners to becom e proficient in th e system atic replenishm ent o f bobbin m agazines. C.

S p lit S elv ed ges: W eavin g . T extile Mercury cS- Argus, 1945, 113, 295-297. F o r w eavin g narrow fabrics side b y side in a w ide loom , it is custom ary to w eave th e inside selvedges as ‘ ‘ sp lits ’ ’ w ith tw o or m ore threads h alf crossing around each other as in gauze and leno w eaves. T h e w riter explains the “ top doup ” and “ bottom doup ” m ethods for w ea vin g these special, w ell-locked threads. T h e crossing end is u su ally 603/4 E g y p tian cotton and the best tw o ­fold yarn is used for the stan din g end. -W ith cloths th a t have to b e finished under high pressure there is a risk of the 60S/4 yarn cu ttin g the cloth. T h is m ay be overcom e b y using tw o standing threads. C.

(G)— F a b r i c s

Parachute C loth: M anufacture in India. K. N . T ik u . Indian T ext. J .. I945> 55, 625-626. P ra ctica l advice is given on th e soaking, w arping, w eavin g and degum m ing of silk yarn and cloth for parachutes, w eavin g particulars bein g provided for four sorts. Suitable Indian silk y a m is derived from K ashm ir and Iran i cocoons. * C.

W avy W eft Fabrics: C onstruction. J. H . S tro n g. T extile Mercury c~ Argus, 1945, 113, 210, a n , 314. Illustrations and point-paper designs are given of some n o v elty fabrics characterised b y w a v y effects w eft-w ay. C.C ellu lose A cetate L int-free Lens C leaning C loth. S up erfine L en s C lean er C o., N ew Y o rk . R ev . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 16, 226. A lint-free cloth, made o f a special Celanese fabric, has been developed for cleaning and polishing lenses and precision op tical surfaces. I t is soft, non-abrasive, absorbent and w ashable, and retains its fu ll effectiveness a fter laundering. C.C otton T ex tile s : D evelop m ent for W ar. H . Y . R obin son . M jc r . Chamber of Com m erce M onthly R ecord, 1945, 56, 144. A short review is given of the contribution of cotton textiles to the B ritish w ar effort. Reference is m ade to fly in g suits for the A rctic m ade of special m aterial developed b y the Shirley In stitu te . C.

P a t e n t s

Em broidered Striped Interlock Fabric and K n ittin g M achine for Producing it.E d w in W ild t, H . H . H olm es, J. C. H . H urd and W ild t and Co. L td . B .P . 570,930 of 6 /9 /19 4 3 :3 0 /7 /19 4 5 . A kn itted fabric is claim ed th a t has an in terlock structure and em broidery p latin g consisting o f la p or w rap stitch a n d / o r loop effects com bined w ith p lain stitch portions of one or each wieb, producing horizontal stripes. C ircular k n ittin g m achine m echanism o f the m ulti-feeder ty p e is m odified for producing the. fabric. C .

S tra igh t Bar K n ittin g M achine. W illia m Cotton L td . and W . A . Cooper.B .P .570,933 o f 7 / 10 / 19 4 3 :3 0 /7 /19 4 5 . In straight-bar m achines of C o tto n ’s ty p e , especially those equipped w ith autom atic w elt-turning m echanism , there is a ten dency for the linear rate a t w hich th e take-up straps are w ound on to th e beam roller to differ from the rate a t w hich the cords, b y w h ich the straps are unw ound, are unw ound from a second roller. T o o b via te th is a spring coupling is used to con nect the tw o rollers. C.

W in d in g M achine Cop Skew er H older. C. B. Cum m ins. B .P .570,980 of 2 -8 /7/19 44 :3 1/7/19 45. W h en coarse y arn on paste bo tto m cops is being \vound, there is a bad ten den cy for the cop skewers to be pulled o u t of their holding b rack ets o r “ jig g ers .” T h is is overcom e b y secu rin g to the jigger a len gth of spring steel w ire th a t passes along the top o f the jigger, then round th e u p p er arm of th e fork in w hich are the tw o holes in to w hich the skewer is p laced, and then to the underside of th e arm where its end passes to one side o f the upper (or lower) hole slightly in the p ath of th e skewer. W hen

4— Chem ical and Finishing Processes

the skewer is placed in the jigger the spring w ire is thus m ade to e x e rt a grip.C.Reinforced T ex tile Fabric H ot-air D uct. T hom as F ren ch and Sons L td .

B .P .571,237 of 8 / 3 /19 4 4 :13 /8 / 19 4 5 . T ubes for co n veyin g h o t a ir (e.g. abou t 7 in.. diam eter for clearing ice from aeroplanes) are w oven w ith suitable w arp and w eft fo,r the m ain fabric and a t the sam e tim e reinforcing w arps (usually five) are w oven in lengthw ise e x ce p t a t in tervals (3 or 4 inches) w here gaps are left betw een these warps and th e w eft for the insertion of m etal rings or coils th a t keep th e tubes from collapsing. T h e reinforcing w arps m a y be stout yarns, tap es or braids of bootlace ty p e and m a y be arranged in pairs. C.

Loom W eft E nd C u tting D evice. S u lzer F reres Soc. A n on . B .P .571,341 of 21/8 /1945 (Conv. 1 1 16/ 1942). T he claim is for a device b y w hich the ends of the w eft threads th a t p roject from the selvedges (e.g. a t cop changes on au to ­m atic loom s, as loops in m ultiple-box loom s and as loose ends in gripper looms) are bound b y tw o sets o f continuously tw isted binding threads betw een w hich the cu ttin g edge works to sever the ends w hile th e y are under tension. E ach set of b in ding threads consists of tw o ends w hich are m ade to change position a t each p ick b y the shedding m echanism . T h e severed set w ith its w eft fragm ents is wound up on a bobbin device. C.

F lat S in g le Bed Beret K n ittin g M achine. K a n g o l W e ar L td . and J. T . Saunders. B .P .571,346 of 3 0 / 11/ 19 4 3 :2 1/ 8 / 19 4 5 . In kn ittin g articles like berets form ed of roughly triangular sections it is usual for the m achine to stop a u tom atically after the pre-determ ined num ber of sections h ave been kn itted so th a t the operative can insert a separation thread to in dicate where the fabric m ust be severed. T he invention now claim ed is for means to do this a u to ­m atically w ith ou t stopping the m achine. T h e e x tra m echanism is a ctu ated b y cam s carried b y a secondary sh aft w hich is driven from the m ain sh aft b y tw o spring paw ls to m ake one revolution for the pre-determ ined num ber o f sections and brings its cam s in to p la y to hold dow n the needle selector m echanism , insert the separatin g thread and release the needle selector m echanism again. C.

C ellulose Ester Yarn L ubricant. B ritish C elanese L td . B .P .571,490 of 27/8/1945 (Conv. 3/10/1942). T h e claim is for com pounded lubricants for yarns composed of or containing cellulose derivatives in w hich the ingredients are a m ineral oil, a softening agen t (an oxidised or sulphonated oil or sulphated alcohol, especially oxidised p eanu t oil), an a lky lated phenol, a higher fa tty acid and an alkylolam in e. These ingredients are defined in m ore specific term s and seven exam ples of th e m ixtures are given . C.

4—CHEMICAL AND FINISHING PROCESSES(E)— D r y i n g a n d C o n d i t i o n i n g

Radiant H eat Sources: A p p lication s in F in ish in g . H . M iedendorp. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 239-240. B rie f notes are g iven on the use o f “ infra-red ” gas burners and batteries of electric lam ps for singeing, and d ryin g textiles, w ith illustrations of some A m erican .appliances. G old-plated copper or n ickel reflectors are used b y some m akers. C .(G)— B l e a c h i n g

C ontinuous Peroxide B leaching R an ge: A p p lication . B uffalo E lectro - Chem ical Co., Inc. Am er. D yes. R e p t., 1944, 33, 345-6; 365-8, 380; 385-8, 401; 405-7. A detailed accoun t is given of a p atented system of continuous peroxide bleaching, in w hich use is made of J 4 x>xes for steam ing th e clo th in rope form or open w idth . T he headings a re : (1) D evelopm en t (from 1931 onw ards), (2) O peration, (3) E quip m en t, and (4) A d ap tab ility (including econom ies of space, costs and service dem ands). C.(I)— D y e i n g

A rtificial F ibres: D y ein g . II. G. S cu ll and H . D e W itt S m ith . Am er. D yes. R e p t., 1945, 37, 303-306 and 315-318. A rep ort of a lecture. C h arac­teristics im portan t for th e d yer, such as chem ical re a ctiv ity , sw elling behaviour and th erm o p lasticity o f viscose rayon, cellulose aceta te rayon , nylon and casein fibre are outlined and th e m ethods in use for cloth d yein g are discussed. C .

A462 4— Chem ical and Finishing Processes

Colour T ech n ologists: P resbyopia. D. P . lvn ow lan d. A m er. D yes. R ep t., 1945, 34, 308-310. Changes of colour vision due to age h ave been studied on a group of technicians, aged from 17 to 60 years. O lder persons were found to see m ost dyeings yellow er th an yo u n g persons. C.D yed Cotton U n ion C loths: S trip p in g . A . E llis . T extile W eekly, 1945, 36, 412-420. P ra ctica l h in ts are given on the stripping o f dyed cloths th a t m a y contain aceta te or viscose rayon o r ju te . C.K ier W aste L iquor: A p p lication as D ye-bath L evellin g A gen t. A . M. P ate l. Indian T ext. J ., 1945, 55, 622-624. T h e au th o r claim s th a t spent kier liquor can e ffectively replace D ekol, D ispersol and other levellin g agents in d yein g. T h e liquor is allow ed to settle and 10-15 gallons o f the clear liquor, o f 1-5-2° T w ., are used for 100 gallons of dye bath . C.N y lon Yarn and Fabrics: P rocessing . B ritish N ylo n Spinn ers L td . Silk J. R ayon W orld, 1945, 21, A u gu st, 24-27, 33. A concise accoun t is given o f the preparation, sizing, w eavin g and kn ittin g of nylon yarn, setting nylon fabrics, and scouring and dyein g, w ith p articu lar reference to the influence of the exte n sib ility o f the yarn un der sm all loads. C.R ayolanda and W ool B lends: D y e in g . C ourtau ld s L td . Silk J. Rayon W orld, 1945, 21, A ugu st, 28-29. T y p ic a l recipes and lists o f suitable dyes are given for the dyein g of blends of R a y o la n d a and w ool w ith th e fast-to-m illing (“ a g g r e g a te d ” ) acid and N eolan dyes. C.

D irect Cotton D y es: H istory . C. M . W h itta k e r. J. Soc. Dyers Col. 1945, 61, 201-203. On the occasion of th e diam ond jubilee of the d iscovery of the first d irect cotton dye, Congo R ed , the author recalls th e introduction of d ifferent dyes w hich m arked definite progressive steps in the expansion o f this group. C.Sulph ur D y es: R eview . W . N orton Jones, Jr. Chem . Review s, 1945, 36, 291-313. A review collectin g and presenting as m uch p ertin ent inform ation as possible concerning sulphur dyes, g iv in g a brief h istorical su rvey and discussing m ethods of preparation, general properties and the con stitution of the dyes. T here are 84 references. , C.A cid D y es: A bsorption b y W ool, S ilk , C asein Fibre and N ylon . B. G . Skinner and T . V ickerstaff. / . Soc. Dyers &■ Col., 1945, 61, 193-201. A bsorp­tion experim ents, coverin g a w ide range of d ye concentration up to saturation o f th e w ool yarn h a ve been carried o u t to fill some gaps in th e authors’ theory of the d yein g m echanism . T h e in vestigation is also extended to silk, casein an d n ylon y am s. A bsorption isotherm s are tabu lated and graphed. I t is assum ed th a t dyein g takes p lace b y a ttach m en t of dye m olecules to active centres in the w ool. T h e m ode of a ttach m en t m ust be reversible in order to acco u n t for the phenom ena of levellin g. I f the values o f C b /C f (Cb and Cp = concentrations of d ye in the d yeb ath and on the fihre, respectively) are plotted against Cb a stra igh t line should result. T his w as confirm ed exp erim en tally a t higher concentrations. A t low concentrations a deviatio n is observed in the form of a second straigh t line representing a con stan t value of the ratio C b /C f. T h e existence of this con stant va lu e is confirm ed b y an investigation o f the effects o f com peting inorganic anions on the dyein g system . Saturation va lu es of Solw ay B lu e B on the four d ifferent fibres h ave been determ ined. T h e values for w ool and silk are in agreem ent w ith those found b y other in vestigators. T h e absorption isotherm s of casein fibre and wool a t pH i-6 are alm ost identical. T his seem s to in dicate th a t the m ain difference betw een casein fibre and w ool lies in th e ir p h ysical properties rather than in chem ical structu re. T h e dyein g m echanism of n ylon seems to be sim ilar to th a t of the oth er fibres. T h e effect of p H and other dyes on the saturation valu e of wool and the dam age to w ool b y high concentration of d ye has also been studied. C.

C ellu lose: D y ein g w ith D irect D y es. H . A . S ta n d in g . Trans. Faraday Soc., 1945, 41, 410-434.. A review of the literature is given relatin g to the purifica­tion o f d irect dyes, the properties o f their aqueous solutions, the equilibrium d yein g o f cellulose and its th eory and the kinetics o f dyein g and the diffusion theory; 119 references. C.

M anufactured F ibres: D y ein g . H . G . S c u ll and H . D e W . Sm ith . Rayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 137-140, 189-190, 297-299. A useful review of

4— Chem ical and Finishing Processes A 463

m odern practice in the dyein g o f viscose, cellulose acetate , casein and nylon m aterials. C.Narrow Fabrics: Package D y ein g . H . A . T h om as. / . Soc. D yers &• Col., 1945, 61, 185-193. Various m ethods for d yein g narrow fabrics are considered. T h e different w ay s of dyein g w ebbing and ribbons in han k form are outlined, but, tech n ically an d com m ercially, dyein g in roll form seems to offer the greatest advantages. Shrinkage in length is on ly 0-3-1 per cent, for roll d y e ­ing, com pared w ith 5-8 per cent, for h an k processing, and shrinkage in w idth is absent. W eb b in g dyed in roll form is m aintained in a fla t condition w hereas w hen d y ed in hank fonm it o ften contains k in ks and other distortions. Preparing and finishing operations conducted w ith rolls of narrow and w ide fabrics are also satisfactory. Viscose rayon is b etter d yed in cake form . These conclusions are supported b y details of a large num ber of experim ental dyeings.

( J ) — P r i n t i n g c -

C ellu lose A cetate R ayon Fabrics: H and B lock P rin tin g . Silk J . Rayon W orld, 1945, 21, A ugu st, 22-23. A broad description is given of th e process of hand b lock prin tin g w ith particu lar reference to the production of w hite and colour discharge effects on acetate ra yo n fabrics. C.G lucose: A p plication in P rin tin g . A . M. P atel. Indian T e x t. ] . , 1945, 55, 548-554. Because of the present cost of v a t d y e reducing agents o f the hydrosulphite typ e , the auth or recom m ends a return to the earlier use of glucose and alkali. T he old Schlieper and B au m m ethod (1882-83) m en­tioned and experim ental w ork is described to show th a t successful reduction of v a t colours can be achieved w ith m uch less glucose and1* a lkali th an form erly em ployed. Several recipes are given . C.P igm en ts: A p plication in P rinting and D y ein g . A . M cL ean. Am er. D yes. R ep t., 1945, 34, 311-314. A su rvey is g iven of the h isto ry of pigm ent app lica­tion and an outline o f its future scope, in cludin g a discussion o f some application problem s. C.A zoic Screen P rin ts: Production. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 246-7, 295-6. P ra ctica l hints are g iven on the developm ent of azoic colours in screen printing on rayon, including airing, steam ing and w et m ethods, developm ent on dryin g cylinders, and the R apidogen D eveloper N process. R ecipes are provided. C.

(K )— F i n i s h i n gM elam ine R esin s: A p plication in “ W et S tren gth ” Paper. C . G . Lande.s and C. S. M axw ell. Paper Trade J ., 1945, 121, T A P P I , 51-60. T h e in tro d u c­tion of a new process, in vo lvin g ad d ition to slush stock in th e paper m achine of sm all am ounts of a m elam ine resin colloid, w as follow ed b y an im m ediate increase in the production and use of “ w e t strength ” paper. T h e paper treated b y th is process w as also found to h ave im proved d ry tensile and burstin g strengths and folding endurance. L ab o ra to ry studies relatin g to the application of m elam ine resin colloid to paper h ave been carried o u t and the peculiar changes th a t occur w hen th e resin is dissolved in acid and aged are discussed. Certain operating variables, such as poin t o f resin addition, pulp h yd ratio n , age of resin resolution, pH and alum h a v e been in vestigated . Certain special precautions m ust be taken in lab orato ry hand-sheet evaluation s to insure reproducible results. A short discussion is given o f studies relatin g to the fundam ental m echanism o f the new “ w e t strength ” process. C.Phenol-Form aldehyde R esin Treated C loth: Sublim ation of H yd roxybenzy l A lcohols from — . I. W . R uderm an. J . S oc. Chem . In d ., 1945, 64, 204. A considerable q u a n tity of w hite crystallin e m aterial w as found to deposit in th e exh aust stacks of tunnel dryers w hen p aper or clo th im pregnated w ith a com m ercial phenol-form aldehyde am m onia-catalysed resin w as dried. On fraction al crystallisation bo th o- and ^ -h yd ro xyben zyl alcohol w ere isolated and identified. T he relative am ounts o f these tw o alcohols w ere found to v a ry , b u t the />-isomeride w as gen erally in large excess. C.

A rm y T ent C loth: C oating w ith P lastics. Resinous P roducts and Chem ical Co. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 229. A brief accoun t is g iven of the application o f p rotective coatings to A rm y ten t clo th in w hich “ P a rap lex ” a lkyd resins o f a rubbery typ e provide a flexible finish and p art of the resist­ance to w ater and a c t as a binding m edium for flam e-proofing and rot-proofing

A464 4— Chem ical and Finishing Processes (P a ten ts)

agents, an d the A m berol resins are used as a grinding vehicle for the pigm ents and other agents. C.

V in yl-b utyral P lastics: A p plications in F in ish in g . M onsanto Ch em ical Co. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 221. M ention is made of the post-w ar developm ent of a range of fabrics and draperies (e.g. “ unstainable tab le­cloths ” ) th a t can be w iped clean w ith a dam p cloth , in whdch the finish is secured b y the application of v e ry th in layers of “ v in y l b u ty ra l. ’ ’ C.

W ool H ose: W et C hlorination. W . M. R u sh . T ext. W orld, 1945, 95, No. 6,115. T o con trol fe ltin g shrinkage, hgh t-w eigh t and cushion-sole hose contain­in g 50-70 per cent, w ool are w et ch lorinated in a ro ta ry drum m achine of monel m etal, stainless steel o r w ood. T h e goods are first w et-o u t fo r 5 m in. in a 1 per cen t, bo rax Solution a t 65-75° F . ; then sufficient o f a separately-m ixed solution con tain in g 1 lb . ca lciu m h yp o ch lo rite (70 per cent, ava ilab le chlorine) and 2 gal. w ater is a,dded during 10-15 m in . 'to th e b ath to g iv e a concentra­tio n of 4J p er c e n t .; 1 p er cen t, sodium bisulphite is added a n d th e b a th run fo r 10-15 m in. a t th e sam e tem p eratu re. T h e goods are then given 2 rinses in w ater a t 110-120° F ., each lastin g 5 m in. T h e y are then dyed, using reduced am ounts of d ye. W .

Calva Process for T reating W oolled S h eep sk in s and Loose W ool. P lastics (Chicago), 1945, A p ril, 2, 36-37, 39-40, 114 (through T ext. R es. J ., 1945, 15, 265). [T he process is covered b y U .S .P .2,211,645, 2,240,388 and 2,348,602]. Sheepskin and sim ilar m aterials are used to sim ulate expensive furs; the p roducts are claim ed to retain their lustre after repeated w ear, dry-cleaning and exposure to rain. Shorn and unshorn sheepskins are treated to im itate short- and long-haired furs respectively . T w o m ethods are used. (1) T he tanned shearling is placed in a solution of cresol, alcohol, benzol and w ater m aintained a t 38° C . fo r 120 m in., an acid bein g introduced fo r activ a tin g the keratin . I t is then subm erged in form aldehyde a t 45° C. fo r 20 m in.(2) T h e fu r side o f th e p elt is brushed b y han d w ith th e sam e substances. In both m eth ods th e skin is th en w ashed, dried, heated , clip ped fo r uniform length , polished and dyed . I t is assum ed th a t th e acid breaks th e salt linkages betw een n eighbouring p o lyp ep tid e chain s and also causes som e hydrolysis; the free am ino and im ino groups then rea ct w ith form aldeh yd e (to form m ethylene links betw een th e chain s, a cresol-form aldehyde resin being form ed w ith in the fibre a t the sam e tim e. W o o l fibres w hich w ere k in k y , perm eable to w ater, and prone to m a t, are straightened and rendered resistant to waAer, chem icals, an d abrasive actio n . I t is cla im ed th a t a fe lt indistinguishable from fu r fe lt can be produced from shorn w ool, and th a t bristle, cordage, carpetin g and clo th in g can be converted into m aterials possessing new appearance and pro­perties. W .

(L)— P r o o f i n g

T ex tile s : R ot Proofing. M. I lo p lc y and J. R . F . Jackson . T extile Recorder, 1945, 63, A ugu st, 41-42, 59. A non-technical a cco u n t is given of m odem m ildew-proofing agents, and o f rot-proofing processes w ith Cr and Cu com ­pounds. C.

D urable W ater-repellent Fabrics: F in ish in g . R . A . P in gree. R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 241-243. A brief description is given of the production of durable w ater-repellent finishes on cotton and rayon fabrics b y m eans of (1) pyridiinium salts and (2) urea- or m elam ine-form aldehyde resins. C.

P a t e n t s

P o ly v in y l C hloride-C ellulose Com pound S h eet M aterials: P roduction. J. H .M cG ill and Im perial Chem ical Industries L td . B .P .570,840 of 4 /1/19 4 3 : 25 / 7 / >9 4 5 - Since p o ly v in y l chloride has to be raised to a rath er high tem ­perature before it becom es effectively p lastic, and then suffers slight decom ­position w ith evolution o f h ydrochloric acid, there is a risk of tendering if ift is used to con stitute a bond betw een cellulosic sheets. T h is is o b via ted b y the use of a read ily therm oplastic film o f a m eth acrylate p lastic. T h u s, tw o d y ed cotton sheetings are spread w ith a p o ly v in y l chloride paste containing plasticiser and pigm ent, passed through a chest a t 93-105° C . m erely to set the coatin g, then spread w ith a solution of p o lym eth yl m eth acrylate and plasticiser, dried to rem ove the solvent, p laced face to face and com pressed a t 66° C. for

i o seconds under a pressure of h a lf a ton per sq. inch, and fin a lly stoved a t 132° C . in festoon form . C.Insoluble C ellu lose D erivatives: Production. Im p eria l C h em ical In d u stries L td . B .P.570,853 of 25/7/1945 (Conv. 5/8/19 42). Cellulose derivatives th a t d o n o t dissolve in o rg a n ic . solvents or read ily fuse are obtained b y dissolving a cellulose d eriv ative containing free O H groups (e.g. 15 parts o f cellulose a cetate havin g 54-5 per cent, of com bined a cetic acid) and a crystallin e, m ono­m eric polyalkoxym ethyl-m elam iine (e.g. 1-5 ,p arts of N : N ' : N "-tri-(eth oxy- m ethyl)-m elam ine) in a com m on solvent (e.g. 85 p arts of acetone), evaporatin g th e solvent an d heatin g the m ass (e.g. for 90 m inutes a t 160° C .). T h e “ safe ironing p o in t ” o f acetate rayo n is increased th ereby. C.Two-toned C ellu lose Ester Fabric: Production. A rth u r M ellor and R . J. M ann (British Celanese L td .) . B .P .570,880 of 2 4 /9 /19 4 3 :2 6 /7/19 4 5 . T h e claim is for th e production of cellulose ester fabric show ing different tones on the tw o faces after dyeing, b y the application to one face o f an a lkaline sapon ifyin g agen t su itab ly thickened to p reven t penetration. C.V in ylid en e V apours: A p plication in S tiffen ing C ellu losic Fabrics. J. B. Speakm an, T . B a rr and Im perial Chem ical Industries L td . B .P .570,883 of 2 9 /9 /19 4 3 :2 6 /7/19 4 5 . Increased stiffness or firmness in handle, and reduced a ffin ity for w ater vap o u r are secured b y heatin g cellulosic m aterials in steam containing the vapour of styrene, an ester of acry lic or m eth acrylic acid , or a v in y l ester, so th a t a polym er is form ed w ith in th e fibre. Increases in fabric w eigh t of from 6 to 70 per cent, axe m entioned in the exam ples. C.D isazo D yes for W ool and S ilk . A . H . K n ig lit , W . E . S tep hen and Im perial Chem ical Industries L td . B .P .570,972 of 2 / 1 2 / 19 4 3 :3 1 / 7 / 19 4 5 (A ddition toB .P .557,842). A range of disazo dyes th a t d ye w ool and silk from an acid b ath in various fast shades of blue and b la ck is prepared b y diazotising an am ine A and coupling it in an acid m edium w ith 1 -am ino-8-naphthol-3:6- or-4 : 6-disulphonic acid to form a m onoazo com pound Z, and coupling Z in an alkaline m edium w ith a d iazotised am ine (B) o f th e general form ula X - C O - N Y - R - N H 2. T he base A is defined as a p rim ary aniline or naphithyl- am ine th a t carries a t lea st one sulphonic acid or am inosulphonyl group w herein the O H of the acid or the H of the am inosulphonyl group m ay be replaced b y hydrocarbon residues th a t m ay be furth er substitu ted b y groups other than nitro or acidylam ino groups. In (B) th e group R is a m- or ^-phenylene residue (possibly w ith Me, MeO or — SO aH substituents), X is a mono-chkxro or mono- brom o-alkyl radical of n ot more th an 3 C atom s, and Y is H , a lk y l (C j—C 6), cyclo a lk y l, ara lky l, a lk o x y a lk y l or ary l. L ists of the appropriate interm ediates are given. C. C ellu lose A cetate R ayon: D y ein g Fast Shades. H e n ry D reyfu s. B .P .571,056 o f 2 6 /8 /19 4 3 :3 /8 /19 4 5 . T h e fastness (especially to gas fumes) o f acetate rayo n dyed w ith am inoanthraquinone dyes is increased b y im pregnating the d yed m ateria l w ith cyanam ide solution, dryin g and bakin g a t 110-150° C. C. Vat D y e P rin ting Paste. A m erican C yan am id Co. B .P .571,274 of 17/8/1945 (Conv. 24/2/1942). T h e v a t dye prin tin g paste com prises a dispersed v a t dye and an effective am ount of soluble sa lt o f an ester o f a C 3 — C 10 alcohol w ith an a cy clic a lip hatic sulpho-di- or -p o lycarboxylic acid (e.g. a d iam yl, d io ctyl, d ih e x yl or di-isobutyl sulphosuccinate, or a tr ib u ty l sulphotricarballyate), w ith appropriate thickeners. T h e claim is illustrated b y 27 exam ples. C. V at D y es: A pplication b y P igm en t Padding. J0I111 W e lch & Sons L td . andC. N ew ton. B .P .571,325 of 17 /12 /19 4 3 :2 0 /8 /19 4 5 . Viat dyes are applied b y p igm ent padding (dye + sulphonated castor oil + locust bean gum ), reduced while sandw iched betw een tw o im perm eable surfaces (e.g. a rubber b lan ket and the surface of a w ide cylinder), and oxidised again b y the usual system of rinsing, oxidising, rinsing and soaping. T h e reducing agent (alkali 4-h y d ro ­sulphite) is p icked up b y the trave llin g b la n k e t so th a t econom y of reducing agen t is secured and there is a m inim um loss o f reduced d ye. C. V etch and Corn Cockle Seed A d h esiv es: Preparation and A p p lication . J.G. F ife (for Messrs. B u b eck and D older, B asle). B .P .571,335 o f 2 5/2 /19 4 3: 2 1/8/1945. V etch seed is n ot w id ely accepted as fodder because certain kinds contain cyanogetic glucosides. C o m cockle seed is also unsuitable because of the saponin content. T h e patentees now propose to use ve tch an d /o r cockle seed m eal for sizes, adhesives and thickeners. T hus, a size for cotton yarn is

4—Chem ical and Finishing Processes (P a te n tsj A465

A 466 5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and D efects

prepared b y stirring 10 kg. of the m eal into a paste w ith cold w ater, adding w ater to 100 1., and heatin g under a pressure of 2-3 atm . for 15-20 m in., or under atm ospheric pressure for a b ou t 1 hour. There m ay also be added to the liquor 1 per cent, of the N a salt o f ^-toluenesulphochloram ide. Thickeners and finishing pastes are prepared w ith other ratios of m eal to w ater. Caustic soda m ay be used in the cooking to give alkaline pastes. C.

A cry lo n itr ile : A p p lication in F in ish in g . R ohm and H aas Co. B .P .571,478 o f 27/8 /1945 (Conv. 11/ 12 / 1942). Claim s are m ade for the effects produced b y the application of acrylo n itrile to cellulosic fibres, y a m s or fabrics, followed b y treatm en t w ith caustic a lkali (Na, K or organic q u atern ary am m onium hydroxides). T h e y include increased strength, increased a b so rp tiv ity for and sw elling in w ater, and a linen finish. E xam p les given dem onstrate b y data the strengthening of cotton y a m s under different conditions in th e m ercerising step, claim an im proved surgical cotton w adding, claim an im proved linen finish, and show th a t the process is app licable to regenerated cellulose rayon.

C.Cloth W in ding A pparatus. B ritish C elau ese L td . B .P .571,493 o f 27/8/1945 (Conv. 24/2 / 1943). A fabric w inding apparatus com prises a guide roller driven b y fabric passing over it and leadin g the fabric to a take-up roll, and means a ctu ated b y the rotation of the guide roller to oscillate its axis through an angle. . C .

5—ANALYSIS, TESTING, GRADING, AND DEFECTS(A)— F i b r e s

E quilibrium H u m id ity M easurem ent A pparatus. J. F . V in cen t and K . E . B risto l. In d. E ng. C h em ., A nal E d n ., 1945, 17, 465-466. A simple m ano­m etrie apparatu s is described for rapid m easurem ent of equilibrium h u m idity (in dried foodstuffs, e tc .). Thie difference betw een the equilibrium pressure and the pressure obtained a fter freezing o u t m oisture vap o u r is the vap our pressure of th e m oisture in the m aterial. T h is figure m a y be converted to per cent, re la tiv e h u m id ity . C .Indian Cotton F ibre: M aturity. A . N . G u lati and N azir A hm ad. Indian Farm ing, 1945, 6, 9-11. A description is . given of the developm ent o f the co tton fibre, its appearance under the m icroscope and the influence o f certain agronom ic factors, such as season, soil ch aracter and irrigation, upon its developm ent. T h e m a tu rity of com m on Indian cottons is discussed in relation to spinning q u a lity . C .R egenerated C ellu lose F ibres: P hysical and Chem ical M easurem ents. N . G ralen and O . Sam uelson. Svensk Papperstidn., 1945, 48, 1-5 (through Chem . A b str ., 1945, 39, 3157-). M easurem ents of th e degree of polym erisation and o f the polydisp ersity o f cellulose h ave proved o f value for the determ ination of the q u a lity o f regenerated cellulose fibres. T w o sam ples of stap le fibre o f different grades wiere studied b y several p hysical and chem ical testing p ro­cedures. T h e m olecular w eights calcu lated from v isco sity determ inations according to Staudin ger gave low er values th an those obtained from sedi­m entation in th e u ltracentrifuge and diffusion. T h e fibres were exam ined b y X -ra y s and the pentosan con ten t, the Cu num ber, and alkali solubility w ere determ ined. Tensile strength and elongation to rupture w ere found to depend to a large e x te n t on the experim ental conditions em ployed. T h e resistance of th e fibres to w ashing wa9 studied b y boiling in soap solution. A high p o ly­m erization and low p o lydisp ersity were found to correspond w ith high strength, low Cu num ber, and slight a lkali so lu bility . C.T ex tile F ibres: Com parison of T en sile E lastic ity . R. M eredith . / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, T 147-T 164. C .Standard R egain of T ex tiles . P . L arose. Canadian T ext. J ., 1945- 62, N o. 14, 42, 51. A fte r review in g Various unsuccessful attem pts to standardise regain, published w ork is sum m arised to show th e variab les w hich affect th e m oisture content o f fibres. T h e conditions t o w hich th e various tex tile products are subjected in a norm al course o f m anufacture and finishing preclude th e estab­lishm ent of a m oisture equilibrium a t a fixed and con stant figure. A p lea is m ade fo r th e use of d ry w eights in com m ercial transactions in vo lvin g raw m aterials, tops, yarn s, cloths, etc. W .

5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and D efects A467

W ool Y arn: M oisture C ontent. A m erican Stan dards A sso cia tio n . A m er. D yes. R e p ., 1945, 34, 241. A m erican w ool interests m eeting recen tly in N ew Y o rk , Tinder th e auspices o f th e A m erican Standards A ssociation, registered their approval o f th e A ustralian Standards A sso ciation ’s proposal fo r an in ter­n atio n al undertaking to harm onise th e stan dards of m oisture co n ten t of w ool y a m . T he proposal is being subm itted to th e n ational standardising bodies o f o ther countries, a n d future action o f th e U n ited N ation s Stan dards C om ­m ittee w ill depend upon their rep ly. W . Fibre R egain D ata. C. H . R eum ann . T ext. W orld, 1945, 95, No. 6, 101-103.A table is g iven show ing Standard regains fo r variou s fibres, y a m s an d fab rics a t 70° F . ^nd 65 per cent, relative h u m id ity. C h arts show ing (1) air tem pera­tures from 20° to 220° F . p lotted again st re lativ e h u m id ity , (2) d ry-b u lb tem ­peratures p lotted again st re lative h u m id ity , lines o f co n stan t w at-bulb depres­sion being in dicated (3) m oisture regain (adsorption), and (4) m oisture equilibrium (desorption) for w ool, co tto n , silk , viscose, a ceta te an d n ylon a t different relative hum idities are given. W .W ool F ibres: M easuring Frictional P roperties. M . L ip so n . N ature, 1945. 156, 268-269. A cop per hook (o -1 gm .) is fixed to each end o f a clean fibre b y m eans o f m olten shellac; th e fibre is suspended over a cy lin d rica l rod of polished keratin (rhinoceros hide, diam eter 7 m m .), and a solution allow ed to drop rap id ly on t o th e fibre-rod junction; a b en t glass rod in co n ta ct w ith th e underside of th e cy lin d er carries a w a y th e used solution; w eights m ade from calibrated pieces o f w ire are grad u ally added t o one o f th e hooks u n til the fibre ju st com m ences to slide; the exp erim en t is then rep eated using th e o th er hook, causing th e fibre to m ove in th e opposite direction. T h e forces required t o slide the fibre w ith and against th e scales can be determ ined t o th e nearest o -o i gm . T h e coefficient o f friction in either d irection is then ca lcu lated from th e form ula W 1 / W.2= eft7r,W 1 bein g th e to ta l load in th e direction o f m otion and W,, th e w eigh t of th e hook plus shellac on th e o th er end o f th e fibre. T h e form ula is dependent upon con tin uous co n ta ct betw een th e fibre an d th e fixed surface. T h e gradual m otion o f th e fibre is u su a lly o f th e order o f o - 5-3-0 cm . per min. V ariation s w ith in th e range used (o-25-o-7o gm .) d o not seriously a lter values fo r th e coefficient of fricto n . T h e m ethod is in applicable to d ry surfaces. F rictio n al m easurem ents are g iven for 64s m erino fibres, un treated and treated b y three com m ercial unshrinkable processes. T h e results for su lp huryl chloride and aqueous brom ine agree in general w ith those o f pre­vious w orkers using o th er techniques (these A b s., 1945, A346 an d A 112 ), and show th a t these reagents m arkedly reduce th e coefficient o f friction . T re a t­m ent w ith alcoholic potash causes no m ajor reduction in th e directional coefficient. W .Fibres: M easuring F rictional Properties. K . H . M ercer. Australian J . S c i., I945 - 7< I73 ‘ I7 4 - T h e device used is a n application of th e cap stan m ethod, an d is sim pler th an M ercer’s o th er m ethod (these A b s., 1945, A346), a lth ough less satisfacto ry for th eoretical w ork. A fibre is passed around a cylin d rical piece o f horn; lengths of th in w ire are joined to th e fibre ends, an d m ade th e com ponents of a W heatston e bridge; th e load is applied b y tensioning a spring a t th e to p , th e bridge being balanced an d th e horn ro tated . T h e difference in tension stretches one arm and co n tracts th e other, th e consequent changes in resistance throw in g th e bridge o u t o f balan ce. W ith w ool fibres, characteristic stick-slips occur. T h e effect o f w ettin g m a y b e 'stu d ied b y dropping a n app ro­priate liquid on th e h o m . Shrinkage-reduction processes usin g su lp h u ryl chloride and the halogens reduce th e friction al difference o f w ool fibres to a low va lu e; th e alcoholic cau stic soda process (Freney-Lipson) reduces th e difference to app ro xim ately h a lf o f th e norm al value. I f th ere is uneven s tick ­ing o f th e fibre to th e h o m , th e ca lcu latio n of a ctu a l coefficients o f friction from th e values T , and T L, using th e form ula T 2 = T 1/X0, m a y be o f d o u btfu l value. " W .Influence of A g e, Body T ype and F ertility in R am bouillet E w es on Fibre F inen ess, S taple L ength and F leece and Body W eigh ts. J. M . Jones and Ors. Texas Agric. E xper. S ta ., B u ll. 657, 1944, 30 pp. H eaviest scoured fleeces were produced during th e 3rd y ea r of age; fleece w eigh t declined grad ually after the 4th year; Staple len gth w as greatest during th e 1st year; it did not change significantly during the 2nd, 3rd and 4th years, b u t decreased app ro xi­

5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and D efects

m ately 12 per cent, b y the 6th y ea r and 18 per cen t, b y the 8th. Fertile ew es produced 0-27 lb . less sooured w ool th a n ewes th a t did n ot lam b during th e year; the w ool w as also 0-08 in . shorter. T h e fibre w as slightly finer during th e 1 st year, b u t in la te r age years there w as no im p ortan t change. R e la ­tiv e ly sm ooth-bodied ewes (C typ e) produced fleeces of a higher com m ercial va lu e, w ith greater stap le length and finer an d m ore uniform fibres, th an the w rin k ly ew es (B ty p e). T here w ere n o significant differences in b o d y w eight fo r th e C and B typ es, or in scoured fleece w eight; ithe B ty p e fleeces averaged 1 lb . h eavier th a n th e C ty p e ; th e shrinkage w as 62-9 per cent. (B type) and 59-4 per cent. (C typ e). W .V egetab le M atter in Scoured W ool: E stim ation . M. Lipson. Anier. D yes. R ep ., 1945, 34, 250, 259. R eference is m ade to th e a u th o r’s peroxide-carbonate m ethod fo r estim atin g vegetab le m a tte r in scoured w ool (these A b s., 1943, A598). T h e present p aper replies to criticism s b y W olln er and others, who prefer th e ir visu al com parison m eth od (these A b s., 1945, A27) as being more accu rate fo r rapid routine estim ations. In th e peroxide-carbonate m ethod, variatio n s in the reco very figures fo r different ty p es of vegetable m aterial are w ith ou t serious influence on th e final result. O bjections to th e visu al com ­parison m ethod are th a t it is inaccurate w ith A ustralian w ools w hich m ay con tain m uch m ore vegetable m a tte r th a n A m erican wools, and th a t i t takes n o 'account of the variation s in. th e w eigh ts o f different sam ples of the same burr ty p e show ing no outstan ding difference in size. W .

W ool C lassing and the R eso lving Power of the E ye. W . R . L an g. /. A ustralian In st. Agric. S c i., 1944, I0< T7 5 - T h e generally-assum ed correlation betw een crim p and m ean diam eter is n ot supported b y research (this J ., 1937, 28, P273 an d P336, and these A b s., 1944, A426). T en clean fibres m ounted on a b lack background, w ith th e crim p ju st rem oved b y tension, w ere placed in order of fibre diam eter b y 13 observers (woolclassers, tex tile technologists and laym en). F ibres differing in d iam eter b y 40 m icrons were distinguished readily b y all observers, th e low er lim it fo r th e m a jo rity of observers 'being 15-20 m icrons. I t is suggested (a) th a t claim s th a t w ool experts can d e tect w ith ou t d ifficu lty sm all differences in q u a lity num ber b y reference to fibre diam eter alon e are ill-founded, and (b) th a t th e H elm holz figure of a resolving power of one m in. of arc for th e hum an eye (H ouston, “ T reatise on L ig h t ” ) is high w hen applied to single w ool fibres on a b la ck background. W .Shrinkage, L ength , F ineness and Price of W ool : E stim ating from Lock Sam ples. P . E . N eale. New M exico Coll. A gric., Agric. E xper. Sta., B ull. 315, 1944, *9 PP- T h is m eth od enables th e w ool grow er to estim ate closely in 2-3 h r., the w ool shrinkage (loss of w eigh t in scouring) from 10,000 sheep. Its a p p lica b ility to flocks other th a n th a t o f th e N ew M exico College o f A griculture is n o t know n. I t a ttem p ts to com bine the visual m eth od o f th e w ool b u yer and th e lab orato ry m ethod of th e College, and can be used b y to ta lly inexperi­enced persons w ith a go o d degree of accuracy. F o r 1,000 sheep o r m ore, one lock a b ou t tw ice th e size o f a finger, taken a t random from e ve ry fifth fleece, is representative o f the entire clip; fo r 500-1,000 sheep, one lo ck from eve ry third fleece is necessary, fo r 100-500, from e v e ry second fleece, and fo r 100 or less, from e v e ry fleece. T h e lo ck s are d iv ided in to groups according t o th e degree o f d irt p enetration (light, m edium or h e a v y , each o f these categories h avin g three sub-divisions), b y com paring each lo ck w ith illustration s of d irt penetration groups (shown on inserted sheet). T h e num ber of locks in each group is m u lti­p lied b y th e average percentage of shrinkage fo r the group, also show n on the sheet. T h e sum of these results d ivided b y th e to ta l num ber of locks in all groups, g ives the average shrinkage. M easuring th e len gth o f th e locks and estim atin g th e fineness are also necessary fo r price determ ination. T h e m ethod is described b y w hich th e average percentage o f shrinkage fo r each d irt p enetration group w as calcu lated . W .(B)— Y a r n s

Cotton and R ayon T yre Cords: E lastic Properties. H . W a keh a m , E d ith H onold and E . L . Skau. / . A p p lied Physics, 1945, 16, 388-401. T he elastic properties h a ve been com pared on n ylon , oellulosiic rayon, and ordin ary and m ercerized cotton ty re cords, and five experim ental stretched and unstretched cotton ty re cords. A d d ition al inform ation concerning these should help to o btain a m ore useful set of requirem ents for good cord, since p resent criteria

5— A nalysis, Testing, Grading and D efects A469

do not y e t p erm it prediction of ty re cord perform ance. A ll cords w ere com ­pared under identical sets o f load, tem p eratu re and h u m id ity conditions.

Tensilgram s ” (load/extension curves) are givien from w hich the change of rate of elongation w ith load w ere p lotted . E ffects o f tem peratures from 25°-2oo° C. on elongation curves w ith static loads w ere determ ined, and it is shown th a t the greatest changes in elongation occur ju st below ioo° C . w here th e cord undergoes its m axim um change in m oisture content. G row th and p artia l recovery of cotton and n ylon ty re cords subjected to cy c lic loads are com pared. A n apparatu s for m easuring hysteresis of tyre cords is described w hich perm its the calculation of energy loss per cy c le of loading and unloading.

C.“ D eviom eter ” Y arn Irregularity T ester. R . W . V o se and C. H . Plu m m er. / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, T 177-T 18 4 . C.Cotton R ovin gs and Y arns: M easurem ent of W eigh t V ariations. B.C avan ey, G. A . R . F oster and J. G regory. J. T extile In st., 1945, 36, T 197-T212. C.S liver, R oving and Yarn Photographic R egularity T esters. S. L . A nderson ,B . C avan ey, G . A . R . F oster and J. G regory. / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, T 191- T 196. C.T elephone Cord Y arn: A brasion T estin g . A . C. W a lk e r and P. S. O lm stead. T extile Research J ., 1945, 15, 201-222. T ests h ave been m ade on th e resistance to abrasion of th e various single and folded cotton yarns used in the braided covering of telephone cords. A new yarn abrasion test is described in w hich the yarn is made to rub itself a t a sharp loop. Suitable planning o f experi­m ents and statistical q u a lity control analysis dem onstrate the re liab ility of the test and show th a t it is capable of d iscovering clues to causes of yarn v a r ia ­b ility . Control, run, and lag correlation charts are shown to be applicable to process control and to the d iscovery and identification of changes in u n iform ity, of trends and of periodicities in the yarn. T ables are given of abrasion resistance d ata fo r 2 4 S / 3 brow n m ercerised, io s / 3 bleached, 2 4 S / 3 red plain, and 24s / 3 red glazed cotton yarns, arranged for statistical treatm en t. C .U niversal Yarn Count S ystem : A d van tages. T h e T ex tile In stitu te . / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, P 9 7-P 10 1. C.B ast Fibre Y arns: N um bering on a U n iversal S ystem . H . L . Parsons, J. T extile In st., 1945, 36, P 117 -P 119 . C.Cordage and T w in es: N um bering on a U niversal S ystem . H . A . E lk in . J . T extile In st., 1945, 36, P 119 -P 12 2 . C.Cotton Y arns: N um bering on a U n iversal S ystem . F . P . S later. / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, P103-P108. C.R ayon Y arns: N um bering on a U n iversal S ystem . A . E . D elp h . / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, P 110 -P 112 . » C.Spun S ilk Y arns: N um bering on a U n iversal S ystem . R . W . F orrester. / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, P1141-P117. C .Y arns: N um bering on a D iam eter B asis. F . N . K in g. / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, P122-P124. C .Yarns and F ibres: L oad-E longation Recording A pparatus. H . C. Brow n. B u ll. L ow ell T ext. In s t., Series 48, N o. 2 (through T e x t. W orld, 1945, 95, No. 6, 123-125). A p p aratu s w hich operates in con ju nction w ith a chain- loading device perm its the electronic p lottin g of a load-elongation cu rve. A photograph and diagram of th e app aratu s are g iven , an d curves reproduced for tests m ade on 35s co tton , 150-den. ra y o n , 56s w orsted, and a co tton y a m rem oved from a w oven fabric. I t is hoped t o im prove the sen sitiv ity o f the apparatus and to increase its ca p a c ity to 20 lb . o r m ore. W .

(C)— F a b r i c sCarbon A rc Fading T est L am ps: C alibration. C. A . S eib ert. Am er. D yes. R e p t., 1945, 34, 272-280. A m ethod is designed to com pensate differences in fadin g rates so th a t exposures in a ll lam ps, va ry in g in fad in g raites only, w ould give sim ilar results. N ylo n , coloured w ith 0-3 per cent, o f P o n ta cy l F a st R ed A S , w as exposed in abou t tw e n ty different lam ps, one of w hich w as found to be 2 | tim es as fast as a n y o ther lam p. T his led to th e th eo ry th a t a lam p could co n ceivably be abnorm al in some range of th e visib le spectrum and norm al in some other ranges, and directed atten tion to th e possible superior

A47° 5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and D efects

usefulness o f a control th a t w ould absorb in photom eter m easurem ents over a w ider range of the visible spectrum th a n the red. P ap er coloured reddish grey an d greenish grey, and a greenish grey cotton sam ple w ere selected for experi­m ents and tested b y 56 persons. R esults are tabu lated and calculated b y m eans of the K / s form ula o f K u b e łk a and M unk, w hich m akes it possible to determ ine from reflectance m easurem ents the per cent, of actu al colour destruc­tion resulting from exposure t o ligh t. T h e grey co tton sam ple w as preferred, as i t w as m uch more easily coloured th an the paper and showed greater per­centage changes in identical hours of exposure. M ethods for the establishm ent o f standards are described and tw o m ethods ore suggested for m ore precise grading o f th e colour changes. C.

Standard Fading T est Lam p. H . F . Launer. Am er. D yes. R e p t., 1945, 34. 264. A ‘ ‘ stan dard lam p ” , a carbon arc housed in a special room , has been developed b y th e U .S . N ation al B u rea u of Standards. Tem perature, relative h u m id ity , line vo ltage and arc current are au to m atica lly controlled and recorded. T he radian t o u tp u t o f the arc is recorded b y a special instrum ent. A Calibration P ap er A has been developed in order to calibrate other arcs in term s o f the reference standard arc. C.

Standard Inflam m ability T est A pparatus. H . E . H ager. Am er. D yes. R ep t.,1945, 34, 291-292. A te st procedure and a com p letely autom atic “ F lam - m a b ility T ester ” are described for th e m easurem ent of the rate of burning of textiles. B u tan e gas is th e fuel and the gas je t is a hypoderm ic needle pro­tected b y a copper shield. T h e fabric is laid on a p lane a t 45° to the flame and the “ end-point ” is tak en as th e tim e w hen th e flam es from the burning fabric reach and burn through a stretched cord of 50s m ercerised sew ing thread. F u ll details are g iven . C .

C otton F abrics: Effect on th e R ate of E vaporation of W ater. W . H . Rees. / . T extile In st., 1945, 36, T 165-T 168. A n apparatu s is described for in vesti­gatin g the effect of fabrics on the rate o f evaporation o f w ater from a m oist surface w ith w hich th e y are in con tact. Three cellu lar (leno-weave) cotton fabrics and tw o p lain -w eave co tto n cloths, one o f close and the other o f fa irly open w eave , w ere tested . Sam ples were either scoured, bleached or w ater­proofed. In general the scoured and bleached sam ples produced only a small change in the evaporation from th a t o f the bare p late, w hereas th e w ater­proofed m aterials grea tly arrested th e evaporation from a m oist surface. W hen tw o layers of scoured fabric were used, the rate of evaporation w as greater th an w hen one la y e r o n ly w as used, b u t w hen a w ater-repellent fabric w as placed o ver a scoured fabric, the rate o f evaporation w as sligh tly greater than w ith th e w ater-repellent fabric alone, though still m uch less than w ith the scoured fabric alone. C.T ex tile F abrics: W ater Vapour P erm eability . F . T . Peirce, W . H . R ees and R . W . O gden. / . T ext. In st.. 1945, 36, T 169-T 176. C.T ex tile Fabrics: W eathering T ests. S . Bacher and R . H arw ood. Am er. D yes. R e p t., 1945, 34, 2165-271. W eath erin g tests w ere carried o u t on ten different sam ples o f o live d rab serges b y outdoor exposures in 19 different localities throughout the U n ited States for 10, 20 and 30 d ays during the m onths June to Septem ber, and also b y exposures in three conventional types of accelerated fadin g units. F ad in g w as m ost satisfacto rily m easured b y the H u n ter M ultipurpose R efiectom eter. F ad in g variation s in different localities from m onth to m onth and from one lo ca lity to another, and the influence of len gth of exposure and sun hours are discussed and average fading values established. M achine exposures are com pared w ith a c tu a l w eath er exposures and average ratios tab u lated . Loss of reflectance in m aterials due to deposited dirt w as also studied. M ost o f th e results are expressed grap h ica lly . C.

T h ick n ess G auge for T ex tile M aterials. I. O. M cD onald. / . T extile In st.. 1945, 36, T185-T190. C.A sb estos C lo th in g: Standardisation. E . L . W h eeler. Industrial Standardisa­tion, 1945, 16, 53-55. A review is given of w orkers’ asbestos clothin g for w hich new A m erican W a r Standards h ave been developed. A s a result of fire-resist- ance tests o f various grades of asbestos cloth it w as decided to sp ecify asbestos of U n derw riters’ grade, w hich requires 80 to 85 per cent, asbestos b y w eight. This grade appeared to provide adequate protection and w as available. A com plete lis t o f A m erican W a r Standards for sa fe ty clothin g is given . C..

5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and D efects A4 7 r

K nitted Cotton Fabrics: P hysical Propertiae. H azel M . F letclier, R ayon T extile M onthly, 1945, 26, 233-236. T h e author reports on com parisons of the properties o f fabrics kn itted from the follow ing y arn s: (1) Carded 40s short- staple Peeler cotton, (2) com bed 40s m edium -staple Peeler, (3) d itto in 80s/2, (•4.) com bed 120S/2 Sea Island, (5) d itto m ercerised, (6) carded 36s P eeler, (7) d itto m ercerised, (8) com bed 36s P eeler, and (9) d itto m ercerised. T h e m ain conclusions a r e : (a) Com bed y a m s are stronger aind give higher b u rstin g strength in the fabrics than corresponding carded y a m s, b u t do not otherw ise show m uch difference, (b) Mercerised y a m s are as strong as or stronger th an n atu ral yam s b u t are less extensible and lead to less extensible fabrics, (c) Mercerised y a m s give fabrics th a t have low er burstin g strengths than corre­sponding n atural fabrics, (d) T he m ercerised fabrics h ave the greater a ir perm eabilities, (e) In other respects the m ercerised fabrics did n ot differ m uch. T h e tabu lated d a ta are (i) y a m counts and tw ists, num bers of w ales and courses, and w eights o f th e fabrics; (ii) breaking loads and elongations of th e y am s and fabrics (w et and dry); (iii) thickness, com pressibility and resilience of the fabrics; (iv) w ater u p take, resistance to abrasion, therm al transm ission, therm al insulating value, air perm eability and m oisture va p o u r p erm eability; and (v) statistica l correlations (t values) for different com parisons. C .T extiles: Inform ative L abelling . “ B . J. M .” T ext. R e c ., 1945, N o. 747, 39, 58. T h e question is discussed o f th e labelling of B ritish tex tiles (statem ent o f m inim um perform ance) for hom e and foreign m arkets, stressing th e ad van tages both to consum er and m anufacturer. I t is suggested th a t th e different sections of th e in dustry should com bine to finance and appoint an independent "B u re a u of T ex tile S tan d ard s,” o f w hich th e T ex tile In stitu te and th e B ritish C olour Council m igh t form th e n ucleus. I t w ould be necessary to establish a clear relation between field and laborato ry tests; the field tests bein g fun dam en tal and the laboratory tests being designed to g iv e th e required d a ta in term s o f field perform ance. T h e exp lo itation of sp ecia lity trade m arks w ould n ot be prevented, b u t an agreed system of in form ative labelling w ou ld p reven t present and future confusion. W .A ustralian T ex tile L abelling L aw s: Lack of U n iform ity . S . N . H ouston. T ext. J. Australia, 1945, 20, 148-150. T h e S ta tes ’ A cts h a ve been p assed in the follow ing sequence:-— V icto ria (Goods (T extile Products) A c t 1944), South A ustralia (T extile P roducts D escription A c t 1944), Q ueensland (The T rad e D escriptions (T extile Products) A c t 1944), W estern A u stra lia (Trade D escrip­tions and F alse A dvertisem en ts A c t A m endm ent A c t 1944), N ew South W ales (T extile Products L ab ellin g A c t 1945), T asm an ia (T extile P roducts (D escrip­tion) A c t 1945). T h e A cts agree th a t labelling shall b e com pulsory b y law ; th ey are uniform in th e definition o f tex tile products and o f w ool, and in statin g th e conditions w ith w hich trade descriptions m u st co m p ly . T h e non- uniform features are as fo llo w s :— T h e W estern A u stra lian A c t provides th a t the com pulsory trade description shall contain th e fu ll nam e and address o f the m anufacturer, and th a t e v e ry m anufacturer and d istributor shall keep a ll records and specifications fo r a t least th ree years, and shall furnish num bered invoices con tain in g details o f th e co n stitu en t fibres; th e A c t also defines “ m anufacturer,” ‘ ‘ d istrib u to r,” " w h o le s a le r ” and " r e t a i le r .” T h e South A ustralian A c t states th a t " a person shall not sell . . . a n y te x tile product to w hich is applied . . . th e w ord “ W ool ” . . . unless a t least 50 per cent, b y w eigh t o f the m aterials o f w hich th a t p ro d u ct is m ade is w o o l.” T h e South A ustralia, W estern A u stra lia and T asm an ia A cts incorporate the n ecessity o f im ported wood products to carry a " trad e description show ing a ll particulars required b y or pursuant to the Com m erce (Trade Descriptions) A c t 1905-1933 o f th e Com m onw ealth, and the regulations th ereu n d er.” E a ch State A c t includes provision for th e G overnor to m ake regulations not inconsistent w ith each A ct, b u t the N ew South W ales A c t is th e o n ly m easure w hich m akes definite reference to " standards and m ethods o f testing, an alysin g tex tile pro­d u cts.” Breaches of th e S tates’ A cts ca rry penalties in each instance, b u t the te x t and lim it o f such penalties are n o t uniform . T h e A ustralian W ool B o a rd are proposing a conference to deal w ith th is lack of u n iform ity. W .(D)— O t h e r M a t e r i a l sLam inated P lastics: F lexural S tren gth ; Effect of W idth and of S p a n /D ep th Ratio. E . M. Schoenbom , G . R . P roctor and J. C a rv aja l. A .S .T .M . B u ll., 1945, No. 134, 42-47. T h e results obtained from over 500 flexural tests m ade on

M72 5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and D efects

tw o types of phenolic-lam inated .m a teria l and on vulcan ized fibre are briefly described. A ll tests w ere carried o u t a t th e sam e conditions of tem perature and re lative h u m id ity. D a ta were obtained a t sp an /depth ratios of 8, 12, 16 and 24 to 1, using sam ples of J and |-in . depths and J, J and i-in. w idths. T h e rate of crosshead m otion w as m aintained as close as possible to the ca l­cu lated value. N early a ll tests w ere rem arkably consistent, ca lculated values of flexural strength and m odulus exh ib itin g average deviations w ith in + 3 per cen t, o f the m ean of 5 to 10 determ inations. W ith every m aterial tested there w as, in general, a decrease in u ltim ate flexural strength w ith increasing sp an /d ep th ratio . T he effect o f the w idth of specim en appeared anom alous, particu larly for the phenolic m aterials, since sam ples cu t lengthw ise showed increasing strength , w h ilst those cu t crosswise gave decreasing values, as the sam ple w idth increased. T h e anom alous variation in values com puted for th e m odulus of e la stic ity w ith increasing spam /depth ratio could not be satis­facto rily explained. Several correlations of the observed d ata were made w h ich show th a t the formulae cu rren tly used to calcu late u ltim ate flexural stress and m odulus of e la stic ity are not rigorous for the m aterials studied. In a p lot of breaking load against sam ple dim ensions, how ever, the form er was found to be a power function of the la tter. C.P lastics A u tom atic H eat D istortion Recorder. G . A . H eirlio lzer and R . F. B o y er. A .S .T .M . B u ll., 1 9 4 5 ,^ .1 3 4 ,3 7 - 4 1 . A n autom atic apparatus is fu lly described w hich p lots the deform ation-tem perature behaviour of a plastic in ap p ro xim ate ly the sam e tim e now required for a heat-distortion measurem ent. T h e ease of operation of these heat-distortion units allow s them to b e used for control purposes on standard plastic m aterials. T h eir m ain advantage, how ­ever, lies in the routine evaluation o f new laborato ry m aterials and some ty p ica l curves w hich have been obtained on B akelite , silicone/Fibreglas lam inates, e tc ., are shown.. C.P lastic s: D im ensional S tab ility . R .B u rn s . A .S .T .M . B u ll., 1945, No. 134, 27-30. T h e various typ es of dim ensional change are review ed. D a ta illustrating the separate effects o f h u m id ity, dryin g, and rep etitive (“ cyclin g ” ) procedures are subm itted for cellulose ester and ether, v in y l, m eth acrylate, nylon and oth er plastics. T h e influence of fabrication processes such as compression or in jection m oulding, and sheeting, is included, and th e results obtained are discussed. ‘ C.P lastic s: F lexu ral Properties. W . A . Zinziro. A .S .T .M . B u ll., 1945, N o. 134, 31-37. A sum m ary o f test results obtained on ty p ica l p lastics i‘n five different laboratories is subm itted. T h e effects o f the loading edge radii, the rate of crosshead m otion and the sp an /d ep th ratio on the flexural properties of p lastics were determ ined. T h e radius o f th e loading edges had v e ry little effect on the results obtained. T h e ultim ate m odulus of rupture or the value of the m axim um fibre stress for the more flexible m aterials seem ed to b e consider­a b ly affected b y the speed o f th e crosshead m otion. T h e m odulus of rupture obtained seemed to v a r y som ew hat w ith th e sp an /d ep th ratio, and th e m odulus o f e la stic ity increased slig h tly for the longer sp an /d ep th ratios. I t is suggested th a t a sp an /depth ratio of 16 b e used in m aking m odulus of ru pture and m odulus of e lasticity m easurem ents. A definite radius of loading and a rate of lo adin g such th a t a con stant rate o f straining is used are also (recommended. x C.Rubber Specim en s: Com parison of T en sile T est R esu lts . (1) B . D . Porrit and J. R . S co tt. (2) R . G. N ew ton. J. R u bber Research, 1945, 14, 93-112.(1) W ith a view to obtain ing inform ation on the closeness o f agreem en t norm ally to be expected betw een tensile tests carried out in d ifferent laboratories, ques­tionnaires relatin g to particulars o f the test m achines and m ethods used were answ ered b y 36 laboratories. T h e results are sum m arized and discussed. S ixteen laboratories w ere selected to te st a set of 20 rubber specim ens. T h e fu ll in dividual results are given in tables. (2) A detailed exam ination is m ade of the variation am ong the tensile test results as obtained b y the 16 different laboratories. S ta tistica l m ethods are used and the results are expressed grap h ically . D ifferen t typ es of tests, such as load a t break, dum b-bell th ick ­ness, stress a t break, elongation a t break, load a t 400 per cen t, elongation and rig id ity a t 400 per cent, elongation, are fu lly discussed. Som e sources of la ck of agreem ent betw een results h ave been discovered and recom m endations are advan ced for reducing the discrepancies. C.

7— Laundering and Dry-Cleaning A473

Varnish F ilm s: M odulus of E lastic ity . H . G . Steffens. In d. E ng. C hem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 417-418. A m ethod is described for determ ining the change in m odulus of e lasticity o f detached insulating varnish films during im m ersion in w ater. A simple tensiom eter w as im provised for this purpose. T h e change in m odulus curve is not a linear function of the im m ersion tim e. Tests of th e elastic properties o f the film a fter im mersion are best m ade a t tim es when th e m odulus of e la stic ity is changing least rap id ly w ith respect to tim e. C.

Groundwood Paper Sheets: D iscolouration in L igh t. H . F . L e w is , E . A . R eineck and D . Fronm uller. Paper Trade / ., 1945, 121, T A P P I , 76-80. Prior to a fundam ental investigation of the causes and m echanism of the “ fadin g ” o f groundwood, i.e . its discolouration on exposure to ligh t, an in vestigation of the relation betw een colour change and variab les in sheet form ation has been carried out. T h e effect of variation in tim e o f exposure, in th e source and q u a lity of the groundw ood, the relative influence of h eat and ligh t, variations in the technique o f handsheet form ation, the effect of the addition of sulphite pulp and the relation betw een the pH o f the groundwood sheet and its rate of colour change h ave been studied. T h e A tlas carbon-arc F ade-O m eter w as used as the standard fadin g instrum ent. C .

W ood-Cloth and W ood-Paper L am inates: P h ysica l T ests. J. D elnionte. British Plastics, 1945, 17, 341-348. D evelopm ents in resin-im pregnated p ly ­w ood are discussed to show tine advantages of increasing the ratio of syn th etic resin to w ood in order to stabilise the wood. Resin-im pregnated w ood-cloth and w ood-paper lam inates m ake possible m ore com plicated assem blies and constructions. T est sam ples of cloth-w ood and paper-w ood lam inates, im preg­nated in different w ays and com prising increasing num bers of p aper or cloth layers were prepared for p hysical dim ensional stab ility tests under extrem es of m oisture condition. W ood-paper lam inates showed im proved values of the tensile strength, m odulus of e lastic ity , and specific tensile strength. T hough the plyw ood faced w ith resin-im pregnated canvas did not show these gains, the stretch ab ility of the clo th perm itted bending a t sm all radii o f curvature and a certain am ount o f draw ing, im p ractical in wood alone. Plyw ood-paper lam inates showed a sm all b u t definite decrease in shear strength w ith increase in paper content, occasioned b y the appearance of p aper failure. T ests on dim ensional stab ility w ere also carried out and the distortion of p lyw ood as a function of tim e is illustrated. R esin-treated papers and cloths grea tly im proved the dim ensional sta b ility b y retarding the effects o f m oisture. C.

7—LAUNDERING AND DRY-CLEANINGModified Soda-Soap-W ater S ystem : D etergent A ction , T . H . V augh an , A . V itto n e, Jun., and L . R . B acon . In d . E ng. C hem ., 1941, 33, 1011-1019. Three types of w ashing tests m ade w ith an a rtific ially soiled cloth a t 6o° C ., using o - 1 per cent, soap solutions “ b u i l t ” w ith m odified soda, show th a t a t a constant pH soil rem oval in this system first increases to a m axim um 'and then decreases as the am ount of m odified soda is increased. O ver the range of soap/bu ild er ratios used in com m ercial lau n d ry practice, soil rem oval is app roxim ately proportional to the acid titratio n value, w hich is in turn pro­portional to the concentration. F o r th is system titratio n is therefore a m uch b etter m eans of controlling the suds b a th in lau n d ry practice than p H m easure­m ents. • T h e optim um ratio of soap to m odified soda w ith the ty p e o f standard soil used is approxim ately 1 to 2 a t a soap concentration of o • 1 per cent. R esults obtained w ith soiled cloths o f the sam e ty p e b u t w ith different residual rem ovable soil contents are correlated. R e fle c tiv ity values o f standard soiled cloth are only an indirect m easurem ent of soil content. U nder the conditions used in this study and other things bein g equal, the rate of soil rem oval is d irectly proportional to the residual rem ovable soil con ten t of the cloth . W ith the typ e o f standard soil used, soil rem oval can best be determ ined b y tu r­b id ity m easurem ents. T w o types' of Launder-O m eter studies have been m ade, and one ty p e is correlated w ith com m ercial w asher tests. T h e re lative m erits o f all three typ es of experim en tal w ashing procedures are discussed. C.

Quaternary M orpholinium Soaps: Preparation. J. B. N ied erl, M . W o lf and E. Slobodiansky. J. Am er. Chem . S oc., 1945, 67, 1227-1228. D odecyl, tetra- decyl and h exad ecyl ethers of N -ethylol-m orpholine w ere converted into repre­

A474 8— B uilding and Engineering

sen tative tertia ry am ine salts. R eaction o f the eth ers w ith m eth yl iodide, b en zyl chloride and b en zyl brom ide gave corresponding quartern ary mor- pholinium salts, soluble in w arm w ater. C.Soap Products: New Trends in M anufacture. J. D avid sohn and A . D avidsohn. Industrial Chem ist, 1945, 21, 414-418, 461-465. Som e patented saponification processes are described and the uses of soap builders in continuous saponi­fication are outlined. Im p o rta n t, developm ents in soap m achinery are recorded and the use of syn th etic fats, phosphates and starch are discussed. T h e addition of solvents o f the ‘ ' O ellosolve " ty p e , " s u p e r - fa t t in g ” agents, an d preservatives is review ed and detergents of the sulphated fa tty alcohol and sulphonate typ es are also considered. C.R ayon F abrics: L aundering. F . Bonnet. Rayon T extile M onthly, 194-5, 26, 219-221. A report o f an address to laund ry engineers. T h e speaker review ed recent developm ents in the processing of rayon fabrics b y w hich the range o f rayon has been extended and em phasises the need for b etter control o f lau n d ry operations. C.

P a t e n t

H igh er F atty A cid A m id es: A p p lication in D etergents. P rocter and G am ble Co. (Cincinnati). B .P .570,841 of 2 8 /7/1945 (Conv. 20/2/1942). T h e deter­gen t power of sulphated and sulphonated detergents is grea tly enhanced by th e addition of a higher fa t ty am ide. E xam p les speak of the addition of 3 or 4 p arts o f the am ides o f cocon ut oil fa t ty acid s to 97 o r 96 p arts o f the sodium salt of the sulphuric esters o f cocon ut oil fa t ty acid m onoglyceride. C.

8—BUILDING AND ENGINEERING(A)— C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d M a i n t e n a n c e o f B u i l d i n g s a n d P l a n t

P ulp P lastics: Production. S . L . S ch w artz, J. C . P ew and H . R . M eyer. Paper Trade J ., 1945, 121, T A P P I, 61-64. E xperim en ts h ave dem onstrated th a t m oulded plastics can be m ade from high-yield w ood pulps, in w hich little or no phenolic resin has been incorporated. T h e properties of the pulps and the corresponding plastics are tabu lated . A com parison betw een the phenolic plastics con tain in g a b ou t 40 per cent, resin and the corresponding resin-free pulp plastics showed th a t the la tte r products h a ve decidedly lower u ltim ate tensile and com pressive strengths and lowered resistance to w ater absorption, b u t im proved toughness. T h e m ost prom ising of the resin-free plastics appeared to be those produced from pulps obtained b y m illing water- cooked chips. T h e w ater resistance of a ll the resin-free pulp plastics m ay be grea tly im proved b y surfacing them w ith sm all am ounts o f resin before m oulding. P lastics o f m oderate strength and good w ater resistance w ere also produced b y the addition o f sm all am ounts o f w ater-soluble phenolic or non- phenolic resins. T h e experim ents described indicate th a t high-yield pulps m ay be used as plastic bases, p articu larly for low -cost products. C.F loors and R oofs: C onstruction; B yelaw s. J. F airw ea tlier. A rcht. Build .,1943, 174, N o. 3882 (through B uilding Sci. A b str ., 1944, 17, 154)- T he English and the Scottish M odel B y ela w s, and the L on don C o u n ty Council B y ela w s regu­la tin g the design, construction and fine resistance o f floors and roofs are review ed and various differences are noted. T h e L .C .C . byelaw s appear to be m ore definite th an th e others on questions o f loading and w ind pressure. C. Roof C overin gs: W ind D am age and R epairs. A sso ciated F acto ry M utual F ire Insurance Com panies. Factory M utual B u ll, of Loss Prevention, 1943, N o. 7 (through B uild ing Sci. A b str ., 19144, 17, 155). Som e w ay s in w hich roof coverin gs are dam aged b y w ind are briefly described. M ethods of recognising ty p ica l defects in roof coverings and of correcting them are also described w ith illustrations (in the original). Suitable roof coverings are suggested, the tar and gravel or slag coverings bein g p articu larly recom m ended, and attention is draw n to the fire danger w hen app lyin g such coverings. C. W ind Loads on B u ild in gs. H . F errin gto n . Struct. E ng., 1943, 21, 497-526;1944, 22, 15-40. (Through Building Sci. A bstr ., 1944, 17, 153-154). T h e design w ind loads specified b y various authorities for m odern fram ed buildings are n o t considered entirely satisfacto ry, as th e y are based on the assum ption of a m axim um w ind ve lo city of 80 m .p .h . In order to elucidate the problem of w ind loadings, num erous d a ta on w ind velocities throughout the B ritish Isles h a ve been collected and m eteorological conditions under w hich m axim um

8— Building and Engineering A475

w inds occur were e xten sive ly studied. T h e results are presented under various headings and a m ap is provided (in th e original) to show th e equ ivalen t static w ind pressure in lb . per sq. ft. a t each anem om eter station in the B ritish Isles, averaged over the years 1909-1935. C.

M agnesium and its A llo y s: Considerations and A p p lication s. J. C . M athers. M ech. W orld, 1945, 118, 305-9. T h e d a ta g iven are tak en from a p aper pre­sented to the A m erican Society o f M echanical Engineers, and reported in Mechanical Engineering, 1945 (July). T h e m echanical properties of m agnesium in relation to those o f steel and alum inium are discussed, and tabu lated w ith particular reference to a ircraft construction. M agnesium a llo y sand casting's com pare fa v o u ra b ly w ith o ther m etals and m axim um saving in w eigh t is obtained. T h e y h a ve been used successfully fo r m akin g cooling fan s and hubs fo r air conditioning p lan t, gear cases, p ortab le tool housings and m ovable parts for tex tile , printing, packaging and other high speed or reciprocating m achinery. L a.

Springs of Variable Rate. M. H . Sabine. M ech. W orld, 1945, 118, 285-90, 332“7 . 361-6. A series o f extra cts from the au th o r’s forthcom in g book 011 springs. T w o extracts w ith an exam ination of the characteristics of springs of various shapes and m ethods of calculation. L a .

Converting P lant for W orks Services. T . H . C arr. M ech. W orld, 1945, 118, 319-320. In stallation costs fo r a 750 k W . m otor converter, a ro ta ry con verter and a rectifier are com pared. T h e rectifier is v e ry m uch m ore econom ical to install and to operate than either of the other m achines. L a.

(C)— S t e a m R a i s i n g a n d P o w e r S u p p l y

Centrifugal Coal C leaning. M. G . D riessen. M ech. W orld, 1945, 118, 379-383. T h e d a ta provided are abstracted from a paper presented to th e In stitu te of F u el an d illustrate th e considerable ad van tages o f th e cyclon e th icken er over the D orr th icken er w hen dealing w ith fine cęal particles. T h e ca p a city of th e cyclon e w asher is 15 tons per hour o f fine co al per square fo o t n ett area. Coal particles dow n to 0-150 m m ., togeth er w ith sm all coal and nuts can be handled. L a .

Supercharged D iese l E ngin es. R . L . B oyer. M ech. W orld, 1945, 118, 419-422. T h e d a ta presented are tak en from a p ap er presented to th e A m erican S o ciety o f M echanical Engineers, and recorded in M echanical Engineering, 1945 (June). T h e fo u r-va lve engine lends itself to supercharging and a 42 p er cent, increase in B .H .P . ca n b e obtained from a g iven engine. F u e l consum ption per B .H .P . is reduced sligh tly b y supercharging. W h ile an existing engine can be converted, b etter results are obtained w hen the engine is com p lete ly re­designed t o a llow fo r increased bearing pressures and higher loading generally.

L a .(D )— P o w e r T r a n s m i s s i o n

B earing A llo y s: Properties. E d w in G re g o ry and E . N . Sim ons. Practical Engineering, 1945, 11 , 406-7. D a ta are recorded for th e com position and m echanical properties of ty p ica l tin-base, lead-base and lead-tin-antim ony bearing alloys. C.

C hange G ears: Calculation. Practical Engineering, 1945, 11, 656-7; 12, 8-9. T h e author explains the calculations in vo lved in the problem o f determ ining w h a t num ber of teeth shall be used in a 4-gear train th a t is required to have a ve lo city ratio ly in g w ith in closely specified lim its. T h e m ethod o f con­tinued fractions is the basis of the procedure described and B ro co t’s F ractions are also recom m ended for quick calculations. C.

Lubricating G reases: Im provem ent. M. W . W ebber. / . In st. Petroleum , 1945, 31, 89-102 (through B rit. A bstracts, 1945, B I, 177). Im provem ents during recent years are discussed in relation to u n iform ity of consistency, freedom from foreign m atter, resistance to breakdow n , syneresis, s ta b ility under pressure and resistance to oxidation and to h eat. G rease developm ents tow ards greater tem perature range of operation h ave paralleled im provem ents in the visco sity index and extrem e-pressure properties o f lu bricatin g oils. T he properties o f ball- and roller-bearing greases and o f greases con tain in g solid additives are discussed. C.

M 76 9— Pure Science

Lubrication Colour Code. C . B . V e a l. Industrial Standardization, 1945, 16. 81-82. T h e A m erican Standards A ssociation has published a colour code for lubricatin g m achinery. T h e principle is th a t the containers of a given lubricant and the points where this lu b rican t should be applied are m arked in the same colour as an easy guide for the m an in charge of lubrication. T he code covers e igh t general classes of lubrican ts, each of w hich is designated b y an identifica­tion colour. I f m ore than one kind of lubrican t is used in the sam e class, the code recom m ends th a t d istinction betw een these lubricants be m ade b y the use o f different num bers m arked on the identification colour fo r th e class. T he identification colour is m erely intended to designate a general class of lubricant, b u t n ot a n y specific grade, q u a lity or brand. C.

(F)— L i g h t i n g

Illu m in an ts: Modern D evelop m ents. S. G . H ibben. J . Franklin In st., 1945, 239, 391-401. A review o f the developm ent of modern radiation em itters such as infra-red radiators or long-w ave em itters, d iver's lam ps, gun-sight lam ps, fluorescent illum inants, m ercury lam ps, and u ltra-violet lam ps. C.

(G)— H e a t i n g , V e n t i l a t i o n a n d H u m i d i f i c a t i o n

D ielectric H eatin g A pparatus for P lastics. J. C . Q u ay le and P . Jones. E lectrical R e v ., 1945, 137, 363-366. H igh-frequency w elders for p o lyv in yl chloride cable repairs and seam welders for plastic strip and sheet are described and discussed. C.A ir-condition ing and R efrigerating P lant: A p plication in E ngin eerin g Shops.F . H . Slade. Practical Engineering, 19145, 11, 658-9; 12, 10. T h e author review s recent applications of air-conditioning and refrigeration in engineering w ork in vo lvin g high precison. C.

A ir: Bactericidal Irradiation. W . F . W e lls . J. Franklin In st., 1944, 238.1 85-19 3 - T h e efficiency of radiation for sterilising a ir in a ven tila tin g system is discussed. T h e am ount of irradiation realised from a rad ian t source w ithin an enclosed space depends d irectly upon the m ean ra y len gth . T h e un iform ity of irradiation of the space and the u n iform ity of exposure depending upon air circulation both increase w ith the len gth of rays. T h e efficiency of radiant disinfection of a ir w as raised from 4 to 13 per cent, b y good design. C.

H igh-frequency H eatin g E quipm ent. R ediffu sion L td . E lectrical Review , 1945, 137, 437-438. Som e equipm ent m anufactured specifically for industrial processing b y high-frequency A C heatin g is described. T h e apparatus includes a bulk dryer for baled w ool, or refractory bricks, fitted w ith air-cooled elec­trodes, a continuous co n veyo r d ryer for th ick fabrics or paper, w ith subsidiary a ir heaters, and tw o m achines fo r w elding plastics o f the p o ly v in y l chloride group for p ackagin g and m akin g clothing and footw ear. C.

Industrial H eatin g , V en tila tin g and A ir C onditioning P lan t: Control System s.M. R . M orton. In d. H eating Engr., 1945, 7, 124-128. T h is article gives brief descriptions, illustrated b y sim ple diagram s, o f som e m ethods o f m anual and au to m atic con trol fo r ven tilation , plenum h eatin g and air conditioning equip­m ent. L a .

T extiles and other M anufactures: H u m id ify in g and C ooling. S. Sm ith . In d . H eating Engr., 1945, 7, 145-149. A discussion in general term s o f the subject of artificial hum idification and cooling. T h e system s described are (1) th e sp ray system , (2) th e conditioned a ir system , these tw o system s h avin g th e ir use in the tex tile industries and in th e m anu facture of tobacco, cigarettes and certain food products. T h e treatm en t is e lem entary. L a .

9—PURE SCIENCEFast G rating Spectrograph. R . F . S tam m . In d. E ng. Chem ., A nal. E d n .. 1945, 17, 318-331. A pp aratu s and techniques for studyin g the R am an effect are described, in cludin g a suitable lig h t source, filters and sam ple tubes, a fast gratin g spectrograph, and various accessories, such as plates, darkroom equipm ent, contrivances for depolarization m easurem ents, etc. T h e spectro­graph consists essentially o f a G aertn er b ilatera l slit, an off-axis paraboloidal co llim atin g m irror, a plane echelette grating, and a fast objective lens. The gratin g has 15,000 lines per inch and a to ta l o f abou t 90,000 lines. T he use-

9— Pure Science A477

of the R am an effect for th e elu cidation o f m olecular structure is explained. A pplications of R am an spectra for q u a lita tive an d q u a n tita tiv e analysis are discussed, and results are given of analyses of various organic b in ary solutions, m ixtures of inorganic salts in aqueous solution, and m ixtures o f o-, m- and ^-xylene. C .N -Phenyl-p:p '-d iam inotriphenylm ethane D y es: A b sorption Spectra. B. M. T olbert, G . E . K . B ran ch and B . E . B erlen bach. / . A m er. Chem . Soc., 1945, 67, 887-893. S ix phenyl diam inotriphenylm ethane dyes were prepared and their absorption spectra com pared w ith the spectra o f m alach ite green and D obner’s vio le t. D iam inotriphenylm ethane d yes h ave a special ty p e o f spec­tru m betw een 900 and 240 m fx, w hich consists o f three principal bands, term ed the x-, y- and ^'-bands. T h e x- aind y-bands are in th e visib le region and .r'-band has a m axim um n ot far from 300 m fi. T h e ph en yl group w as found to increase th e w ave len gth of bo th x- and y-bands. In th e p hen ylated dyes the substitution of a hydrogen atom for a N^m ethyl group increased instead of decreased the w ave lengths of both x- and y-bands. T h e asym m etry p ro ­duced b y a double p h en ylatio n of one nitrogen atom decreased the w av e length of both x- and y-bands. These effects w ere shown to be independent o f th e solvent. C.Photom eter for L um inescent M aterials. R . P . T eele. / . O ptical Soc. Am erica, 1945, 35, 373-378. D iagram s and a detailed description are given of a photom eter w hich m akes possible the determ ination of scotopic and mesopic lum inance such as th a t o f fluorescent and phosphorescent m aterials. A com parison field of colour tem perature 2360° K . is used. T h e photom eter has been used for routine m easurem ents of th e lum inance-tim e (brightness decay) curvie of phosphorescent m aterials and for determ inations of th e lum inance and ch ro m aticity of the fluorescent lig h t from papers im pregnated and coated w ith phosphorescent m aterials. C .

Trichrom atic D ata: A n a ly tica l R epresentation . P . M oon and D om in a E .Spencer. / . O ptical So.c. Am erica, 1945, 35, 399-427. T h e Com m ission In ter­nationale de l ’E cla irage m ethod of colour specification is ham pered b y the fa c t th a t the basic w eigh tin g functions are a t present specified b y tabu lated values instead of b y a n a ly tic expressions. T hus a n y theoretical in vestigation of colour has been lim ited to laborious num erical m anipulation, and no an alytic differentiation or integration has been possible. In the present paper it is shown how the C .I .E . tabu lated values can be approxim ated b y analytic expressions, a ll o f the sam e form and yield in g sim ple integrations. T h e use of the proposed a n a ly tic specification either as an app roxim ation to the C .I .E . system o r to supersede the C .I .E . system is explain ed, and its advan tages are pointed out. C .

Gas T em peratures: M easurem ent. D . A . R ich ardson . B ritish Coal U tilisa­tion Res. Assoc. B u ll., 1945, 9, 165-171. Sources of errors in the m easurem ent o f the tem perature o f a gas are discussed, exam ples of errors axe quoted, and precision m ethods are critica lly review ed. C.

C atalysts: E lectron M icroscopy. J. T u rk e v ic li. / . Chem . P h y s., 1945, 13, 235-239. E lectron m icrographs are presented of p latin um oxide, A d a m ’s platinum ca ta ly st, asbestos fibres, p latin ized asbestos, sintered p latin ized asbestos, 10 per cen t, p latin um on charcoal, a ctiv a te d alum ina, steam ed alum ina, silica gel, alum inium silicate cracking ca ta ly st, zinc oxide m ethanol c a ta ly st and F ischer synthin ca ta ly st. C .

Ion-m igration Phenom ena: E lectron M icroscopic O bservation. H . T h ie lsch . J . Chem . P h ys., 1945, 13, 249-250. A droplet of w ater con tain in g dissolved potassium chloride (5 g. per litre) w as placed on a collodion film and then included in a vacuum system w hich w as pum ped dow n to io -3 m m . o f m er­c u ry w ith in 30 secs. In th e electron m icroscope a regular cubic crysta l structure, a regular linear dendritic system , and an irregular bran ch structure were observed. T he differences are a ttribu ted to differences in th e rate of nucleus form ation and grow th, the cubes resulting from th e slow est, and the irregular dendritic branch structure from the fastest grow th. T h e tw o dendritic structu res are unstable in atm ospheric conditions, since standing for 6 hours in the atm osphere or m erely breath ing upon th e sam ple w ill cause m igration. T h e streaks or schlieren w hich appear in regu larly grow n crysta ls

9— Pure Science

m a y be identical w ith the linear dendrites or m ay be. due to electric surface charges. C.

P igm en ts: D ispersion for E lectron M icroscopy. H . C. O ’B rien , Jr. J. A pp lied P hysics, 1945, 16, 370-372. A m ethod of preparing a pigm ent dis­persion for electron m icroscopy is described, w herein the pigm ent, such as zinc o xide, is first w e t w ith w ater and is then dispersed in a solution o f cellulose a ceta te in m eth yl e th y l ketone. W h en a drop o f th e solution is then cast upon w ater there is obtained a continuous film of cellulose acetate , including p ar­ticles o f pigm ent, w hich are a c tu a lly • dispersed in w ater. M echanical or chem ical dam age o f particles is avoided in another m ethod w hich uses the principle o f e lectrostatic dusting. D etails o f this m ethod and apparatu s are g iven . E lectron m icrographs of pigm ent particles dispersed b y bo th m ethods are presented. C.

X -R ay A n a ly s is: M ethods and E quipm ent. A . M. B. B arker, A . R . Stokes and A . J. C. W ilson. J . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 22, 131-138. A sum m ary is g iven of the proceedings of a conference on X -ra y analysis w hich included sh o rt papers on new and im proved m ethods, and discussions on laboratory equ ipm en t and the use of optical principles in X -ra y analysis. C.

Pancreatic A m y la se : Influence of th e S u lph ydryl Group. M . L . C a ld w ell, C . E . W eill and R u th S. W eil. J . A m er. Chem . S o c., 1945, 67, 1079-1080. A num ber of specific reagents for free su lp h yd ryl groups were exam ined for th eir influence upon th e a c tiv ity of pan creatic am ylase, b u t i t w as found that th e y are n ot essential to th e a c tiv ity of this am ylase. These findings were in m arked con trast to the results, obtained under sim ilar conditions, w ith these reagents and /3-am ylase from b a rley and m alted barley, w hen the sulphydryl reagents caused com plete in activatio n o f the am ylase. H ydrogen sulphide or cystein e can restore the am ylase a c tiv ity . Furtherm ore, h igh ly a ctiv e solu­tions o f p an creatic am ylase show no q u a lita tive indication o f the presence of free su lp h yd ryl groups, w hereas w ith /3-am ylase th e activ ities of the solutions w ere found to be d irectly proportional to the concentration of su lp hydryl. C.

G lass Electrode A ssem b ly . G . E . Coates. J. Chem . Soc., 1945, 489-490. An app aratu s is described for th e m easurem ent of p H to -j-o-oi unit, w hich in vo lves a cy lin d rica lly sym m etrical liquid junction and can be cleaned and refilled rap id ly w ith ou t bein g taken o u t o f the therm ostat. C.

Spectro-com parator: A p p lication in A n a ly sis . K . B. M ather. / . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 22, 151-153. T h e instrum ent described has a sim ilar la y ­o u t to the Judd-Lew is Com parator, b u t m echanically it is im proved b y the use of ad justab le p late tables for 10-in. negatives and a screw traverse w ith finger release for free m ovem ent. T he optical system em ploys fron t surface alum inized m irrors instead of th e more expensive to ta lly in tern ally reflecting prism s. T h e 90° edge o f an alum inized prism divides the field. T h e m icro­scope objectives are provided w ith deep conical lens shields to exclude sca t­tered ligh t. T h e eye-piece is contained in a brass cell w ith a m illed head, p rovid ing sm ooth spiral focusing. T h e in stru m en t is suitable for qualitative analysis b y com parison or q u a n tita tiv e analysis b y visu al d en sity m atching. C.

Fischer M oisture D eterm ination R eagen t: A p plication; E lectrom etric End P oin t. (1) R . P . R ennie and J. L . M onkm an. (2) G . G . W arren . Canadian C hem . Process In ds., 1945, 29, 366-8, 370 (through Chem . A b str ., 1945, 39. 32215). (1) A general ra p id m ethod has been developed for determ ining m oisture in various m ateria ls w ith the K a rl F ischer reagent. V alu es obtained are g iven for m oisture in grained gunpow der, in glacial acetic aoid, in saw ­dust, and in shellac solutions. Am m onium o xalate is used for standardisation. A n electric un it com bining endpoint indicator, cell, and electrode system has been designed. T h e m ethod is app licable to high or low ranges of m oisture con ten t, and to opaque an d coloured solutions such as shellac. (2) Sodium a ceta te (N aO A c, 3H 20 ) is recom m ended as m oisture standard. C.

P igm en ts and F illers: S iev in g and B ulk D en sity T ests. D . M . W ilson . /. O il cS- Colour Chem . A ssoc., 1945, 28, 104-107. A simple form of sieve is described fo r determ ining the percentage o f p igm ent residue, so coarse as to be retained on a 300-mesh B .S . sieve. F o r determ ining the b u lk volum es of fine powders, the bulk den sity test b y M itchell and L ee is recom m ended, which

9— Pure Science A479

can be applied to fillers, pigm ents and extenders. G radings are given for some ty p ica l fillers. C.P otassium : Colorim etric D eterm ination . M . F . A dam s and J. L,. S t. John. In d . Eng. Chem ., A na l. E d n ., 1945, 17, 435-436. T he colorim etric determ in a­tions o f K ion b y means of K chloroplatin ate is reliable and convenient. T he colour develops im m ediately and is stable o ver a period of tw o m onths. T he iodoplatinate m ethod is abou t one hundred tim es more sensitive, b u t slow changes o f colour h a ve been observed. C.

A rgin in e: Colorim etric D eterm ination. A . A . A lb an ese a n d ' Jane E . F ran kston . J . B io l. Chem ., 1945, 159, 185-194. I t has been found th a t the substitution of o - o 6 n Na hypochlorite for o - o 3 N N a hypobromiite in the W eber m odification o f the Sakaguchi reaction (developm ent of a red colour on the addition o f a-naphthol and h yp o h alite to an alkalin e solution of th e am ino acid) affords greater convenience o f operation and accu racy of €he determ ina­tion o f arginine in protein hydrolysates. A rginine values fo r protein h yd ro ­ly sates obtained b y this m ethod are given and com pared w ith those secured b y other techniques. C.D D T Insecticide: Colorim etric D eterm ination . E. L . B ailes and M . G . P ayn e. In d. Eng. Chem ., Anal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 438-440. A rapid colorim etric m ethod for th e determ ination of i-trich loro -2 : 2-bis(/>-ehlorophenyl)ethane, the prin­cipal ingredient of technical D D T , has been developed, using the Friedel-C rafts reaction in benzene. T he reaction produces a com pound w ith a stable colour, orange b y transm itted ligh t and greenish orange b y reflected ligh t. A suitable w ave-length for reading colour and tim e colour develop m ent w as selected and a p lot o f the per cent, transm ission values obtain ed a t 420 m/x aga in st th e con­centration results in a sm ooth curve w hich is substan tia lly a straigh t line in con form ity w ith B e e r ’s law . T h e best w orking range for th e m ethod is betw een o -o o i and 0 01 per cent, o f D D T . C.G lycerol: D eterm ination in Presence of G elatin . C . J. W esse l, S t. W . D rigot and G . W . B each . In d . E ng. C hem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 440-442. A .m e th o d for the determ ination of glycerol in the presence of large quan ­tities of gelatin has been developed. Afteir rem oval of the gelatin b y pre­cip itation w ith sodium tu n gstate in acid m edium , the glycerol con ten t is determ ined b y the official m ethod o f the A ssociation of O fficial A gricu ltu ral Chem ists. A n arithm etic m ean o f 99-62 per cent, recovery and a standard deviation o f + 0 -4 3 were found for represen tative determ inations. C.

Oils and F ats: A cid and Saponification V alue D eterm inations; Co-operative Research. N . Stafford. / . O il Colour Chem . A ssoc., 1945, 28, 97-100. N o obvious reason w as discovered for the deviation s (coefficient o f variation 5 per cent.) in the results of co-operative tests on acid values b y b ro ad ly the sam e m ethods. A possible cause m ay be la ck of precision in defining the end-point. O perators used app ro xim ately the sam e techniques for the saponi­fication value determ ination. T h e coefficient o f variation w as 2 per cent. T h e conditions for the tests are n ot v e ry critica l. I t is suggested to increase th e am ounts of sam ple and reagent to 4-5 gim. and 50 c .c . o f N/2 K O H , respectively , so as to h a lve the error. C.

S yn th etic Rubbers; D eterm ination of Peroxides in — . R . F . R o b e y andH . K . W iese. Ind. E ng. Chem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 425-426. A colorim etric m ethod is described for the determ ination o f a ctiv e o x yg en (10 p arts per m illion) in com m ercial syn th etic rubbers. I t uses the ferrous th io cyan ate reagen t m ade up in a so lvent com prising essen tia lly 20 per ce n t, alcohol in chloroform . O xidation inhibitors as used in com m ercial syn th etic rubbers do n ot affect the results. C.Chlorine P eroxide and Sodium C hlorite S o lu tion s: O xidation P otentia ls.G. H olst. Svensk Papperstid., 1945, 48, 23-30 (through Chem . A bstr., 1945, 39, 31942). T h e bleaching of pulp w ith chlorine peroxide and sodium chlorite in w ea k ly acid solutions of pH 4-5 offers several advan tages as com pared w ith an alkaline h yp ochlorite bleach. T h e w ea k ly acid solution o f pH a b ou t 5 shows an oxidation p o ten tia l of ap p ro xim ate ly 0-75 v . , w hereas a w ea kly alkaline hypochlorite solution o f pH ab ou t 9 corresponds to a va lu e of app ro xi­m a te ly 1-05 v . Chlorine peroxide in aqueous solution is a stronger and more rap id ly reacting oxidising agen t than sodium chlorite and w ould theoretically

A480 9— Pure Science

be preferable; p ractically , how ever, certain difficulties arise th a t are not encountered w hen the chlorite is used. C.M etals: R ecovery b y A n ion E xchange. S id n e y Su ssm an, F . C . N aeliod and W illiam W ood. Ind. E ng. C hem ., 1945, 37, 618-624. A 11 exp loratory study has been m ade to eva lu ate the use of anion exchangers for the recovery of Cr, A u , F e, Mo, P d , P t and V from dilute solutions, chrom ium reco very being discussed more p articu larly . T h e tube or colum n technique w as used in m ost o f th e experim ents. T h e process is independent of the va le n cy of the com ­p lex ani»n and of the nature of th e non-m etallie elem ents included in the com plex anion. A dsorbed anions w ere recovered m ost e ffectively b y alkaline solutions. T h e m etal m ay gen erally be recovered in the form of a salt d irectly usable in the process producing the w aste. C.

C ellu lose A cetate-b u tyrate: M olecular W eigh t D istribution . D . R . M orey and J. W . T am b lyn . / . A pp lied Physics, 1945, 16, 419-424. T h e effect of concentration on the saturation lim it has been studied b y precipitatin g hom o­geneous p olym er fractions of know n m olecular w eigh t and a t known concen­tration s, dissolved in solutions o f know n com position. Curves are p lotted and th e law governing concentrations as a variab le is established. B y p recipitating a polym er of unknow n m olecular w eigh t distribution b y the gradual addition of precipitant, it is possible to ca lcu late from the ligh t-scatterin g d ata the mass p recipitated as a function of the per cent, o f precipitant. D istribution ratios and corresponding m olecular w eights are tabu lated . T h e distribution curves obtained o p tica lly and gravim etrically for the sam e sam ple of cellulose acetate- b u ty ra te showed v e ry good agreem ent. C.

Starch: Fractionation by Nitroparaffins. R . L . W h istle r and G . E . H ilbert.J . A m er. Chem . Soc., 1945, 67, 1161-1165. addition to b u ty l and iso-am yl alcohols (Schoch), other com pounds possessing initro, ester, ketone, m ercapto, * ca rb o x y l and cyclic nitrogen groups are excellen t agents for separating starch b y form ing hydrogen bonds w ith am ylose. T h e nitropropanes have now been in vestigated . T h e q u a n tity of am ylose separated varies w ith the types of nitro-com pound and of starch used, app ro xim ately the sam e yield of am ylose bein g obtained through precipitation w ith nitroparaffins as w ith butanol. The nitroparaffin-am ylose com plexes precipitate in the form of “ c ry sta ls .” T heir X -ra y diagram s are id en tical. T h e am ylose fractions h ave been characterized b y iodine adsorption. T h e am ylose retrogrades q u ick ly from 1 per cent, aqueous solutions a t 3 0 C . and films prepared from its triacetate d erivative are clear, tough and pliable. T he properties of the fraction rem aining after rem oval o f the nitroparaffin-am ylose com plex are ty p ica l o f am ylopectin . R etrogradation is extrem ely slow and films from its triacetate are too brittle to allow of the determ ination o f tensile strength. C.

Starch: M olecular C onstitu tion . W . Z. H assid . W allerstein L a b. Com m un., 1945, N o - 23 - 34-45 (through Chem . A b str ., 1945, 39, 31729). A review and discussion o f the properties of starch and o f the p resent conception of the structu re of starch as a m ixture of am ylose and am ylop ectin ; 38 references. C.

Starch: R elations to W ater. M. Sam ec. K o llo id B eih efte , 1943, 54, 435-583 (through B rit. A bstracts, 1945, B II I , 122). A review of recently published w ork on the relations betw een starch and w ater, covering the nature of w ater- absorption, therm al effects on h yd ratio n of starch, changes in starch on d ry ­ing, determ ination of w ater in starch , and sedim entation of. starch suspensions w ith reference to m anu facturing processes. C.

Starch and Sugars: C hem istry. R . Jeanloz. H elv. Chim . A cta , 1944, 27, 1501-1509, 1509-1517 (through Chem . A b str ., 1945, 39, 32607). (1) N ative y ea st glycogen is considered as identical w ith glycogen of anim al origina, though it is adm itted th a t coloration w ith iodine, opalescence, or ro tato ry pow er are not sufficient criteria for the establishm ent of the id e n tity or sim ilarity of tw o polysaccharides. T h e n ative yeast glycogen w as separated b y electrodialysis y ield in g abou t 27 per cent, o f soluble and 73 per cent, of insoluble m aterial. T h e properties o f the soluble fraction are recorded. (2) T h e “ term inal group ” m ethod of H aw orth perm its the calcu lation of the num ber of branches in branched-chain polysaccharides b y determ ining the am ount of 2 : 3 : 4 : 6-tetram ethylglucose obtained b y cleavage of the com pletely m eth ylated polysaccharide. T o determ ine the position of the branches, the

9— Pure Science

polysaccharide m ust be com p letely cleaved, and if a ll the branches originate in position 6, an am ount of 2 : 3-dim ethylglucose corresponding to the am ount of tetram ethylglucose obtained iii the determ ination o f th e term inal groups should be found. T o v e rify this, th e determ ination of 2 : 3-dim ethylglucose was investigated and the estim ation carried o u t b y an adap tation o f the m ethod of R eeves. A ll d erivatives of glucose w ith p rim ary alcohol group and a free neighbouring O H group, such as 2 :3-dim ethylglucose, gluconic acid, e tc .,-y ie ld a m olecule of form aldehyde, w hereas 6-ethers and glucosides w ith C atom 5 blocked b y an O bridge, such as 2 : 3 : 4 : 6-tetram ethylglucose, etc., do inot give form aldehyde. Mannose gave tw o mols. form aldehyde, b u t fructose gave o n ly 1-78 mols. Since the m ethylpentoses produce acetald eh yde on o xidation w ith periodic acid , it w as n ot passible to estim ate rham nose d irectly b y this m ethod. O xidation w ith K periodate is n ot successful w ith non- reducing disaccharides, such as trehalose and saccharose, or w ith 1 :6-linked trisaccharides such as m elibiose or m elezitose, w hereas sugars w ith 1 ^ -lin kage, m altose and cellobiose, re a ct norm ally, g iv in g the second mol. of form aldehyde slow ly. T hus the periodate m ethod is a gentle procedure for determ ining the m ethod o f linkage betw een th e CO groups o f a disaccharide. C.Starch D isp ersion s: O ptical R otation; Effect of Stannic Chloride. C. L . H offpauir and J. D . G uthrie. ' J . A m er. Chem . Soc., 194.5, 67> 1225-1226. T he o p tical rotation of a dispersion of starch in calcium chloride solution w as app reciably reduced b y the addition o f stannic chloride. T he original rotation m ay, how ever, be restored b y the addition o f sodium acetate or uran yl acetate. G lycogen dispersed in calcium chloride solution gave a low er rotation on addition of stannic chloride, w hereas the laevo-rotation of inulin w as increased, and restored to the original b y sodium acetate . D extrose w as unaffected. C. C is-In d igo: R eactions. G . H eller. B er. deut. chem . Ges., 1944, 77 B, 163-167 (through Chem . A b str ., 1945, 39, 2994s). Solutions o f indigo w hite treated w ith air a t low tem peratures d o not give trans-indigo b u t a d ye w hich is a little darker blue and m ay be c*s-dndigo. T h is changes into the trans­indigo on long stan din g or on heatin g. I t reacts w ith excess of hydroxylam in e in strongly alkaline solution a t low tem peratures. T h is reaction ap p aren tly reached a m axim um in 6 days and yielded a crystallin e cis-oxim e. Pu re cis- indigo and its oxim e w ere finally obtained through the a cy l derivatives of the d ye. Pure oxalylind igo w as also prepared. I t is stable tow ards h o t acids and h o t dilute am m onia solution, b u t dilute caustic soda decomposes it in ice, g iv in g cw-indigoi. I t separates from chloroform in m icro-leaflets, w h ilst trans­indigo crystallises in fine needles. N : N '-D iacetylin digo, w hich belongs to the trans-series, decom poses in the sam e w a y , and as o xalylin d igo can be pre­pared from it, th is m ust also belong to the trans-series. Therefore, bo th these com pounds rearrange under the influence o f th e a lkali. C.M ethyl O leate O xidation P roducts: Iso lation . D an iel Sw ern , H . B. K n ig h t, J. T . Scanlan and W . C. A u lt. / . A m er. Chem . S oc., 1945, 67, 1132-1135. T h e effect of ca ta ly tic a ir oxidation upon pure m eth yl oleate has been d eter­m ined and the high-boiling substances thus produced h a ve been characterized. T h e biggest boiling fraction of the volatile m aterial produced h as been isolated and b y o xid ative sp litting shown to consist o f m eth yl esters o f several isomeric m onohydroxy derivatives o f one or m ore m ono-unsaturated acids in w hich the double bond has been shifted from the 9: io-position. C.Nitrogen T etroxid e: R eactions w ith O rganic Com pounds. J. L. R iebsom er. Chem ical Review s, 1945, 36, 157-233. A literature su rvey is given , citin g 260 papers on the subject, including th e structure and properties of nitrogen tetroxide, n itrations and oxidations w ith the tetroxide and the trioxide, reactions w ith ethylenic com pounds, and m iscellaneous reactions. C.Low Tem perature T herm ostatic Bath. E . L . R u h , G . E . C o n k lin and J. E . Curran. Ind. Eng. Chem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 451-452. A three-bath therm ostat w ith autom atic tem perature Qontrol has been designed for v is ­co sity determ inations a t tem peratures ranging from +40° to — 70° F . O ne b a th contains the cooling m ixture w hich is 99 per cent, isopropyl alcohol and solid carbon dioxide, the second b a th is filled w ith acetone and contains in addition to the cooling coil a b im etallic therm oregulator and a n im m ersion heater, and the th ird b a th is a D ew ar-typ e e v a cu a ted ja r filled w ith acetone and containing a therm oregulator and a knife-blade im m ersion h eater (tem ­

A482 9— Pure Science

p erature control w ith in 4-0-1° F .) . T h e installation is m ounted in a special cab in et w hich augm en ts its operating efficiency. C .

Condensable V apours: H eats of Sorption. A . G . F oster. / . Chem . Soc., 1945, 360-366. A new m ethod for calibratin g the P iran i gauge, based 011 the reciprocal relation betw een therm al co n d u ctiv ity and pressure, is described for m easuring the pressure of condensable vapours up to 0-5 mm. Sorption iso­therm als o f w ater, toluene, e th y l alcohol, dioxan, w-octane and carbon te tra ­chloride h ave been determ ined on silica and ferric o xide gels. A ll give th e linear p lo t o f p j c. against p, w hich conform s to the L an gm u ir isotherm . T h e saturation values calculated for the am ounts held in the com pleted uni- m olecular la ye r show good agreem ent w ith previous estim ates m ade from d a ta a t higher pressures. H eats o f sorption h ave been ca lcu lated b y m eans o f th e C lapeyron equation and com pared w ith the values calculated b y the s tatistica l th eory from the con stan t o f L an gm u ir’s equation. E n tro p y changes a ccom pan yin g th e sorption process h a ve been ca lcu lated and support th e view t h a t the occluded m olecules lose m ost of their translation al m obility, w hich is replaced b y v ibration al m otions in three degrees of freedom (three-dim en­sional oscillator). T h e m otions o f the adsorbed m olecules app roxim ate to those in the liquid or solid state. * C.

Condensable V apours: Sorption b y S ilica G el. D . N . Broad and A . G . Foster. / . Chem . Soc., 1945, 366-371. T h e isotherm als on silica g e l fall in to tw o classes (i) " norm al ” show ing gradual increase o f pressure w ith concentration, com prising acetic acid, acetone, carbon tetrachloride, w-hexane and toluene, and (ii) cu rves fallin g alm ost ve rtica lly from ab n orm ally low saturation values to v e ry low pressures, com prising m-octane, d i-isopropyl ether, m orpholine and trieth ylam in e, in order of decreasing e xten t o f adsorption, the pores of silica gel actin g as a m olecular sieve. I t has to be assum ed th a t the gel contains tap erin g capillaries. T h e generalisation (Gurwitstih rule) th a t volum es o f d ifferent liquids adsorbed a t saturation were app ro xim ately constant for a given adsorben t does n o t a p p ly an this case w here it is clear th a t th e low est saturation values are associated w ith the largest m olecules. T h e fa c t th a t p art o f the pore volum e is inaccessible to large m olecules im plies th a t p art o f the to ta l surface is also inaccessible, and the am ounts o f various substances held in the unim olecular la ye r should also decrease as the m olecular size increases.

C.G as A d sorbents: M easurem ents of Surface A rea. P. H . E m m ett. In d. Eng. C hem ., 1945, 37, 639-644. A critica l review is given of published m ethods in vo lv in g the m easurem ent of th e adsorption o f gases b y the solid adsorbents a t tem peratures close to the boiling points o f th e gases. T he conclusion is draw n th a t low -tem perature adsorption isotherm s of some gas, such as nitrogen, afford th e sim plest basis for m easuring the surface area of fin ely d ivided parous adsorbents o r even of m aterials h avin g sm all surface areas. C.

S ilica G el: A dsorption of W ater Vapour. R . K . T a y lo r. In d. Eng. Chem ., ■945> 37- 649-652. A dsorption d ata fo r a given ratio o f w ater to silica gel over th e range 25°-250° C . w ere obtained b y the static m ethod in the absence of air. Pressure readings w ere tak en u p to 900 m m . P lo tted on a Cox chart (1923) th e pressure-tem perature points lie on converging stra igh t lines. E xperim en ts were m ade w ith 1-30 per cent, w ater added. N o evidence of hysteresis w as found for changes o f tem perature or com position, neither in the absence of a ir nor for 10 m m . partia l pressure. T h e sam e d a ta are repre­sented as isosteres on a graph of re lative h u m id ity / tem perature and the relation appears to be lin ear over th e range of m easurem ents. C.

W ater V apour: Sorption on Porous Solids. D . N . Broad and A . (j. F o ster. / . Chem . S oc., 1945, 372-375- T h e adsorption isotherm als o f w ater and deuterium oxide h ave been com pared a t 250 on silica and ferric oxide gels and011 charcoal. On each adsorbent the re lative pressure / volum e curves of the tw o liquids are identical. W ith silica and ferric oxide gels the experim ental poin ts fa ll on the curve predicted b y the cap illary theory, b u t scarcely any adsorption takes place on charcoal a t low pressures. T h e adsorptive force betw een the charcoal surface and the w ater m olecules is abnorm ally sm all and p robably does n ot suffice to overcom e the cohesive forces betw een the w ater

m olecules. In this case the critical pressure w hich m ust p revail before con­densation begins is characteristic, n o t o f the condensation process, b u t of the la ye r adsorption process. C .

M onolayers; R eactions in — . E . K. R id eal. J. Chem . S oc., 1945, 423-42S. A “ Liversidge ” lecture. A lth ough the q u a n tity of substance in volved in surface reactions is o n ly of th e order of 1 m g ./sq . m . th e m ethods used for follow ing the chem ical change are v e ry sensitive (m easurem ents of surface pressure in L an gm u ir trough or change .in boun dary p otential). T h e m ono­layer is capable o f being expanded or com pressed and thus the m olecular orientation and often also the p h ysical state can be altered a t w ill. Cases of ester hydrolysis and oxidation are cited as ty p ica l surface chem ical reactions. In all these alteration of the p ath of approach o f th e diffusible rea cta n t im plies an alteration in the energy of a ctivatio n as w ell as in the steric factor, and these alterations are d irectly reflected in a chan ge in reaction v e lo c ity . T h e ester group can be shielded b y a short hydrocarbon chain im m ersed below the surface, com plete protection bein g afforded b y the benzoate group. In the field of photochem ical reactions a w hole series o f h y d ro ly tic and o x id ative changes, in cluding indole ring closure, can be brou ght abou t b y suitable radiation of n atural proteins. I t is possible, too, to incorporate alien chrom o- phores into the protein and achieve sim ilar reactions. I f in jected m olecules possess non-polar portions th e y m ay p en etrate into the m onolayer and react w ith its non-polar portions. T h e in jection of long-chain fa t ty acids beneath a protein m onolayer leads to form ation of a lipo-protein com plex b y pen etra­tion of the acid into the protein film. A ddition of more of the soap displaces the film of com plex from the surface. S im ilarly in jected cholesterol leads to lipo-protein com plex. On com pression o f th e film the cholesterol is pushed

* up and the protein down into the aqueous phase. T h e fa c t th a t surface com ­plexes can be displaced sets a lim it to the biological a c tiv ity o f hom ologous series. Sensitisation is a differen t asp ect o f th is com p lex penetration m echanism .

* C.Colloidal E lectro lytes: E quivalent C onductiv ity in th e M inim um R egion , E m anuel G onick. / . A m er. Chem . S o c., 1945, 67, 1191-1194. T h e equ ivalen t co n d u ctiv ity of n early all colloidal e lectrolytes (e.g. detergents) in the region o f th e co n d u ctiv ity m inim um o b ey th e equation : A = A ^ ,c + B */c, w here A and B are constants, depending on anion an d cation concentration, respective ly , a t a given tem perature. T h e only exceptions so far found are long-chain sub­stituted am m onium acetates. T he position of the m inim um in the con ­d u ctiv ity/co n cen tratio n cu rve is determ ined b y the m obilities o f the cation and anion, respectively , b u t in opposite sense: C min = A j B . T h e equ iva len t co n d u ctiv ity of these colloidal e lectro lytes m a y b e represented as the super­position of tw o parts, A *Jc and B </c, w hich are equal w hen the co n d u ctiv ity is a t its m inim um . C.

P roteins: Interaction w ith S yn th etic D etergen ts. E. W . P u tn am and H. N eurath. J. B iol. Chem ., 19145, 159, 195-209. A n lelectrophoretic in vestiga­tion of the interaction betw een recrystallised horse serum album in and purified sodium dodecyl sulphate is reported. In phosphate-N aCl buffer solution, pH 6-8, ionic strength 0-2, tw o discrete com plexes h ave been identified a t i ° C . , w hilst a t 200 C . addition al com plexes of v a ry in g com position havie been observed. T he distribution am ong th e com plexes is a function only of d eter­gent to protein ratio . T h e com position o f com plexes 1 and 2 w as calculated to be o-22 gm . and 0-45 gm . of d etergen t per gm . of album in, respectively . These com positions correspond to the m inim um ra tio required for com plete precipitation of th e protein a t pH 4-5. I t is suggested th a t in teraction m ust in volve protein groups, presu m ably cation ic, w hich rem ain fu lly ionised in the pH region from 4-5 to 6-8. The num ber of detergen t anions bound in the tw o com p letes is calculated to be equ iva len t to one-half and to all the cationic protein groups, resp ective ly . T his stoichiom etric com bination of detergent anions w ith basic protein groups explains the specific precipitation o f proteins b y aniions of high affin ity. T h e higher com plexes of variab le com position are electrop horetically m onodisperse up to a detergen t to protein ratio of u n ity, a t w hich free detergen t m akes its first appearance. T h e n ature o f these re la tiv e ly easily dissociable complexies is considered in relation to the precipitation and visco sity beh avio u r of the protein. C.

g— Pure Science A483

A484 9— Pure Science

L iquids: V isco sity at H ig h R ate of Shear. L . G runberg and A .H . Nissan. N ature, 1945, 156, 241. T h eoretical considerations are advanced to show th a t a t h igh rates of shear the v isco sity of N ew tonian liquids m a y be expected to becom e a function of th e rate of shear. T h e value of the rate o f shear at w hich the effect becom es p erceptib le depends on the re lativ e m agnitude of the therm al agitation of the m olecules and the " agitation of flo w .” C.

P olyam ide S o lu tion s: V isco sity . S. R . R a fik o v and V . V . K o rsch ak . B ull. A ca d. Sci. U .R .S .S ., C l. Sci. Chirn., 1944, 432-439 (through B rit. A bstracts, 1945, A I, 198). V iscosities are recorded (in the original) for solutions in wi-cresol of nylon s of m ean m ol. w t. 5,100-148,000 derived from hexam ethylene- diamiime and adipic acid, and also for the diam ine, its adipates and its diacy], d ibenzoyl and d isteary l derivatives. T h e increm ent in the value of r] for the C O • N H j group is less th an for the NH „ group. Increase of tem perature causes a rapid fall in t/sp, w hich is more m arked for products o f low mol. w t. and at high concentrations. T h e anom alously high jysp of the polyam ides is due to free NH_, groups. D ivergence from the Hagen-Poilseuille rule is shown only b y con cen trated solutions of polyam ides w ith high mol. w t. Ć.

Rubber and Rubbery P lastics: R h eology . W . S. Penn. India-R ubber ] . , 1945, 108, 671-6, 705-8, 736-7. T h e author gives a useful review of the rheological properties o f rubber, syn th etic rubbers and plastics in relation to m olecular structure and processing. C.

A crid ine D erivatives: A bsorption Spectra. (1) D. P. C ra ig and L . N . Short.(2) N . H . T urnbull. / . Chem . Soc., 1945, (1) 419-422, (2) 4141-444. (1) The absorption sp ectra in the visible and u ltra-v io let are recorded and discussed for acridine, mono- and diamino-acridimes and acridinium ions. (2) T he absorp­tion spectra in the u ltra-violet of the five isom eric m onoam inoacridm es are reported. T h e absorption m axim a of the b iva len t ions of 1-, 3-, and 4-amino- acridines coincide w ith those o f acridine hydrochloride, whereas those of the u n iva len t ions o f these bases are displaced to longer W ave-lengths. T he con­clusion is reached th a t, in the sh ift from uni- to b i-valen t ions, the am ino- group in each substance accep ts a proton and th ereby ceases to affect the absorption spectrum . T h e 2- and 5-am inoacridines, w hich possess outstand­in g biological a c tiv ity , ^exhibit great spectrographic in d ivid u ality . C.

B asic D y es: M etachrom acy. L . M ich aelis and S. G ra n ick . J. Amer. Chem . S o c., 1945, 67, 1212-1219. M any basic dyes are adsorbed in different norm al and m etachrom atic colours. A 3 per cent, nucleic acid solution a t p H 4-5-5 has been chosen as a m odel for a n orm ally staining substrate and an aqueous agar gel a t th e sam e p H fo r a m etachrom atically staining one. S pectroph otom etrical m easurem ents h a ve been taken o f the adsorbtion curves o f these m odel substrates. T h e degree to w hich a d y e exh ib its m etachrom atic properties in a g a r goes parallel to th e degree to w hich it d eviates from B e e r ’s law in aqueous solution, d ue to the fa c t th a t wfith increasing concentration dim eric m olecular aggregates of the dye m olecules are found. T h is meta- chronm tic effect m anifests itself b y a strong displacem en t o f the m ain adsorp­tion band tow ards shorter w ave-lengths a t th e expense o f the m etachrom atic band, a sim ilar effect as th a t of a high con cen tration o f the d ye in aqueous solution w hen th e m ain band is depressed, to a less exte n t, a t the expense of th e dim eric one. M etachrom atic effects are dim inished or even abolished, reversib ly , on increasing the tem perature. In co n trast, in the presence of nucleic acid the m olar absorption curve of all basic dyes is independent of the d y e con cen tration and is sim ilar to th a t of the d ye in d ilu te solution. Instead of polym ers, a stoAchiom etrically well-defined salt-like com pound is formed from each cation o f the d ye w ith one acidic side-chain o f nucleic acid. I t is shown th a t the fa cu lty of d yes for di- or poly-mierization is alw ays correlated w ith their m etachrom atic effect exh ib ited in certain stain ing processes. C.

Indanthrene D y e L ig h t F ilters. M . S . Z e l’tser and G . K . K r y u k o v a . J. T ech. P h y s. (U .S .S .R .), 19144, 14, 373-384 (through Chem . A b str ., 1945, 39. 32148). L ig h t filters h a vin g a high stab ility to ligh t and h e a t (8o° C.) m ay be prepared b y soaking film s o f cellulose d iacetate in indanthrene dyes. The nam es of the dyies and the w av e len gth s for m inim um absorption are recorded.

9— Pure Science A 485

Rabkin Colour-B lindness T est: E valuation . L . H . H a rd y , G ertrude R and and M. Catherine R ittle r . / . O ptical Soc. Am erica, 1945, 35, 481-491. A close exam ination o f R a b k in ’s " P o lych ro m a tic P lates fo r T estin g C olour V ision ” shows this test to be m ore in fo rm ative th a n th e Ish ihara test. Som e of the tw e n ty plates are described in d eta il and the in d ividual plates wieee analysed. T h e test affords a good m eans for screening th e colour d efective from the norm al perform ance b y accep tin g a critica l score o f 75 as a d iv id in g line. Scores alone cann ot be used to in dicate either the e x te n t o r the ty p e of colour d efect. T h e test, w hen evaluated in a revised m anner, affords an excellen t m edium for the d ifferential classification o f ty p e o f red-green d efect not only am ong dichrom ats, b u t also am ong anom alous trich rom ats. I t is, how ever, n ot adequate to differentiate betw een anom alous trich rom ats and dichrom ats. T w o im provem ents, in the pigm ents and in th e chrom a o f p igm ents used, are suggested. C.

Portable E lectrom eter: A p plication in M easurem ent of E lectrostatic Charges.D . B ulgin . / . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 22, 149-151. D iagram s and a detailed description are g iven of an apparatus, based on th e electrom eter v a lv e , for m easuring vo ltage b y th e in duction, b y ca p a city coupling on to th e grid system of the va lve , o f a sm all vo ltage proportional to th a t o f the source un der exam ination. T h e sign, vo lta ge and q u a n tity of charge can be ascer­tain ed on statio n ary or m ovin g o bjects b y d irect reading of a pointer in stru­m ent, w hilst b y the use of an a u x ilia ry group of condensers resistance to earth can be m easured from io 7 to io 12 ohms. B y the design o f suitable accessories the instrum ent m ay be used for th e m easurem ent o f a n y fun ction w hich can be reduced to a voltage or a vo lta ge change. C.

P olyth en e: T exture. C . W . B unn and T . C . A lco ck . Trans. Faraday Soc., 1945, 41, 317-325. T h e relation betw een crystallin e and am orphous con­stitu en ts o f p olythen e, d isp layed as fa ir ly sharp reflections and as a diffuse baind, respectively , on X -ra y diffraction p atterns— h a s been studied a t tem ­peratures up to the m elting p o in t (ap proxim ately 120° C .). P h otograph s show th a t an increase in the re lative in ten sity o f the “ a m o rp h o u s” band as com ­pared w ith the " crystallin e ” reflections becom es obvious above 800 C . and quite m arked a t i o i ° C . A t 1230 C . o n ly the " am orphous ” band is visible. D en sity and h eat ca p a city m easurem ents are con sisten t w ith this p icture of gradual m eltin g. T h e la ttice dim ensions wtere determ ined from th e positions of the 2 0 0 and 0 2 0 reflections. T h e len gth of the b a x is o f th e orthorhom bic cell rem ains a p p ro x im a tetly con stant a t 4-93-4-95 A , w h ilst th a t o f the a axis increases from 7-42 A a t i8 ° C . to 7-65 A a t 100“ C . O p tica l eviden ce indicates a spherulitic stru ctu re in p olythen e. T h e orientation of the crystals in the spheruliites is deduced b y reference to th e op tica l properties o f cold- d raw n fibres. T he conclusion is draw n th a t the c axes o f the crysta ls (the m olecular axes) are perpendicular to th e radii of the spherulite. F ilm s of p o ly ­thene w ere m elted on m icroscope slides and observation betw een crossed N icols showed th a t the spherulites do n ot com p letely disappear un til a tem perature o f i i5 ° - i7 o ° C . is reached. T here is a general rise o f m eltin g poin t w ith average m olecular w eight up to a b o u t 20,000; the h ighest m eltin g point observed w as 126° C. T he m echanism o f cold drawling is discussed. C.

Rubber: P hysics and C hem istry . B ritish R u b b er P ro d u cers ’ R esearch A sso ­ciation . India-Rubber ] . , 1945, 108, (1) 289-292, (2) 319-322, (3) 349-352 and359-3'6 i > (4 ) 375~379> (5) 405 ’ 4° 9 > (6) 435-439 aTld 447-448 . (7) 465-468, (8) 495-499. R eports are g iven of th e follow ing usefu l series o f lectu res on " R e c e n t A d van ces in the P h ysics and C h em istry of R u b b e r.” (1) T h e Size and Shape of the R u b b er M olecule, b y G eoffrey G ee. (2) T h e K in e tic T h eory o f R u bber E la stic ity , b y L . R . G . Treloar. (3) T h e Solu b ility and Sw elling of R u bbers, b y G . Gee. (4) C rystallisation in R u bbers, b y L . R . G . T reloar. (5) T he Therm al D egradation o f R ubber, b y J. L . B o llan d . (6) V u lcan isation of R ubber, b y G . F . B loom field . (7) T h e O xidation o f U n satu rated System s, b y D . A . Su tto n . (8) T h e O xid a tive B reakdow n of R u bber, b y G . F . B lo o m ­field. C. A lizarin D eposits on Su lp h id e L attices: O rientation. A . N euhaus. Naturwissenschaften, 1943, 31. 387-388 (through B rit. A bstracts, 1945, A I, 190). A lizarin can be deposited on a freshly cleaved surface of v e ry pure zinc blende in needles orientated a t th e sam e angle on eith er side of the tw inning

A486 9— Pure Science

axis, w ith the m olecules perpendicular to the zinc sulphide surface w hich the needles to u ch alon g th e ir long axes. Since th e la ttices m ade b y Zn and S and b y — O H , > C O and = 0 ---H — O — h ave closely sim ilar dim ensions, linkages are form ed betw een them , b y pole-dipole forces in the first tw o cases and b y a H -bridge in the la st tw o. O rientated deposits of. a lizarin can also he formed on Sb and P b glances. T h e la ttice m easurem ents o f these sulphides agree ap p ro xim ate ly w ith those o f alizarin so th a t the la tte r is linked to Sb in the first case and to P b or S in the second, b y pole-dipole forces. O th er anthracene d erivatives th a t d isp lay the effects are listed. C.

Electron M icroscopy B ib liography. C laire M arton and S. Sass. J. A pplied P hysics, 1945, 16, 373-378. A supplem ent is given to the b ibliograp hy pre­v io u sly published, in cludin g tw o sum m aries in table form . C.

E lectron Diffraction Camera V iew in g Screen and Photographic P late Holder.A . H . W eber and C . H . D ahm . R ev . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 16, 141-143. A sim ple photographic recording u n it for an electron diffraction cam era con­sisting of m ovable p late holder, shutter and view in g screen is described. T en exposures on a single 5 x 8 in. p late are possible. L e a k troubles are avoided b y a co a t o f g ly p ta l. C.Electron M icroscope Diffraction Specim en H older. G . L . S iin ard and C . R. S try k er. R e v . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 16, 146-148. A specim en holder is described fo r am ad ap ter lens to th e M odel B , R .C .A . e lectron m icroscope. I t is designed to accom m odate a w ide range of specim en sizes and shapes for diffraction in vestigations b y b o th electron reflection and transm ission m ethods. T hree com p lete ly independent m otions o f th e specim en are pro­v id e d : (1) translation in a direction perpendicular to the electron beam , (2) rotation a b ou t the direction of translation, and (3) ro tatio n abou t an axis perpendicular to both th e electron beam and the direction of translation. C .

Electron M icroscopy Surface R eplicas: Production. L . T hom assen, R . C . W illiam s and R . W . G. W yck o ff. R ev . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 16, 155-156. Im proved replicas o f surfaces are m ade b y using F o rm v ar or collodion in a n y o f the usual w ays and th en p lacin g the rep lica i!n a vacuu m cham ber for th e deposition o f a shadow -cast film of chrom ium on its im pressed surface. C.

Inert D u st Insecticid es: A c tiv ity . P . A lexan der, J. A . K itch en er and H . V . A . B riscoe. A n n . A p p l. B io l., 1944, 31, 143-149, 150-156, 156-159. (1) T h em ode o f action o f in ert d u st insecticides on th e grain w eevil (Calandra granaria L .) has been in vestigated b y determ ination o f m o rta lity curves. T h e action of in ert dusts on w eevils is n ot in a n y sense a chem ical process. In no case w as a n y d ust detected in th e respiratory system s o f w eevils b u t i t w as found th a t a ll kin ds of dust are eaten indiscrim inately. F u rth er experim ents confirm ed the view of earlier w orkers th a t inert dusts k ill insects b y inducing death b y dessication. (2) In vestigation s w ere carried o u t to find some physical o r m echanical prop erty o f in ert dusts responsible for k illin g w eevils. Particles o f carborundum larger th an 15 /t are w ith ou t action , p ro b ab ly because th e y do n o t adhere to insects, and effectiveness increases as th e size is reduced from 10 n to a b ou t 2 /x. A test m ethod has been devised which elim inates th e particle size as a variab le, and a rough correlation of effectiveness w ith hard­ness is show n. G en erally, m aterials softer th an calcite are in effective, b u t the m eth od of preparation of dusts is also im p ortan t. Som e dry-ground powders are inferior to those w et-ground, a phenom enon w hich seems to be due to some kin d o f surface change. Insecticidal e ffect o f a dust is enhanced if the surface o f the particles is crysta llin e or angular in character, b u t it is dim inished if the surface becom es am orphous or rounded. On the basis of exp erim en ts w ith an artificial m em hrane system it is suggested th a t clean crystallin e surfaces o f e ffective dusts can absorb, or in some w a y penetrate, the w ater-resistant epicu ticle . (3) In ert dusts were found to be effective against a v a r ie ty o f insects infesting stored products, bo th la rva e and adults. T h e results, while differing for different species, show in co n trast w ith Calandra th a t the effect e f hard m ineral dusts on larvae is co m p aratively sm all, b u t th e adsorbent powders, alum ina and N eosyl, are extrem ely effective. T h e m echanism of action seems to be the sam e. T h e effect of dusts on the m ealw orm , w hich is p articu larly strikin g, has been investigated more fu lly . T h e greatest dusting effect occurs only w ith the liv in g organism . C.

9— Pure Science A 4 87

Insecticides: N ew D evelop m ents. L . D . G oodhue. Iowa State College J. Sci., 1945, 19, 255-262. A review is g iven of recent developm ents in insect control, in cluding D D T , various repellents, im proved louse powders and m osquito larvicides, organic th io cyan ates, synergists fo r insecticides, n ew m ethods o f m aking pyrethrum e xtra cts, new fum igan ts, and th e aerosol m ethod of app lyin g insecticides. C .

A nim al F eed in g -stu ffs: W ater U p tak e at Controlled H um id ities. D. Sn ow , M. H . G . C rich to n and N. C . W righ t. A n n . A p p l. B io l., 1944, 31, 111-116 . D etails are g iven o f the w ater u p tak e o f a w ide v a r ie ty of feeding-stuffs a t a range of fixed hum idities. T h e lev el and shape of the w ater u p tak e curves are closely related to th e am ounts of soluble carbohydrate and protein present. F ibre exerts a depressing effect on the w ater u p take, and the va lu e is also lowered b y the presence of inert fats and non-hygroscopic ash constituents. These conclusions were confirm ed b y d irect experim ents on the w ater up take o f sam ples o f pure starch, protein and fibre. T h e results of the in vestigations h a v e enabled safe lim its of m oisture con ten t to be laid dow n for th e storage of feeding-stuffs, representative figures bein g included in tab u lar form . C.

C ellu lose: Ferm entation by T herm ophilic Bacteria. R . E n ebo and H . L undin. " The Svedberg ” Com m em oration V o l., 1944, 438-455. Som e ques­tions concerning therm ophilic b acteria in general are discussed and their im portant properties and classification according to E n ebo axe review ed. A s th e result o f experim ents on the possibilities o f the tech n ica l exp lo itatio n of cellulose ferm entation, it appears th a t the m edium should n ot contain more than 3-4 per cent, cellulose, if the la tte r is to be en tire ly ferm ented. T h e accum ulation of ferm entation products seems to in h ib it furth er ferm entation. Methods for successive rem oval of products during the actu al ferm entation are n o t y e t tech n ically feasible, b u t the reco very o f ferm entation products from the mash, especially in alcohol production, is re la tiv e ly cheap. Mashes w ith predom inantly acid con ten t can be w orked up according to Om an b y freezing ou t the w ater. Cellulose in the soft p art of p lan ts and in annual p lants is more easily con verted b y cellulose-ferm enting b acteria than lignified m aterial. F u rth er experim ents h ave shown th a t b acteria whose cellulose-ferm enting a c tiv ity on artificial cellulose m edia is com p lete ly inhibited b y sugars can tolerate the presence of sugar in a beet pulp m edium and effect norm al cellulose ferm entation. C .

Chaetom ium M oulds: C ellu lose-decom posing Power. G . A . G reathou se and L . M. Am es. T extile Research / . , 1945, 15, 223-225. E vid en ce is presented of the com parative abilities under sim ilar exp erim en tal conditions of sixteen species of Chaetom ium to decom pose cotton fabric. Thie different species and their activ ities are described, and the effect o f th e d ifferent species, grow n on four nitrogen sources, on the breaking load of cotton duck, a fte r 7 d ays incubation, is tabu lated . C.M oulds: Growth at Low H u m id ities. D . Sn ow , M. H . G . C righ to n and N.C . W right. A nn. A p p l. B io l., 1944, 31, 102-110. O bservations w ere m ade on the developm ent o f m ould grow th on six w id ely d ifferent feeding-stuffs for storage periods extending over some 3 J years. T h e rate of m ould developm ent w as found to depend on the re lative h u m id ity o f the atm osphere rath er than on the m oisture con ten t o f the m ateria l stored. M oulds developed fa irly rap id ly on all sam ples stored a t 100-75 Per cent. R .H . A t hum idities below 75 per cent, m ould grow th only to ek place a fte r a v e ry prolonged la te n t period (over 2 years). T he balance and typte o f n utrients p rovid ed b y the variou s feeding- stuffs influenced the la te n t period as w ell as the e x te n t of m ould deterioration. This w as confirmed b y experim ents on artific ia lly dried grass fractions and b y experim ents on starch, protein and fibre m ixtures, sam ples containing the fibre con stituen t tak in g the longest periods for m oulds to develop. Sam ples stored a t 220 C . developed m ould m ycelium sooner than those stored a t 15 ‘ 5° C . T h e literatu re relatin g to the grow th o f m oulds a t different hum idities is surveyed. . C.

Starch and G lycogen : C onstitu tion and E nzym atic D egradation. K.M yrback. “ T he S v e d b e rg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 474,-483. Structures proposed for the m olecules o f starch and glycogen b y variou s authors are dis­cussed and it is argued th a t m ost of them bear no relation to a n y conceivable

9— Pure Science

m echanism of the enzym ic synthesis o f polysaccharides. M yrback and Sillen (1943) h ave proposed a structure w ith m ultiple branching of the chains, sim ilar to th a t proposed b y K . H . M eyer, and this is held to be in good agreem ent w ith the know n facts concerning the enzym ic degradation of polysaccharides. T h e proposed structure, though irregular and in a sense com plicated, m ay be found to give a q u a n tita tiv e interpretation o f the facts. C.A d sorption A n a lysis Recording A pparatus. S. C laesson. “ The S v ed b erg ’ ’ Commemoratio.n V ol., 1944, 82-93. A recording apparatus designed for p lottin g th e refractive in dex as a fun ction of the w eigh t o f solution th a t has passed through i t has been con structed for adsorption analyses and is fu lly described. T h e a ccu racy is abou t io -s an d 0 03 g ., respectively , a t m axim um sensitivity.

C.Carbon and H ydrogen M icro-determ ination A pparatus. A . S tey erm a rk . Ind. E ng. Chem,., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 523-526. B alan ce tab le and balance m ount­ing, illum ination o f balances, w eather-proofing, a ir conditioning, and the lab orato ry plan o f a m odem industrial arrangem ent for the m icro-determ ina- tio n of C and H are described and illustrated . A bsorption tubes, com bustion tu bes, ty p e of furnace and tem perature o f com bustion are also discussed. C. C hem ical Balance K nife E d ges: T estin g . A . C ra ig . R ev . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 16, 205-209. M ethods are described for testin g balance knife edges w ith v e ry sim ple equipm ent. Sharpness and straightness are tested o p tica lly and m ech an ically . Formulae are given for arm len gth ratio and knife-edge parallax (vertical and horizontal). Suggested tolerances for m acro-balances are : — F atig u e not more than 5 per cent, o f the sw ing; A rm ratio n o t more than i : i *o o o o i ; D rop in sen sitiv ity for 100 gm s. mot more than 0-02; A ngles of p ara lla x n ot m ore th a n 5' o f arc, ve rtica lly , and 1' h o rizo n tally . C.

O x y gen A bsorption D eterm ination A pparatus. M. H . M enaker, M . L . Shaner and H . O. T riebold . Ing. E ng. Chem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 518-519. An app aratu s is described th a t consists of a group o f un its and m akes a con­tinuous au to m atic record of the oxygen absorbed b y a sam ple. C onstant pressure is m aintained in the reaction cham ber. T h e apparatus has been used in a s tu d y of the effect o f tem perature on the induction period of a sam ple of lard . T h e d a ta obtained in dicate th a t determ inations can be m ade w ith a fa ir ly high degree of accu racy . C.

Ferrous S u lph ate S olu tion s: Indirect S tab ilisation . F . R . D u ke. In d. Eng. C hem ., A nal. E d n ., 19+5, 17, 530. A m ethod for in direct stabilisation of fer­rous sulphate solution depends on reduction o f a n y ferric iron in the solution as i t emerges from the stock b o ttle through a lead am algam reductor. C.

A lu m in a C olum n: Separation of Inorganic Ions by A dsorption. P . W . M.Jacobs and F . C . T om pkins. Trans. Faraday S oc., 1945, 17, 388-405. I. Static Adsorption M easurem ents. T h e adsorption o f cations and anions from aqueous solution of electro lytes b y alum ina has been m easured. T h e causes for de­a ctiv a tio n are discussed. T he cation is m ore stron gly adsorbed than the anion because of additional cation exchange adsorption. T h is is associated w ith the presence of sodium alum inate as an im p u rity and is n o t due to h yd ro lytic adsorption, nor an exch an ge process in vo lvin g eith er the A T " or H ' ion. The adsorb ab ility is associated w ith the ten d en cy to covalen cy and the adsorption ite m olecular. I I . Position, R a te of A dvance and W idth of Adsorbate Zones. T h e relation o f w idths of bands o f some cations on alum ina colum ns, the rate of advance w hen developed w ith hydrochloric acid , and the re lativ e positions h ave been studied. T h e rate of advance is d irectly proportional to the viscosity and varies in versely as th e am ount adsorbed. T h e possible extension to q u a n tita tiv e w ork has been exam ined, and various observations o f previous authors are given a ltern ative explanations. I I I . E lution Curves. D ifferential and in tegral concentration distribution curves o f Cu ions in solution have been obtained in a chrom atographic stu d y of the form ation and developm ent o f bands on alum ina colum ns. V ariation s of length of colum n, in itia l concen­tration and volum e of Copper sulphate solution and of p H of elution solution h a ve been in vestigated and th e results confirm and extend the conclusions of parts I and II . A lum in a w as found to be unsuitable as an absorbent, as the irreversib ility and other factors render m easurem ents o f w id th of bands very in accu rate and the sep arability o f cations becom es alm ost im possible. C.

9-— Pure Science A489

Calcium : Spectrophotom etric D eterm ination . R . E . S co tt and C . R . John­son. In d. E ng. C h em ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 504-506. Several sim ple and rapid m ethods are described for the determ ination of C a b y precipitation as oxalate and subsequent colorim etric determ ination w ith perm anganate. Once a calibration cu rve is obtained b y ad ap tin g one o f the m ethods to a p articu lar spectrophotom eter or photoelectric colorim eter, o n ly one or tw o easily pre­pared and v e ry stab le standard solutions and a few com m on reagents are required. A sum m ary of calibration d a ta show s th a t precision is satisfactory. T he new m ethods are com pared w ith standard and official m ethods as carried o u t b y six differen t analysts a r d show good agreem ent. C.

M etallic T races: Colorim etric E stim ation . R . S . E ssery . J. In st. Brewing, 1945, 51, 185-188. T he exam in ation o f w ort fo r traces o f m etal, extracted from the a llo y on boiling under various conditions, h as been undertaken to describe som e of the difficulties encountered. In the preparation of sam ples for analysis th e m ain difficulty w as th e destruction o f the carbohydrate; th e author rem oved it b y ferm entation. T h e m ethods em ployed for th e estim a­tion of N i, F e , Cu and Cr in quantities up to 3 p arts per m illion, are described. T h e im portance o f the follow ing points is em phasized: m ethods should be selected w hich are free from interference b y re la tiv e ly large proportions of phosphate; the m ethod should be applicable in acid solution; reco very should be checked b y controls. C.O xygen : Q uantitative A bsorption . H . W . Stone and E . R . S k a v in s k i. Ind. Eng. Chem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 495-498.. A s tu d y has been under­taken to resolve doubts a b ou t thie application of a cetic acid solutions of chrom ous chloride for th e q u a n tita tiv e absorption of oxygen . T h e effect of the concentration o f acid hydrogen in the reagen t on the evolution o f hydrogen gas is shown, and this and other factors th a t create d ifficu lty can b e elim inated or avoided b y a p p ly in g th e principles in dicated . T h e reagen t specified is excellent for determ ining o xyg en in the atm osphere and an apparatus and directions for an accurate determ in ation of th is va lu e are described. C .P hosphorus: Colorim etric D eterm ination . J. I. M . Jones. A nalyst, 1945, 70, 298-301. A n in vestigation of factors affectin g th e developm ent o f th e blue colour b y reduction of phosphom olybdate w ith stannous chloride has been carried out. R eliab le and reproducible results are obtain able if conditions are str ic tly controlled. Standards m ust be prepared a t the sam e tim e as the unknown sam ples. T h e m ethod is applicable o ver a range of 0 0 1 to 0-05 m g. P in 10 c .c . o f solution. C .A m ino A cid s: Chrom atographic A dsorption on O rganic E xchange R esin s.C. S. C leaver, R . A . H a rd y, Jr. and H . G . C assidy. J. A m er. Chem . S oc., 1945, 67, 1343-1352. T h e responses tow ard several am ino acids o f a cation- exchange and an acid-binding sy n th e tic organ ic resin h a v e been exam ined. T h e influences o f th e follow ing factors h ave been in ve stig a ted : (1) T y p e o f resin, w eigh t o f resin an d p artic le size. (2) H eigh t o f adsorption colum n, flow rate , concentration o f am ino a cid in solution an d hydrogen ion con cen tration o f th e solution. T h e s tu d y has been extended to several b in ary an d tw o tern a ry m ixtures of am ino acids, and evidence as g iven on th e ir sep arability . A n a tte m p t is m ade to exp lain th e effects observed. Som e o f th e factors w hich need to be investigated before resins can b e used in th e a n a ly tica l separation of am ino acids are discussed. C .A m ino A cid and Peptide M ixtu res: A dsorption A n a lysis . A . T ise liu s . " The S v ed b erg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 370-378. Som e experim ents are described in w hich th e adsorption m ethod is applied to th e separation of m onoammo-moniocarboxylic acids and som e peptides o f th e sam e ty p e , w ith an active carbon as adsorbent. C u rves for th e d ifferen t ty p e s o f experim en t, front analysis, e lu tion analysis, and displacem ent analysis, a re show n. Q u an titative separations are possible w ith th e am ino acids and w ith those peptides w hich show low adsorption a ffin ity for carbon. W ith the h igher peptides losses occur and some m ethods o f ehm in ating th is d ifficu lty are discussed. C.Carbon and H yd rogen: M icro-determ ination. R . 0 . C la rk and G . H . S tillso n . Ind. E ng. Chem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 520-522. A series o f observations and experim ents on the m icro-determ ination of C and H in organ ic com pounds is presented and discussed. T h e n eed fo r a co rrect b la n k determ ination and for

A49° 9— Pure Science

a “ pre-bum er ” is recognised, an d 'a un iversal P reg l com bustion tu b e filling containing a 3-cm. section of p latin um w ire gauze is adopted . T h e elim ination o f lead peroxide from th e com bustion tu b e filling th rou gh th e use of a per­m angan ate absorber is n o t ap p licab le to th e m icro-m ethod. T h e effect of com bustion tim e w as also studied. C.F ats and O ils: C hrom atographic A n alysis. N . D . S y lv e s te r , A . N . A in s ­w orth and E . B . H ughes. A na lyst, 1945, 70, 295-298. A m ethod for the determ ination o f fa t in ad m ixtu re w ith fa tty acids is described w h ereb y a solution con tain in g fa t an d fa t ty a cid s is passed through a colum n o f alum inium oxide. T h e fa t is easily w ashed o u t b y a suitable so lven t, th e fa t ty acids rem aining stro n gly adsorbed o n the colum n. B rom oth ym o l blue is used as in dicator fo r locatin g the position o f fa t ty acids. S im ilarly, unsaponifiable m atter can e asily b e w ashed throu gh the absorption colum n. I t is suggested to w ash th e eth er solution, con tain in g th e unsaponifiable m a tte r a fte r e x tra c­tion o f th e soap solution, w ith d ilute acid, an d to rem ove th e resulting fa tty acids b y passing th e e th er solution throu gh th e alum inium o xide colum n. The results obtained b y th is m ethod showed satisfacto ry agreem en t w ith results arrived a t b y stan dard m eth ods. T h e adsorption m ethod is considered to be easier and quicker. C.F at and O il P olyunsaturated C onstituents: D eterm ination by U ltraviolet A b sorption . B . A . B rice and M argaret R . Sw ain. / . O ptical Soc. Am erica, 1945, 35, 532-5414. A m ethod based on m easurem ent o f th e u ltra v io le t absorp­tion o f a sam ple before a n d a fte r isom erisation in a n a lkalin e g lycerol medium is described for application to m aterials (having sm all proportions o f p o ly­un saturated con stituents, such as anim al fa ts and th e ir soaps, p a rtia lly hydro- gienated fa ts an d purified fa t t y preparations. T h e m eth od com prises correc­tio n o f d a ta for extran eo u s absorption, correction o f d a ta for con ju gated con­stitu en ts orig in ally p resent and su rvivin g the isom erisation treatm en t, and calcu lation o f th e proportions o f con ju gated and non-conjugated diane, triene and tetraene f a t t y a cid con stituents in th e sam ple. C.

H igh-m olecular F atty A c id s: P otentiom etric T itration . P . E k w a ll and G. Juup. “ The S v e d b e rg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 104-112. I t is shown th a t th e sodium salts o f long-chain fa t ty acids in aqueous solutions can be titra te d p o ten tio m etrica lly w ith silvter n itrate . T h e results a re u su a lly slightly to o low , b u t n ever m ore th a n 5 p er cen t. T h e solubilities o f th e silver salts o f various fa t ty acids show m arked differences. T h e so lu b ility products of th e silver salts w ere determ ined app ro xim ately from th e titratio n curves and thie p o ssib ility o f determ in in g tw o different f a t t y acids in a m ixture is dis­cussed. I t is show n th a t such a determ ination is possible i f the hydrocarbon chains o f the acids d iffer b y m ore th a n tw o C H 2-groups. C.

L inseed Oil G lycerid es: Chrom atographic S egregation . F . T . W alker. / . O il &• Colour Chem ists' A ssoc., 1945, 28, 119-134. T h e co n stitution of lin ­seed oil is b rie fly outlined and chrom atograph ic m ethods applied fo r th e detailed stu d y o f the com ponent glycerides are described. In a p relim inary experim ent th e adsorbent column, o f alum ina w as d iv id ed in to ten fractions, th e oil was dissolved from each one an d its iodine v a lu e and re fra ctive in d ex were deter­m ined. In th is w a y four d istin ct zones w ere recognised w hich corresponded w ith those o f glycerides con tain in g 7, 6, 5 an d 4 double bonds, respectively. In order to discover w hether glycerides ex isted w ith an un saturation greater th a n 7 ethenoid linkages a fractional adsorption m ethod w as evolved . The presence o f trilinolenin (9 double bonds) an d linoleodilimolenin (8 double bonds) w as th u s ascertained. T h iocyan ogen va lu es w ere determ ined, an d from these, to geth er w ith iodine va lu es and satu rated a cid content, th e percentage of o leic, linoleic and linolenic acids w as ca lcu la ted . C.

R educing Sugars: A n a lysis . R . F . Jackson and E m m a J. M cD onald. / . A ssoc. Offic. A gric. C h em ., 1945, 28, 371-385. A n in vestigation is described of th e determ in ation o f reducin g sugars, b y copper reduation in a citrate-carbon ate reagen t. A p relim inary s tu d y w as m ade to determ ine the effect o f varyin g th e com position o f th e cop per reagen t on th e ra tio o f reduced copper to d e x ­trose, the effects o f v a ry in g the t itr a te and th e carbo n ate concentrations, the re lative m erits o f N a and K salts fo r preparing reagents, th e effect o f varyin g the boiling tim e, and th e b e st w a y to prepare th e iodide-iodate solution and to

9— Pure Science A 4 9 1

m ake the b la n k test. T h e experim ental results obtained w ith th e established m ethod a re tab u lated and the conclusion is draw n th a t th e m ethod is va lu able for rap id w ork th a t does n o t require a precision) greater th a n 0 -5 per cen t., b u t th a t it is in ferior in respect o f precision to th e m eth ods in w hich caustic a lkali is a co n stitu en t o f the copper reagent. C.

R esin s: Soften ing P oint D eterm ination. V . E . G ro tlisch and H . N . B urstein . Ind. Eng. C h em ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 476-480. A m ethod is described for determ ining softenin g points o f resins in w h ich the sam ple is heated in an air b ath im m ersed in a liquid b a th held a t a predeterm ined consrtant tem perature. T h e best p ra ctical conditions w ere established b y a series o f cu rves show ing the tim e-tem perature increm ent on resins run a t varied tem p eratu res above th e ir softenin g poin ts. A m ethod is presented for com p utin g th e correction to be applied for correlating va lu es obtain ed a t d ifferen t b a th tem peratu res. T h e corrected softenin g point va lu es are in close agreem en t w ith th e usual ring and ball va lu es according to th e m eth od of th e A m erican S o cie ty for T estin g M aterials. D a ta are tabu lated show ing th e application o f th e m ethod o v e r a range o f soften in g points betw een 70° and 170° C . A recom m ended procedure is presented, quicker than th e A .S .T .M . m ethod, app licab le to a w ide range of softening points and resin ty p e s. C.

Sulphonated and Sulphated Surface-active C om pounds: Colorim etric D eter­m ination . J. H . Jones. J. A ssoc. Offic. A gric. C hem ., 1945, 28, 398-409. A colorim etric miethod. for the determ in ation o f sm all qu an tities o f sulphonated o r sulphated surface-active com pounds is based on th e com bination o f the cation o f m ethylene b lu e w ith th e anion o f a sulphonated com pound to form a coloured salt. P h otom etric d a ta are presented. T h e proposed m ethod m a y be applied to m ixtures con tain in g soap, a lkalin e detergen ts and non-ionic detergents. C.G lycols, Starch and C ellu lose: O xid ation R esu ltin g in D ia ldehyd e C leavage. L . J . H eidt, E . K . G ladd in g an d C . B . P u rves. Paper Trade ] . , 1945, 121, T A P P I, 81-89. A review o f th e literatu re showed th a t both periodate and lead tetra-acetate oxidise g ly co l in an a p p a re n tly identical, h ig h ly selective w a y . T h e authors assum ed th a t a n y other o x id a n t producin g th e dialdehyde cleavage in glycols, starch o r cellulose m u st c losely resem ble h ep ta va len t iodine and te tra v a le n t lead in th eir atom ic characteristics. Consideration o f various physical d ata , in cluding ato m ic radii, atom ic radius ratios, and standard oxidation potentials led to th e establishm ent of a lis t o f oxidan ts w hose central atom s are large enough t o coordin ate a to ta l o f s ix o x yg en ato m s and w hich can accom m odate a t lea st tw o add ition al o x yg en s before th e to ta l o f six is reached. Sodium perbism uthate and th e h yd rated triv a le n t silver ion w ere found to cleave eth ylene g lyco l to give form aldehyde in high y ield . O th er com m on oxidan ts failed to produce d ia ld eh yd e c leavage, b u t th e y e ith er do n o t undergo th e requisite single-step decrease o f tw o units to th e n e x t low er va le n cy state or th e y d o n ot h a v e th e required o xidation p o ten tia l. E xperim en ts show ed th a t periodate, tetrav ale n t lead, perbism uthate and triv a le n t salver a ll h a ve th e sam e effective oxidation p oten tia l o f a b ou t — 1-2 v o lts a t 250 in th e pH range 2-4-5. T he critica l o x idation potentia l, i.e . th a t a t w hich th e ve lo c ity of oxidation of a g iven substrate becom es va n ish in g ly sm all, o f cellulose or starch w ith respect to periodate a t 250 is som ew hat less th a n — o-8 v o lt and w as found to be — 0-9 v o lt tow ard dichrom ate. Since ch lo rite is w ith ou t effect on cellulose th e cr itica l ox id atio n p oten tia l fo r th e chlorite-cellulose system is assum ed to be m ore th an —0-85 vo lt; h yp ochlorite m u st possess a critica l potential sm aller th an —0-85 v o lt. T hese observations lead to the conclusion th a t chlorite, b u t n o t h yp o ch lo rite , is cap able o f b leachin g cellulose w ith ou t risk o f dam age b y oxid atio n . T h e m agn itu de o f th e critica l oxidation potential fo r a given substrate seem s to v a r y w ith th e n ature of the oxid an t. A lis t o f 50 references is given . C.G lobular P roteins: Conversion to th e Fibrous Form . F . R . S en ti, M . J. C op ley and J. C. N u ttin g . / . P h y s. C h em ., 1945, 49, 192-211. B y m eans of heat, w ater and m echanical shear, several globular proteins, in cludin g lacto- globulin, casein, p ean u t protein , serum album in, e tc ., h a v e been con verted into fibrous form g iv in g an X -ra y diffraction p attern n ea rly id en tica l w ith th a t o f /3-keratin o f stretch ed h a ir and w ool. T h e process is m o st e ffective w hen applied to proteins th a t can, be denatured b y heatin g. W h en a protein is

A492 9— Pure Science

heated in th e presence o f w a ter th e diffraction p attern sharpens an d new lines appear, in d icatin g a n ordering of chains analogous to t h a t occurring in the annealing o f cellu lose ester an d polyam ides. R e la tiv e dim ensions o f the crysta llites g iv in g th e fibre p attern s are deduced from th e sequence in the arc p attern s o f th e X -ra y reflections w hen a protein filam ent iis srtretched. Com ­p arativ e d a ta on birefrigence, X -ra y d iffraction , an d sw elling anisotrop y as m easures o f m olecular orientation are presented. T ensile strength is increased b y conversion of rtfhe g lobular p ro tein to the orientated fibrous form . W e t stren gth a fte r treatm en t w ith b ailin g w a ter and dim ensional s ta b ility o f o rien tated o valbu m in filam ents a re im proved b y a cety latio n and hardening w ith form aldehyde o r quin one. C .

G um A rabic: M olecular W eigh t. S . Saverborn. " T h e S v e d b e rg ” Com ­m em oration V o l., 1944, 508-522. A sam ple o f purified gu m arabie has been exam ined b y sedim entation and diffusion m ethods w ith a v iew to determ ining its m olecular w eigh t. F rom valu es o f th e sedim entation and diffusion constants an d th e p artia l specific vo lu m e, m olecular wieights o f the order 280,000-300,000 a re derived for th e a cid gu m and 250,000-270,000 for th e soda guim. T h e m ean m olecular w eigh t derived from sedim en tation equilibrium for th e soda gu m is 300,000. A uto-h ydrolysis o f a cid gum has been follow ed b y m easurem ents o f the sedim en tation co n sta n t of th e products. A fte r 24 hours th e gu m m olecules had been reduced to fragm ents o f m olecular w eights not h igh er th a n a b o u t 10,000. C.H ig h P olym ers: D egradation . R . F . T u ck e tt. Trans. Faraday S oc., 1945, 41 ’ 3 5 1 *359- T h e random degradation o f high polym ers is treated as a problem in statistics w h ich can be so lved b y th e sam e tech nique as th a t fo r finding th e p artition o f en ergy am o n g a s e t o f harm onic oscillators. T h e D arw in and F o w ler m ethod is used in w hich the required quantities are expressed as coefficients iii related pow er series, an d these a re th en eva lu ate d as countour integrals b y the m ethod o f steepest descents. T h is form ulation o f th e problem m akes i t possible to a p p ly th e th e o ry to poly-disperse system s im m ediately. T h e miethod is then app lied to a specific case o f nan-random degradation in w h ich p referen tial sp littin g a t th e ends o f th e chain s occurs. T h e kin etics of th is ty p e o f degradation, w hich is found exp erim en tally , are also discussed. C.

M elam ine and M elam ine R esin s. J. O lsson. " T he Svedberg ” Com m em ora­tion V ol., 1944, 344-351. T h e in dustria l production o f m elam ine b y p o ly ­m erisation o f d icyan d iam id e is discussed an d a short su rve y is given of the condensation products of m elam ine w ith form aldehyde. T h e properties and tech n ical ap p licatio n o f m elam in e resins are briefly review ed. C.

M ethyl M ethacrylate: H eat of P olym erization . L . K . J. T o n g and W . O. K e n y o n . J . A m er. C hem . Soc., 1945, 67, 1278-1281. A sim ple isotherm al calorim eter is described for th e determ ination of h e a ts o f polym erization . T he m ethod utilizes the h e a t evo lved from th e polym erization [reaction to evaporate a liquid w hich is in equilibrium w ith its own va p o u r a t its bodin g point. T he h e a t o f p olym erization is ca lcu lated from th e am o u n t o f liquid evaporated and its h e a t o f vaporisation. D a ta on m e th y l m eth acry late are presented to illus­tra te th e m ethod. T h e m easurem ents obtain ed w ere in agreem ent w ith those o f o th er authors arrived a t b y differen t experim ental m ethods. C.

P ectin : A lk a lin e D e-ester ification ; A cceleration by E lectro lytes. H . L in e- w eaver. J . A m er. C h em . S o c., 1945, 67, 1292-1293. N a, C a and M g chlorides increase th e ra te o f de-esterification o f pectin a s m uch as 400 p er ce n t, a t pH ab ove 6. T h e results lead to th e in terp retation th a t the n e g a tiv e ly charged c a rb o x y l groups are close enough to th e tester groups for in te ra ctio n wiith the h y d ro x y l ions to o ccu r as th e y app roach th e ester bonds. T h e sta b ility of pectin m aterials in n eu tral o r s lig h tly acid solution is enhanced if the salt con­cen tration is held to a m inim um and im iltiva len t cations are avoided. C.

P henolic R esin s: T ech n ology . A . L e w in and P. R a b itsch ek . British P lastics, 1945, 17, 316-322, 385-391. T h e authors link som e th eoretica l aspects w ith the properties an d app licatio n s o f resins in order t o estab lish criteria for th e choice o f th e ty p e o f resin m ost su ited for a given purpose. T h e funda­m entals o f th e reaction b etw een phenol and form aldehyde are described and the effects o f acid an d a lkalin e cata lysis are discussed. T h e different phenols are review ed w ith regard to th eir su itab ility for resinification . T h e influence

9— Pure Science M 93of a filler, the m anner in w hich th e filler is com pounded w ith th e resin, and the effect o f th e form in w hich the resin is applied up on th e prop erties o f the p lastics com position are also discussed. T h e m ain facto rs influencing th e choice of phenolic resin— th e processing tech nique, th e p roperties required o f th e final product an d the n atu re o f th e filler— are considered. M oulding com ­positions, in cludin g those th a t are required to possess superior e lectrica l characteristics, m oisture resistance o r shock absorbing properties, lam inates, resin bonded plyw oods and ca st resins are discussed. C.U nsaturated F atty A cid s: O xid ation; Spectrophotom etric S tu d ies. R . T . H olm an, W . O . Lundberg, W . M. L au e r and G . O. B u rr. / . A m er. Chem . Soc., 1945, 67, 1285-1292, 1386-1390, 1390-13914. (1) A s tu d y is presented of the absorption spectra of some o f th e possible products o f fa t o x id ation . T h e u ltravio let absorption spectra of lard show ed an increase in absorption w ith pro­ceeding oxid atio n w hich w as n ot due to peroxide. A m ild oxid atio n o f par­t ia lly oxid ised oleic and elaidic acids increased th e absorption o n ly s ligh tly , b u t prolonged oxidation caused m arked increases. T ests show ed th a t d ih yd ro xy- stearic and oxidostearic acids cannot accoun t fo r th e absorption bands observed in oxidised fa t ty acids. Isom eric ketols do n ot accum ulate in m ore th an traces in oxidised m ono-ethenoic acids. D iketostearic acid could also n ot accoun t for th e observed absorption m axim a. T h e absorption w as also studied in alkaline solution. I t is suggested th a t th e increased absorption foun d in oxidised fats is due in p art to the conjugated unsaturated system s containing carb o n yl groups or to con ju gated polyenes form ed b y enolisation o f these system s. D urin g the oxidation m onoethenoic acids show ed increased absorption a t 2350A in dicatin g the probable form ation o f con ju gated dienes. (2) D o u b ly un saturated fa t ty acids, as linoleic acid , w ere studied in th e sam e w a y . T h e au toxid ation pro­ducts of linoeleic acid are spectroscopically un like those o f oleic acid. (3) T h e stu d y o f spectra changes induced b y th e oxid atio n o f f a t t y acids con tain in g three double bonds, isolated or co n ju gated , show ed v e ry sim ilar spectral curves fo r the oxidised linolenic acids as for th e oxidised oleic and linoleic acids. T h e y all h ave bands a t 2750A w hich are intensified b y a lk a li an d w hich do n o t show fine structure. B o th o f these properties indicate th a t th e absorption is due to chrom ophores th a t con tain oxygen . T h e possib ility o f th e form ation of con­ju gated dienes and trienes is discussed and rejected. C. H igh Speed C entrifuge D ynam ic Brake. D. J. M itham and V . A . Y a rd le y . Chem istry and Industry, 1945, 307-308. E xp erim en ts h a v e been carried out to incorporate a d yn am ic b rakin g d evice in a high-speed lab orato ry centrifuge. T h e m ethod is described and th e circu it d iagram for th e aaxangem ent and con ­struction al details a re show n. T h e results o f ru nn in g tests w ith and w ith ou t th e brake show the u tility an d effectiveness o f th e d yn am ic m eth od. T hus it stopped a centrifuge runn in g a t 6,000 r.p .m . in i-| m in utes, a ga in st 7 m inutes w ith ou t its aid. C. Recording Surface Force Balance. K . J. I. Andersson, S. Stollberg-Stenhagen and E . Stenhagen. " The Svedberg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, n -3 2 . T h e author describe an autom atic surface balance of th e W ilh em y-D ervich ian ty p e for recording fo rce/area cu rves in m onolayer w ork in th e tem p eratu re range o° to + 5 5 0 C. T h e principle o f th e m ethod is outlined and the in strum ent and its accessories ore fu lly described . Special features o f th e app aratu s are a torsion balan ce w ith a v a ry low m om en t of in ertia aind a v e ry sm ooth ly a ctin g hydrau lic driv in g m edhanism w h ich a llo w s a continuous range o f com pression rate to be used. T h e accu racy o f th e balan ce is discussed. Studies o f stearic acid and 1 : 2-dihydroxyheneicosane film s on o - o i n hydrochloric acid are reported b y w a y o f illustration . C. U ltracentrifuge M agnetic Support. T . J. D ie tz and T . V . K ish b a u g h . / . Franklin In st., 1943, 236, 445-449. A m agn etic sup port for an air-driven ultra- centrifuge has been designed sim ilar to on e developed fo r th e e lectrically-driven ultracentrifuge. A com parison o f op erating characteristics shows th a t the m agn etica lly supported system com pares fa v o u ra b ly in efficiency w ith the p n eu m atically supported system . T h e use of th e m agn etic sup port as a m eans of red u cin g the thrust-bearing fraction in th e air-driven u ltracen trifu ge is found to be p ra ctica l in routine operation. C. U ltracentrifuge Recording and C ontrolling S ystem . T . J. D ietz. / . Franklin In st., 1943, 236, 451-459. A con trol system is described fo r operation w ith the

A494 9— Pure Science

m agnetically'-supported, air-driven ultraoen trifuge. E xperien ce in th e use of th e equipm ent in dicates th a t stan dard in dustria l con trol app aratu s, p articu larly o f th e pneum atic ty p e , can he applied a d van tageo u sly to th e operation of air- driven ultracentrifuges. C.S ilica G el: A dsorption of A lcoh ols, Esters and K etones. B. P. G y a n i and P . B . G an gu ly. / . P h y s. C h em ., 1945, 49, 226-238. T he adsorption of different hom ologues of alcohols, esters and ketones on silica gel has been m easured. A static m eth od o f in vestigation is used, in w hich the gel is th o ro u gh ly degassed. T h e app aratu s is show n an d a ll results are tab u lated . Silical gei is found to be a pow erful adsorben t fo r the vapours of a ll th e sub­stances tested . Som e o f th e va lu es are a lm ost the sam e as those obtained for a ctiv e charcoal b y previous authors. A t high re lativ e pressures th e am ounts o f adsorption are a lw ays in th e inverse order o f the m olecular w eigh ts in the sam e series o f com pounds. T hese orders are n ot m aintained a t low er relative pressures, and m a y fu rth er chan ge accordin g to th e m ode o f p lottin g adopted. E sters and ketones give sm ooth isotherm s; those fo r alcohols reveal m ultiple branches. T h e peculiar b eh avio u r o f th e alcohols is discussed. T h e authors assum e th a t th e adsorbing m aterials e n ter in to a loose chem ical com bination w ith the alcohols, g iv in g rise to alcoholates. C.A m p h ip ath ic O rganic L iqu ids: E quilibrium Spreading Coefficient on W ater. E . H eym an n and A . Y o ffe . / . P h y s. Chem ., 1945, 49, 239-245. A theoretical discussion is given of th e equilibrium spreading coefficient of am phipathic organic com pounds on w ater, w ith p articu lar reference to interm olecular forces. T h e exp erim en tal.m ateria l is briefly review ed. T h e w ork o f cohesion o f am phi­p athic com pound is found to b e m ark ed ly grea ter (appmox. 20 p e r cent, for alcohols and u p to 30 p er cen t, for fa t ty a d d s o f m edium chain length) than th a t o f th e corresponding hydrocarbons. T h e con tribution of th e p o lar groups to th e w ork o f cohesion o f am phipathic liquids decreases m ark ed ly w ith increasing chain len gth . C.Com pressed M onolayers on W ater; Rates of E vaporation through — . I. L an gm u ir a n d V . J. Schaefer. / . Franklin In st., 1943, 235, 119-162. E x p e ri­m ents w ere u n dertaken to te s t the h yp o th esis o f th e sen sitiv ity of im perm eable film s to traces o f perm eable substances. T h e experim en tal m ethod depended on th e increase in w eigh t o f calciu m chloride on a co vered b o x placed o ver the w a ter surface in the L an gm u ir trough. T h e observed high evap o ratio n resist­ances o f som e film s in vo lve forces upon, single m olecules o f w a ter abou t 100 tim es greater th a n those p revio u sly know n to ex ist in m onolayers. E xperi­m en tal determ in ation s o f evaporation resistances o f .monolayers of h ighly purified fa t ty a cid s h a v in g from 16-23 C a to m s w ere carried o u t and typ ica l curves, obtained b y p lo ttin g th e surface pressure on the film as a fun ction of th e area p er m olecule, are discussed. E xp erim en ts w ere then con ducted w ith film s prepared b y m ix in g th e C 23 acid in d ifferent proportions w ith cholesterol, w h ich h as a v e ry low resistance. M inute am ounts o f foreign substances appear to h a v e v e ry grea t effects on th e resistances. In order to o b ta in a high state o f com pression a t a defin ite lev e l in th e m on olayer, d iihydroxystearic acid was added t o a C 21 a c id film . I t w as found th a t i f too m an y m olecules o f th is typ e , which, h a v e a n increased cross section in th e m iddle o f th e chain , are present, th e y in terfere w ith th e form ation of th e condensed film and produce an expanded film o f little resistance. T h e evaporation resistance o f th icker films o f th e hydrocarbon oils w as also determ ined and found to be w h o lly a diffusion phenom enon. T h e results are discussed an d energy .barriers and internal stresses in m onolayers are calcu lated . I t is considered th a t condensed films h ave thedr m olecules arran ged in an im p erfectly crystallin e form . C.C olloids: E lectro-optical E ffect. 0 . S n ellm an . “ The S v e d b e r g ” Com ­m em oration V ol., 1944, 200-212. A th eoretica l stu d y of th e electro-optical double refraction of an aq.ueous so lution o f colloids in ain a ltern atin g field is presented in th e lig h t o f th e o rien tation th eory , th e co n d u ctiv ity o f the p ar­tic les bein g tak en in to consideration. T h e th e o ry o f n on-conducting liquids is a lim itin g case o f th e general th e o ry o f con ducting liquids. I t is shown th a t certain observed e lectro-op tical /effects ca n b e explained b y th is th eory . C. E lectrophoretic M oving Boundary F ractionation: Theory. H . Svensson. “ The Svedberg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 213-223. T he m ovin g boun dary m ethod o f electrophoretic fractionation has been studied th eoretica lly in order

9— Pure Science A495

to establish the influence exercised upon th e separation speed b y differen t factors, such as con cen tration of th e com p onent to be isolated , m o b ility difference betw een th a t and th e subsequ en t com ponet, cu rren t d en sity , con ­d u c tiv ity , construction o f th e U -tu be, tem perature and diffusion. C.

Solu tion s: T heory. P. G . N u ttin g . / . Franklin In st., 1943, 236, 573-580. A num ber of phenom ena h a ve been observed in th e in vestigation o f solutions b y m eans o f a glass electrode for p H m easurem ent, w h ich in dicate th a t some revision and extension o f solution th e o ry m a y be necessary. E x a c t relation s in solution th eory w e T e studied and th e lin ear re latio n betw een pH and log. con­centration -is found to he con sisten t w ith th e fun dam en tal solution th eory. Increased acridity on adding base to a n acid solution an d the reverse e ffe ct are also shown to be expected b y th is th eory . A s tu d y o f e lectro lytic potentials show s th a t th e increase in hydrogen ions is p roportional t o the concentration oif adsorbed anicxns. M ultiple p H readings j t buffer p o in ts are to b e exp ected when a n um ber o f d ifferent species o f a n i >11 are p resen t, each w ith its own adsorption coefficient an d none so outstan ding as t o overp ow er th e rest. C.

S olid s: D ry in g ; Theory. P. G . N u ttin g . J. Franklin In st., 1944, 238, 177-184. A s a contribution' to th e problem of d ryin g, a .general relation is developed betw een the en ergy o f reten tion o f fluids b y solids, and th e pressure and tem perature, b y therm odyn am ic m ethods, ap p licab le even to cases w here th energy va ries w ith th e am o u n t o f fluid present. T h e th ree classes o f exp eri­m ental d ata on adsorption, n am ely , h eat o f w ettin g , ch an ge o f w eigh t w ith tem perature, and chan ge o f w eigh t w ith va p o u r pressure, a re review ed, their in terpretation in th e lig h t o f therm odyn am ic th e o ry is discussed and relations betw een 'energy o f change of phase an d am oun t o f fluid retained a re deduced. C.

Dried Collodion M em branes: Structure and E lectrical Behaviour. K . Soll- nier. / . P h y s. C h em ., 1945, 49, 171-191. T h e ch aracteristic beh avio u r of " dried ” collodion m em branes, i.e . th a t no specific sw elling e ffect is observed w ith solutions of in organic e lectro ly tes and those non -electrolytes w hich are n o t stron gly adsorbable, m ust b e exp lain ed on th e basis o f th e porous, m iaellar- stru ctu ra l ch aracter o f th ese m em branes. A dsorbable solutes o ften cause p ro ­nounced specific sw elling. T h e dissociable group located in th e interstices of th e m em branes w hich determ ine th e electrochem ical b ehaviour (“ a c tiv ity ” ) o f collodion m em branes ca n b e determ ined b y base-exchange m easurem ents. H igh base-exchange ca p a city 'is a lw a y s found w ith preparations o f great “ electrochem ical a c tiv ity m edium an d low base-exch an ge capacities occur w ith e lectroch em ically a c tiv e as wiell as w ith in active 'preparations. T he inherent ac id ity of various collodion preparations, th e ir “ acid n u m b er,” has been determ ined b y electtrometric titratio n . T h e acid num bers o ver th e w hole fnamge in vestigated differ o n ly in th e ratio o f 1 :3 - 3 , w hereas th e base-exchange values differ in the range o f 1 :200. T h e high base-exchange ca p a city o f the e lectroch em ically a c tiv e preparations is d ue n o t iso m uch to th e ir h igher acid num bers 'as to the,in' m ore op en structu re. Short-period base-exchan ge exp eri­m ents indicated th a t in m em branes prepared even from th e m ost a c tiv e co l­lodion n ot more than one in 500 a cid groups m a y h e a va ilab le for th e ty p ica l m em brane functions. C.

P hycoeryth rin : D iffusion C onstant; O ptical D eterm ination . O. Q uensel. " The Svedberg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 193-199. A review o f th e th eory o f a m ethod for th e determ in ation o f diffusion con stan ts is g iv en and th e experim en tal procedure an d som e diffusion m easurem ents on p hycoeryth rin aire described. T h e m eth od is ap p licab le o n ly un d er th e condition th a t the solution of th e substance, w hose diffusion co n stan t is t o b e determ ined, has a ligh t absorption different from th a t of th e so lvent. C.

Porous S o lid s: D en sity M easurem ents. K . A . K rie g e r. Ind. E ng. Chem ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 532. A n a p p a ra tu s for th e m easurem ent o f su rface area p reviously described has been foun d co n ven ien t fo r 'the m easurem ent of th e den sity of porous solids w ith helium as th e displaced fluid. C.

S u sp en sion s: Sed im entation E quilibrium T heory. O. L am m . " The Sved- b erg " Com m em oration V o l., 1944, 182-188. I t is show n th eo retica lly th a t the therm odynam ic facto r (1 + S lo g//ślo g N) fo r b in a ry solutions in general can be established through th e sedim entation equilibrium obtained in th e u ltra ­

A496 9— Pure Science

centrifuge. In deducin g th e equ ation s required, isome observations regarding the u sual in terp retation o f th e sedim entation equilibrium h a v e been m ade, w h ich should b e considered in certa in cases o f precision m olecular w eigh t determ in ation b y th e m eth od in question. (iV = niolar fraction ; /=cotxtespond-

R otational V iscom eter F low -curve Recorder. R u th N. W eltm an n . R ev. Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 16, 184-191. A recorder h as b een developed fo r use w ith a ro ta tio n al viscom eter, w hich c a n p lo t th e u p an d down* branches' o f the flow cu rve (rate of shear /shearin g stress) a u to m a tica lly within, amy desired specified tim e. T h e p rin ciple o f th e flow -cu rve recorder tils discussed and its construction is described. A n um ber of m easurem ents m ad e w ith the recorder are show n. T h e recorded flow curves perm it im m ediate interpretation and calcu lation of th e p lastic v isco sity , th e y ie ld v a lu e , and th e thixotropdc b eh avio u r o f th e tested m aterials. A m ethod is proposed for determ ining the p lastic v isco s ity and th e y ield va lu e a t in itia l a gitatio n , w h ich are identified as th e “ in itia l thixotropdc v isco s ity ” and th e “ in itia l thdxotrapic y ield v a lu e .” T h e a ccu ra cy of the recorder is v e ry satisfacto ry, its a vera ge deviation does n o t exceed + 0 -5 per cen t. C.

Photo-electric E xtin ction M easurem ent A p paratus. S . Bodforss and B . A d ell. " T he S v e d b e rg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 33-414. T h e convenience and precision o f an e lectrica l photom eter w ith selenium b arrier-layer photo-tube for extin ctio n m easurem ents has been tested . A n ew in strum en t w ith a lkali m etal photo-cells h as been con structed and tested w ith secon dary em ission. T he extin ctio n m easurem en t o f a solution in m onochrom atic lig h t is discussed. T he good agreem en t betw een th e bridge values fo r re la tiv e extin ctio n and the corresponding angle v a lu e ju s tify th e assum ption th a t the secon dary emission curren t is proportional rto th e in te n sity o f t i e ligh t. F urth erm ore, th e com ­p lex v e lo c ity co n stan t o f the fadin g reaction of phenolphthalein. in th e presence of excess cau stic soda has been calcu lated; th e values lend sup port to the above assum ption. C.

A tm osphere: L igh t A b sorption . J. D u fa y . / . P hysiqu e et le R adium , 1940, [viiid], 1, 251-259. I t has been show n th a t a t h igh a ltitu d es, outside th e region of selective absorption, th e absorption b y a d ry atm osphere is alm ost exclu siv ely due to m olecular diffusion. T h e objections raised again st the A-4 la y b y D u clau x are challenged, and it is show n th a t th e la w is obeyed w ith a ll th e precision of spectrophotom etric m easurem ents. C.D a y lig h t: Seasonal V ariations in U ltra -v iolet E nergy. M . L u ck ie sh , A . H. T a y lo r and G . P . K err. / . F ranklin In st., 1944, 238, 1-7. A vera ge m onthly variation s o f eryth em al or an ti-rach itic short-w ave u ltra -v io le t en ergy have been recorded b y m eans o f a Cd-M g a llo y photo-tube for a continuous six-year period a t C levelan d, O hio, and the results are presented. A u n it o f energy called the E -v ito n is proposed; i t is equ iva len t t o 19 m icro-w atts o f energy a t A2967, th e w ave-length a t w hich re lativ e eryth em al effectiveness is greatest, or 10 / E m icro-w atts a t a n y w ave-len gth h a vin g a re la tiv e eryth em al effectiveness E . T o produce a m inim um p ercep tib le eryth em a on aln a verage unitanned skin requires an exposure of abou t 40 E -viton -m in utes per sq. cm . T h e relation­ships betw een th e sunshine record s and the erythem aJly effective energy o u t­p u t are expressed in histogram s for each m on th , averaged o v e r the 6-year period. G raphs are also g iven to show th e h o u rly variation s in E -v ito n s (a) for single d a y s dm A p ril, June and Septem ber, and (b) for ra d ia tio n from the sk y and from th e su n in M ay and Septem ber. T h e y show th a t for a b o u t 8 m onths of th e y ea r a clear s k y co n tributes m ore th an h alf o f th e erythem al u ltra -v io le t en ergy in cid en t on a horizon tal p lan e in d a y lig h t a t a ll hours. E ven in th e sum m er there are o n ly a few hours round m id-day w hen th e sun con tributes m ore of th is en ergy th a n the sk y . T h e to ta l erythem al u ltra-violet energy received in th e s ix m onths from O ctob er to M arch is o n ly a b o u t 10 per cen t, m are th a n th a t received dm. th e single m on th of June or Ju ly , and D ecem ber affords only abou t 1 per cen t, o f th e to ta l annual ou tp u t. C .Solar M icro-wave R adiation: Occurrence. G . C . South w orth . J. Franklin In st., 1945, 239, 285-297. A sm all b u t m easurable am o u n t o f m icro-w ave radiation com in g from th e sun w as observed as random noise in th e o u tp u t of a con ven tio n al double-detection radio receiver designed to w ork a t centim etre w ave-lengths. M easurem ents of so lar rad iation w ere m ode a t th e longest,

ing a c tiv ity coefficient.) C.

9— Pure Science A497

interm ediate, an d sh o rtest w ave-lengths, and th e results (established th e e x is t­ence, Sn the sun’s spectrum , o f com ponents miuch longer th an h a ve hitherto been found. O ve r a considerable portion, o f th e freq u en cy range, th e energy appears to be substan tia lly th a t predicted b y b lack-bo d y rad iatio n th eory . C.

A lcoh o l/ H ydrocarbon Dipolar S o lu tion s: H igh-frequency D isp ersion and A bsorption . P . G irard and P . A b ad ie . / . P h ysiqu e et le R adium , 1940, [v iii] ,1, 281-284. A com p arative s tu d y of th e h igh-frequency dispersions and absorptions of a pure polar liquid such as an a lcoh ol on th e one hand and its solutions in d ifferen t hydrocarbons o,n th e other, show s th e influence exercised on th e dispersion and absorption b y th e in teractions betw een the dipoles of the alcohol and the non-polar m olecules o f the so lven t. T h e com p arative m ethod used for these dispersion and absorption m easurem ents is described. I t perm its o f th e experim ental stu d y o f m olecular interactions, w hich are shown to b e depen d en t on the stru ctu re of th e m olecules. C.G lycosid es: P hotolysis. R . J. H eid t. / . Franklin In st., 1942, 234, 473-485. E xperim en ts on the photolysis o f vario u s a- and /3-aryl-d^glycosides are reported whiich show th at ligh t liberates th e aglyco n e from th e reducin g sugar. Photo- lyses w ere carried o u t w ith m onochrom atic ligh t o f A2514 mju. A bsorption sp ectra obtained a t 25° for /3-benzylfructop yran oside and a-benzylfructo- furanoside w ere found to be the sam e as those p revio u sly obtain ed for benzyl- glucosides and b en zyl alcohol. T h e absorption sp ectru m for freshly purified fructose gave a deeper m inim um th an p revio u sly reported va lu es w hich w ere, how ever, approached w hen th e dory crysta ls h a d stood in air for several m onths. Q uantum yields for the breakdow n o f th e fruetosides aind th e gluoosides are tab u lated . The absorption spectra, th e products o f photolysis, and the quantum yield s lead to th e hyp oth esis th a t th e photochem ical reaction is p ro ­duced b y an intram olecular tran sfer o f absorbed >energy from th e aglycone to th e hem iacetal o x yg en b rid ge, w h ich is th e reactive centre, w h ilst the rem ainder of th e glycoside p lays sca rce ly a n y p art. T h e efficiency o f th is tran sfer is greater for benzyl- th a n for p henylethyl-glucosides and is sm allest for phenyl- glucosides. C.O zone: A bsorption Coefficients. D . B arbier and D. C h alo u ge. / . P hysiqu e et le R adium , 1940, [viiii], 1, 217-220. A bsorption coefficients of ozone have been determ ined a t room tem pteratare in th e region o f 3416-3130A . T he graphical m ethod w as applied to obtain the va lu es for th e thicknesses of the ozone traversed, th is bein g proportional to th e op tica l den sity . T h e absorp­tion coefficients obtain ed showed good agreem en t w ith those of Ghinese authors (193 3)- C.Starch: P h oto-h yd rolysis. M . R . M adhok and F . U ddin. Indian J . Agric. Sci., 1944, 14, 383-385. S tarch undergoes h yd ro lysis in solution under the actio n of lig h t in' th e presence of ca ta ly sts , bein g first co n verted in to d extrin and th en in to reducing sugars. Shorter w aves o f lig h t are m ore a c tiv e than longer w aves. T h e rate o f hydrolysis va rie s w ith d ifferen t starches, b u t is n ot affected b y changes in p H va lu es from 5-2 to 8-6. Sodium n itrite , zinc oxide and m ercuric oxide a c t as ca ta ly sts in th e reaction . C./>-Benzoquinones: L igh t A b sorption S tud ies. E . A . B raude. J. Chem . Soc.,1945, 490-497. T h e selective visib le and u ltra -v io le t Eght-absorption pro­perties of ^-benzoquiinonle in a num ber o f so lven ts and o f 26 su b stitu ted benzo- quinones in w-hexane and in chloroform h a ve beetn m easured and are dis:- oussed. E x ce p t w ith thie h igh er m em bers of th e m ono-alkyl series, thie differences in th e extin ction cu rves o f isom ers or hom ologues are sufficiently great for identification purposes. B e e r ’s la w is o beyed w ith in th e experim ental error and the range o f con cen tration s (o -o i- i peir cen t, w / v ) em ployed. C.2 :4-D in itrophenylh ydrazones : L igh t A bsorption S tud ies. E . A . Braude and E . R . H . Jones. / . Chem . Soc., 1945, 498-503. D a ta a re tab u lated for the light-absorption m axim a of solutions o f some f if ty 2 : 4-ddnittrophenylhydr'azones in alcoh ol and in, chloroform o ver th e range 2200-5000 A . T h e lig h t absorption properties were found to depend n ot o n ly upon th e e x te n t of th e conjugated unsatuiration present in th e p aren t ca rb o n yl com pound, b u t also on the degree o f a lk y l substitution'. T h e d o s e correlation, betw een structu re and lig h t absorp­tio n in this series is o f th e o retica l in terest w ith regard to th e op tica l properties of the > C : N — and > N H groups. C

A498 9— Pure Science

C olour: Specification; G eom etry of Colour-space. D om ina E . Spencer. J . F ranklin In st., 1943, 236, 293-302. R e cen t developm ents in the specification o f co lour are review ed. F o r m ost p ra ctical purposes it is cu sto m ary to specify th e co lour b y three num bers an d ito 'represent lit geom etically b y a p o in t in, a three-dim ensional affine space. F o r a specification o f colour tolerances, how ­ever, the1 range of colours m u st be determ ined whiitah. w ill app ear id en tica l to the observer. A E uclidean m etric h as been introduced w hich satisfies these requirem ents. T o design ate th e e ffect o f th e surroundings on th e appearance o f th e co lour th e com posite co lour stim ulus and the tensor thiait represents it are introduced. C.

C olour: Specification; G eom etry of Colour-space. D. L . M acA dam . J. Franklin In st., 1944, 238, 195-210. C h ro m a ticity diagram s a re presented and discussed. T h e m axim um possible lum inous reflactanoe fo r each chrom atadity is show n, b u t fo r tech nological reasons these th eoretical lim its are never equ alled b y a c tu a l coloranits. T h e choice o f th e coordinate sy ste m em ployed iin a ch ro m atio ity d iagram is discussed. R eference is m ade to recen t papers b y M oon and Spencer, and it is argued th a t a ll th e conclusions and recom ­m endations of th e authors aaie in co rrect as th e y are biased on a w rong d eriv atio n . C.

D ichroic M ateria ls: Spectrophotom etry by m eans of Retardation P lates. G .L . B u c and E . I. S tea m s. / . O ptical Soc. A m erica, 1945, 35, 521-524. A th e o ry o f ro ta tin g retardation p la te flickering is presented an d is com pared w ith the R ochon flickering. I t is show n th a t th e problem o f g e ttin g the absorption of dichroic sam ples in a single m easurem ent imay b e solved b y the use of a th ick retardation p late in a polarisation spectrophotom eter, w hich w ill d u p licate th e results of absorption m easurem ents on dichroic sam ples obtained w ith unpolarised ligh t. (Dichroism is p articu larly prevalen t in m aterials like rayon satins.) C.

R apid-response T herm ocouples: D esig n and C onstruction. L- C. R oess andE . N . D acus. R e v . Sci. Instrum ents, 1945, 16, 164-172. T h e design and con­stru ctio n of rapid-response therm ocouples for use a s radiation d etectors in infra-red sp ectographs 'is described . T hese therm ocouples h a v e an o u tp u t under naidiation in terrup ted a t a freq u en cy o f 7 cycles pe'r sec. o f n o t less th a n h alf th a t un der continuous radiation , ithey are as sensitive as ord in ary fine-wire therm ocouples, an d th e y h a v e resistances o f from 20 to 50 ohm s. T h e y are m ade b y condensing overlap pin g bism uth and an tim o n y films abou t 800 A th ick on a film 500 A th ic k of F o rm var, w h ich is stretched across an opening in a glass support. T h e overlap pin g region form s the h o t junction, w hich is s u ita b ly b lackened, and th e cold ju n ction is form ed b y the p arts o f th e films in co n ta ct w ith th e glass support. T h e therm ocouples are designed to be operated im a h igh vacu u m . T h e signal-to-nofise ra tio (defined as th e ra tio o f th e in terrup tion freq u en cy com ponent o f th e therm ocoup le o u tp u t to the square root o f th e therm ocouple resistance) is th e o n ly criterion o f th e good­ness of th e therm ocouple design. In an infra-red spectrograph a single junction therm opile, i.e . a therm ocouple has a greater signal-to-noise ra tio than a

R u gosim eter for M easuring Surface R ou gh n ess. M. M ooney. Ind. Eng. C h em ., A nal. E d n ., 1945, 17, 514-517. A n ew instrum ent fo r m easuring the surface roughness (rugosity) o f calendered raw ru b b er sheet o r sim ilar sam ples is fu lly described. T h e p ro p erty a ctu ally m easured is the resistance to air flow betw een th e rou gh surface and a p lan e su rface restin g on it . T h e ru gosity, defined as the h eigh t o f th e h ills a b o v e th e v a lle y s in th e surface, can be cal­cu lated from th e a ir flow b y formulae w hich are derived b y considering an idealised rou gh surface th a t has a sinusoidal profile. C.

“ S ylp h on ” B ellow s A ccelerom eter. J. E . Shrad er. / . Franklin In st., 1943, 236, 353-362. A n accelerom eter is described th a t em ploys a Sylp hon bellows in stead o f th e usual pendulum as th e a ctiv e elemtemjt, and utilises i t also as a m eans o f pneum atic dam ping. I f i t is required t o record th e accelerations a t a distance, th e m otions o f th e bellow s m a y be translated p hoto-electrically into electric im pulses. M echanical am plification and p hotographic recording are

m ulti-jun ction therm opile. C.

also described. C.

io — Econom ics A499Industrial “ L o t ” : Sam pling Im plications. L . E . S im on . / . Franklin In st..1944, 237, 359-370. T he “ lo t” is defined as an aggregation of articles w hich are essentially ailike. T he lot-siize and th e lo t itself, w ith a ll thie properties w hich describe its q u a lity , are determ ined b y th e p roduction process. B y ta k in g sm all sam ples from arbitrary divisions o f th e alleged lo t and testing them , assurance o f a relation betw een the inspected sam ple aind th e uninspected rem ainder ca n be obtained. T h e va lid q u a lity prediction, then pertains to th e echelon one order higher th a n th e u n it sam pled. M ethods o f m akin g va lid inferences from sam ples are p ointed out. C.

Integum ent of M am m als: Uric A cid Content. A . B o lliger. A ustralian J. Sci., 1945, 7, 150. U sing F o lin ’s m ethod (/. B iol. C h em ., 1934, I0®' 3 l:t)> furth er in vestigations were m ade on th e u ric acid co n ten t o f th e hairs o f th e opossum (Trichosurus vulpecula) from different b o d y regions (see also these A b s., 1945, Ago). T h e w h ite hairs nearest to the ven tra l m id-line contained app roxim ately three tim es as m uch uric acid as th e b la ck dorsal hairs, the figure fo r th e la tte r bein g 70 m g. per cen t. In five fu lly-gro w n rabbits, the dorsal hairs averaged 470 m g. p er cent, uric acid, and th e ven tra l hairs 380 mg. per cen t. W .

P a t e n t s

M etal H ypochlorites: Preparation. M athieson A lk a li W o rk s and C . A . H am pel. B .P .570,962 o f 31/7/19145 and 570,992 o f 1/8 /19 4 5 (Conv. 24/6/1942). (1) M etal hyp ochlorites are prepared b y the in teraction of an a lk y l hypochlorite va p o u r w ith a m etal base. F o r exam ple, 42 parts o f 93 per cent. tert.-b u ty l hypochlorite vap our carried b y a current o f m oist air are passed through 10 parts o f lim e in a tube a t 250 C . during several hours. T h e product has 59-2 p er cen t. Ga (OCl)2, 22-8 per cent. C a (0 H )2 and 18 per cent, w ater. (2) T he above reaction is effected betw een an aqueous slurry of the base and an excess of the a lk y l h yp o ch lo rite . C.V in yl Polym er A n ion A d sorbent: A p plication . B ritish T hom son-H ouston Co. L td . B .P .571,029 of 2/8 /1945 (Conv. 11/8 /1942). A nions are rem oved from aqueous solutions b y adsorption on an am inated p olym er con tain in g a t least one d ivin yl-axyl com pound (e.g. divinylbe.nzene) w ith o r w ith ou t a m ono­v in y l com pound (e.g. styrene). C.

10—ECONOMICSPaint, Varnish, Lacquer and D istem per Raw M aterials: Post-war Require­m ents. / . O il (S' Colour Chem . A ssoc., 1945, 28, 109-116. A su rvey o f recen tly developed raw m aterials, in cludin g oils, resins, pigm ents, so lvents and plastioisers. I t is attem pted to assess th e e x te n t to w hich certain m aterials of foreign origin are liikely to be of im portance and to in d icate th e quantities lik e ly to be in volved. C.T extile S ta tistic s: Im portance in Post-war Problem s. L . K u v in . Industrial Standardization, 1945, 16, 103-104. T h e tex tile technologist o f the future should h ave a w orking know ledge o f techniques and procedure in non-tech- nological fields, in cluding sales service and solution o f com plaints, p ro d u ct and process developm ent, q u a lity con trol in m anufacture, m arket research, and m erchandising. T h e statistical d a ta n ecessary fo r these a ctiv ities fa ll into three broad ca tego ries: static facts and grouping, w hich are th e m ost elem entary statistics and o f lim ited use; relation sh ip in tim e, w here problem s o f cor­relation or co variation are touched; and d yn am ic statistics w h ich re flect the quantitative achievem en t o f o b jectives, b y the m easurem ent of perform ance in term s of these objectives. C.Indian Cotton C loth: Econom ics of Production. V . G . R a m a k rish n a A y y a r . Indian T extile J ., 1944. 55, 696-698. T h e costs o f p roduction o f k h ad i (hand- woven) and m ill cloth are discussed. K h a d i is m uch m ore expen sive th an m ill cloth, and has a poorer finish, and th e wages in th e k h ad i in dustry are low er th a n in th e m ills. O n tthe other han d , th e production, o f one m illion y ard s o f clo th w ould give em ploym ent to 30,000 labourers on khadir b u t o n ly 117 in the m ill. T h e choice fo r In d ia seem s to be wide em ploym ent and a sligh tly higher cost or unem ploym ent and cheaper goods. C.Indian T ex tiles: D istribution of Production. L . R . M ehta. Indian T extile J ., 1945, 55, 705-707. T h e a u th o r discusses th e shortage o f clo th in In d ia and

A500 i i — Industrial W elfare, Industrial Psychology and E ducation

iits cause's, esp ecially th e h igh e xp o rt o f cloth fo r o th er thaffi. w ar purposes, the failure of d istribution w ith in th e provinces, tran sp o rt difficulties, and com ­p lications o f con trol m easures. R ecen t statistics a re tab u lated . C.

R ayon Fabrics: Production in U n ited States, 1944. Rayon T extile M onthly, 1914.5, 26, 210-212. Thie follow ing statistics a re ta b u la te d :— (1) Q u arterly p ro­d uction (to D ecem ber, 1944) o f rayo n broad w oven fabrics, b y ty p e , and the n um bers o f loom s engaged on the differen t sorts, (2) M achinery in. p lace and a c tiv e , and (3) w eigh ts o f ra yo n y a m s consum ed b y the mills. C.

T ex tile O peratives’ W ages, January, 1945. T extile W eekly, 1945, 36, 536. T h e average earnings for m en, yo u th s, w om en, girls and “ a ll w orkers ” a t the la st p ay-w eek o f J an u ary , 1945, are tab u lated for th e variou s branches of the te x tile in dustry, w ith the percentage incffleases o ve r th e figures for th e la st w eek in O ctober, 1938. C.

W ool D isp osa l Schem e. W ool R e c ., 1945, 68, (a )-(h ), 35, 42. A conference o f officials and experts from th e U n ited K in gdom , th e Com m onw ealth of A u stra lia , th e D om inion o f N ew Zealand and th e U nion of S. A fr ica w as held in L on don , A pril-M ay, 1945, to discuss m atters arising o u t o f th e accum ulation o f w ool purchased b y th e U n ited K in gd om from th e D om inions under the w ar­tim e arrangem ents, and th e disposal o f stocks con curren tly w ith th e future clips o f D om inions w ool. A rep o rt fo r subm ission to th e G overnm ents repre­sented a t th e conference w as agreed upon un an im ously a t th e final plenary session on 28 M ay. T h is rep ort an d recom m endations are g iven in fu ll. W . E nem y P aten ts. S. T . M adeley. M ech. W orld, 1945, 118, 439. A su m m ary of th e recom m endations o f th e C ouncil o f th e Chartered In stitu te o f P a ten t A gents.

L a.

11—INDUSTRIAL WELFARE, INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

A m erican P atents S ystem : R elation to T ex tile Research. H . W . R ose. T extile Research, 1943, 13, N o. 9, 9-16; N o. 10, 2-8; N o. 11, 10-17. T h e author discusses the w orkings o f the A m erican p aten ts system as th e y affect (1) the in d ivid u al in ven to r and his righ t o f access to a field a lread y fenced off b y p aten t claim s, (2) corporations (especially in the rayon in dustry), and (3) the com m ercialization of p aten ts. C.

“ P la tt ” Cotton T ex tile M ission R eport: R eview . J. A . Barber-L om ax. T extile W eekly , 1945, 36, 498-502, 542-546. T h e w riter offers comments p o in t b y poin t on th e “ P la tt ” R ep o rt and argues th a t the chief reasons for th e greater production per m an-hour in th e U n ited S tates are to- b e found in th e m ore scientific deploym ent of labou r and assignm ent of tasks. C.Sw edish T ex tile Research In stitu tes: O rganisation. A . E n gb lo m . " The Svedberg ” Com m em oration V ol., 1944, 639-658. R e cen t advances in funda­m en tal and d irected tex tile research are sum m arized and th e p resent program m e and organisation o f te x tile research in Sw eden is review ed , w ith illustrated descriptions o f (1) th e T e x tile R esearch In stitu te a t Chalm ers U n iv ersity of T ech n o lo gy (G othenburg), L en n in g ’s In stitu te for T ex tile T ech n ology (Norr- kóping), and th e T e x tile In stitu te (Boras). C.Scientific R esearch and th e Pastoral Industry. I. C. R oss. Pastoral R eview ,1945 , 55- 427-428. T h e passage o f th e W ool U se Prom otion B ill throu gh the C om m onw ealth P arliam en t w ill result in funds being m ade availab le fo r a great expansion of research into th e prdblem s of th e sheep and w ool in dustry. On th e producin g side, in vestigatio n is necessary into sheep diseases (to continue th e m ajor achievem ents o f the Council fo r Scientific and In dustria l Research an d S ta te D ep artm en ts o f A griculture), th e behaviour o f th e norm al h ealth y sheep in relation to its environm ent, and th e econom ic significance of m any cu rren t practices. T here should b e la b o rato ry facilities in a m ain centre for fu n d am en tal studies, and also a ch ain o f sheep and wool research stations— coverin g eve n tu a lly a ll th e m a jo r sheep-grow ing areas of th e Com m onw ealth — on w hich d a ta are co llected and in vestigations m ade into a ll th e associated lo ca l problem s of soil pastures and an im al m anagem ent, an d in to local disease incidence and m ethods o f con trol. A ssociated w ith these station s should be agricu ltu ra l econom ists in vestigatin g a ll aspects o f costs of production o f the region an d defining th e econom ic significance o f m easures proposed. W .