The Influence of Western Music and Indian Classical

Music on the Compositions of Rabindranath Tagore

Subject: Music

Candidate Name: Raaj Chatterjee

Candidate Number: 000159-0005

Exam Session: May 2014

Supervisor: Mr. Greg Farrugia

Word Count: 3995

Abstract:

The Influence of Western Music and Indian Classical Music on the Compositions of Rabindranath Tagore

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impacts of musical influences, specifically

Western music and Indian Classical music on the compositions of Rabindranath Tagore. I would like to outline the similarities in melody, harmony, meter, texture, and form, between these genres and Tagore's own distinct Bengali genre, Rabindra Sangeet. Tagore has integrated musical elements of these genres along with his own Bengali folk music background to create his own musical culture of 2250 songs that retain a prominent place in Bengali music today. I have a deep connection with this subject. Being from Bengal I have listened to, sang, and performed Tagore's pieces throughout my childhood. Rabindra sangeet is a quintessential component of Bengali culture.

The first and second sections of this essay focuses on the historical and contextual components

of Tagore's compositions. The third section analyzes the influenced elements of melody, harmony, meter, texture, and form of the compositions. The piece Hey Khaniker Otdithi is used for this analysis. The final section investigates Tagore's blend of Bengali and Western Folk music in the piece Purano Sei Dinar Katha. Together, it will be shown that Tagore's blending of the musical elements of Indian, Bengali, and Western music created a distinct musical culture known as Rabindra Sangeet.

Words: 208Table of Contents

Abstract

1

A. Introduction and Historical Information

3

1. Rabindranath Tagore and Rabindra Sangeet

2. Historical Context of Rabindra Sangeet

B. Styles of Music

5

1. Indian Classical Music

2. Western Music that Influenced Tagore

C. Musical Analysis

8

1. A Preface to the Indian Format

2. He Khaniker Otdithi

2.1 Melody

2.1.1 Motives and Structure

2.2 Rhythm and Tala

2.3 Harmony

2.4 Texture and Instrumentation

D. Western and Bengali Folk Genres

15

1. Analysis of Purano Sei Diner Katha

Conclusion

17

Bibliography

18

Appendix I: Hey Khaniker Otdithi in 19 Staff Notation

Appendix II: Purano Sei Dinar Katha in 22

Staff Notation

Appendix III: Recordings of Analyzed Pieces See Audio CD

A. Introduction and Historical Information

1. Rabindranath Tagore and Rabindra Sangeet Rabindranath Tagore was a Bengali poet, writer, composer, and lyricist. Born on May 7, 1861, in Calcutta, India. Tagore was a major Bengali poet and the first Asian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 (Dutta 180). He was also a prolific composer, composing 2,230 songs over the course of his life (Choudhury). The musical culture of Rabindra Sangeet is a distinct genre in the area of Bengali music. Sangeet translates to song, and Rabindra Sangeet means songs of Rabindranath. My aim in this work is to find how Tagore combined elements from Indian Classical and Western Music with his own Bengali musical heritage to create the musical culture of Rabindra Sangeet. 2. Historical Context of Rabindra Sangeet To understand the creativity and culture within Tagore's works, it is important to realize the social dynamic of his time. From the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, the undivided region of Bengal (now Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal) experienced a socio-cultural, political, and religious renaissance. Cultural and religious orthodoxies such as the caste system, child marriage, suppression of women, polygamy, and untouchability were questioned and started to be held in negative public opinion. After the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the first battle for independence, the Bengal renaissance saw an outburst of literature regarding the arts, liberal thought, philosophy, scientific discoveries, and nationalism (Thompson 4). Great thinkers such as Iswar Vidyasagar and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee expanded these ideas and helped implement them into policy. Chatterjee's song Vande Mataram written in 1882 as a hymn to the motherland in Bengali and Sanskrit would later become an anthem for India's independence and was first sung in a political context by Tagore in 1896 at the Indian National Congress (Thompson 17).

The Tagore family played an immense role in the renaissance, especially in the area of educational reform (Ashrafuzzaman). Rabindranath Tagore, the most influential of the family, took these ideas into song, poetry and literature. By combining the new ideals of the renaissance and the ancient spiritual texts of Hinduism, the Upanishads, he created a book of 157 compositions in Bengali (which he translated into English), called Gitanjali, for which he received the Nobel Prize (Dutta 180).

All of Tagore's songs were composed in a time of revolution and freedom movements in India. Rabindra Sangeet was one of the channels that fueled the revolutionary and nationalistic spirit, providing a message of unity between warring factions, courage, and hope. Some of his key compositions include 22 protest songs, protesting the 1905 partition of Bengal by British forces, the national anthems of both India and Bangladesh, and spiritual worship songs. Tagore was indeed an inspiration to other revolutionary figures such as Mahatma Gandhi, who claimed Tagore's Ekla Cholo Re was deeply inspiring in his youth (Dutta 239). Tagore's scope was not only limited to India however, and he himself had visited 30 different countries across 5 continents. He composed Janaganamana adhinayaka jaya he and Amar Shonar Bangla, nationalistic songs that posthumously became the national anthems of India and Bangladesh respectively (Bandyopadhyay 42). These pieces blend Bengali folk melodies with influences from Indian classical ragas and talas (see section B1), and Western harmonies. Thus through the Bengali renaissance, the Indian independence movement, and the introduction of western philosophies and music, the historical context of his time influenced Tagore's compositions greatly.B. Styles of Music1. Indian Classical Music Indian Classical Music, the central art music of the Indian subcontinent, originates from theancient scriptures called the Vedas and has developed over thousands of years. The basic sound-pattern of Indian classical music and Western Classical music, including the 12 distinct tones of the octave, remains the same. This is called viz and is born from a time when the musical cultures of the west and the east were quite similar. A large difference however is that historically, Indian classical music uses just intonation, as opposed to the tempered scales of the west (Mukerji 6).

Indian Classical music has two main divisions: Hindustani music of the Northern areas of the subcontinent, and Carnatic music of the South. The homogeneity of Indian Classical Music over the past millennium is quite astounding; the only basic change in Hindustani music was a change in the standard scale of use from the old scale (with C# and G#) scale to the bilawal scale (major scale) which occurred 400 years ago (Mukerji 2). The music is based on the raga which is not only the use of a specific scale that varies in its ascent and descent, but prescribes certain melodic structures long improvisations, lasting often at least 30 minutes. Ragas give a holistic picture of music due to the specific times of day that there are to be played at. There are morning, afternoon, evening, and twilight ragas which are indications of how integrated music is with life in the Classical musical culture (Menon, Indian Music 44). The rhythmic element of the music is known as tala. However, tala is not simply rhythm, but part of the language and spoken poetry. Tala is subdivided into bars which are repeating cycles of beats (matras). There are two distinct matras: the sam and the khali. The rhythm increases in busyness and volume until the stressed beat (sam) is reached and relaxes into the empty beat (khali). A specific tala is thus distinguished by the number of beats, the number and length of the bars, and the positions of the sam and khali (Menon, Indian Music 59). Tala thus ties closely into the melodic structure of the raga and interacts closely with the lyrics. The origin of Indian Classical music is religious. In Hindu myth, 5 ragas came out of the god Shiva's mouth and one from his consort, Parvati. And by performing Tandava Nrittya, the cosmic dance, accompanied by a damaru, a percussion instrument, Lord Shiva destroyed the evil in the universe and gave birth to rhythm (Choudhury). In the era of the Bengali Renaissance however, the divine oriented music classical music became experimented on, and combined with folk and western influences (Ashrafuzzaman).2. Western Music that Influenced Tagore At the base of the Bengali Renaissance was a new awakening to the Upanishads, ancient Hindu texts, but also to the positive ideas of the Modern West that had already been present for at least 400 years during European occupation of the subcontinent. These ideas were both social and religious, and helped bring down caste divisions, child marriage, and promoted universal education, literature, free-thinking, and investment in the arts (Som 29). In Bengali music this meant new experiments with the classical forms, popularization of folk music, and implementations of western music and orchestrations. Even before Tagore's time, since the British victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, British, German and Italian music entered the Bengali soundscape. Tagore's family, being relatively wealthy, allowed for his proper introduction to Western Music and literature. He received formal instruction in vocals a piano as a child and listened to the music of Chopin, Verdi, Beethoven, Bach, and other classical and romantic composers from a very young age (Dasgupta).

His first visit to England was in 1878 for post-secondary studies in law (Dutta 67). It was a time of an English musical renaissance where it classical music began to shift focus to find a national identity and a place in English cultural life. He enrolled in western classical vocal music, and was influenced by the works of romantic and classical composers at the time. Tagore described western music as deeply moving, vast in its structure, and grand in its composition. In a conversation with Albert Einstein, Tagore mentioned: I was affected by [the] power [of Western music] once when a Hungarian lady played on her violin some pieces of music, both classical and modern (Visva-Bharati 11). This early acquaintance with the intricate polyphony and styles of western music was a launching point into Tagore's experience as one of India's first modern fusion artists.

Rabindra Sangeet draws great parallels with the romantic era in western music which was from 1820 to 1900 (Kamien 271). The idea of strong self-expression through music is a key characteristic of Rabindra Sangeet and music from the romantic era (Kamien 277). New movements in the romantic era such as musical nationalism and exoticism are part of Tagore's music. In Rabindra Sangeet however, it was western music was exotic and Tagore wrote many pieces with western melodies and instrumentation such as Purano Sei Diner Katha. Another characteristic of the romantic era in Rabindra Sangeet is program music. Rabindra Sangeet most often tells a story or presents a scene of nature. As in Europe at the time, Tagore was an exponent of the concept of union of the arts where poetry and music were closely tied together. On his first visit to England Tagore was particularly influenced by an artist by the name of Milson (Som 29). He used music to imitate bird songs which struck Tagore as initially surprising, but inspired Tagore explore program music. Tagore's exposure to western music allowed for another exotic dimension to his compositions.

C. Musical Analysis

1.A Preface to the Indian Format Indian classical melodies are written in the format of the sargam. Similar to western music there are seven swaras, notes of the octave, representing the seven degrees of a scale: sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni. Re, ga, dha,and ni can either be pure, suddha, (equivalent to major scale degrees) or flattened, komal, (equivalent to minor scale degrees). Ma, the fourth scale degree can either be natural, or raised, tivra. Sa and pa, the tonic and dominant, can only be suddha, pure. These swaras are shortened from their full names which are: aja, Riabh, Gndhr, Madhyam, Pacam, Dhaivata and Nid respectively (Ashrafuzzaman). Together these notes make up the sargam, equivalent to the western solfge of do, re, me, fa, so, la, and ti. The sargam refers to scale degrees as opposed to any particular pitches. And, it is common in classical music that these notes are sung as lyrics (Sa, re, ga etc.) in the performance of a raga or even deshi, folk, performances (Mukerji 18).2. He Khaniker Otdithi The song He Khaniker Otdithi was written by Rabindranath Tagore in 1925 (Choudhury). This is a song of lost romance and sadness, with one lover calling the other merely khaniker otdithi or visitor for a moment. This is one of Tagore's compositions that explores secular life, rather than divine or religious themes. The melody is based on an Indian Classical raga known as Bhairavi, and a tala known as kaharwa (Taal Kawarha 4-4). The piece is closest to the thumri style of Classical Music which often contains folk and secular themes. However rather than this being a half hour improvised raga, the influence from the baul, mystic folk, culture of Bengal turns this into a singable melody based on the scale of the raga. Through the experimentation with these three styles of music, Tagore achieves his own style of fusion music, Rabindra Sangeet, with its own unique melody, harmony, meter, form, and original instrumentation. 2.1 Melody In Rabindra Sangeet, melody is the most distinctive component of the music. Tagore said himself that his songs do not require instruments; a single voice is enough to capture the passion of most of his pieces. Hey Khaniker Otdithi is an excellent example of this lyrical folk quality of Rabindra Sangeet. The flowing melody dictates the rhythm and harmony of the piece and carries influences from the mystic folk music of Bengal as well as from Indian Classical music (Bandyopadhyaya 16). The melody is built upon the raga bhairavi and its scale, known as bhairavi thaat (Ashrafuzzaman) is equivalent to the phrygian mode in Indian classical music. This raga can be further classified as a ragini which constitutes a feminine quality. The raga-ragini significance is now generally disregarded, but it is important to understanding the secular male-female ideals in classical Indian art and music (Mukerji 19). In this song however, there is a difference between the ascending and descending melodic lines in terms of the notes of the scale. Ascending, the notes are: Sa, suddha re, komal ga, ma, Pa, komal ga, komal ni. This is equivalent to: C, D, Eb, F, G, Ab, Bb. This is essentially the aeolian mode. Descending, the re becomes a komal re (D becomes Db) thus making it equivalent to the phrygian mode. This difference in ascending and descending qualities of a scale is idiosyncratic of Tagore. In the third bar of the D section of the piece, both versions of the re (D) are sung in the same bar. This usual change in mode is characteristic of Indian classical music where ragas often contain different ascending and descending scales. Raga bhairavi however does not contain the sudda re (D natural) which is evidence of Tagore's deviation from the traditional rules of classical music.2.1.1 Motives and Structure The main motif is the title line hey khoniker atithi (Fig. C 2.1.1). This motif is repeated after every verse. The repetitions feature different notes for the lyrics hey khoniker however atithi always resolves on the fifth of the scale, Pa. For the purposes of this analysis it will be labeled A. This A motif lasts for 3 cycles of the tala (see Analysis of Meter 2.3 below) which is equivalent to 3 measures of 4/4 time.

Fig C 2.1.1 Main Motif of Hey Khaniker Otdithi (Dutt 9) The B section immediately follows the A and lasts for 8 measures. The unique feature of this is that it contains an appoggiatura on the first beat (Fig C 2.1.2). The teevra ma (F#) is not part of the scale and is an important ornamentation that adds tension to the piece, clashing with the Pa (G) in the harmony. This is the only appoggiatura in this piece and correlates to the very sparse ornamentation that Tagore tends to use in his other pieces (Mukerji 30). Ornamentation, while it is very common in the Indian Classical style, is much more limited in baul music from which focuses more on strong melodic motives. The B section which is the first verse is immediately followed by the A motif.

Fig. C 2.1.2 The First Verse (Dutt 9) The melody rises to a higher register in the C section. The main note of resolution in this section is Sa, the tonic, of the upper octave. The section lasts for twelve cycles of tala. The melody here flows up and down the scale with much continuity. All the intervals within each melodic phrase are conjuct and consist only of seconds and thirds (Fig C 2.1.3). The flowing melody is complemented by the style of singing which includes mirh, gliding, from one note to the next (Mukerji 7). The great Rabindra Sangeet exponent, Indrani Sen, in her version of the piece uses glides extensively to link the melodic phrases together (Listen to Appendix III). This gliding is extensively used in Indian classical styles. Often the experience level of an Indian classical singer can even be determined by his or her mastery over the glide in the improvisation of a classical raga (Mukerji 7). Gliding from one note to another involves what are called srutis, or semi and quarter tones, which are based on just intonation (Menon, The Penguin Dictionary 152). In Tagore's songs this is left to the singer to shape his or her mirh based on experience. This element of Classical music is beautifully tied in with this non-ornamental folk melody to create a unique blend of these two musical cultures. This section represents a busier, more intense section of the song which is higher in pitch and volume. This second verse of the song is followed again by an A motif.

Fig. C 2.1.3 (Dutt 9)

In the D section, the first four measures contain similar motives as the B section. This section contrasts the intensity of the C section as it drops back down to the lower register. This change in the range of pitches is not sudden as it is bridged by the A motif. This repetition of a melodic line after each verse is characteristic of many of Tagore's songs including Ekla Cholo Re, Ami Cini Go Cini and many other folk-style melodies (Choudhury). In bar 3, the both komal re (Db) and teevra re (D Natural) are found implying a change in tonality (See Fig C 2.1.4). The teevra re is used while ascending to ma (F) while the komal re is used to lead into sa (C). This use of both types of re is not part of raga bhairavi and instead contains evidence of western style modal changes. In the harmony provided by Samar Dutt in his keyboard notation, the change from the chord C minor to F minor constitutes a change in the D to a Db (see Figure C 2.1.4). This change is equivalent to a change from the aeolian mode to a phrygian mode, giving a mysterious feel with a strong change in tonality. The D section is the third verse which is repeated and is then followed by another C section (C1) and then finally by the A motif.Fig. C 2.1.4 (Dutt 10) Overall the structure is influenced by the Indian classical style of dhrupad. In a dhrupadic piece there is generally four stanzas of which the first and the third are similar and the second and fourth are similar as well (Mukerji 13). The B and D sections are both of the same length of 8 cycles of tala and are similar in terms of the range and notes of resolution, komal re (Eb) and sa (C). C and C1 have exactly the same melody and are of the same length. The A section acts are a repeating lyrical motif that links together the sections of the song. Through the progression of these sections, the flowing, conjuct, lyrical melody is a characteristic of both baul and Indian classical Styles. However the melody, being attached to poetic lyrics is more characteristic of a baul folk song than a classical improvisation. The key distinction between this melody and common Western folk melodies is the use of the phrygian mode which is quite uncommon to the latter. However the scales and modes used are present in Western music, especially the correspondence of melody to underlying chords as seen in bar 3 of the D section and throughout the song. From these three influences Tagore creates a melody and lyrics that are genuinely his own and become are in the fields and cities of Bengal for years to come (Som 140).

2.2 Rhythm and tala

Hey Khaniker Otdithi is accompanied by the tala or rhythm called Kaharwa (Taal Kawarha 4-4). This is an Indian Classical tala which is quite similar to Western 4/4 time. The accompaniment is generally done with the tabla drums, with one drum being the bass, bayan, and the other being the treble, dayan (Menon 157). The structure of this song is that of a dhrupad however which traditionally uses the pakhawaj, a large cylindrical two faced drum (Menon 137). By using the tabla as accompaniment, Tagore fuses the sounds of folk and Indian Classical dhrupad yet again.

The tala Kaharwa is a very common tala and consists of 8 matras in each cycle of tala divided into two bars of 4 beats (Fig. C 2.2.1). The sam or stressed beat is labeled by the sign below the first bar, and the khali or unstressed beat is marked by the O. The rhythm increases in busyness in volume from the khali to the sam, the sam being the most stressed beat (Menon, Indian Music 49). Two bars of Kaharwa is equivalent to one 4/4 bar in Western Music.

Fig. 2.2.1 A Diagram of the Tala Kaharwa in Bengali (Geetabitan)2.3 Harmony

The harmonic structure of Indian Classical Music and Western Music are fundamentally different. While the western music of the romantic era at the time relied on chords, scales, and modulations for harmony, Indian classical music relied more upon a single tonality, and complex modes (ragas) in order to reinforce the melody. In Hey Khaniker Otdithi the harmonic accompaniment traditionally consists of a tanpura which plays drones of the tonic (sa) and dominant (pa) (Menon 23). In Tagore's hybridization of the two musical styles however, chords are often outlined by a harmonium (a keyboard instrument) and melodic instruments such as the bowed esraj or sitar. This fusion of the structure of the raga, and chordal harmonies allows Rabindra sangeet to be adapted for a variety of modern instruments such as the piano and guitar. Hey Khaniker Otdithi remains in the same key, however as the mode changes in its ascent and descent, a different tonality is implied and it can thus be accompanied by chord changes. In this way Tagore breaks from the restrictions of Indian Classical harmony to introduce elements of a chordal structure. Tagore's harmonies are largely consonant as most melodies are folk-style and lyrical in quality. Dissonance is used sparingly such as in the appogiatura in the fourth bar of the piece where the F# clashes with the tonality of the Eb major chord.2.4 Texture and Instrumentation

The primary melodic texture of this piece, as in most of Tagore's pieces, is vocal. The texture is homophonic, and alternates between the vocal melody and instrumental interludes. The introduction in the recording by Indrani Sen involves a sitar performing a short classically inspired improvisation. The texture of the sitar is commonplace in Indian music. Particularly in this recording the sliding mirh and improvisation on the raga bhairavi before the first verse is a clear fusion of the Indian classical style of dhrupad within the song. The texture of the introduction also includes an electronic keyboard instrument with a slight vibrato. While invented after Tagore's time, this recording shows that electronic instruments can blend easily with Rabindra Sangeet due to the western influences in the harmonic structure. A tanpura, a four or five stringed instrument, plays the drone of sa and pa. This is characteristic of an Indian Classical raga. The rhythmic accompaniment is provided by the tabla drums. During the interlude a bowed esraj contrasts the preceding texture of the piece as all other string instruments are plucked. Finally the recording includes an electric bass which outlines moving chord progressions. The texture and instrumentation of the piece are thus a blend of the West and the East.D. Western and Bengali Folk Genres1. Analysis of piece Purano Sei Dinar Katha

Tagore's compositions explore the whole gamut of human emotion. In his travels to Britain in the early 20th century he encountered Irish composer Tomas Moore's Irish Melodies and became friends with poet William Butler Yeats (Dutta 178). From this friendship emerged Tagore's inspiration from Scottish and Irish folk melodies. Tagore's piece Purano Sei Dinar Katha is a clear example of his Western folk influences. The melody is based on a pentatonic Scottish folk melody, the very same that Robert Burn's poem Auld Lang Syne is sung to. The first two lines of the song can be translated roughly to talk of the old days, can we ever forget them?, which coveys the same meaning as Auld Lang Syne. In Indian classical terminology, the piece is written in the raga misra. The emphasized pentatonic scale degrees and the rising and falling melodic structure of both pieces are similar to a large extent (See Fig. D 1.1)

Fig. D 1.1 Pentatonic Scale Degrees in Purano Sei Diner Katha (Dutt 16)

The song is in triple meter while Auld Lang Syne is in duple meter. The rhythmic accompaniment is done with the tabla however there is much the feel of a waltz. This is known as the taal khemta (Choudhury). Harmonically, Tagore uses chords played by a keyboard instrument such as a harmonium or piano to emulate the texture of a western folk song. The piece has a flowing melody and a light dance-like feel which is characteristic of the Bengali folk music of the bauls. In this sense Tagore blends together the folk music of Scotland and Bengal through this composition.

Conclusion Tagore's own genre Rabindra Sangeet, carries many influences of Western, and Indian classical music, combined with his Bengali Folk background. Rabindra Sangeet was instrumental in shaping Indian music and Bengali music from the 20th Century until today. From his upbringing in both Indian and Western classical music, Tagore combines the zeitgeist of western romanticism with ancient traditional Indian music. Tagore's use of the Indian Classical form of dhrupad with a Bengali folk melody, and western modal harmonies in Hey Khaniker Otdithi shows the fusion of three different musical influences. Tagore's exploration of the Scottish folk genre that led to his composition Purano Sei Diner Katha created a further musical link between Bengal and the west. Thus through the analysis of melody, harmony, meter, texture, and form in Tagore's compositions, these influences are shown to be fully integrated into Rabindra Sangeet, a distinct musical culture in its own right. The music continues to be performed in many Western and Indian arrangements. It constitutes the blood of Bengal's folk heritage. BibliographyPublications Bandyopadhyaya, Beerendra. Rabindra-Sangit The Songs of Tagore. Calcutta: Granthalaya

Private Limited, Publish year unknown. Print.

Bose, Sunil. Indian Classical Music. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1995. Print.

Dutt, Samar. Rabindra Sangeet in Staff Notation Volume 1. Arlington: Mr. Samar Dutt, 2007. Print.

Dutta, Krishna and Andrew Robinson. Rabindranath Tagore: The Myriad-Minded Man. Menon, Raghava R. Indian Music: The Magic of the Raga. New Delhi: Somaiya Publications, 1998. Print.

Menon, Raghava R. The Penguin Dictionary of Indian Classical Music. Calcutta: Penguin Books, 1995. Print. Mukerji, D.P. Indian Music: An Introduction. 1945, New Delhi: Rupa & Co, 2002. Print. Sailen, Debnath. Secularism: Western and Indian. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, n.d. Web. Sen, Suddhaseel. The Art Song and Tagore: Settings by Western Composers. University of Toronto Quarterly, Volume 77, Number 4, Fall 2008.

Som, Reba. Rabindranath Tagore The Singer and His Song. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009. Print. Tagore, Rabindranath. Sisir Kumar Das. A miscellany. New Delhi : Sahitya Akademi, 1996. London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 1995. Print. Tagore, Rabindranath. Gitanjali. London: Indian Book Shelf, 2006. Print.

Thompson, Edward. Rabindranath Tagore: His Life and His Work. New York: Oxford University Press, 1921. Print. Visva-Bharati Tagore-Einstein Council. Confluences of Minds Tagore-Einstein Colloquy. Santinketan: Visva-Bharati, 1997. Print.

Interviews Choudhury, Aparajita. Bengali Singer and Musician, specializing in Rabindra Sangeet. Personal Interview. 25 Aug. 2013. Ashrafuzzaman, Duke. Bengali Musician and President of the Vancouver Tagore Society. Personal Interview. 25 Aug. 2013.Websites Dasgupta, Anirban. Rabindra-Sangeet as a Resource for Indian Classical Bandishes. n.p., n.d. Web. 9 Sept. 2013. Mazumdar, Abraham. Tagore in symphony with Bach and Beethoven - in Germany Deccan Herald [Kolkata, India] 17 Apr. 2012. Web. 2 Dec. 2013.

Taal Kawarha 4-4. Geetabitan. n.d. Web. 16 Sept. 2013. Recordings Sen, Indrani. Hey Khaniker Otdithi. n.d. By Rabindranath Tagore. n.p. Web. 20 Dec. 2013.

Kumar, Kishore. Purano Sei Diner Kotha. n.d. By Rabindranath Tagore. n.p. Web. 21 Dec. 2013.

Appendix I: Hey Khaniker Odthithi in Staff Notation

Dutt, Samar. Rabindra Sangeet in Staff Notation Volume 1. Arlington: Mr. Samar Dutt, 2007. Print. pp. 9-11.

Appendix II: Purano Sei Dinar Katha in Staff Notation

Dutt, Samar. Rabindra Sangeet in Staff Notation Volume 1. Arlington: Mr. Samar Dutt, 2007. Print. pp. 16-19.